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THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR  BOOK 


A 

COMPENDIUM   OF  THE 
PROGRESS 

FOB  THE  YEAB 

1915 

EDITOR 

WORLD'S 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY, 

M.A. 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

ALLEN  LEON  CHURCHILL 
HORATIO  S.  KRANS,  Ph.D. 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 

1916 


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Google 


A 

HP  U.'^l.^.X- 


COPTKIGHT,    1916,    BT 

DODD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY,  Inc. 


VAIL.BM.LOU    COMMNV 
BIN«N*MTON  AND  NtW  YORK 


.„.G<.^1 


PREFACE 

The  New  iNTBBNATiONAii  Yeab  Book  for  1915,  the  ninth  in  the  new 
series  which  began  with  the  1907  volume,  follows  the  same  plan  as  its  pre- 
decessors. That  is  to  say,  it  is  designed  as  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  year, 
with  the  titles  arranged  in  a  single  alphabet,  and  the  text  written  anew 
each  year.  In  the  1915  volume  as  in  the  one  before,  the  effect  of  the  war 
was  to  reduce  the  amount  of  available  statistical  information  under  cer- 
tain heads.  The  space  thus  saved  has  been  given  to  the  comprehensive 
article  on  the  Wab  op  the  Nations,  and  to  the  many  and  diverse  articles 
on  subjects  relating  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  war.  The  leading  ar- 
ticles in  this  important  group  are:  The  Wab  op  the  Nations,  a  clear 
and  compact  narrative  by  Professor  Carlton  Hayes,  who  wrote  the  cor- 
responding article  for  the  1914  Year  Book ;  United  States  and  the  Wab, 
an  impartial,  explanatory  record  of  the  effects  of  the  war  on  our  foreign 
relations,  by  Professor  Nelson  P.  Mead;  supplementary  articles  on  sep- 
arate topics  in  the  same  field,  such  as  Lusitania,  Pbepabedness,  Intebna- 
tional  Peace  and  Abbitbation  (the  last  named  by  Mr.  Clinton  Rogers 
Woodruff) ;  Militaby  Pbogbess,  by  Lieutenant  Col.  C.  De  Witt  Will- 
cox;  Naval  Pbogbess,  Submabines,  and  Battleships,  by  Captain  Lewis 
Sayre  Van  Duzer ;  Aebonautics,  etc.,  and  also  the  biographies  of  persons 
brought  into  prominence  by  the  events  of  the  war.  To  aid  the  reader  in 
following  the  year's  fighting,  color  maps  of  the  general  fields  of  operation 
and  sketch  maps  of  the  chief  campaigns  and  battles  are  included. 

Among  the  subjects  treated  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  The  field 
of  fine  arts,  including  Music,  the  Dbama,  Painting  and  Sculptube,  Ab- 
ohitbctube  ;  Litbbatube,  at  home  and  abroad ;  the  separate  sciences  and 
branches  of  learning,  such  as  Astbonomt,  Chemistby,  Zoology,  Medi- 
cine, Physics,  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  Engineebing, 
Philology,  Philosophy,  etc.;  articles  on  Religion,  Bxplobation,  Polab 
Beseabch,  Sports,  Trade,  Industry,  and  Business  represented  in  such 
articles  as  Banks  and  Banking,  Financial  Review,  Insubancb,  Tbusts, 
Labob,  Stbikes,  Shipbuilding,  Building  Opebations,  etc.;  gazetteer  in- 
formation under  each  of  the  States  of  the  United  States  and  the  foreign 
countries ;  a  series  of  biographies  of  men  who  have  died  during  the  year 
or  who  have  been  brought  into  prominence  through  public  events;  an 
historical  record  of  the  year's  events  under  each  foreign  country  as  well 
as  under  United  States. 

Fbank  Moobb  Colby, 

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EDITOR 
FRANK  MOORE  OOLBT,  M.  A. 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

ALLEN  LEON  CHURCHILL 
HORATIO  S.  KRANS,  PH.D. 

LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 


AGRICULTURE,     HORTICULTURE, 
FOOD,  IRRIGATION,  BOTANY,  FOR- 
ESTRY,  ETC. 
EDWIN  WEST  ALLEN,  PH.D., 

UNITED   STATES   DEPARTMENT  OF   AGBIOULTUBX; 
ASSISTED  BT  EXPERTS   IN   THE  DEPABTMENT  OF 
AGUCULTUBE  AT  WASHINGTON, 
AND 

ALFRED  CHARLES  TRUE,  PH.D., 

UNITED  STATES  DEPABTMENT  OF  AOBIOULTUBB. 

ANTHROPOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 
ROBERT  H.  LOWIE,  PHJ)., 

AMERICAN   MUSEUM  OF  NATUBAL  HISTOBT,  AND 

CLARK  WISSLER,  PH.D., 

AMEBICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATUBAL  HISTOBT. 

ARCHJEOLOGY 

OLIVER  SAMUEL  TONKS,  PH.D., 

PBOFESSOB  OF  ABT,  YA8SAB  COLLEGE. 

ARCHITECTURE 
RICHARD  F.  BACH, 

CUBATOB,  SCHOOL  OF  ABCHITECTUBE,  COLUMBIA 
UNITEBSITT. 

ASTRONOMY  AND  METEOROLOGY 
T.  W.  EDMONDSON,  PH.D., 

PBOFESSOB   OF    MATHEMATICS,    NEW    TOBK    UNI- 

VEBsrrr. 

CHEMISTRY,   INDUSTRIAL,   AND    EX- 
POSITIONS 
MARCUS  BENJAMIN,  PH.D.,  Sc.D.,  LL.D., 

EDITOB  FOB  THE  UNITED  STATES  NATIONAL 
MUSEUM. 

CHEMISTRY,  GENERAL  PROGRESS  OP 
HARRY  ESSEX,  PH.D.,  and  LEONARD  M. 
LIDDLE,  PH.D., 

BBSEABCH  ASSOCIATES  OF  THE  MELLON  INSTI- 
TUTEy  UNIVEBSITY  OF  PITTSBUBGH,  WITH  THE 
ASSISTANCE  OF 

M.  A-  ROSANOFF,  So.D., 

WILLIAM  GIBBS  PBOFESSOB  IN  THE  MELLON  IN- 
STITUTE, UNIVEBSITT  OF  PITTSBUBGH. 

DRAMA 

CLAYTON  HAMILTON,  M.A., 

DBAMATIC   CBITIC  OF  THE   "BOOKMAN." 

ECONOMIC  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 
FRANK  HAMILTON  HANKIN8,  PH.D., 

ASSISTANT  PBOFESSOB  OF  ECONOMICS  AND  SOCI- 
PLOOT,  OLABK  C0I44S0E. 


EDUCATION 

MILO  B.  HILLEGAS,  PH.B., 

ASSISTANT   PBOFESSOB   OF    ELEMENTABT   EDUCA- 
TION,   TBACHEBS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNITEB- 

smr. 


ELECTRICAL       ENGINEERING 
PHOTOGRAPHY 
REGINALD  GORDON. 


AND 


EUGENICS 

ALVAN  A.  TENNEY,  PH.D.. 

ASSISTANT  PBOFESSOB  OF  SOCIOLOGY,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVEBSITT. 

EXPLORATION      AND      POLAR      RE- 
SEARCH 
A.  W.  GREELY,  PH.D., 

MAJOB-GENEBAL,  UNITED  STATE»  ABMT. 

FEMINISM:       WOMAN       MOVEMENT; 
WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 
JULIET  STUART  POYNTZ,  A3f ., 

AMEBICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOB  LABOB  LEGISLATION. 

FOREIGN  GAZETTEER 

EDWARD  LATHROP  ENGLE  AND 
ALLAN  EVA  ENGLE. 

FOREIGN  HISTORY  AND  POLITICS 
CARLTON  H.  HAYES,  PH.D., 

ASSISTANT  PBOFESSOB  OF  HISTOBT,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVEBSITT. 

PARKER  T.  MOON, 

INSTBUCTOB  IN  HISTOBT,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEBSITT. 

GEOLOGY 

DAVID  HALE  NEWLAND,  A.B., 

ASSISTANT  STATE  GEOLOGIST,  NEW  TOBK. 

INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  AND 
PEACE 
CLINTON  ROGERS  WOODRUFF,  LL.B., 

SECBETABT  OF  THE  NATIONAL  MUNICIPAL 
LEAGUE  AND  OF  THE  MOHONK  CONFBBENCE,  AND 
PBESIDENT  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  PERSONAL  BEGIS- 
TBATION,   PHILADELPHIA. 


JEWS  AND  JUDAISM 
DAVID  A.  MODELL,  A.M. 

LIBRARY  PROGRESS 

WILLIAM  W.  BISHOP,  A.M., 

SUPEBINTENDENT    OF    THE    BEADING    BOOM,    LI- 
BBABT  OF  C0NGBE8S,  WASHINGTON,  D.  O^ 

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LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND  AMERI- 
CAN 
HORATIO  S.  KRANS,  PH.D. 

LITERATURE,  FRENCH 
ALBERT  SCHINZ,  PH.D., 

PB0FB880B  OF  FBENCH  UTEBATUBE,  SMITH  COL- 
LBGE. 

LITERATURE,  GERMAN 
AMELIA  VON  ENDE, 

OONTRIBUTOB  TO  NEW  TOBK  "BVENIWO  POST" 
AND  "THE  NATION." 

LITERATURE,  ITALIAN 

ALBERT  ARTHUR  LIVINGSTON,  PH.D., 

ASSISTANT  PB0FES80B  OF  THE  BOMANCE  LAN- 
GUAGES AND  LITEBATUBE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEB- 
SITT. 

LITERATURE,  SCANDINAVIAN 
HARRY  V.  E.  PALMBLAD,  A.M., 

INSTBUOTOB  IN  GEBMANIC  LANGUAGES  AND  LIT- 
EBATUBES,  UNIVEBSITT  OF  KANSAS. 

LITERATURE,  SPANISH 

JOHN  DRISCOLL  FITZGERALD,  PH.D., 

MEMBEB  OF  THE  HISPANIC  SOCIETY  OF  AMEBICA, 
COBBBSPONDING  MEMBEB  OF  THE  SPANISH  BOYAL 
ACADEMY,  ASSISTANT  PB0FE8S0B  OF  BOMANCE 
LANGUAGES,   UNIYEBSITY   OF   ILLINOIS. 

MANUFACTURES,    CIVIL..   ENGINEER- 
ING, TECHNOLOGY,  AERONAUTICS, 
AND  FIRE  PROTECTION 
HERBERT  TREADWELL  WADE. 

MEDICINE 

ALBERT  WARREN  FERRIS,  A.M.,  M.D., 

MEDICAL  EXPEBT  TO  STATE  BESEBVATION  COM- 
MISSIONEBS  AT  SABATOOA  SPBINGS;  CONSULT- 
ING PHYSICIAN,  ITALIAN  HOSPITAL,  NEW  YOBK; 
AND  OF  BINOHAMTON  STATE  HOSPITAL;  FOBMEB 
SENIOB  BESIDENT  PHYSICIAN,  GLEN  SPBINGS, 
WATKINS,  N.  Y.;  FOBMEB  PBESIDENT,  N.  Y. 
STATE  COMMISSION  IN  LUNACY;  FOBMEB  ASSIS- 
TANT IN  NEUBOLOGY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEBSITY; 
FOBMEB  ASSISTANT  IN  MEDICINE,  NEW  YOBK 
UNIVEBSITY  AND  BELLEVUE  HOSPITAL  MEDICAL 
COLLEGE;   ASSISTED  BY 

DAVID  GILBERT  YATES,  M.D., 

SUBGEON,  NEW  YOBK  CHILDBEN'S  HOSPITAL; 
SUBGEON,  IHSMILT  DISPENSABY,  NEW  YOBK  CITY. 

MILITARY  PROGRESS 
C.  DeW.  WILLCOX, 

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL,  U.  8.  A.,  PR0FE8S0B  OF 
MODEBN   LANGUAGES,   U.   S.   MILITABY  ACADEMY. 

MILITARY  STATISTICS  FOREIGN 
HERBERT  TREADWELL  WADE. 

MUSIC 

ALFRED  REMY,  M.A., 

EXTENSION  LECTUBEB,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEBSITY; 
FOBMEB  PB0FES80B  OF  HABMONY  AND  OOUNTEB- 
POINT,  INTEBNATIONAL  CONSEBVATORY,  NEW 
YOBK;  LECTUBEB  ON  THE  HISTOBY  OF  MUSIC, 
NEW  YOBK   COLLEGE  OF  MUSIC. 

NAVAL     PROGRESS      AND      BATTLE- 
SHIPS 
LEWIS  SAYRE  VAN  DUZER, 

CAPTAIN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY,  BETIBED; 
EX-SBCBETABY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL 
INSTITUTE. 


PAINTING  AND  SCULPTURB 
FORBES  WATSON, 

OONTBIBUTOB  TO  THE  NEW  YOBK  '^EVENINO 
POST"  AND  "THE  NATION." 

PHILOLOGY 

CHARLES  KNAPP,  PH.D., 

PBOFESSOB  OF  CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY,  BABNABD 
COLI.E0E,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEBSITY;   AND 

JOHN  LAWRENCE  GERIG.  A.M.,  PH.D., 

ASSOCIATE  PBOFESSOB  OF  CELTIC,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVEBSITY. 

PHILOSOPHY 

FRANK  THILLY,  A.M.,  PH.D.,  LL.D., 

PBOFESSOB  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  SAGE  SCHOOL  OF 
PHILOSOPHY,  OOBNELL  UNIVEBSITY. 

PHYSICS 

WILLIAM  W.  STIFLER,  PH.D., 

INSTBUCTOB  IN  PHYSICS,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEB- 
SITY. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  PSYCHICAL  RE- 
SEARCH 

EDWARD  BRADFORD  TITCHENER,  D.Sc, 
PH.D.,  LL.D.,  LITT.D., 

SAGE  PBOFESSOB  OF  PSYCHOLOGY,  GBADUATE 
SCHOOL  OF  COBNELL  UNIVEBSITY. 

CHRISTIAN  A.  RUCKMICH,  PH.D., 

INSTBUCTOB  IN  PSYCHOLOGY,  UNIVEBSITY  OF 
ILLINOIS. 

RAILWAYS 

WILLIAM  E.  HOOPER, 

ASSOCIATE  EDITOB,  "BAILWAY  AGE  GAZRTE." 

RELIGIOUS     DENOMINATIONS     AND 
SOCIETIES 
JOHN  W.  RUSSELL,  M.A. 

SANITARY    ENGINEERING    AND    MU- 
NICIPAL ACTIVITIES 
MOSES  NELSON  BAKER,  PH.B.,  C.E., 

EDITOB  OF  THE  "ENGINEEBING  NEWS." 

SPORTS 

CHARLES  A.  TAYLOR, 

MEMBEB  OF  THE  STAFF  OF  THE  NEW  YOBK 
"TBIBUNE." 

UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  WAR 
NELSON  P.  AfEAD,  PH.D., 

ASSOCIATE  PBOFESSOB  OF  HISTOBY,  COLLEGE  OF 
THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YOBK. 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 
MILO  B.  HILLEGAS,  PH.D., 

ASSISTANT  PBOFESSOB  OF  ELEMENTABY  EDUCA- 
TION, TEACHEBS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVEB- 
SITY. 

WAR  OF  THE  NATIONS,  AND  SOCIAL- 
ISM 
CARLTON  H.  HAYES,  PH.D., 

ASSISTANT  PBOFESSOB  OF  HISTOBY,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVEBSITY. 

ZOOLOGY 

AARON  L.  TREADWELL,  PH.D., 
PBOFESSOB  OF  BIOLOGY,  VASSAB  COLLEGE. 


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ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

AEBONAunoB:     CuBTiss  Flying  Boat  and  Cubtibs  Mhjtabt  Traotob       ...  4 

Abohitbctube:     Buildings  at  the  Panama-Pacifio  Exposition,  San  Fbancisoo  46 

Battushipb:    United  States  Battleship  "Oklahoma" 80 

Belqiuic:    General  von  Bissino  and  Miss  Edith  Cavell 80 

Dams:     Two  Notable  Dams  or  the  U.  S.  Reclamation   Service — ^Abbowbock   Dam 

AND  Elephant  Butte  Dam 174 

Dbama:     Examples  of  Modebn  Stagecbaft  in  1915 184 

Dbama:    Revival  or  Gbeek  Tbagedt  in  Amebica 180 

Electric  Railways:    Electbic  Locomotive  fob  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 

Railway 198 

Expositions:     Scenes  at  the  Panama-Califobnia  Exposition,  San  Dieqo  206 

Finance:     Foub  Financiers  of  the  Gbeat  Wab — Babon  Reading,  Kabl  Helfferich, 

Alexandeb  Ribot,  Reginald  McEenna 214 

Fbance:     FoiTB  French   Statesmen — ^Th^phile  Delcass£,  Abistide  Bbiand,  Genebal 

Galli^ni,  Ren£  Viviani 234 

Gebmany:    German  and  Austbian  Ministebs  in  1915 — ^Von  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Ad- 
miral VON  TiBPiTz,  Babon  Bubian  von  Rajecz,  Von  Jagow         ....        262 
Gbeat  Bbitain:     Foub  Figubes  Pbominent  in  Gbeat  Bbitain — ^Kbib  Habdie,  Admibal 

Sib  Henby  B.  Jackson,  Winston  Chubchill,  Eabl  of  Debby     ....        284 
Gbebce:     Foub   Balkan    Statesmen   Pbominent  in  1916 — ^M.  Venizelos,  M.  Skoulou- 

Dis,  M.  Radoslavof,  Take  Jonesco 292 

Italy:     Foub  Men  Pbominent  in  Italy  in  1916 — ^Antonio  Salandba,  Babon  Sidney 

SoNNiNO,  Pbince  Bebnhabd  von  BtJLow,  Count  Luigi  Cadobna   ....        344 
Japan:     Coronation  of  the  Mikado — Count  Okuma;  Shinto  Priests  350 
Lttebature:     Four  Authors  Prominent  in  1915— Rupert  Brooke,  Edgar  Lee  Mast- 
ers, Canon  James  Owen  Hannay,  F.  Hopkinbon  Smith 378 

Military  Progress  :    Business  Men's  Milttary  Training  Camp  at  Plattsburg  .  410 
Military  Pbogbess  :     Fbench  Soldier  Equipped  to  Withstand  Poisonous  Gases  ;  Ger- 
man Soldiers  Using  Machine  Gun 412 

Turkey:    Military  Leaders — Field  Marshal  von  deb  Goltz  and  Enveb  Pasha  650 

UNiTEa>  States:     Foub  United  States  Senatobs  Elected  in  1916 — R.  F.  Bboussabd,  T. 

W.  Habdwickb,  p.  0.  HusTiNG,  Chables  Cubtis 662 

United  States  :   Ex-Secbetaby  of  State  W.  J.  Bbyan,    Secbetary    of    State    Robert 

Lansing 668 

United  States:     Four  Representatives  Prominent  in  1915 — Claude  Kitchin,  D.  W. 

Shackleford,  Frank  W.  Mondell,  F.  H.  Gillett 670 

United  States  :  Four  Men  Prominent  in  the  Foreign  Pouoy  of  the  United  States 
IN   1915^WiLLiAM  J.   Stone,  Henry  P.  Fletcher,  Colonel  Edward  M.  House, 

Frank  L.  Polk 672 

United  States  and  the  War:  Representatives  of  the  Teutonic  Powers  in  the 
United  States — Dr.  Bernhard  Dernburg,  Dr.  Konstantin  Theodor  Dumba,  Cap- 
tain Fbanz  von  Papen,  Captain  Kabl  Boy-Ed 678 

UNIVratSITIES   AND  COLLEGES:       FoUR  EDUCATOBS    PBOMINENT    IN     1915 — ^R.    L.     WiLBUB, 

Henby  Suzaixo,  Rev.  J.  A.  Mulby,  S.  J.,  Edwabd  C.  Eixiott  ....        684 

Wab  of  the  Nations:  Foub  Rulebs  of  Balkan  States:  King  Peteb  of  Serbia, 
King  Febdinand  of  Bulgabia,  King  Constantine  of  Gbeece,  King  Febdinand  of 

Rumania 700 

Wab  of  the  Nations:     Tbench  Scenes 702 

Wab  of  the  Nations:     Gebman  Empebob  and  Genebal  von  Mackensen — Fobtifica- 

TIONS  ON   THE  WeST  BaNK   OF  THE   DVINA  RiVEB 710 

Wab  OF  THE  Nations  :     Italian  Alpine  Tboops 718 

Wab  of  the  Nations:    Three  Bbitish  Genebals  Prominent  in  1915 — Sir  Douglas 

Haig,  Sir  Charles  C.  Monro,  Sir  Ian  Hamilton 722 

Washington,   Booker  T 730 


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MAPS 

Aubtbia-Httnoabt 66 

GHiirESB   Repubuo 142 

England  and  Wales 278 

nobwat  and  sweden 464 

RussLL 666 

Afbiga 604 

Balkan  States 664 

EuBOPB                                                               698 

Was  of  the  Nations — Sketch  Maps  or  Field  Operations:     Allies'  Line  in  Fbancb 

AND  Belgium,  Januabt  1,  1916 702 

The  Dabdanellbs  Campaign 706 

Second  Battle  of  Ypbes,  Apbil-Mat,  1016 709 

Battle  of  Abtois,  Mat-June,  1916 709 

Russian  Battle  Line,  Octobeb  1,  1916 716 

Fbench  Advance  in  Champagne 716 

Italian  Campaign  Against  Gobttz 718 

Mesopotamia  and  Its  Strategic  Position 721 


Note:  Cross  references  in  small  capitals  indicate  that  the  allusion  is  to  a  separate 
article;  cross  references  in  italics  denote  that  the  reference  is  to  a  subdivision  of  a  main  arti- 
cle. A  cross  reference  in  italics,  standing  alone  in  an  article,  carries  the  reference  to  another  sub- 
division of  the  same  article.  The  letters  q.  v.  {quod  tr»<fe  =  Latin  ''which  see'')  in  parentheses 
following  a  word,  indicate  that  the  subject  is  treated  under  its  own  name  elsewhere  in  the 
volume. 

Note:  In  certain  tables  in  this  work  it  will  be  found,  by  addition,  that  the  totals  do  not 
correspond  to  the  sum  of  the  items.  This  is  the  result  of  the  omission  or  inclusion  of  certain 
small  items  which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  table,  but  are  included  in  the^  totals.  This  is  a 
usage  frequently  employed  in  the  compilation  of  government  statistics,  from  which  sources  the 
greater  number  of  the  tables  in  the  Yeab  Book  are  taken. 


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THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR   BOOK 


A    B.  C.  PEACE  TBEATT.    Bee  Aboeit- 

^k       TINA,    section    so    entitled;    Brazil, 

/^     History,  Relations  toith  Other  South 

/     ^L        American    Countries;    Chile,    His- 

^L     ^^*   tory,    Chilean  Relations  with   For- 

rifjn  (Jnuntrien:  and  International  Peace  and 

ABBITItATION. 

ABYSSINIA.  An  independent  empire  of 
eastern  Africa.  The  area  is  estimated  approxi- 
mately at  432,000  square  miles.  The  popula- 
tion consists  of  Semitic  Abyssinians,  Gallas  and 
Somalis,  negroes,  Falashas,  and  non-natives — 
in  all  between  9  and  11  millions.  Addis  Abeba, 
the  capital,  has  about  60,000  permanent  inhabi- 
tants and  a  floating  population  of  about  30,000; 
Harar,  40,000;  Aksum,  6000;  Dir6  Dawa,  5000. 
The  Coptic  Christian  is  the  national  church, 
and  education  is  in  the  hands  of  Coptic  teachers. 
The  ruler  is  a  Coptic  Christian,  but  large  num- 
bers of  his  subjects  are  Mohammedans  and  pa- 
gans. Cattle  and  sheep  raising  and  a  primitive 
sort  of  agriculture  are  the  main  industries. 
The  forests  yield  rubber  and  valuable  timber. 
Gold-mining  tracts  extend  along  the  banks  of 
the  Baro  River,  and  coal  has  been  found. 

Imports  through  Jibuti  in  1909,  about  £811,- 
566;  in  1910,  £960,147.  Exports  by  way  of  Ji- 
buti average  £336,000.  Imports  through  Zeila, 
the  Sudan,  and  Italian  colonies,  about  £192,795 
in  1909;  exports  average  about  £40,000.  The 
•total  trade  by  way  of  Jibuti  in  1911  was  valued 
at  8,722,531  francs  imports,  and  11,765,844 
francs  exports;  by  way  of  Eritrea,  2,320,558  lire 
imports,  and  3,072,100  lire  exports;  by  way  of 
Gambela  in  the  Sudan,  £E27,962  imports,  and 
£E37,751  exports.  A  British  source  gives  the 
total  trade  through  Jibuti  in  1912,  imports  and 
exports,  at  £588,924 ;  imports  through  the  Sudan 
£34,280  and  exports,  £38,720.  The  imports 
(chiefly  from  Great  Britain,  France,  India,  Italy, 
and  the  United  States)  are  gray  shirting,  other 
cotton  goods,  arms  and  ammunition,  foodstuffs, 
beverages,  railway  material,  and  petroleum. 
The  exports  are  hides  and  skins,  coffee,  wax, 
ivory,  civet,  etc.  A  railway  extends  from  Jibuti 
to  Dir4  Dawa,  a  distance  of  309  kilometers,  of 
which  219  kilometers  are  in  Abyssinian  terri- 
tory. An  extension  from  Dir6  Dawa  to  Mehesso, 
152  kilometers,  was  opened  in  1913;  the  exten- 
sion from  Mehesso  to  Addis  Abeba,  328  kilome- 
ters, is  under  construction.  Telegraph  lines  con- 
nect the  capital  with  Harar,  with  Jibuti,  and 
with  Massaua  in  Eritrea. 

The  government  is  essentially  feudal  in  char- 
acter, each  large  province  being  governed  by  a 

Y.  B.— 1 


ras,  a  prince  or  feudal  chief,  under  an  emperor 
whose  power  is  absolute.  Lij  Yasu,  born  1896, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the  death  of 
Menelek  II,  Dec.  11,  1913.  He  is  the  son  of 
Menelek's  second  daughter,  Waizaro  Shoa  Hogga, 
and  Ras  Mikael,  the  chief  of  the  Wollo  Gallas. 
Menelek  II  (born  1844)  had  been  emperor  from 
1889  until  his  death;  but,  owing  to  his  inca- 
pacity, the  government  had  been  administered 
since  1910  by  his  grandson  under  the  advice  and 
direction  of  regents. 

According  to  a  statement  made  in  December 
by  Pierre  Alype,  a  member  of  the  Colonial  Com- 
mittee of  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the 
Emperor  of  Abyssinia  had  offered  to  furnish  the 
Entente  Allies  with  200,000  troops  whenever 
necessary. 

ACADEMTy  Fbench  (Agad^mdc  Fban- 
9AISE).  The  first  to  be  founded  (1635)  and  the 
most  noted  of  the  five  academies  constituting 
the  Institute  of  France,  the  other  four  being :  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-lettres,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
and  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sci- 
ence. The  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
elected  for  life,  and  known  as  the  "Forty  Im- 
mortals," take  rank  as  the  leading  Frenchmen 
of  letters  of  their  time;  and  collectively  they  are 
the  last  resort  in  all  disputed  literary  matters. 
Fifteen  hundred  francs  are  given  as  a  yearly  hon- 
orarium to  each  member,  and  more  than  12,000 
francs  are  distributed  annually  in  prizes.  Two 
members,  Alfred  Jean  Francois  M^zi^res  (q.v.) 
and  Paul  Hervieu  (q.v.),  died  during  1915,  leav- 
ing seven  vacancies,  which  were  not  filled. 

ACADEMY  OF  ABTS  AND  LETTEBS, 
American.  A  body  of  distinguished  men,  lim- 
ited to  50,  and  selected  from  the  membership  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters.  The 
Institute  was  organized  at  a  meeting  of  the 
American  Social  Science  Association  in  1898. 
It  was  patterned  in  a  general  way  after  the 
French  Academy.  From  its  foundation  in  1904, 
its  president  has  been  William  Dean  Howells. 
The  Academy  and  the  National  Institute  hold 
joint  annual  meetings,  the  last  of  which  took 
place  in  Boston  on  Nov.  18  and  19,  1915.  The 
gold  medal  of  the  academy  was  awarded  to  Dr. 
C.  W.  Eliot,  ex-president  of  Harvard  University. 
Since  the  last  meeting  in  1914  eight  new  mem- 
bers have  been  elected.  On  Nov.  24,  1915,  the 
membership  included:  William  Dean  Howells, 
Henry  James,  Henry  Adams,  Theodore  Koose- 
velt,  John  Singer  Sargent,  Daniel  Chester 
French,  John   Burroughs,  James  Ford   Rhodes, 


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ACADEMY  OF  ABTS  AND  LETTEBS   2 

Horatio  William  Parker,  William  Milligan 
Sloane,  Robert  Underwood  Johnson,  George 
Washington  Cable,  Andrew  Dickson  White, 
Henry  van  Dyke,  William  Crary  Brownell,  Basil 
Danneau  Gildersleeve,  Woodrow  Wilson,  Arthur 
Twining  Hadley,  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Edwin 
Howland  Blashfield,  William  Merritt  Chase, 
Thomas  Hastings,  Hamilton  Wright  Mabie, 
Brander  Matthews,  Thomas  Nelson  Page,  Elihu 
Vedder,  George  Edward  Woodberry,  Kenyon  Cox, 
George  Whitefield  Chadwick,  Abbott  Handerson 
Thayer,  Henry  Mills  Alden,  George  de  Forest 
Brush,  William  Rutherford  Mead,  Bliss  Perry, 
Abbott  Lawrence  Lowell,  James  Whitcomb  Riley, 
Nicholas  ^Murray  Butler,  Paul  Wayland  Bart- 
lett,  Owen  Wister,  Herbert  Adams,  Augustus 
Thomas,  Timothy  Cole,  Cass  Gilbert,  William 
Roscoe  Thayer,  Robert  Grant,  Frederick  Mac- 
Monnies,  Julian  Alden  Weir,  William  Gillette, 
Paul  Elmer  More,  George  Lockhart  Rives. 

The  first  seven  members  were:  William  Dean 
Howells,  Augustus  Saint-Gaudens,  Edmund 
Clarence  Stedman,  John  La  Farge,  Samuel  Lang- 
horne  Clemens,  John  Hay,  and  Edward  Mac- 
Dowell.  William  Milligan  Sloane  is  chancellor 
and  treasurer,  and  Robert  Underwood  Johnson, 
52  Vanderbilt  Avenue,  New  York  City,  is  perma- 
nent secretary. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE.  See  Insurance  ; 
and  Workmen's  Compensation. 

ACCIDENTS.  See  Railway  Accidents; 
Satett  at  Sea;  Workmen's  Compensation; 
and  Coal,  Accidents. 

ACCUMDXATOB.  See  Electric  Batter- 
ies. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis.  An  American 
soldier,  publicist,  and  historian,  died  March  20, 
1015.  He  was  born  in  Boston  in  1836.  His 
father,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  was  an  American 
minister  to  England,  and  was  the  son  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  and  the  grandson  of  John 
Adams.  The  son,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  was 
educated  in  a  private  school,  and  at  Harvard 
College,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1856.  He 
studied  law  and  in  1858  was  admitted  to  the 
Massachusetts  bar.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  entered  the  service  as  a  first  lieutenant 
in  the  first  Massachusetts  Cavalry.  He  was 
promoted  successively  to  be  captain,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  colored 
cavalry,  and  was  finally  mustered  out,  and  bre- 
vetted  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  After 
leaving  the  army,  he  entered  the  railway  busi- 
ness, and  gained  a  national  reputation  as  an 
expert  in  traffic  and  administrative  problems. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Railroad 
Commissioners  of  Massachusetts  from  1869-79, 
and  from  1877-90  he  was  director  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad,  and  was  president  of  the  same 
road  from  1884-90.  Mr.  Adams  was  best  known, 
however,  for  his  numerous  important  services 
to  the  public.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mission which  planned  the  Massachusetts  Met- 
ropolitan Park  System.  From  1882-94  and 
again  from  1896-1907,  he  was  overseer  of  Har- 
vard University.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost 
historical  writers  of  the  United  States;  had  a 
remarkable  grasp  of  political  and  economic 
problems;  and  was  constantly  in  demand  for 
lectures  on  political,  economical,  and  historical 
subjects.  Mr.  Adams  was  bitterly  opposed  to 
the  high  tariff  policy.  Much  of  his  historical 
work  had  to  do  with  the  Civil  War.  He 
greatly  admired  General  Lee,  and  wrote  much 


ADICKBB 

about  him.  It  was  he  who  suggested  that  a 
m<Miument  of  General  Lee  be  erected  in  Wash- 
ington. Mr.  Adams's  brothers.  Brooks  and 
Henry,  are  both  well  known  historians.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  learned  societies.  His 
published  writings  include:  Chapters  on  Erie 
and  Other  Essays  (written  with  his  brother, 
Henry  Adams,  1871);  Railroads^  their  Origin 
and  Problems  (1878);  Notes  on  Railioay  Acci- 
dents (1879);  MassflchiAsetts,  Its  Historians 
and  Its  History  (1893);  Life  of  Charles  Fran- 
cis Adams  (1900);  Richard  Henry  Dana,  a  Bi- 
ography ( 1891 ) ;  Lee  at  Appomattoa  and  Other 
Papers  (1902);  and  Studies  Military  and  Dip- 
lomatic. He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
Princeton  University  in   1896. 

ADAMSONy  Alfred.  A  rear  admiral  re- 
tired of  the  United  States  navy,  died  Feb.  23, 
1915.  He  was  bom  in  Brown ville,  New  York, 
in  1836.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  third  as- 
sistant engineer,  United  States  navy,  and  he 
passed  through  successive  steps  of  promotion 
until  he  became  chief  engineer  in  1879.  He  was 
retired  on  account  of  age  in  1898.  In  1906  he 
was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  re- 
tired in  recognition  of  his  Civil  War  services. 

ADDAMS,  Jane.    See  Woman  Movement. 

ADEN.  A  British  possession  in  Southwestern 
Arabia,  forming  a  part  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency of  Britiw  India.  It  consists  of  a  penin- 
sula and  a  small  strip  of  coast.  Area,  75 
square  miles,  or  with  the  Island  of  Perim  80 
square  miles.  Population  in  1911,  46,165,  as 
compared  with  43,974  in  1901.  A  territory  ex- 
tending inland  from  Aden,  about  9000  square 
miles  m  area,  is  under  British  protection;  es- 
timated population,  about  100,000.  The  town 
of  Aden  is  strongly  fortified  and  constitutes  an 
important  coaling  and  transshipment  station. 
Except  the  small  quantities  of  exports  and  im- 
ports to  and  from  Arabia,  the  trade  is  almost 
wholly  transit.  In  1913-14  imports  of  pri- 
vate merchandise  by  sea  were  valued  at  £3,756,- 
964;  by  land,  £170,213;  imports  of  treasure, 
£450,305.  Private  exports  by  sea  in  that  year, 
£3,267,283;  by  land,  £140,159;  exports  of  treas- 
ure, £741,687.  The  leading  imports  by  sea  are 
cotton  eoods,  grain,  hides  and  skins,  and  to- 
bacco. The  exports  by  sea  include  these  arti- 
cles together  with  coffee,  gums,  civet,  and  wax. 
In  1913-14  there  were  entered  at  the  port  of 
Aden  1629  merchant  vessels,  of  3,925,044  tons. 
Aden  is  subject  to  the  government  of  Bombay 
and  is  administered  by  a  resident,  who  is  also 
commander  of  the  troops  in  the  garrison.  Ad- 
ministratively attached  to  Aden,  besides  Perim, 
are  Socotra  and  the  Kuria  Muria  islands. 

In  the  course  of  the  War  of  the  Nations 
(q.v.)  an  attack  was  made  on  Aden  by  the  Turks. 
Having  occupied  Lahej  in  July,  the  Turkish 
troops  advanced  to  Sheikh  Othman  in  the  near 
vicinity  of  Aden  and  menaced  the  fortress  of 
Aden.  The  British  garrison  successfully  re- 
pulsed the  attack,  according  to  the  statement 
given  out  in  December  by  the  British  India  Of- 
fice, and  only  insignificant  skirmishes  occurred 
thereafter.  The  operations  around  Aden  were 
considered  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  as 
the  capture  of  the  town  by  the  Turks  would  im-. 
peril  the  main  line  of  communication  between 
England  and  her  Asiatic  colonies. 

ADICKES,  Franz.  German  public  official, 
died  Feb.  4,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1846.  For 
many  years  he  was  mayor  of  Frankfort,  ahd 


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ABICXES  3 

owing  to  his  activity  in  municipal  Socialism 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  civic  officials  in 
Germany.  Perhaps  his  most  notable  achieve- 
ment was  the  establishment  of  the  University 
of  Frankfort  in  1914.  See  Universities  and 
COLLEQES.  He  resigned  as  mayor  of  Frankfort 
in  1912. 

ADULTEBATION.  See  Food  and  Nutri- 
tion, passim,        

ADVANCEMENT  07  SCIENCE,  American 
Association  for  the.  The  67th  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  association  was  held  in  Columbus, 
Ohio,  Dec.  27,  1915,  to  Jan.  1,  1916.  There  were 
750  members  in  attendance.  At  the  same  time 
the  following  societies  affiliated  with  the  Asso- 
ciation held  their  meetings;  American  Associa- 
tion of  Economic  Entomologists;  American 
Mathematical  Society;  American  Microscopical 
Society;  American  Nature  Study  Society;  Amer- 
ican Physical  Society;  American  Phyto-patho- 
logical  Society;  American  Society  of  Natural- 
ists; Association  of  Official  Seed  Analysts  of 
North  America;  Botanical  Society  of  America; 
Entomological  Society  of  America;  Society  for 
Horticultural  Science;  Southern  Society  for 
Philosophy  and  Psychology;  Students  and  Col- 
lectors of  Ohio  Archaeology;  Wilson  Ornithologi- 
cal Club.  The  opening  meeting  was  held  in  the 
college  chapel  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  over 
1200  persons  being  present.  The  total  number 
of  registered  members  of  the  association  was 
750.  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  the  retiring  presi- 
dent, save  an  address  on  "The  Fruits,  Prospects, 
and  Lessons  of  Recent  Biological  Science." 
Three  public  lectures  were  delivered:  by  Dr. 
Douglas  W.  Johnson,  on  "Surface  Features  of 
Europe  as  a  Factor  in  the  War";  Dr.  Raymond 
F.  Bacon,  on  "The  Industrial  Fellowships  of  the 
Mellon  Institute";  and  Dr.  Frank  K.  Cameron, 
on  "The  Fertilizer  Resources  of  the  United 
States."  The  council  of  the  association  decided 
that  members  of  the  affiliated  societies  not  now 
members  of  the  American  Association  be  invited 
to  join  it  in  1916  without  payment  of  the  usual 
entrance  fee.  The  following  officers  were 
elected:  President,  C.  R.  Van  Hise;  vice-presi- 
dents— ^mathematics,  L.  P.  Eisenhart;  physics, 
H.  A.  Bumstead;  engineering,  E.  L.  Corthell; 
geology  and  geography,  R.  D.  Salisbury;  zool- 
ogy, G.  H.  Parker;  botany,  T.  J.  Burrill;  an- 
thropology and  psychology,  F.  W.  Hodge;  social 
and  economic  science,  l^uis  I.  Dublin;  educa- 
tion, L.  P.  Ayres ;  agriculture,  W.  H.  Jordan.  W. 
£.  Henderson  was  elected  general  secretary,  and 
C.  Stuart  Gager  secretary  of  the  council.  The 
Pacific  Coast  meeting  of  the  association,  held  in 
connection  with  the  Panama  International  Ex- 
position, took  place  in  San  Francisco  during 
Aufiust  2-9.  The  president,  W.  W.  Camp- 
bell, gave  an  address  on  "Science  and  Civiliza- 
tion." Three  public  evening  addresses  were 
made,  respectively,  by  R.  A.  Daly,  W.  B.  Scott, 
and  P.  S.  Reinsch.  Over  90  sessions  of  the  asso- 
ciation were  held  during  the  week.  The  total 
r^stered  attendance  of  members  was  606. 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  Bbitish 
Association  fob  the.  The  annual  meeting  of  the 
association  was  held  at  Manchester  in  the  early 
part  of  September.  The  number  of  members  and 
associates  (1438),  although  not  disappointing, 
considering  the  war,  was  small  as  compared  wi& 
previous  meetings.  The  reception  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  in  the  School  of  Technology  on  Wednes- 
day evening  was  the  only  general  social  function 


AltBONAtTTICS 

of  the  week.  The  citizens'  lectures  given  in 
Manchester  and  other  towns  in  the  neighborhood 
attracted  large  audiences.  They  were  on  the 
following  subjects:  "Education  and  War,"  by 
Prof.  F.  W.  Gamble;  "The  Strat^ic  Geography 
of  the  War,"  by  Dr.  Vaughan  Cornish;  **The 
Making  of  a  Big  Gun,"  by  Dr.  W.  Rosenhain; 
"Daily  Uses  of  Astronomy,"  by  A.  R.  Hinks; 
"Health  Conditions  in  the  Modem  Workshop," 
by  Prof.  B.  Moore;  "Formation  of  the  Sun  and 
Stars,"  by  Rev.  A.  L.  Cortie;  "Some  Lessons 
from  Astronomy,"  by  Prof.  H.  H.  Turner;  and 
"Curiosities  and  Defects  of  Sight,"  by  Dr.  W. 
Stirling.  Grants  of  money  amounting  to  £068 
were  appropriated  for  scientific  purposes  on  be- 
half of  the  general  committee  to  members  in  the 
following  sections:  Mathematical  and  physical 
science,  chemistry,  geology,  zoOlogy,  geography, 
economic  science  and  statistics,  engineering,  an- 
thropology, physiology,  botany,  and  education. 
Notable  addresses  were  made  during  the  meet- 
ing by  Sir  Thomas  H.  Holland,  on  *The  Organ- 
ization of  Science";  Prof.  W.  M.  Bayliss,  on 
"The  Physiological  Importance  of  Phase  Bounda- 
ries"; Mrs.  Henry  Sidgwick,  on  "Educational 
Science";  Prof.  Grenville  Cole,  on  "Geolog\»"; 
Major  H.  G.  Lyons,  on  "The  Importance  of  Geo- 
graphical Research";  Dr.  H.  S.  Hele-Shaw,  on 
"Organization  to  Meet  German  Competition  at 
the  End  of  the  War";  and  Prof.  Charles  G.  Se- 
ligman,  on  "The  Early  History  of  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  from  the  Point  of  View  of  the 
Ethnologist."  The  next  meeting  will  be  held  at 
Newcastle. 

ADVENT  CHBISTIANS.     See  Adventists. 

ADVENTISTS.  The  largest  branch  of  the 
denomination,  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists,  had 
in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  1914,  68,203 
communicants,  1913  churches,  and  528  min- 
isters. The  members  of  the  denomination  con- 
tribute for  evangelistic  work  about  $3,000,000 
annually.  Of  this  amount  about  60  per  cent  is 
raised  in  tithes,  which  is  the  main  source  of 
revenue.  The  diurch  buildings  and  property 
are  valued  at  about  $13,000,000.  There  are 
nearly  800  schools  with  an  enrollment  of  about 
30,000.  The  denomination  maintains  37  pub- 
lishing houses  and  branches  under  its  control. 
Over  1600  missionaries  are  maintained  in  67 
different  countries.  About  $1,000,000  is  ex- 
pended in  the  support  of  this  work.  The  other 
branches  of  the  denomination  are  the  Advent 
Christians,  with  about  26,000  communicants. 
550  churches,  and  528  ministers;  The  Church  of 
God,  with  about  600  communicants,  20  churches, 
and  32  ministers;  The  Life  and  Advent  Union, 
with  509  communicants,  12  churches,  and  12 
ministers;  and  The  Church  of  God  in  Jesus 
Christ,  with  2224  communicants,  68  churches, 
and  61  ministers. 

iEGEAN  ISLANDS.    See  Greece. 

AfiBONAXmCS.  The  year  1916  marked  the 
point  where  the  construction  of  aiiroplanes 
passed  beyond  the  experimental  stage  and  be- 
came an  industry.  Every  detail  of  Uieir  struc- 
ture and  equipment  was  tested  in  the  great 
war.  The  raids  of  the  Zeppelins,  largely  futile 
and  causing  little  damage,  the  destruction  of 
men  and  property,  the  various  services  on  the 
Continent  rendered  by  the  aviators  of  the  fight- 
ing armies,  and  the  actual  combats  between  air 
craft,  were  all  features  of  the  great  war  which 
will  be  found  discussed  elsewhere  in  the  Yeab 
Book  imder  Wab  of  the  Nations,  Naval  Pboo- 


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AfiBONAUTICS 

BESS,  and  Military  Progress.  Naturally  the 
military  developments  led  more  to  wholesale 
manufacture  than  to  experimentation,  which, 
when  it  did  take  place,  was  practical  rather 
than  scientific.  The  details  of  new  work  and 
actual  construction  and  performance,  so  far  as 
the  belligerent  countries  are  concerned,  are 
meagre  and  imreliable.  In  the  United  States 
the  manufacture  of  aeroplanes  vastly  increased, 
and  by  the  close  of  1916  America  was  reported 
to  be  the  largest  manufacturer  of  aeroplanes 
and  their  parts,  its  sales  being  estimated  at  al- 
most $5,000,000. 

The  result  of  this  activity  was  the  organiza- 
tion of  large  factories  by  American  manufac- 
turers either  in  the  United  States  or  in  Canada. 
Thus,  the  Curtiss  Company  at  the  end  of  the 
year  was  occupying  a  large  plant  in  Buffalo, 
and  was  said  to  have  contracts  for  about  $15,- 
000,000  worth  of  aeroplanes,  to  be  able  to  turn 
out  daily  a  complete  America,  the  largest  size 
of  aeroplane,  and  to  be  preparing  to  turn  out 
daily  five  so-called  Canadaa — this  in  addition 
to  the  wholesale  manufacture  of  the  standard 
types  of  tlie  concern.  The  Wright  Aeroplane 
Company  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  changed  hands  and 
was  capitalized  at  $5,000,000.  Other  works  in 
the  United  States  were  the  Glenn  L.  Martin 
Company,  of  Los  Angeles,  the  Sturtevant  Aero- 
plane Company,  of  Massachusetts,  the  Burgess 
Company,  of  Marblehead,  Mass.,  the  Thomas 
Company,  of  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  a  large  number 
of  smaller  concerns  which  were  getting  ready 
for  increased  business. 

Many  of  these  manufacturers  and  aeroplane 
engineers  late  in  December  assembled  in  con- 
ference with  members  of  the  Naval  Consulting 
Board  and  the  Society  of  Aeroplane  Engineers 
to  consider  the  standardization  of  aeroplanes  on 
a  basis  similar  to  that  followed  so  successfully 
in  the  American  automobile  industry.  It  was 
urged  at  this  meeting  that  there  be  engineering 
cooperation  and  standardization  of  materials, 
designs,  and  methods  of  specification  and  test, 
and  it  was  the  sense  of  the  various  representa- 
tives at  the  conference  that  the  adoption  of 
suitable  standards  would  lay  a  real  commercial 
foundation  for  the  aeroplane  industry  in  Amer- 
ica for  future  years.  Committees  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Aeroplane  Engineers  were  appointed  to 
consider  the  problems  of  nomenclature  and 
standardization,  and  these  committees  were  to 
work  in  harmony  with  the  engineers  of  the 
army  and  navy. 

Gradually  the  size  and  strength  of  aeroplanes 
had  increased,  and  machines  were  constructed 
by  the  fighting  nations  in  Europe  on  a  scale 
that  probably  never  would  have  been  attempted 
in  more  pacific  times.  Biplanes  and  triplanes 
spreading  over  100  feet  were  in  service,  and 
were  being  built,  while  power  plants  in  dupli- 
cate and  triplicate  were  being  installed  on  these 
as  well  as  on  smaller  machines.  One  German 
tri plane  was  stated  to  have  eight  Maybach  mo- 
tors coupled  in  pairs,  each  pair  driving  one  of 
four  propellers,  two  of  which  will  drive  the 
plane  under  ordinary  conditions.  Provision 
was  being  made  for  larger  crews,  of  six  or  more 
men,  20  in  the  German  machine  just  mentioned, 
and  the  weight  of  bombs,  ammunition,  fuel,  and 
provisions  was  far  in  excess  of  the  most  san- 
guine hopes  entertained  by  designers  and  avia- 
tors a  few  years  previously.  In  addition  much 
attention  was  paid  to  stabilizing,  and  military 


(  AfiBONAXTTlCS 

machines  were  being  better  equipped  with  vari-~ 
ous  adjuncts  that  would  relieve  the  pilot  of 
strain  and  effort,  and  better  enable  him  to 
observe,  reconnoitre,  drop  bombs,  or  engage  in 
offensive  combat  with  other  craft.  In  the  best 
military  aeroplanes  the  aviator's  hands  and 
feet  could  be  taken  off  the  controls  long  enough 
for  the  aviator  to  use  a  camera,  release  a  bomb, 
examine  or  mark  a  map,  or  aim  and  fire  a  rifle 
or  pistol. 

Ihe  year's  progress  in  engine  construction 
was  largely  towards  more  powerful  plants. 
Many  12-cyiinder  engines  were  being  made  in 
sizes  ranging  from  100  to  250  horse  power,  and 
it  was  observed  that  the  stationary  cylinder 
type  was  in  many  places  supplanting  the  rotary 
engine  which  previously  had  the  preference. 
Ihe  stationary  cylinder  engine  was  found  more 
simple,  easier  to  repair,  and  of  greater  reli- 
ability, following  as  it  did  lines  laid  down  by 
automobile  designers. 

In  America,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, the  typNe  favored  was  the  tMrin-six  with 
stationary  cylinders  of  the  V  form.  The  mo- 
tor with  stationary  cylinders  demonstrated  it- 
self as  the  most  efficient,  and  in  fact  such  an 
engine  of  the  stationary  water  cooled  type  was 
used  in  the  duration  record  flight  of  24  hours 
made  in  1914  by  Reinhold  Boehm.  Of  course 
for  military  aviators  record  breaking  was  not 
so  much  an  object  as  reliability  and  great 
horse  power  to  carry  the  weights — observers, 
bombs,  and  other  apparatus — required.  Ihe  V- 
type  motor  also  showed  economy  in  fuel  con- 
sumption and  a  greater  radius  of  action,  while 
in  its  larger  size  it  had  less  weight  and  less 
bulk  than  the  vertical  cylinder  engine,  and 
might  offer  less  resistance  to  the  air  in  flight. 
Ihe  twin-six  or  twelve-cylinder  V-type  of  motor 
seemed  to  be  not  only  a  development  bat  the  ac- 
cepted form  during  the  year  1915,  and  many 
authorities  thought  that  the  8-cylinder  motor 
would  be  supplanted  by  the  6-  or  12-cylinder 
motor,  as  the  latter  balanced  better,  had  more 
torque,  and  ran  smoother. 

In  France,  the  Renault  Company,  which  de- 
veloped an  air-cooled  12-cylinder  motor  of  100 
horse  power,  was  manufacturing  these  machines 
at  the  Schneider  Automobile  Works  at  Lyons 
and  elsewhere,  so  that  about  ten  motors  a  day 
were  turned  out  for  government  use,  while  Eng- 
land, the  United  SUites,  and  other  countries 
were  using  these  motors  experimentally.  In 
Great  Britain,  a  notable  engine  development 
during  the  year  was  the  British  Sunbeam,  a 
12-cylinder  V-type  motor  built  for  the  great 
fighting  biplanes  of  the  Royal  Air  Craft  Fac- 
tory. This  motor  weighed  1085  pounds  complete, 
was  water  cooled,  and  could  develop  225  horse 
power.  Two  such  motors  were  installed  on  one 
of  the  big  tractor  biplanes  which  had  a  wing 
spread  of  70  feet.  The  motor  had  a  speed  of 
2000  revolutions  per  minute,  which  was  reduced 
to  1000  revolutions  for  the  propeller.  Another 
British  engine,  somewhat  lighter,  was  built  for 
British  experiment  by  the  Rolls-Royce  Com- 
pany, which  was  a  twin-six  of  250  horse  power 
and  weighed  800  pounds,  while  a  number  of 
American  motors  were  being  tested  by  the  Brit- 
ish government  at  the  Royal  Air  Craft  Factory 
at  Farnborough. 

Among  other  engines  brought  out  in  1915  was 
a  12-cylinder  V-type  water  cooled  motor  weigh- 
ing 720  pounds,  designed  by  L.  E.  Rausenberger, 


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AERONAUTICS 


CURTISS  FLYING  BOAT 
A  machine  of  this  type  made  a  long  distance  flight  of  554  miles  in  10  hours 


CURTISS  IVIODEL  "  R-a"  MILITARY  TRACTOR 

A  typf  r.i  inacMnK  rnadf    n  Airi'-rca  and  supplied  to  thr  armies  of  the;  allies.     In  191  5  it  made  a  notable  flight  from  Torontol 
Nevv  York,  and  wiih  tfirce  passengers  in  addition  to  the  pilot  made  an  altitude  record  of  8024  feet 


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AfiBONATTTICS  I 

and  planned  to  give  160  horse  power  at  a  nor- 
mal speed  of  120  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
cylinders  are  staggered  so  that  the  connecting 
rods  of  opposite  cylinders  are  placed  side  by 
side  on  the  same  crank  pin.  Another  notable 
engine,  the  Ashmusen  105  horse  power  motor, 
water  cooled,  with  cylinders  horizontally  op- 
posed and  weighing  345  pounds,  was  being  devel- 
oped during  the  year.  The  bore  and  stroke 
were  3.76  inches  and  4.5  inches  respectively. 
Another  12-cylinder  motor  of  the  year  was  the 
Johnson  2-cycle  type  of  the  90**  V-form  with 
a  bore  of  6  inches  and  a  stroke  of  4  inches,  with 
a  rating  of  150  to  180  horse  power,  at  a  speed 
ranging  from  1150  to  1400  revolutions  per  min- 
ute.    This  engine  weighed  698  pounds. 

While  extensive  manufacturing  work  was  be- 
ing carried  on,  at  the  same  time  the  mechanical 
engineering  features  were  investigated,  and 
Prof.  Charles  E.  Lucke,  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, was  testing  modem  aSroplane  engines  for 
the  National  Aeroplane  Advisory  Board,  and  it 
was  hoped  that  tiiere  would  be  a  contest  for 
aeroplane  motors  to  be  held  by  the  United 
States  navy,  in  which  a  large  number  would  re- 
ceive exhaustive  scientific  tests* 

Miscellaneous  Developments.  In  the  va- 
rious machines  turned  out  during  the  year  from 
the  Curtiss  works  in  Buffalo  a  number  of  tech- 
nical advances  were  to  be  noted.  In  one  ma- 
chine built  specially  for  war  purposes,  and 
capable  of  carrying  three  passengers  besides  the 
pilot,  tested  during  the  summer,  an  American 
record  for  climbing  with  considerable  weight 
was  made,  as  well  as  a  capacity  of  great  speed 
in  ordinary  flying  demonstrated.  With  two 
passengers,  an  ascent  of  8200  feet  was  made  in 
27  minutes,  and  with  three  passengers  a  con- 
siderably greater  elevation  was  attained  in  a 
proportionate  time.  Here  the  total  live  load  was 
800  pounds  and  8300  feet  was  reached  when  the 
barograph  ceased  recording,  and  the  ascent  was 
continued  for  another  five  minutes.  The  Amer- 
ican record  for  height  with  two  passengers  pre- 
vious to  this  was  5187,  and  the  world's  record 
with  three  passengers,  15,650  feet,  was  made  by 
an  Austrian  aviator  in  1914.  This  Curtiss  ma- 
chine was  of  the  tractor  type  where  the  pas- 
sengers were  placed  in  a  cockpit  in  front  of  the 
pilot,  who  is  located  behind  the  planes.  The 
160  horse  power  engine  was  capable  of  carrying 
a  load  of  1500  pounds  dead  weight.  The  control 
of  the  machine  was  said  to  1^  perfect  and  a 
speed  of  94  miles  an  hour  was  made  without  the 
pilot's  touching  the  wheel. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  there  was  building  at 
the  yard  of  the  Curtiss  Company  of  Buffalo 
what  was  considered  to  be  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  fiying  boat  aloft.  This  craft  was  a 
development  of  the  America  which  was  designed 
and  constructed  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  1914, 
and  which  was  discussed  in  the  1914  Yeab 
Book.  The  America  late  in  1914  was  pur- 
chased by  the  British  Admiralty,  and  was  put 
in  commission  with  the  Coast  Defense  Aero- 
plane Squad  in  connection  with  the  troop  trans- 
ports crossing  the  English  Channel,  as  she  was 
able  to  warn  such  craft  against  submarines, 
and  it  was  stated  that  she  destroyed  three 
German  submarines  and  prevented  attacks  on 
British  transports  in  the  Channel.  Accord- 
ingly the  British  Admiralty  gave  orders  dur- 
ing the  year,  first  for  12  and  then  for  20  flying 
boats  of  the  America  class,  as  they  seemed  a 


AfiBONAUTICS 

most  practical  defense  against  submarines,  in- 
asmuch as  they  had  a  much  greater  speed  and 
a  deep  sea  vision,  so  that  they  could  hunt  down 
the  submarines  and  either  capture  or  destroy 
them  with  their  own  bombs,  or  indicate  their 
position  to  the  protective  fleet  of  fast  motor 
boats. 

This  battleship  aeroplane,  as  it  was  termed, 
building  at  the  end  of  the  year  1915  at  the  Cur- 
tiss Company,  was  a  triple  screw  triplane 
weighing,  fully  equipped,  21,450  pounds.  It  had 
a  hull  of  cedar  planking,  sheathed  with  copper 
on  the  under  side  and  riveted  to  stout  ash  ribs. 
The  boat  was  68  feet  long,  with  a  beam  of  20 
feet.  It  had  a  V-shaped  bottom  ending  in  a 
straight  stem  forward,  while  its  rear  was  cut 
off  ^arply,  so  as  to  facilitate  rising  from  the 
sea.  The  lines  of  the  hull  were  carefully  de- 
veloped in  the  light  of  marine  experience,  and 
the  hull  itself  was  divided  into  12  water-tight 
compartments,  one-third  of  which  could  keep 
the  machine  floating  should  the  hull  be  pierced 
and  several  compartments  flooded.  The  boat 
contained  a  conning  tower  for  the  control  ap- 
paratus and  the  navigating  instruments,  a 
cabin  for  the  crew  of  eight,  containing  the  fuel 
tanks,  ammunition,  and  stores.  The  fuel  sup- 
ply was  700  gallons  of  gasolene,  80  gallons  oil, 
sufficient  to  give  the  machine  (at  a  speed  of  75 
miles  an  hour)  a  cruising  radius  of  675  miles. 
The  superstructure  consisted  of  three  supporting 
planes,  with  a  span  of  133  feet,  and  a  chord 
of  10  feet,  with  a  gap  of  10  feet  between  each  two 
planes,  the  total  area  of  support  being  about 
4000  square  feet.  The  tip  of  each  lower  wing 
was  fitted  with  a  pontoon  to  prevent  digging  into 
the  water  when  running  on  the  surface  or  when 
at  anchor.  The  propelling  engines  consisted  of 
six  160  horse  power  water  cooled  V-type  engines, 
which  were  coupled  in  twin  units  of  320  horse 
power,  each  unit  driving  an  air  screw  about  15 
feet  long.  One  unit  was  placed  amidships  and 
drove  a  central  pusher  screw,  and  the  two 
others  were  mounted  on  the  edges  of  the  centre 
plane  on  either  side  and  above  the  cabin,  so  as 
to  drive  a  tractor  air  screw.  There  was  an  elec- 
tric starter  auxiliary  engine  of  40  horse  power 
which  generated  the  current  required  for  the 
automatic  stabilizer,  the  drift  indicator,  and 
the  minor  apparatus.  This  auxiliary  engine 
also  drove  a  water  propeller  for  water  naviga- 
tion. 

This  new  flying  boat  took  into  consideration 
every  device  known  for  safety  and  for  the  re- 
mote contingencies  of  engine  failure,  as  with  even 
one  engine  running  the  pilot  could  climb  out  of 
reach  of  gun  fire  as  well  as  keep  on  any  desired 
course.  The  steering  apparatus  consisted  of  a 
balanced  rudder  of  54  square  feet  area,  with  a 
keel-fin  of  46  square  feet  area.  Longitudinal 
stability  was  secured  by  a  tail-fin  of  126  square 
feet  area,  and  an  elevator  of  96  square  feet  area. 
Transverse  stability  was  providcJi  by  intercon- 
nected ailerons  hinged  to  supporting  planes. 
Nothing  definite  was  revealed  as  to  the  arma- 
ment of  this  flying  boat,  but  it  was  stated  that 
it  was  possible  that  even  a  six-pounder  might 
be  carried  in  place  of  the  usual  one  and  one-half 
poimd  aircraft  gun.  While  American  author- 
ities were  not  entirely  conversant  with  the  most 
recent  practice  of  European  design  and  con- 
struction, yet  it  was  believed  that  the  Curtiss 
triplane  represented  a  recent  and  extraordinary 
development. 


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AJtBONAUnCS  6 

On  Dec.  12,  1915,  a  test  was  made  at  Read- 
ville,  Massachusetts,  by  Lieut.  B.  Q.  Jones, 
United  States  army,  of  an  all  steel  battleplane 
designed  by  Grover  C.  Loening.  This  machine 
was  a  biplane  with  a  wing  spread  of  65  feet 
over  all.  The  frame  work  was  of  vanadium 
steel,  affording  unusual  strength,  standardized 
and  stamped  out  by  machinery,  so  that  perfect 
interchangeability  and  ready  repairing  were  in- 
sured should  the  machine  become  successful  as 
a  type.  This  consideration  was.  followed 
throughout  the  design  and  construction,  as  the 
planes  were  built  up  in  such  a  way  that  any 
one  of  the  sections  could  be  altered  subse- 
quently to  secure  changes  and  improvements 
witiiout  impairing  the  usefulness  of  the  whole, 
while  in  case  of  damage  an  impaired  section 
could  be  removed  and  replaced  readily.  The  en- 
gine was  a  100  horse  power  motor,  with  a  pro- 
peller moimted  in  front,  and  adequate  to  give  a 
speed  of  90  to  96  miles  per  hour,  while  the  fuel 
tanks  had  a  capacity  for  a  flight  of  800  miles. 
On  its  military  side  an  interesting  feature  was 
mounting  two  gun  turrets  at  the  tips  of  the 
plane,  so  that  a  vertical  arc  of  over  90"  and  a 
horizontal  arc  somewhat  over  200^  could  be 
covered.  In  times  of  peace  the  space  devoted 
to  the  gun  turrets  could  be  used  for  baggage 
comparfments.  About  500  pounds  thus  could  be 
transported. 

The  Giant  Sikorsky  aiiroplane  developed  in 
Russia  rendered  important  service  during  the 
war.  This  machine  it  will  be  recalled  could 
carry  20  passengers  for  15  or  20  hours  while 
running  at  a  minimum  speed  of  about  60 
miles  an  hour.  This  machine  was  in  service  for 
military  duty  along  the  Galician  front  for  bom- 
bardment and  fire  control,  and  was  driven  by 
four  Salmson  motors  of  500  horse  power.  The 
steel  frame  of  this  aeroplane  was  66  feet  in 
length  and  it  contained  an  enclosed  cabin,  the 
dining-room  of  the  original  ship  having  been 
transformed  into  a  munitions  magazine. 

Flights.  One  of  the  important  flights  of  the 
year  in  America  was  by  Victor  Calstron,  a 
Curtiss  aviator,  who  flew  from  Toronto  to  New 
York,  making  a  detour  to  skirt  the  western  end 
of  Lake  Ontario,  passing  over  Buffalo  at  an  al- 
titude of  6000  feet,  and  following  the  Lacka- 
wanna Railroad  to  Binghamton,  where  he 
alighted.  On  the  second  portion  of  the  journey 
he  followed  the  Erie  to  New  York  and  landed 
in  the  Jersey  meadows.  This  flight  was  ac- 
complished with  a  Curtiss  military  tractor  bi- 
plane of  the  R-2  type,  equipped  with  one  of  the 
new  160  horse  power  Curtiss  motors. 

In  the  latter  part  of  October  a  competition 
was  held  for  the  Curtiss  Marine  Flying  Trophy, 
and  the  best  record  was  made  by  Oscar  A. 
Brindley,  who  was  in  the  air  from  6.20  o'clock 
in  the  morning  of  October  27th  until  4.20  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  same  day,  making  an  estimated 
mileage  of  554  miles.  Mr.  Brindley  traveled 
without  passengers  and  flew  over  a  circuit 
course  from  whose  extent  according  to  the  rules 
of  the  competition  5  per  cent  was  to  be  de- 
ducted. There  were  12  entrants  for  this  com- 
petition, representing  five  different  a@ro  clubs. 
The  prize  was  $1000.  Brindley  was  an  instruc- 
tor in  the  United  States  Signal  Corps  Aviation 
School  at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  used  a  Martin 
military  90  horse  power  V-type  motor. 

Rbcobds.  With  the  leading  European  avia- 
tors engaged  in  military  operations  it  was  not 


AFGHANISTAN 

strange  that  there  should  have  been  in  Europe 
no  important  contests  during  1915.  In  Amer- 
ica, however,  a  number  of  new  records  were 
made,  the  most  important  of  which  were  as  fol- 
lows: Duration:  Aviator  alone,  Lieut.  Byron 
Q.  Jones,  United  States  army,  January  16,  8 
hours,  53  minutes;  aviator  and  two  passengers, 
Lieut.  Byron  Q.  Jones,  United  States  army, 
March  12,  7  hours,  5  minutes.  Altitude:  Avi- 
ator and  one  passenger,  Lieut.  J.  E.  Carberry, 
United  States  army,  January  5,  11,690  feet; 
aviator  and  two  passengers,  R.  V.  Morris,  Au- 
gust 10,  8024  feet;  aviator  and  three  passen- 
gers, August  10,  8105  feet.  Distance  for  Hy- 
dro-Aeroplanes: Aviator  and  one  passenger, 
Lawrence  B.  Sperry,  January  20,  60  miles. 
Duration  for  Hydro- Aeroplanes :  Aviator  and 
one  passenger,  Lawrence  B.  Sperry,  January 
20,  1  hour,  25  minutes.  Altitude  for  Hydro- 
Aeroplanes:  Aviator  alone,  Lieut.  P.  N.  L. 
Bellinger,  United  States  navy,  April  23,  10,000 
feet;  aviator  and  one  passenger,  Lieut.  H.  Ter 
Poorten,  August  31,  8330  feet. 

Fatalities.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  Euro- 
pean War,  the  list  of  fatalities  would  have  been 
much  smaller  than  usual.  Naturally,  a  num- 
ber of  belligerent  aviators  were  killed.  The  list 
included  the  famous  French  flyer,  Alphonse  Pe- 
goud,  killed  in  August.  In  the  United  States, 
Lincoln  Beachey,  an  intrepid  aviator,  was  killed 
at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  on  March 
14th.  Among  other  fatalities  were:  Cecil  M. 
Pecli,  killed  while  testing  a  new  Grant  biplane 
for  the  United  States  army  at  College  Park, 
Md.;  Ensign  Melville  M.  Stolz,  United  States 
navy,  killed  on  May  8th  at  Pensacola,  Fla.; 
Captain  George  H.  Knox,  United  States  army, 
killed  at  Fort  Sill,  Okla.,  August  12th;  Donald 
Gagon,  killed  at  Erie,  Pa.,  August  17th;  and 
Lieut  W.  K.  Taliaferro,  killed  at  San  Diego, 
Cal.,  October  11. 

See  also  Militabt  Pboobess. 

AfiBOPLANB.    See  AfiBOif  Aimos. 

AFOHANI8TAN.  A  monarchy  of  central 
Asia.  Estimated  area,  about  225,000  square 
miles.  The  number  of  inhabitants  cannot  be 
stated  definitely,  but  a  plausible  estimate  puts 
it  at  about  5,000,000.  The  population  of  Ka- 
bul, the  capital,  is  estimated  at  from  150,000  to 
180,000;  the  city  of  Kandahar  is  supposed  to 
have  upwards  of  40,000  inhabitants  (one  esti- 
mate is  as  high  as  80,000),  and  Herat  about 
20,000.  The  Afghans,  who  are  more  or  less 
turbulent  tribesmen,  belonging  mostly  to  the 
Mohammedan  Sunni  sect,  engage  in  both  graz- 
ing and  agriculture,  producing  for  export  ce- 
reals, lentils,  fruits,  live  animals,  wool,  hides, 
and  zhi.  Silks,  felts,  carpets,  and  camels'-hair 
goods  are  produced  to  some  extent  and  exported. 
In  the  fiscal  year  1913  (according  to  British 
Indian  figures),  imports  of  merchandise  from 
Afghaniston  in  British  India  amounted  to  £847,- 
656,  and  exports  of  merchandise  from  British 
India  to  Afghanistan,  £1,666,802;  in  1913-14, 
£860,000  and  £1,013,000.  Imports  to  Afghan- 
istan from  Bokhara  are  supposed  to  amount  to 
about  4,000,000  roubles,  and  exports  the  same. 
Taxation  is  attended  with  dishonesty  and  ex- 
tortion. At  the  head  of  the  loosely  organized 
government  is  the  ameer  (Habibullah  Khan 
since  1901),  whose  annual  revenues  probably  ex- 
ceed 13,000,000  rupees:  from  the  Government  of 
India  he  receives  an  annual  subsidy  of  1,800,000 
rupees.    Afghanistan  is  in  the  sphere  of  British 


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AFOHAHISTAN 

influeDce,  having  by  treaty  no  foreign  relations 
except  with  the  Government  of  India. 

AFBICA.  See  articles  on  the  various  African 
countries;  Anthbopolooy ;  Abchjsologt;  Ex- 
ploration; and  Peabodt  Museum. 

AFBICAN  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHITBGH.    See  Methodists,  Colobed. 

AGIiIABDI,  AiTTONio.  Roman  Catholic  Car- 
dinal, died  March  20,  1915.  He  was  bom  at 
Cologno  in  1832.  After  he  had  served  as  parish 
priest  in  his  native  town  for  twelve  years  he  was 
sent  to  Canada  as  a  bishop's  chaplain,  and  on  his 
return  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Propa- 
ganda. Pope  Leo  XIII  created  him  Archbishop 
of  Cssarea  in  1884  and  in  the  same  year  and  in 
1887  he  was  sent  on  missions  to  India.  In  1887 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Congregation, 
and  in  1889  Papal  Nuncio  at  Munich,  and  was 
transferred  to  Vienna  in  the  same  capacity  in 
1892.  The  Hungarian  government  complained  in 
1895  that  he  was  taking  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 
disputes  which  were  dividing  the  country,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  recalled,  and  ele- 
vated to  the  rank  of  cardinal,  becoming  the  tit- 
ular bishop  of  Albano.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  sub-dean  of  the  Sacred  College. 

AGBICTTIiTTTBAL    BANKS.    See  Aobicul- 

TURAL  CSEDIT;    and   BANKS   AND  BANKING. 

AOBICXTLTUBAL  COLLEGES.  See  Agbi- 
cuLTUBAL  Education. 

AQBZCWLTTTELAL  CBEDIT.  The  very 
marked  interest  which  has  been  shown  during 
the  past  few  years  in  proposals  for  facilitating 
loans  to  farmers  continued  during  1915.  This 
was  shown  by  the  unusual  volume  of  legislation 
on  the  subject.  Various  phases  of  the  problem 
were  considered  at  the  annual  session  at  Chi- 
cago of  the  National  Conference  on  Marketing 
and  Farm  Credits.  In  Congress  the  Senate 
passed  a  bill  establishing  a  bureau  for  lending 
to  farmers  $10,000,000  to  be  appropriated  from 
public  funds  and  additional  sums  to  be  derived 
from  the  sale  of  government  bonds.  The  House 
passed  a  bill  creating  land  banks  to  make  loans 
to  farmers,  funds  to  be  derived  from  bonds 
backed  by  the  government,  but  based  on  farm 
mortgages.  This  bill  authorized  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  to  purchase  $50,000,000  worth 
of  these  bonds  yearly.  Both  of  these  proposals 
failed  since  the  two  Houses  did  not  agree.  The 
sreat  volume  of  legislation  led  to  protests  by 
former  Ambassador  to  France  Myron  T.  Her- 
rick  and  other  leading  students  of  the  problem 
against  hasty  legislation  which  involved  the 
pledging  of  government  credit  for  the  promotion 
of  private  business.  Mr.  Herrick  pointed  out 
that  bad  crojJs  or  financial  depression  might  so 
involve  the  credits  of  State  governments  as  to 
force  heavy  losses  on  the  taxpayers.  The  line 
of  sound  progress  he  believed  was  not  in  the  di- 
rection of  State  aid  but  rather  through  coopera- 
tion. 

Pbofosed  Congressional  Action.  A  new 
bill  believed  to  express  the  administrative  view- 
point was  completed  by  a  sub-committee  of  the 
joint  Conffressional  Committee  on  Rural  Credits 
on  December  24th,  and  was  to  be  presented  to 
that  committee  in  January  by  Senator  Henry  F. 
HoUis.  It  combined  features  of  the  Hollis- 
Buckley  Bill  considered  earlier  in  the  year  and 
the  Fletcher-Moss  Bill  approved  by  the  United 
States  Commission  on  Rural  Credits.  It  pro- 
vided for  a  Federal  Land  Bank  Board  of  five 
members  to  supervise   12   regional   land   banks 


r  AGBICULTirBAL  CBBBIT 

each  with  a  capital  stock  of  $500,000.  Each 
regional  bank  would  make  loans  to  farmers 
through  local  cooperative  farm-land  associa- 
tions or  joint-stock  banks.  The  regional  banks 
would  obtain  additional  funds  by  selling  bonds; 
and  the  charge  to  the  farmer  would  be  the  in- 
terest on  such  bonds  plus  1  per  cent.  These 
bonds  would  be  backed  by  the  regional  banks, 
the  local  associations,  the  borrowing  farmers, 
and  the  mortgages  on  their  lands.  Repayments 
of  the  loans  would  be  by  annual  installments 
during  not  more  than  36  years. 

The  National  Confebence  on  Marketing 
AND  Fabk  Credits  was  held  at  Chicago,  Novem- 
ber 29-December  2,  in  conjunction  with  the 
National  Council  of  Farmers'  Cooperative  Asso- 
ciations, the  National  Farmer's  Union,  the  Na- 
tional Grange,  and  various  State  branches  of 
the  American  Society  of  Equity.  The  general 
subjects,  each  treated  by  several  speakers,  were: 
the  organization  of  agricultural  cooperation; 
the  standardization  of  farm  products;  stand- 
ards and  uniform  packs,  with  special  reference 
to  the  cotton  problem;  rural  credits  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  land  purchase;  standardization 
and  marketing  with  special  reference  to  grad- 
ing and  inspection;  financing  farm  business; 
and  marketing  the  farm  product. 

The  Fabm  Mobtoage  Bankers'  Association 
OF  America  met  in  annual  convention  at  St. 
Louis  in  October.  All  phases  of  the  rural  credit 
situation  were  discussed,  and  the  board  of  gov- 
ernors of  the  association  devoted  considerable 
time  to  the  formulation  of  suggested  laws  and 
of  recommendations  to  the  Joint  Congressional 
Committee  on  Rural  Credits. 

Federation  of  Jewish  Farmers  of  America. 
This  organization  held  its  seventh  annual  con- 
vention at  New  York  in  December.  It  started 
in  1909  with  13  associations,  and  in  1915  had 
84  branches  in  a  dozen  States.  It  carries  out 
a  coSperative  purchasing  plan  which  during 
these  years  has  handled  more  than  $225,000  of 
business,  with  a  saving  of  at  least  $25,000  to 
the  farmers.  At  the  same  time  it  has  educated 
its  members  in  the  use  of  better  seeds,  fertilizer, 
and  machinery.  With  it  is  associated  the  Jew- 
ish Agricultural  and  Industrial  Aid  Society 
which  forms  credit  unions.  In  1915  there  were 
19  such  unions  in  four  States  with  aggregate 
loans  of  $210,292.  These  were  the  pioneer  ru- 
ral credit  associations  in  this  country  and  were 
modeled  after  the  German  societies.  These  or- 
ganizations were  instrumental  also  in  forming 
cooperative  fire  insurance  companies  in  New 
York  and  New  Jersey.  These  had  issued  555 
policies  covering  $1,185,000  insurance.  The 
Federation  had  also  established  an  agrarian  bank 
in  Sullivan  County,  N.  Y.,  a  cooperative  cream- 
ery, and  had  carried  out  cooperative  marketing 
plans. 

Legislation.  The  extensive  agitation  of  the 
past  few  years  has  led  to  the  enactment  of  con- 
siderable legislation  by  the  States.  The  first 
law  designed  to  facilitate  the  establishment  of 
credit  for  farmers  was  a  Massachusetts  law  of 
1909  authorizing  credit  unions.  Texas  and 
Wisconsin  in  1913  and  New  York  in  1914  also 
authorized  rural  credit  unions  or  cooperative 
credit  associations  and  the  Land  Bank  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  But  in  1915  more  ad- 
vanced steps  were  taken  through  the  organiza- 
tion of  competitive  farm  land  banks  under  State 
supervision  in  Massachusetts,  Utah,  and  Wiscon- 


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AGBICTTLTU&AL  CBEDIT 

sin;  in  Missouri,  Montana,  and  Oklahoma  sys- 
tems of  State  loans  were  established;  Massachu- 
setts enacted  further  legislation  regarding  credit 
unions  and  coSperative  banks,  while  North  Caro- 
lina, Oregon,  and  Utah  also  authorized  the  organi- 
zation of  credit  unions  and  cooperative  banks. 
Bills  for  the  creation  of  farm  land  banks  were  de- 
feated in  California,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Michigan, 
and  Nebraska.  In  Kansas  and  North  Carolina 
building  and  loan  associations  were  authorized 
to  make  long-term  loans  on  farm  lands.  Cali- 
fornia created  a  commission  to  investigate  rural 
credit  schemes  both  at  home  and  abroad.  There 
was  other  legislation  indicating  the  variety  of 
proposals  brought  forward.  Wyoming  author- 
ized the  State  treasurer  to  invest  in  irrigation 
bonds  certain  funds  arising  from  the  sale  of 
State  lands;  in  the  same  State  a  bill  authoriz- 
ing the  investment  of  permanent  funds  of  the 
State  in  farm  mortgages  failed  of  passage;  in 
North  Carolina  a  proposed  amendment  to  the 
constitution  authorized  the  State  to  create  a 
loan  fund  the  credit  of  which  may  be  placed  to 
individual  farmers  or  credit  associations;  Mon- 
tana authorized  the  State  treasurer  to  issue 
bonds  and  from  the  proceeds  make  long-term 
loans  to  farmers  secured  by  first  mortgages,  the 
administration  to  be  carric^d  out  through  county 
treasurers,  and  prompt  payment  of  interest  on 
the  State  bonds  being  insured  by  a  guarantee 
fund  provided  by  the  State;  Missouri  and  Okla- 
homa likewise  authorized  the  use  of  certain 
State  funds  as  initial  capital  for  a  system  of 
long-term  loans.  Thus  in  Oklahoma  a'  fund  of 
$2,000,000  was  set  aside  to  be  loaned  to  farmers 
on  mortgages  of  twice  the  value  of  the  loans. 
An  annual  payment  of  8  per  cent  of  the  prin- 
cipal was  to  cover  interest  and  also  amortize  the 
principal  in  2314  years. 

The  Missouri  law  establishing  a  land  bank 
may  be  described  to  illustrate  this  type  of  insti- 
tution. This  bank  is  to  be  under  the  immediate 
administration  of  the  State  Bank  Commissioner 
and  a  board  of  governors.  Its  initial  working 
capital  is  $1,000,000  appropriated  from  the  funds 
in  the  State  treasury.  One-half  of  this  may  be 
loaned  to  farmers  on  the  basis  of  deeds  of  trust 
at  a  net  interest  rate  of  4.3  per  cent.  There- 
after additional  capital  will  be  secured  through 
the  sale  of  debenture  bonds  in  series  of  $500,000, 
the  interest  rate  to  the  farmers  being  equal  to 
that  of  the  bonds.  Loans  to  farmers  are  based 
on  deeds  of  trust  of  50  per  cent  of  the  appraised 
value  of  their  farm  lands;  the  entire  State  is 
to  be  appraised  by  expert  appraisers  and  the 
bonds  issued  will  not  exceed  the  deeds  of  trust 
or  50  per  cent  of  the  appraised  value  of  the  land 
upon  which  loans  are  based.  Whenever  deeds 
of  trust  to  the  value  of  $500,000  have  accumu- 
lated a  new  series  of  bonds  may  be  issued.  The 
loans  to  individual  farmers  range  from  $250  to 
$10,000  and  for  terms  of  not  less  than  5  nor  more 
than  25  years  and  an  amortization  scheme  pro- 
vides for  the  repayment  of  principal  in  fixed  an- 
nual payments.  The  Missouri  law  does  not  be- 
come operative  until  Dec.  1,  1916.  Meanwhile  a 
referendum  is  authorized  to  determine  the  con- 
stitutionality of  the  appropriation  of  State 
funds  for  this  purpose. 

The  Land  Bank  of  New  York  was  patterned 
after  the  Landshaft  system  of  Germany.  A 
large  number  of  savings  banks  and  loan  associ- 
ations with  total  assets  of  $20,000,000,  fur- 
nished the  local  basis  for  its  operations.     The 


8  AOBICULTUBAIi  EDUCATION 

first  bond  issue  of  $250,000  was  to  mature  in  10 
years  and  bore  interest  at  4^  per  cent.  The 
plan  includes  the  sale  of  these  bonds  to  investors 
and  large  financial  institutions  and  the  loaning 
of  the  proceeds  to  member  associations  at  6  per 
cent.  Through  these  latter  the  fiuds  reach  the 
farmers  in  exchange  for  mortgages  which  become 
the  basis  in  turn  for  further  issues  of  bonds. 
The  experience  of  the  first  year  under  this  new 
organization  showed  that  the  greatest  difficulty 
was  not  in  bringing  into  existence  the  financial 
basis  for  farm  loans  but  in  arousing  the  interest 
of  the  farmers  in  taking  advantage  of  the  new 
scheme. 

Bibliography,  llie  most  notable  publication 
on  this  subject  was  Her  rick  and  Ingalls's  Rural 
Credits  (1014),  being  a  comprehensive  account 
of  European  experience  and  new  developments  in 
America.  The  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture reprinted  Cooperative  Credit  Agsoci- 
ations  in  Certain  European  Countries  and  Their 
Relation  to  Agricultural  Interests  by  Edward  T. 
Peters,  first  prepared  in  1802.  See  also  Banks 
AND  Banking. 

AaBICULTUIlAL  EDXTCATION.  The  year 
1015  marked  considerable  progress  at  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  of  the  United  States,  in  their 
physical  equipment,  the  development  of  their 
courses,  and  the  strengthening  of  the  teaching 
forces.  Several  of  the  colleges,  notably  Okla- 
homa, Oregon,  and  Utah,  increased  their  en- 
trance requirements  to  15  or  16  credits,  thus  en- 
abling a  higher  grade  of  college  work.  New 
courses  were  added  for  the  preparation  of  agri- 
cultural teachers  and  for  extension  workers. 
The  Utah  Agricultural  College  celebrated  its 
twenty-fifth  anniversary  in  June  with  special 
exercises  and  a  historical  pageant. 

The  number  of  new  buildings  completed  or  un- 
der way  was  unusually  large.  At  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  an  additional  building  of  the 
agricultural  group,  to  cost  $250,000,  was  started. 
At  the  Iowa  State  College  a  plant  industry 
building,  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  Hall 
of  Agriculture  previously  built,  was  under  con- 
struction. One  of  its  wings  was  to  provide  for 
horticulture,  landscape  gardening,  etc.,  and  ad- 
joining the  building  a  range  of  greenhouses  cov- 
ering about  half  an  acre  were  to  be  provided. 
Stockbridge  Hall,  a  new  agricultural  building  at 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  costing 
with  equipment  $210,000,  was  dedicated  in  Oc- 
tober. It  was  the  largest  and  finest  building  on 
the  college  campus. 

In  Nebraska,  the  Legislature  provided  $700,000 
for  the  erection  and  equipment  of  agricultural 
buildings  during  the  ensuing  four  years.  The 
erection  of  a  new  dairy  building  64  by  141  feet, 
and  with  a  wing  30  by  70  feet,  was  under  way. 
The  wing  was  especially  arranged  for  handling 
butter,  ice  cream,  and  market  milk.  The  build- 
ing was  to  be  thoroughly  modern  in  every  re- 
spect, and  would  have  a  refrigerating  plant  in 
the  basement  to  provide  cold  storage  facilities. 
Plans  have  been  made  for  an  agricultural  engi- 
neering building  as  a  part  of  the  agricultural 
group.  In  New  Jersey  a  commodious  agricul- 
tural building  was  occupied  about  the  middle  of 
the  year.  This  was  located  at  the  farm  and  ac- 
commodated the  principal  departments  of  the 
college,  the  experiment  station,  and  the  extension 
department. 

The  new  soils  building  at  the  Cornell  College 
of    Agriculture    was    completed    at    a    cost    of 


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AOSICTJLTU&AL  BBVCATION  { 

$100,000.  The  new  building  waa  named  Caldwell 
Hall,  in  honor  of  the  late  Dr.  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
professor  of  agricultural  chemistry  in  the  insti- 
tution for  many  years.  A  new  animal  hus- 
bandry building  at  the  same  institution,  with  a 
stock  judging  payilion,  80  by  160  feet,  was  also 
occupied.  The  North  Dakota  Agricultural  Col- 
lege completed  a  new  fireproof  dairy  building; 
and  a  new  horticultural  and  forestry  building 
was  dedicated  at  Ohio  State  University  early  in 
the  year.  The  latter  building  is  a  two-story  and 
basement  fireproof  structure,  60  by  260  feet,  sim- 
ilar in  general  appearance  to  the  main  agricul- 
tural building. 

The  1915  (>>ngre8S  passed  an  act  setting  aside 
four  sections  of  land  near  Fairbanks  in  the 
Xanana  Valley,  Alaska,  as  a  site  for  a  terri- 
torial agricultural  college  and  school  of  mines. 
A  porticm  of  this  tract  was  occupied  by  one  of 
the  Federal  experiment  stations.  No  fimds  had 
yet  been  provided  or  plans  made  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  an  institution. 

Arrangements  were  completed  between  Ohio 
State  University  and  eight  other  colleges  of  the 
State  for  the  five-year  combination  of  arts  and 
agriculture  courses.  Under  this  plan  the  first 
three  years  could  be  spent  at  a  liberal  arts  col- 
lege and  the  last  two  at  the  State  University,  the 
B.S.  degree  beins  conferred  by  the  former  insti- 
tution at  the  end  of  four  years,  and  the  B.S.  in 
Agriculture  by  the  university  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  year. 

The  preparation  of  men  for  various  grades  of 
agricultural  teaching,  for  agricultural  extension 
work,  and  for  agricultural  investigation  in  the 
experiment  stations  were  subjects  which  received 
special  attention  at  the  annual  convention  of  the 
Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Stations  in  1915.  The  conven- 
tion was  held  in  August,  at  Berkeley,  Cal.  In 
the  discussion  of  the  training  of  agricultural 
teachers,  it  was  shown  that  Que  eflforts  of  the 
agriculturai  colleges  were  inadequate  to  the 
needs.  In  rural  school  teaching,  the  opening  up 
of  an  avenue  for  the  teachers  outside  the  school 
room  in  conducting  commiuiity  work  had  been 
a  great  incentive  to  men  to  enter  the  field.  For 
promoting  advanced  study  by  station  men,  a  co- 
operative arrangement  was  entered  into  by  sev- 
eral institutions  for  an  exchange  of  station  men, 
under  which  time  and  opportunity  were  afforded 
for  study  in  special  lines.  The  committee  on 
agricultural  instruction  of  the  above  Associa- 
tion dealt  with  college  courses  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  extension  workers.  The  committee  rec- 
ommended that  a  considerable  number  of  agricul- 
tural colleges  should  offer  undergraduate  courses 
for  ike  purpose,  and  that  a  few  should  also  make 
special  provision  for  graduate  instruction. 

Gbaduatb  School  of  Aqricultube.  The 
seventh  session  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Agri- 
culture was  to  be  held  in  July,  1916,  at  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricul- 
tural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  The 
school  was  to  continue  four  weeks,  and  include 
courses  of  instruction  under  three  general  heads : 
<1)  Factors  of  growth  of  plants  and  animals, 
(2)  agricultural  economics  and  rural  sociology, 
and  (3)  fimdamental  problems  of  intensive  agri- 
culture. The  Association  recommended  that  col- 
lege and  station  employees  should  be  encouraged 
to  attend  the  school  and  that  no  time  should  be 
deducted  on  accoimt  of  such  absence. 


AaSICULTVRAL  EDUCATION 

Sbcondabt  Schools.  The  movement  for  the 
introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  curricula  of 
public  and  private  high  schools  continued  as  in 
preceding  years.  In  1915  there  were  1677  such 
schools  reporting  agricultural  courses,  an  in- 
crease of  263;  the  number  of  pupils  in  such 
courses  was  34,367,  or  an  increase  of  4552  over 
the  preceding  year.  An  interesting  experiment 
in  secondary  agricultural  education  was  being 
tried  in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.  The  county  board 
of  education  was  attempting  to  provide  (1)  a 
winter  school  for  young  men  and  young  women 
engaged  on  farms  during  the  summer,  (2)  sup- 
plementary help  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in 
home  projects,  ( 3 )  definite  instruction  for  adults 
in  short  courses,  and  (4)  assistance  to  county 
superintendents  in  the  introduction  of  agricul- 
ture. 

An  act  of  the  State  Legislature  in  New  York 
authorized  the  board  oi  supervisors  of  any 
county  outside  of  the  city  of  New  York  to  es- 
tablish a  farm  school  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
instruction  in  the  trades  and  in  industrial,  ag- 
ricultural, and  home-making  subjects.  Each 
school  will  receive  annually  from  the  State 
$1000,  and  an  additional  $200  for  each  teacher 
employed. 

The  Southern  Conference  for  Education  and 
Industry,  at  a  four-days'  meeting  at  Chatta- 
nooga, Tenn.,  in  April,  gave  much  attention  to 
the  subject  of  agricultural  education,  especially 
in  the  schools,  and  the  fitting  of  agricultural  in- 
struction into  the  courses. 

Educational  Wobk  of  the  Depabtment  of 
Agiuoultube.  The  Division  of  Agricultural  In- 
struction in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
now  the  States  Relations  Service,  continued  to 
follow  and  study  the  progress  of  agricultural  ed- 
ucation throughout  the  world,  and  beginning 
with  January,  1915,  established  an  Agricultural 
Education  Monthly,  pertaining  to  methods  of 
teaching  agriculture  in  secon<mry  schools,  and 
furnishing  references  and  suggestions  upon 
timely  topics  suitable  for  subject  matter.  At- 
tention was  given,  among  other  things,  to  organ- 
izing the  published  matter,  especially  that  in  the 
bulletins  and  reports  of  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture and  the  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions, as  a  basis  for  teaching  courses  in  agricul- 
ture in  the  rural  and  high  schools.  Such  mate- 
rial was  assembled  and  published,  to  be  used  for 
subject  matter  in  teaching,  with  suggestions  for 
methods  of  instruction.  Outlines  also  were  pre- 
pared of  courses  in  agriculture  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  schools  of  particular  States,  and  school 
lessons  were  prepared  on  such  subjects  as  corn, 
cotton,  tomatoes,  poultry,  etc. 

Canada.  A  collie  of  agriculture  was  estab- 
lished in  April,  1915,  in  connection  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  Alberta.  Only  advanced  work,  pre- 
ceded by  a  two-year  course  at  one  of  the  agricul- 
tural schools,  was  to  be  given  at  the  college. 
The  increased  appropriation  imder  the  Agricul- 
tural Instruction  Act  of  Canada  enabled  the  gov- 
ernment of  Prince  Edward  Island  to  make  prog- 
ress in  organizing  a  complete  system  of  agricul- 
tural educati<m,  correlated  with  the  general 
school  system.  In  Saskatchewan  an  agricultural 
instruction  committee  was  appointed  to  advise 
on  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  scope  and  char- 
acter of  agricultural  education  in  the  public, 
high,  and  normal  schools.  The  Department  of 
Education  in  the  province  was  arranging  for  the 
appointment  of  agricultural  instructors  at  each 


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AGBICULTVBAL  EDUCATION  10 

of  the  normal  schools.  The  Department  of  Edu- 
cation in  British  Columbia  decided  to  include 
agriculture  as  an  optional  subject  in  the  high 
schools.  Extension  courses  in  agriculture  were 
to  be  opened  for  boys  and  girls  who  were  not 
regular  students  in  the  high  schools. 

Other  Ck>UNTBi]g9.  The  Greek  government  es- 
tablished an  agricultural  school  at  Halmyrios. 
A  national  institute  of  agriculture  and  veteri- 
nary science  at  Bogota,  Colombia,  and  an  auxili- 
ary school  of  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry, 
to  be  located  elsewhere,  were  authorized.  A 
school  of  agriculture  was  started  at  Artemisa, 
Cuba,  and  similar  schools  were  to  be  provided  in 
different  parts  of  the  island.  An  agricultural 
school  for  boys  was  opened  on  a  plantation  near 
San  Jos^,  Costa  Rica.  A  school  for  farm  me- 
chanics was  provided  in  Argentina,  and  in  China 
a  new  school  of  forestry  was  established  in  the 
University  of  Nanking. 

AaBICVLTTTBAL  EZFEBIMENT  STA- 
TIONS. Evidences  of  a  sharper  division  be- 
tween agricultural  experimentation  and  various 
forms  of  agricultural  extension  teaching,  and  of 
a  closer  confinement  of  the  stations  to  the  ac- 
quiring of  new  information,  were  the  most  nota- 
ble features  of  the  year  1015.  This  had  grown 
largely  out  of  the  organization  of  agricultural 
extension  divisions  in  each  of  the  States,  under 
the  Smith-Lever  Act.  These  divisions  were  to 
take  over  the  lines  of  work  in  the  past  conducted 
by  the  stations  to  considerable  extent^  in  the  in- 
struction of  the  farmer  through  lectures,  corre- 
spcmdence,  answering  inquiries,  local  demonstra- 
tions, etc.  The  extension  divisions  were  already 
relieving  the  station  men  of  these  demands  upon 
their  time  and  allowing  them  to  concentrate 
more  closely  on  experiments  which  would  add 
new  information  or  shed  new  light  upon  agri- 
cultural problems.  This  new  service  would  in 
no  way  detract  from  the  importance  of  the  ex- 
periment stations  or  the  need  of  their  continued 
activity,  but  on  the  contrary  would  make  them 
the  more  necessary  to  continued  advancement, 
and  would  make  their  work  more  effective  in 
bringing  about  improved  methods  and  practice. 

There  was  also  a  general  movement  to  place 
the  inspection  work  more  largely  under  other 
agencies.  This  work  had  grown  steadily  in  va- 
riety and  extent,  and  in  many  instances  the  con- 
trol or  inspection  provided  by  State  laws  had 
been  placed  with  the  experiment  station  because 
in  many  instances  it  was  the  only  institution 
competent  to  perform  such  service  and  because  it 
enjoyed  the  public  confidence.  There  was  a 
marked  tendency  to  regard  the  stations  as  re- 
search institutions,  and  to  relieve  them  from 
other  duties  and  responsibilities  in  order  that 
they  might  confine  themselves  quite  definitely  to 
experiments  and  investigations.  The  staffs  of 
the  stations  likewise  were  differentiated  to  an  in- 
creasing extent  from  the  teaching  force  of  the  ag- 
ricultural college  and  the  staffs  of  the  extension 
departments.  This  was  a  recognition,  not  only 
of  the  desirability  of  freeing  the  station  men 
from  distractions,  but  also  that  the  requirements 
for  investigation  were  of  a  special  nature  and 
differed  from  those  for  other  lines  of  activity. 
The  publications  of  the  experiment  stations  con- 
stituted a  separate  series  from  those  of  the  ex- 
tension departments,  and  the  bulletins  and  re- 
ports were  being  restricted  more  closely  to  pop- 
ular and  technical  accounts  of  the  work  con- 
ducted by   the  respective  stations.    There  also 


AeBICULTXTRAX.   STATIONS 

was  a  considerable  segregation  of  the  strictly 
technical  accounts  of  the  investigation  from  the 
more  popular  reports,  in  order  that  each  kind  of 
literature  might  better  reach  the  class  for  which 
it  was  especially  intended.  At  a  considerable 
number  of  stations  research  bulletins  were  being 
issued  which  contained  the  technical  reports  of 
investigations  and  researches  made  at  the  sta- 
tions, such  matters  as  were  of  more  general  in- 
terest to  the  agricultural  public  being  published 
in  the  regular  bulletin  series.  Technical  ac- 
counts of  investigations  were  being  published  to 
an  increasing  degree  in  research  bulletins,  in  the 
scientific  journals  of  the  country,  and  during  the 
year,  in  the  Journal  of  Affricultural  Reaearch, 
published  by  the  U.  8.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  cooperation  with  the  Association  of 
American  A^icultural  Colleges  and  Experiment 
Stations. 

The  demand  for  local  experiment  stations  was 
constantly  increasing,  partly  as  a  result  of  the 
closer  touch  into  which  the  extension  work  had 
brought  the  farmers  with  the  experiment  sta- 
tions. Every  session  of  Congress  saw  a  large 
number  of  bills  introduced  to  establidi  and 
maintain  experiment  stations  for  ffiven  localities 
or  for  particular  branches  of  agriculture.  Few 
such  bills  had  passed,  because  it  was  felt  ad- 
visable not  to  duplicate  the  agencies  in  the 
States,  and  where  necessary  to  provide  for  local 
assistance  or  special  branches  of  inquiry  through 
cooperation  of  the  Federal  Department  of  Agri- 
culture with  the  State  stations.  Many  of  IJie 
States  had  themselves  provided  branch  stations, 
to  be  conducted  under  the  supervision  of  the 
central  State  station.  One  of  the  largest  of 
these  was  the  station  for  the  citrus  industry  in 
California,  recently  located  at  Riverside.  A 
tract  of  465  acres  of  land  was  purchased  by  the 
University  of  California,  with  funds  provided  by 
the  State,  at  a  cost  of  $55,000,  and  construction 
of  a  laboratory  building  to  cost  $100,000  was 
under  way.  A  Graduate  School  of  Tropical  Ag- 
riculture was  to  be  conducted  in  connection  with 
the  station.  The  director  of  the  Citrus  Station 
was  Dr.  H.  J.  Webber,  former  professor  of  plant 
breeding  in  Cornell  University,  and  a  corps  of 
specialists  had  been  brought  together. 

In  Minnesota  the  Legislature  quite  materially 
increased  the  appropriations  for  the  branch  sta- 
tions located  at  Crookston,  Morris,  Grand 
Rapids,  Duluth,  and  Waseca,  and  for  the  fruit 
breeding  farm  at  Zumbra.  The  State  of  Mon- 
tana appropriated  $59,000  for  the  maintenance 
of  its  central  experiment  station,  $14,000  for  tlie 
dry  farming  and  other  substations,  and  $4000 
for  the  gram  laboratory.  In  Texas,  the  appro- 
priations for  the  branch  stations  had  grown 
rapidly.  Six  years  ago  the  only  appropriation 
made  for  the  station  work  in  the  State  was 
$5000  for  operating  two  substations.  In  1915 
the  Legishiture  gjanted  $140,582  for  the  first 
year  of  the  biennium  and  $136,000  for  the  sec- 
ond, to  cover  the  work  at  ten  substations  and 
provide  one  new  station.  A  new  branch  station 
was  established  in  Washington,  in  the  "Big  Bend 
country"  along  the  Columbia  River.  The  Ohio 
Station  was  authorized  by  the  State  to  purchase 
lands  suitable  for  the  growth  of  forest  trees,  at 
not  more  than  $10  an  acre,  and  to  manage  such 
lands  as  State  forests.  An  appropriation  of 
$10,000  was  made  to  begin  this  work.  Other 
appropriations  to  the  station,  including  the 
maintenance  of  several  branch  stations,  amounted 


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AOUCULTimAL  STATIONS 

to  $272,543.  In  Tennessee,  a  tract  of  569  acres 
of  land  lying  convenient  to  the  university  and 
station  farm  was  acquired,  largely  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  station  work,  which  included  breed- 
ing experiments  with  live  stock.  The  cost  of  the 
tract  was  about  $140,000,  $125,000  of  which  was 
raised  by  county  bond  issue  and  the  balance  by 
public-spirited  citizens. 

The  New  Jersey  Station  occupied  a  spacious 
new  agricultural  building  adjacent  to  the  farm 
and  plats,  at  the  close  of  1914.  In  Massachu- 
setts a  new  agricultural  building  was  completed 
and  dedicated  as  Stockbridge  Hall,  a  part  of 
which  will  be  used  by  the  experiment  station.  A 
special  building  for  the  work  in  genetics  was  pro- 
vided at  the  Illinois  Station,  and  elsewhere  nu- 
merous additions  were  made  to  the  physical 
equipment  of  the  stations  to  meet  the  growing 
needs  of  their  work. 

An  interesting  side  light,  as  showing  the 
esteem  in  which  station  men  are  held  in  agri- 
cultural communities,  was  furnished  by  the 
election  of  Dr.  James  Withycombe,  for  many 
years  director  of  the  Oregon  Ihcperiment  Station, 
as  Governor  of  the  State  at  the  last  election,  by 
the  heaviest  majority  ever  accredited  a  guber- 
natorial candidate  in  the  State. 

President  Wilson  set  aside  from  the  public  do- 
main a  tract  of  land  of  about  29,000  acres  in 
Eastern  Idaho,  to  be  known  as  the  United  States 
Sheep  Experiment'  Station.  This  was  to  be  used 
by  tiie  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  its  experiments  in 
sheep  breeding  and  management  for  the  western 
ranges,  which  were  to  be  conducted  on  a  scale 
suitable  for  open  range  purposes. 

The  total  revenues  available  to  the  experiment 
stations  during  the  year,  including  those  main- 
tained by  the  Federal  government  in  Alaska, 
Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  Guam,  amounted  to 
$5,164,687.96.  Of  this  amount,  $1,426,167  was 
received  from  the  United  States  under  the  Acts 
of  1887  and  1906,  and  $2,574,605  from  State  ap- 
propriations, showing  that  the  States  consider- 
ably more  than  met  the  Federal  government  in 
direct  appropriations  for  this  purpose.  In  ad- 
dition, the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  had  an 
appropriation  from  the  Federal  government  of 
$461,260,  including  $35,000  for  the  Alaska  Sta- 
tions, $30,000  each  for  the  stations  in  Hawaii 
and  Porto  Rico,  and  $16,000  for  Guam  Sta- 
tion. 

The  value  of  additions  to  the  equipment  of  the 
experiment  stations  for  that  year  was  estimated 
at  $1,012,370.  The  total  force  of  the  experiment 
stations  numbered  1852  persons,  engaged  in  ad- 
ministration and  inquiry.  About  half  of  these 
were  also  members  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the 
colleges.  During  the  year  the  stations  published 
1330  annual  reports,  bulletins,  and  circulars,  ag- 
gregating 25,265  pages.  These  were  distributed 
to  regular  mailing  lists  aggregating  over  one 
million  names. 

In  the  Dominion  of  Canada  liberal  appropri- 
ations for  agricultural  work  continued.  For  the 
year  1915-16,  $785,000  was  appropriated  for 
the  maintenance  of  experiment  farms.  Among 
other  items  are  $550,000  for  the  development  of 
the  live  stock  industry,  $150,000  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dairy  industries  and  other  agricul- 
tural products,  $140,000  to  enforce  the  seed  act, 
$113,000  for  the  fruit  branch,  $25,000  for  the 
National  Biological  Laboratory,  $20,000  for  en- 
tomology, and  $15,000  for  publications. 


11      AGBICTTLTUSAL  EXTENSION  WOBK 

In  December,  1914,  the  Colombian  minister  of 
agriculture  decreed  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional institute  of  agriculture  at  Bogota,  with 
an  experimental  farm  attached.  An  agricultural 
adviser  to  the  Government  of  Colombia  has  been 
appointed.  The  Chinese  gov«-nment,  in  the 
spring  of  1915,  set  aside  more  than  $100,000  for 
the  purpose  of  starting  experiment  stations. 
They  are  grouped  in  four  classes,  devoted  re- 
spectively to  cotton,  sugar,  afforestation,  and 
pasturage.  There  had  already  been  established 
three  cotton  farms,  one  sugar  plantation,  two 
forestry  tracts,  and  three  pasturage  farms.  An 
American  cotton  growing  expert  was  employed. 
There  was  also  a  model  ranch  at  Chu  Chow  in 
North  Anhui.  A  tract  of  919  acres  at  Trinidad, 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  was  reserved  from 
the  public  domain  for  the  use  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  as  an  experiment  station  and  stock 
farm.  The  French  ministry  of  agriculture  es- 
tablished a  plant-disease  branch  during  the  year. 

AaSICVLTTTBAL  EXTENSION  WOBK. 
Great  process  has  been  made  during  the  year  in 
the  organization  and  development  of  the  system 
of  cooperative  extension  work  in  agriculture  and 
home  economics  provided  for  in  the  Smith-Lever 
Act  of  May  8,  1914.  All  the  States  assented  to 
the  provisions  of  this  Act.  A  single  college  in 
each  State  was  designated  as  the  beneficiary  of 
this  Act,  thus  providing  for  a  unified  administra- 
tion within  the  State.  In  several  States  where 
the  college  designated  was  not  co-educational  a 
cooperative  arrangement  for  the  work  in  home 
economics  was  made  with  the  State  college  for 
women.  In  a  few  States  having  separate  land- 
grant  colleges  for  negroes  a  similar  arrangement 
was  made  for  work  among  ttmt  race. 

In  all  the  States  the  cofieges  created  extension 
divisions  or  services  and  brought  under  them  all 
their  extension  work  in  agriculture  and  home 
economics,  whether  carried  on  with  Smith-Lever 
or  other  funds.  In  some  cases  laws  or  adminis- 
trative regulations  adopted  years  ago  continued 
a  confusing  union  of  the  extension  organization 
with  that  of  the  experiment  station,  which 
should  be  definitely  set  apart  as  the  research  di- 
vision of  the  agricultural  college.  In  37  States 
a  separate  officer  was  in  charge  of  the  extension 
work,  usually  with  the  title  of  "director";  in  11 
States  this  officer  was  also  director  of  the  ex- 
periment station  or  head  of  the  college  of  agri- 
culture. 

All  the  colleges  receiving  the  benefit  of  the 
Smith-Lever  Act  entered  into  d^nite  codperative 
relations  with  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  with  two  exceptions  were  eon- 
ducting  all  extension  work  in  agriculture  and 
home  economics  under  the  terms  of  a  general 
"Memorandum  of  Understanding"  with  the  De- 
partment, which  was  used  as  the  basis  for  a 
great  variety  of  cooperative  project  agreements. 
The  Department  brought  all  its  extension  work 
under  the  general  charge  of  the  State  Relations 
Service  (see  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture) and  was  carrying  on  its  administrative 
and  cooperative  functions  with  reference  to  such 
work  through  that  Service. 

The  general  lines  of  this  codperative  extension 
system  for  the  coimtry  as  a  whole  were  well 
marked  out  and  established.  The  main  features 
were  (I)  the  county  agricultural  agents,  (2)  the 
boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  (3)  the  movable  schoob, 
and  (4)  the  supporting  work  of  the  college  and 
Department    specialists.    The    States    accepted 


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AaBICXTLTVSAL  EXTENSION  WOBK        12       AaBICVLTUSAL  EXTENSION  WOBK 


with  remarkable  unanimity  one  of  the  funda- 
mental features  of  this  system  developed  by  the 
Department.  An  experience  of  more  than  12 
years  had  fully  demonstrated  the  value  of  the 
county  agent  as  a  means  of  bringing  to  people 
on  their  farms  and  in  their  homes  the  results  of 
practical  experience  and  scientific  research  and 
securing  the  actual  application  of  these  results. 
Under  the  new  conditions  created  by  the  Smith- 
Lever  Act  it  was  highly  important  to  establish 
in  each  county  permanent  headquarters,  in 
charge  of  a  competent  agent,  who  should  act  as 
the  joint  representative  of  the  local  commiuiity, 
the  State  college,  and  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. In  this  way  the  ne^s  of  the  commu- 
nity could  best  be  determined  and  the  help  of  the 
State  and  the  nation  could  most  speedily  and  ef- 
fectively be  brought  to  the  rural  people.  About 
half  of  the  extension  funds  from  Federal,  State, 
and  local  sources  were  being  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  the  county- 
agent  system.  Over  1000  counties  already  had 
men  as  agents,  and  in  the  15  Southern  States 
there  were  in  addition  over  350  women  agents. 
On  the  whole,  these  agents  were  very  successful 
in  winning  the  support  and  confidence  of  the 
farming  people,  and  the  tangible  results  of 
their  work  were  very  encouraging. 

Since  the  agent  could  not  deal  altogether  with 
individual  farmers  he  was  active  in  organizing 
groups  of  farm  people  through  whom  he  might 
work.  There  were  two  types  of  such  organiza- 
tions. County  associations,  often  called  farm 
bureaus,  were  being  formed.  These  were  ex- 
pected to  take  the  initiative  in  securing  local 
financial  support  for  the  agent,  to  join  in  his 
selection  and  appointment,  and  to  aid  him  in  his 
work.  Many  of  these  organizations  included 
business  and  professional  men,  as  well  as  farm- 
ers. Another  type  was  the  small  community 
club.  Where  a  considerable  number  of  these 
clubs  existed  in  a  county  they  had  often  been 
confederated  to  form  a  county  organization. 
The  exact  relations  of  these  organizations  to  the 
extension  system,  tiie  breadth  and  variety  of 
their  functions  for  the  advancement  of  agricul- 
ture, and  their  most  effective  organizations  were 
largely  undetermined  and  they  were  to  be  con- 
sidered as  in  the  experimental  stage. 

The  work  of  the  county  agents  covered  a  wide 
range  of  activities  relating  to  agriculture  and 
home  life.  In  the  15  Southern  States  during  the 
year  ended  June  30,  1016,  direct  demonstrations 
of  good  practices  covering  practically  every 
phase  of  Southern  agriculture  were  conducted  on 
105,000  farms,  and  approximately  500,000  visits 
to  farmers  were  made. 

Much  work  was  done  in  the  prevention  of  ani- 
mal diseases,  many  creameries  and  cream  routes 
were  established  and  instruction  given  in  the 
feeding  of  dairy  cattle  and  the  marketing  of 
milk.  About  500  communities  were  organized 
and  engaged  cooperatively  in  some  special  work 
such  as  breeding  of  live  stock,  purchasing  and 
selling  of  seeds,  crops,  etc.  The  women  agents 
visited  about  50,000  farm  homes  and  gave  practi- 
cal instruction  regarding  household  conveniences, 
preparation  of  food,  care  of  poultry,  marketing 
of  eggs,  canning  of  vegetables,  etc.  In  the 
Northern  and  Western  States,  where  the  work 
was  comparatively  new,  the  agents  were  instru- 
mental in  forming  875  local  organizations.  They 
conducted  35,000  demonstrations  with  crops  and 
live  stock.    They  visited  76,000  farms,  addressed 


meetings  attended  by  1,200,000  people,  and  as- 
sisted in  developing  agricultural  instruction  in 
4600  schools.  About  72,000  farmers  and  their 
families  attended  short  courses  or  movable 
schools. 

The  boys'  and  girls*  clubs,  developed  by  the 
Department  and  &e  agricultural  colleges  prior 
to  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Lever  Act,  were  con- 
tinued and  the  scope  of  their  work  enlarged. 
In  the  Southern  States  this  work  was  organically 
connected  with  the  coimty-agent  system;  in 
the  other  States  it  was  organized  separately. 
Through  it  the  extension  agencies  were  brought 
into  close  touch  with  the  State  and  local  school 
officers  and  teachers,  who  codperate  in  the  forma- 
tion and  management  of  the  dubs.  About  260,- 
000  boys  and  girls  were  enrolled  in  these  clubiB 
during  the  year.  Leading  activities  were  the 
competitive  growing  of  crops,  raising  of  pigs  and 
poultry,  canning  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and 
making  of  home  gardens.  The  prize  winners, 
and  others  in  many  cases,  attended  short  courses 
at  the  agricultural  colleges,  often  with  the  aid 
of  funds  contributed  in  the  local  communities. 

The  force  of  extension  specialists,  with  head- 
quarters at  the  agricultural  colleges,  was  greatly 
enlarged  and  covered  many  lines  of  agriculture 
and  home  economics.  Ihese  officers  supple- 
mented the  field  work  of  the  county  agents,  fur- 
nished them  advice  and  assistance,  gave  short 
practical  courses  of  instruction  in  the  rural 
communities,  conducted  demonstrations  along 
special  lines,  prepared  publications,  addressed 
meetings  of  farm  men  and  women,  and  answered 
inquiries.  Specialists  were  also  sent  out  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  work  with  the  ex- 
tension agents.  Among  these,  for  example,  were 
specialists  in  dairying,  animal  husbandry,  use 
of  hog-cholera  serum,  tick  eradication,  market- 
ing of  agricultural  products,  farm  management, 
and  the  home  canning  of  v^etables  and  fruits. 

For  the  fiscal  year  beginning  July  1,  1915,  the 
total  fimds  available  for  extension  work  from 
Federal,  State,  and  local  sources  was  nearly 
$5,000,000.  Of  this,  $1,200,000  was  derived  from 
direct  appropriations  of  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, and  $1,080,000  from  the  Smith-Lever 
Act,  making  the  total  Federal  contribution 
$2,280,000.  This  was  met  by  approximately 
$2,653,000  from  sources  within  the  States,  in- 
cluding $600,000  to  offset  the  equivalent  allot- 
ment of  Federal  Smith-Lever  funds,  $499,000 
from  additional  State  appropriations,  $333,000 
from  college  funds,  $944,000  from  counties,  and 
$277,000  from  local  organizations  and  miscel- 
laneous agencies.  About  $2,500,000  was  to  be 
used  for  the  demonstrations  and  other  activities 
of  the  county  agents.  Much  of  their  work  bore 
directly  on  farm-home  problems,  but  $550,000 
was  allotted  to  distinctive  work  in  home  eco- 
nomics. More  than  $300,000  was  to  be  used  for 
work  among  boys  and  girls.  Nearly  $1,000,000 
was  to  be  devoted  to  the  tasks  of  the  specialists. 

Farmers'  Institutes  covering  from  one  to  three 
days  had  long  been  important  agencies  for  the 
dissemination  of  agricultural  information  in  the 
United  States.  In  1914  the  number  of  such  in- 
stitutes was  7740,  with  a  total  attendance  of 
about  3,000,000.  In  about  half  the  States  these 
institutes  were  managed  by  the  agricultural  col- 
leges. Since  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Lever 
Extension  Act  the  institutes  connected  with  the 
colleges  underwent  considerable  reorganization 
and  in  increasing  measure  were  replaced  by  other 


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AaBICULTVBAL  EXTENSION  WORK      13 


AGBICTTLTXrBAL  LEGISLATION 


forms  of  extension  work.  In  the  23  States  in 
which  the  institutes  were  conducted  by  the 
State  departments  of  agriculture  the  number  of 
institutes  held  in  1915  was  about  4000,  with  an 
attendance  of  1,750,000,  at  a  cost  of  about  $210,- 
000.  In  Ohio  and  South  Dakota  the  control  of 
the  institutes  was  transferred  to  the  agricultural 
college. 

In  Russia  the  Agricultural  Museum  at  Petro- 
grad  was  conducting  courses  in  agriculture  for 
wounded  soldiers  in  83  hospitals  near  tiie  city. 
The  lessons  were  illustrated  by'  lantern  slides, 
charts,  etc.,  and  were  followed  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  pamphlets  and  other  printed  matter. 

In  Spain  there  was  considerable  activity  in 
the  promotion  of  excursions  to  special  agricul- 
tural regions  which  were  utilized  for  demonstra- 
tions, and  also  in  the  holding  of  ''agricultural 
week"  meetings. 

In  Germany  the  great  women's  unions  of  Sax- 
ony with  the  assistance  of  the  minister  of  ag- 
riculture held  in  Berlin  a  course  of  instruction 
in  agriculture  and  housekeeping  with  the  object 
of  t^ching  strict  economy  in  the  use  of  food  and 
the  prevention  of  waste  made  necessary  by  war 
conditions.  The  course  was  attended  by  about 
200  teachers  and  presidents  of  women's  societies. 
These  were  then  sent  to  the  rural  districts 
throughout  the  province  to  organize  classes  of 
farm  women  and  to  instruct  each  from  six  to 
eight  days  regarding  the  best  ways  to  economize 
in  cooking,  the  feeding  of  live  stock,  and  man- 
aging the  entire  farm  in  the  absence  of  the  hus- 
bands. 

In  Manitoba,  Canada,  "auto  lecture  tours" 
were  organized.  Each  automobile  carried  five 
speakers,  three  on  agricultural  subjects,  and  two 
on  home  economics,  together  with  charts  and 
lantern  slides.  By  this  method  the  remote  rural 
districts  were  reached.  The  meetings,  held  in 
rural  school  houses  and  churches,  were  attended 
by  from  40  to  400  farmers.  The  Ontario  wom- 
en's institutes  continued  to  increase  in  impor- 
tance during  the  past  summer.  Meetings  were 
held  at  808  points,  with  an  attendance  of  202,504. 

A  system  of  extension  teaching  for  farmers 
was  undertaken  by  the  Chinese  ^finister  of  Ag- 
riculture and  Commerce,  beginning  with  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  extension  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  lecturers  and  demonstrators,  who  were  to 
travel  throughout  the  countrv  introducing  im- 
proved methods  of  farming,  ^his  work  was  to 
be  done  in  cooperation  with  the  experiment  sta- 
tions recently  provided. 

AGBICXTLTXIItAL  LEGISLATION.  Leg- 
islation IN  THE  United  States.  Unusual  in- 
terest was  manifested  in  providing  better  rural 
credit  facilities.  A  joint  congressional  commit- 
tee was  appointed  in  March  to  report  by  Jan.  1, 
1916,  a  bill  or  bills  for  a  system  of  rural  credits. 
President  Wilson  in  his  message  at  the  reas- 
sembling of  Congress  in  December,  1916,  also 
drew  attention  to  the  need  for  some  provision 
for  "adequate  instrumentalities  by  which  long 
credits  may  be  obtained  on  land  mortgages." 
Many  bills  aiming  to  accomplish  this  purpose 
were  pending  at  the  close  of  the  year.  Ohio  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  study  rural  credits,  as 
well  as  cooperation,  and  California  a  commis- 
sion on  rural  credits  and  land  colonization.  In 
Massachusetts,  a  farm-land  bank  was  incor- 
porated under  a  new  law  which  permits  long- 
time loans  with  farm  mortgages  as  security  and 
also  thjE*  sale  of  bonds  secured  by  these  loans. 


Missouri  voters  were  to  decide  in  November, 
1916,  as  to  the  establishment  of  a  State  bank 
with  similar  powers.  Minnesota  and  North  Da- 
kota were  also  to  vote  as  to  the  use  of  State 
funds  for  farm  loans.  In  Kansas,  building  and 
loan  associations  were  authorized  to  issue  rural 
credit  shares,  investing  the  proceeds  in  farm 
mortgages.  Oregon  authorized  the  formation  of 
rural  credit  unions  and  co5perative  State  banks, 
and  Massachusetts  amended  its  credit  union  law, 
under  which  farm  loans  may  be  made.  In  South 
Carolina,  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  was 
authorized  to  assist  in  placing  loans  on  stored 
cotton,  charging  a  commission  for  this  service, 
and  Texas  required  notes  secured  by  cotton  and 
grain  in  bonded  warehouses  to  be  accepted  as 
negotiable  property.  Efforts  to  obtain  Federal 
legislation,  however,  for  increasing  the  value  of 
warehouse  receipts  as  security  for  loans  by  pro- 
viding for  the  Federal  licensing  of  warehouses 
for  storing  agricultural  staples  were  unsuccess- 
ful. A  State  superintendent  was  appointed  in 
North  Carolina  to  organize  and  supervise  credit 
unions,  land  and  loan  associations,  and  coop- 
erative organizations.  Colorado,  Massachusetts, 
and  South  Carolina  revised  their  laws  pertaining 
to  cooperative  associations,  and  New  Mexico  au- 
thorized their  establishment  under  prescribed 
regulations.  In  Oregon,  farmers'  associations 
were  given  the  right  to  quarry  lime. 

The  Federal  appropriation  for  the  study  of 
marketing  problems  was  increased  to  $238,000. 
In  California,  a  State  commission  market  system 
was  provided  for  handling  agricultural,  dairy, 
and  fishery  products.  Idaho  appointed  a  direc- 
tor of  farm  markets  to  cooperate  with  producers 
and  consumers,  as  well  as  to  investigate  alleged 
frauds  in  the  sale  of  real  estate  to  home  seekers, 
regulate  advertising  pertaining  to  colonization, 
maintain  a  farm  labor  employment  bureau,  list 
farm  property  for  sale  for  the  use  of  prospective 
buyers,  and  otherwise  improve  farm  life  condi- 
tions. Colorado  and  Maine  provided  for  studies 
of  marketing  farm  produce,  and  the  latter  also 
of  the  purchasing  of  farm  supplies.  In  Colo- 
rado, Florida,  and  Kansas,  commission  mer- 
chants were  required  to  obtain  licenses,  while 
in  Michigan  the  law  was  amended.  Public  mar- 
kets were  authorized  in  Massachusetts  commu- 
nities of  over  10,000,  and  their  establishment  or 
the  designation  of  public  market  spaces  was  re- 
quired. Farm  and  grove  products  sold  by  grow- 
ers were  exempted  m  Florida  from  license  fees. 
Unfair  discrimination  by  buyers  against  pro- 
ducers of  farm  products  was  specifically  pro- 
hibited in  Oregon  and  Wyoming. 

A  standard  barrel  was  prescribed  by  Con- 
gress for  fruits,  vegetables,  and  other  dry  com- 
modities handled  in  interstate  commerce  after 
July  1,  1916.  This  barrel  contains  7056  cubic 
inches,  except  that  for  cranberries  a  smaller  size 
is  provided.  California  prescribed  standard 
crates  for  apples,  certified  seed  potatoes,  and 
dairy  products,  with  a  system  of  State  inspec- 
tion as  well  as  standard  packages  for  most  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and 
Vermont  established  standard  crates  and  pack- 
ages for  apples,  and  Colorado  for  small  fruits 
and  berries.  Delaware  enacted  an  apple  grading 
and  marking  law.  Montana  amended  its  apple 
box  law  and  New  York  and  Washington  their 
apple  branding  laws,  the  former  by  permitting 
increased  variations  from  the  standard.  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee  required  the  marking  of 


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AOBICTTLTURAL  LEOXSLATION 


fruits  and  vegetables  to  show  the  grower  or 
packer,  and  Wisconsin  the  marking  of  all  con- 
tainers for  farm  produce  to  show  the  nature  of 
the  contents.  Florida  established  a  standard 
field  box  for  citrus  fruits.  North  Carolina  pro- 
mulgated standard  grades  for  cotton  and  author- 
ized a  system  of  omcial  graders.  Michigan  au- 
thorized the  use  of  a  State  brand  for  high-grade 
butter,  and  Oregon  and  Washington  further 
safeguarded  the  use  of  brands.  Illinois,  North 
Carolina,  and  Wisconsin  provided  for  the  regis- 
tration of  farm  names. 

The  Federal  Plant  Quarantine  Act  was 
amended  as  regards  interstate  shipments  by  mail 
into  States  maintaining  a  system  of  terminal  in- 
spection of  plant  products  by  requiring,  under 
certain  conditions,  the  labeling  of  packages  of 
plants  and  plant  products,  and  their  transmis- 
sion to  central  points  for  inspection.  Many  of 
the  States  also  adopted  more  stringent  laws 
against  the  introduction  and  spread  of  both 
plant  and  animal  pests.  Florida  passed  a  com- 
prehensive plant  quarantine  act,  and  Nevada 
formulated  extensive  quarantine  regulations  for 
agricultural  and  horticultural  plants,  domestic 
animals,  and  bees.  Colorado,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington amended  their  laws  as  to  county  inspec- 
tion. Kansas  required  the  disinfection  of  grain 
sacks,  and  Minnesota  of  stock  cars.  Arkansas. 
Connecticut,  North  Carolina,  and  Oregon  further 
restricted  the  running  at  large  of  farm  stock. 

New  Hampshire  provided  for  the  inspection  of 
insecticides  and  fungicides,  Delaware  of  seeds, 
Idaho  of  Babcoek  apparatus,  Michigan  of  gal- 
vanized wire  fencing.  New  Jersey  of  bees  and 
pasteurized  milk  and  cream,  Pennsylvania  of 
lime,  and  Missouri  and  Montana  of  grain  and 
its  grading  in  elevators,  warehouses,  etc.  New 
Mexico  adopted  a  new  stallion  registration  law. 
Amendments  were  adopted  in  Minnesota,  New 
Hampshire,  New  York,  and  South  Carolina  as  to 
fertiUzer  laws;  in  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Kansas, 
Michigan,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  and  South 
Carolina  as  to  feeding  stuiTs;  in  Indiana,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Montana  as  to  nursery  inspection ; 
in  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  Tennessee,  Wash- 
ington, and  Wisconsin  as  to  seed  inspection;  in 
Nebraska  as  to  weed  control;  and  in  California, 
Michigan,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Ohio  (repeal), 
and  Wisconsin  as  to  stallion  registration. 
Maine  provided  for  the  inspection  of  milk  and 
dairy  products,  and  Massachusetts  prohibited 
dairy  inspectors  from  charging  fees  for  their 
work.  Connecticut  and  Florida  regulated  the 
operation  of  live  stock  insurance  companies,  and 
New  York  amended  its  laws  as  to  nursery  stock 
sales. 

Certain  public  lands  in  Alaska  were  set  aside 
by  Congress  for  the  eventual  support  of  a  Ter- 
ritorial agricultural  college  and  school  of  mines. 
The  Federal  Smith-Lever  Act  of  1914  was  for- 
mally accepted  by  the  several  States,  and  sup- 
plementary legislation  enacted  in  many  of  them 
to  facilitate  &e  development  of  extension  work. 
New  York  and  North  Dakota  authorized  coun- 
ties to  establish  agricultural  and  training 
schools,  the  former  also  granting  State  aid. 
Florida  and  Kansas  permitted  boards  of  edu- 
cation to  purchase  land  for  teaching  agriculture, 
and  the  former  State  required  teachers  to  have 
special  training  in  the  subject.  Nebraska, 
Ohio,  and  Texas  also  amended  their  laws  as  to 
agricultural  education. 

A  State  department  of  agriculture  was  estab- 


14  AQBICTTLTXTBE 

lished  in  Wisconsin,  centralizing  much  of  the 
demonstration  and  inspection  work.  Missouri 
reorganized  its  board,  and  Ohio  abolished  its 
agricultural  commission  and  reestablished  its 
board  of  agriculture.  Pennsylvania  established 
a  State  commission  of  agriculture  and  Dela- 
ware a  commission  on  milk  supply.  Florida 
established  Farmers'  Day  as  a  legal  holiday, 
California  a  bird  and  arbor  day,  and  North 
Carolina  an  arbor  day.  In  South  Carolina, 
the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  was  em- 
powered to  distribute  inoculating  material  for 
leguminous  crops.  Montana  counties  were  au- 
thorized to  sell  seed  grain  to  needy  farmers, 
taking  a  lien  on  their  property  to  secure  pay- 
ment. North  Carolina  authorized  the  sale  of 
lime  to  farmers  at  cost,  as  well  as  the  use  of 
convict  labor  in  lime-crushing  plants  and  on 
county  demonstration  farms.  Porto  Rico  pro- 
vided for  the  sale  of  small  holdings  to  laborers. 

Foreign  Legislation.  An  agricultural  eco- 
nomic commission  was  appointed  in  Canada  to 
study  questions  related  to  the  production,  mar- 
keting, and  distribution  of  farm  products,  in- 
cluding the  encouragement  of  education,  coop- 
eration, transportation,  and  storage  of  prod- 
ucts, colonization,  and  the  securing  of  capital. 
In  British  Columbia,  an  agricultural  credit 
commission  was  established  to  lend  money  to 
individuals  or  associations  for  developing  agri- 
cultural holdings.  Alberta  levied  a  special  tax 
on  uncultivated  lands  suitable  for  agriculture 
with  a  view  to  hastening  their  development. 
In  Manitoba,  municipalities  were  authorized  to 
borrow  money  for  loans  to  farmers  for  the  pur- 
chase of  seed  grain.  Saskatchewan  required 
the  fulfillment  of  contracts  as  to  warranties  and 
the  maintenance  of  uniform  prices  for  farm  im- 
plements and  repairs.  A  stock  inspection  act 
was  passed  in  Alberta  and  apiary  inspection 
provided  in  New  Brunswick.  Saskatchewan 
amended  its  laws  as  to  cooperation  and  the 
granting  of  hail  insurance. 

The  export  of  all  kinds  of  feeding  stuffs,  fer- 
tilizers, agricultural  seeds,  farm  implements, 
and  most  food  materials  was  prohibited  in 
Great  Britain,  and  a  similar  embargo  as  to 
food  products  was  issued  in  France.  Great 
Britain  also  passed  a  live  stock  act  to  remain 
in  force  for  one  year  after  the  close  of  the 
war,  under  which  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
and  Fisheries  may  prohibit  or  restrict  the 
slaughter  of  all  animals,  except  male  lambs,  or 
the  sale  of  meat  from  immature  animals. 
France  established  a  commission  on  farm  labor, 
and  reorganized  its  phytopathological  service, 
coordinating  the  work  of  existing  services  and 
institutions.  A  board  of  agriculture  was  es- 
tablished in  New  Zealand  and  a  reorganization 
of  agricultural  activities  effected  in  Portugese 
East  Africa. 

AGBICULTTTBE.  In  spite  of  the  greatly 
disturbed  condition  of  the  world  during  the 
year,  the  1916  world's  wheat  crop  largely  ex- 
ceeded that  of  any  previous  year  and  surpassed 
that  of  1914  by  several  hundred  million  bushels. 
The  yields  in  every  important  country  except 
France  and  Austria  exceeded  those  of  the  pre- 
vious year.  More  than  half  of  the  increased 
production  was  ascribed  to  an  expansion  of 
wheat  growing  in  non -European  nations.  The 
acreage  sown  to  wheat  on  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope was  reported  to  have  fallen  short  of  that 
of   1914   by   from  two  to  three  million  aftres. 


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AQSIOULTURE 


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Digitized  by  Vj0051C 


AGSICULTTnBbE 

This  reduction  was  confined  mainly  to  Russia, 
France,  and  Rumania.  The  wheat  production 
of  France,  the  second  important  wheat  producer 
in  Europe,  was  estimated  to  represent  a 
shortage  of  approximately  60  million  bushels, 
which  would  necessitate  importing  about  a  mil- 
lion bushels. 

In  the  United  States  the  wheat  crop  was  the 
largest  ever  grown,  passing  the  billion  bushel 
mark  for  the  first  time.  No  country  had  ever 
equaled  it,  and  it  represented  about  one-fourth 
of  the  entire  world's  production  in  1915.  The 
total  acreage  of  60  million  acres  in  wheat  was 
equivalent  to  the  combined  total  area  of  the 
six  New  England  States  plus  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  In  Canada,  British  India,  and 
several  other  important  wheat  producing  coun- 
tries there  were  either  record  or  near  record 
crops. 

The  rye,  barley,  and  com  crops  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  each  represented  a  consider- 
able increase  over  1914.  The  estimate  of  the 
International  Institute  of  Agriculture  for  all 
cereal  crops  in  the  northern  hemisphere  was 
108  per  cent  of  normal,  or  more  than  enough 
to  meet  the  needs. 

In  the  United  States  the  com  crop  was  the 
second  largest  ever  raised,  being  16  per  cent 
higher  than  in  1914  and  14  per  cent  above  the 
average  for  the  five  preceding  years.  The  qual- 
ity, however,  was  low.  There  were  record  crops 
of  oats,  rye,  barley,  rice,  and  hay,  in  addition  to 
the  wheat  crop  already  mentioned.  The  potato 
crop  declined  as  the  season  advanced,  on  ac- 
count of  blight  and  rot,  but  was  up  to  the  five- 
year  average.  Tobacco  production  was  slightly 
larger  than  in  1914  and  about  4  per  cent  above 
the  five-year  average.  The  cotton  crop  was  a 
short  one,  estimated  at  a  little  over  11  million 
bales,  owing  to  a  15  per  cent  reduction  in  areas 
and  a  20  per  cent  poorer  yield.  The  quantity 
of  cotton  carried  over  from  the  1914  crop  was 
considerably  larger  than  usual.  The  high  farm 
prices  of  products  gave  the  principal  farm  crops 
an  aggregate  value  of  $5,568,733,000,  the  highest 
ever  attained  by  American  agriculture.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  value  of  mmor  crops  and  ani- 
mal products  would  bring  the  total  up  to  10 
billion  dollars. 

The  total  agricultural  exports  of  the  United 
States  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1915, 
practically  the  first  year  of  the  war,  were  $1,- 
470,000,000,  representing  an  increase  of  $356,- 
000,000,  or  32  per  cent  over  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  and  of  $433,000,000  or  nearly  42 
per  cent  over  the  average  of  the  five  years, 
1910-14.  As  compared  with  the  preceding 
year,  exports  of  horses  and  mules  increased 
from  4  to  77  million  dollars,  meat  and  dairy 
products  from  146  to  220  million,  wheat  and 
flour  from  142  to  428  million,  com  and  com 
meal  from  7  to  39  million,  oats  from  1  to  57 
million,  and  barley  from  4  to  18  million  dol- 
lars; while  cotton  decreased  from  610  to  376 
million,  and  tobacco  from  64  to  44  million  dol- 
lars. These  products  comprised  nearly  nine- 
tenths  of  the  total  agricultural  exports. 

An  interesting  statement  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  showing  the  extent  to  which  the 
principal  farm  crops  of  the  world  were  trans- 
ported from  the  coimtries  of  their  origin  to 
other  countries,  based  on  the  estimated  value 
per  year,  was  as  follows:  Cotton,  $1,127,000,- 
000;  wheat  and  flour,  $744,000,000;  raw  wool. 


16 


AQBICmiTTTBE 


$480,000,000;  hides  and  skins,  $392,000,000; 
coffee,  $386,000,000;  sugar,  $382,000,000;  rice, 
$278,000,000;  barley  and  malt,  $220,000,000: 
corn  and  meal,  $210,000,000;  unmanufactured 
tobacco,  $192,000,000;  butter,  $173,000,000;  tea, 
$143,000,000;  rye  and  flour,  $125,000,000;  and 
oats,  $102,000,000. 

Special  Crops  and  Industries.  The  Manila 
hemp  (abaca  fibre)  crop  of  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands was  estimated  at  1,030,000  bales  or  about 
40,000  bales  more  than  in  1914.  The  prevail- 
ing prices  were  lower  than  usual  on  account  of 
the  war,  and  as  a  result  it  was  expected  that 
the  crop  would  net  some  $2,000,000  less  than  it 
ordinarily  would.  The  final  official  forecast  for 
the  1915  jute  crop  of  India  placed  the  area 
under  cultivation  at  2,377,316  acres  and  an  es- 
timated upturn  of  7,428,733  bales  of  400  pounds 
each.  This  represented  a  decrease  of  nearly  30 
per  cent  in  the  area  as  compared  with  1914, 
which  was  the  second  largest,  and  a  production 
of  about  214  million  bales  less  than  the  pre- 
vious crop.  Soy  bean  culture  was  extending  in 
the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Southern 
States,  where  the  cotton  mills  furnished  a  mar- 
ket for  the  beans,  which  are  crushed  for  oil.  The 
cake  left  from  the  expression  of  the  oil  is  a 
highly  nitrogenous  stock  feed.  The  beans  are 
also  ground  and  fed  to  live  stock,  and  the 
vines  are  utilized. 

Kaoliang,  a  Russian  early  grain  sorghum  in- 
troduced by  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, was  tested  as  a  dry-land  crop  and 
gave  promising  results,  notably  in  South  Da- 
kota. It  is  drought  resistant,  with  a  com- 
paratively low  moisture  requirement,  and  had 
produced  satisfactory  yields  in  the  dryest  sea- 
sons. Both  seed  and  stalks  were  utilized  for 
feed. 

The  special  campaign  inaugurated  in  1914  by 
the  Philippine  Bureau  of  Agriculture  for  the 
greater  growing  of  food  crops  was  productive  of 
good  results  in  many  sections  of  the  islands. 
Secondary  crops,  including  corn,  camotes,  gabi, 
mongo  beans,  cowpeas,  and  the  like,  were  grown 
on  quite  a  large  scale.  In  some  sections,  it  was 
reported,  practically  the  entire  population  had 
been  placed  beyond  dependence  upon  the  im- 
portation of  foodstuffs. 

Coffee  imported  into  the  United  States  in  the 
calendar  year  1914  exceeded  one  billion  pounds, 
a  record  only  made  twice  before.  The  value  of 
the  import  was  $160,000,000,  or  $25,000,000  less 
than  in  1912  when  an  unusually  high  price  pre- 
vailed. Brazil  was  the  chief  source  of  supply, 
over  three-fourths  of  the  total  amount  coming 
from  that  country.  The  total  coffee  export 
from  Brazil  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  July  31, 
1915,  was  13,401,516  bags,  as  compared  with 
14,533,681  in  the  previous  year.  The  United 
States  continued  the  chief  purchaser,  taking 
6,880,619  bags,  France  being  a  second  with 
1,808,816  bags.  No  shipments  were  made  to 
Germany,  Austria,  or  Belgium,  which  in  the 
preceding  year  took  an  aggregate  of  3,431,606 
bags.  £1  increasing  share  of  the  coffee  con- 
sumed in  continental  United  States  was  produced 
in  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii.  In  1914,  2,793,052 
pounds  were  brought  in  from  Porto  Rico,  as 
compared  with  372,427  pounds  in  1894.  Ha- 
waii furnished  about  3^^  million  pounds.  The 
Porto  Rican  and  Hawaiian  coffees  brought 
higher  prices  than  the  South  American.  The 
United  States  is  the  world's  largest  consumer  of 


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AGBICtrLTTJBE 


coffee.  The  consumption  is  now  reported  at 
10  pounds  per  capita,  having  nearly  trebled  in 
the  past  60  years. 

The  production  of  fired  tea  in  Japan  in  1914 
amounted  to  71,345,944  pounds,  valued  at  $7,- 
373,320. 

Provisional  estimates  for  the  world's  produc- 
tion of  raw  silk  during  1914  were  48,216,000 
pounds,  as  compared  with  the  revised  statistics 
of  60,230,282  pounds  in  1913  and  69,447,641 
pounds  in  1912.  The  apparent  falling  off  in 
1914  was  not  thought  to  represent  a  diminished 
production,  but  to  be  due  to  the  war  having 
almost  completely  suppressed  arrivals  of  raw 
silk  in  France  from  Turkestan,  Persia,  and  the 
extreme  Orient,  from  which  the  supply  was 
largely  derived.  More  raw  silk  was  brought 
into  the  United  States  in  1914  than  in  any  pre- 
vious year.  Japan  supplied  a  large  and  increas- 
ing proportion  of  the  raw  silk  consumed  by 
American  factories.  Ten  years  ago  she  sup- 
plied more  than  half  and  in  1914  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  used. 

Ostrich  farming  in  South  Africa  was  reduced 
to  a  very  low  ebb  as  a  result  of  the  remarkable 
decline  in  the  feather  industry.  Birds  were 
reported  early  in  the  year  to  be  dying  by  thou- 
sands for  lack  of  food  and  attention.  The  mar- 
ket for  feathers  improved  somewhat  during  the 
year,  but  under  the  changed  conditions  a  greater 
amount  of  the  land  is  being  put  under  cultiva- 
tion. In  times  of  prosperity  that  country  ex- 
ported about  $25,000,000  worth  of  feathers.  A 
similar  fate  has  overtaken  the  industry  in  the 
United  States. 

The  War  and  Agriculture.  The  war  in  Eu- 
rope had  a  far  reaching  effect  upon  agriculture 
and  agricultural  labor,  and  the  prime  impor- 
tance of  producing  and  maintaining  adequate 
food  supplies  made  farming  the  object  of  un- 
usual public  attention.  In  Great  Britain  the 
government  took  unusual  measures  to  foster 
agriculture  and  to  prevent  the  depletion  of  live 
stock  and  breeding  animals.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  an  agricultural  consultative  com- 
mittee was  appointed  in  England  as  a  perma- 
nent committee,  to  which  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture looks  for  advice  in  relation  to  many  agri- 
cultural subjects.  In  June  the  president  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  also  appointed  a  depart- 
mental committee  to  consider  and  report  what 
steps  should  be  taken  to  maintain  and  if  pos- 
sible increase  the  production  of  food  in  England 
and  Wales,  on  the  assumption  that  the  war 
might  be  prolonged  beyond  the  harvest  of  1916. 
The  committee  made  an  interim  report  in  July, 
restricted  to  wheat  growing,  in  which  it  pro- 
posed a  government  guaranty  of  46  shillings  a 
quarter  on  wheat  (approximately  $1.36  a 
bushel)  for  four  years,  commencing  after  the 
harvest  of  1916.  The  government,  however,  de- 
cided not  to  establish  such  a  guaranty.  Similar 
committees  were  appointed  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. Another  departmental  committee  dealt 
with  the  question  of  fertilizer  supplies,  study- 
ing the  means  of  maintaining  adequate  supplies 
for  the  use  of  farmers  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
A  system  of  district  and  county  war  agricul- 
tural committees  was  provided  in  England  as  a 
means  of  maintaining  a  closer  contact  with  the 
farmers  and  aiding  tliem  in  all  possible  ways. 

The  English  government  made  forceful  ap- 
peals to  the  farmers  to  increase  the  size  of  their 
crops  to  the  utmost,  to  maintain  their  fiocks 


17  AGBIGtrLTUaS 

and  herds  in  spite  of  the  labor  and  feed  situa- 
tion, and  to  do  their  best  to  keep  up  the  sup- 
ply of  food  "as  a  special  war  service"  to  their 
country.  It  was  suggested  that  they  plow  up 
the  poorest  of  the  permanent  pastures,  shorten 
the  period  of  grass  and  clover  in  rotations,  im- 
prove the  remaining  grass  land  so  that  it  would 
carry  more  stock,  cultivate  cash  crops  and  other 
home  grown  feeds,  and  reduce  the  acreage  of 
bare  fallow  wherever  possible.  Circulars  were 
issued  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  warning 
them  to  store  their  crops  with  the  greatest  care, 
to  save  all  material  which  could  be  used  as  fod- 
der, and  to  waste  nothing.  Month  by  month 
the  publications  of  the  Board  contained  notes 
on  the  relative  value  of  feeding  stuffs  in  pro- 
portion to  their  cost,  to  aid  in  economical  selec- 
tion; and  unusual  importance  was  attached  to 
the  use  of  tested  seed  to  insure  larger  crop  re- 
turns, and  to  the  control  of  insects  and  plant 
diseases.  Attention  was  turned  to  utilizing  the 
large  areas  of  land  not  ordinarily  employed  for 
agriculture,  and  a  canvass  showed  the  very  con- 
siderable extent  to  which  golf  links  were  being 
used  for  grazing  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses,  and 
in  some  cases  for  making  hay. 

In  the  one  item  of  hay,  the  requirements  of 
the  army  amounted  to  approximately  one- fourth 
of  the  entire  annual  production.  The  War  Of- 
fice required  farmers  to  make  returns  as  to  the 
stocks  of  hay  in  the  country,  urged  them  to 
offer  their  supply  freely,  and  gave  notice  that 
where  it  was  unreasonably  withheld  the  powers 
of  requisitioning  hay  would  be  employed. 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  British  soldiers 
in  hospitals  at  home  and  in  France,  a  supply  of 
300,000  eggs  a  week  had  been  needed.  This  was 
maintained  by  a  National  Egg  Collection  for 
the  Wounded,  with  branches  throughout  the 
country,  which  made  urgent  appeals  for  assist- 
ance from  time  to  time,  in  view  of  the  difiiculty 
experienced  in  securing  the  necessary  supply. 

The  shortage  of  labor,  the  increased  cost  of 
feeding  stuffs,  and  the  high  prices  of  all  classes 
of  live  stock  necessitated  special  measures  to 
conserve  the  supply  of  meat  and  dairy  animals. 
The  British  government  passed  a  law  prohibit- 
ing the  slaughter  of  calves  or  immature  stock, 
or  animals  in  calf  or  in  pig.  To  encourage  the 
breeding  of  horses  orders  were  given  by  the  War 
OfBce  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  purchase 
of  mares  and  on  no  account  to  purchase  by  im- 
pressment any  mares  to  be  used  the  coming  sea- 
son for  breeding.  The  War  Office  also  arranged 
for  the  return  to  England  of  mares  no  longer 
suitable  for  army  use  but  which  were  of  good 
type  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  address  of  the  president  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Section  of  the  British  Association,  at  the 
annual  meeting  in  September,  dealt  with  the 
subject  of  "Farming  and  Food  Supplies  in  Time 
of  War,"  showing  &e  share  contributed  by  Brit- 
ish agriculture  to  the  national  food  supply,  and 
the  extent  to  which  it  has  assisted  in  making 
good  the  lack  of  supplies  cut  off  by  the  war. 
There  was  an  increase  o^er  the  normal  pro- 
duction during  the  first  year  of  the  war.  Very 
few  agricultural  shows  were  held  in  any  part 
of  Great  Britain. 

On  the  Continent  the  effects  of  the  war  were 
even  more  pronounced.  Women  cultivated  the 
fields  and  harvested  the  crops  to  an  unusually 
large  extent,  and  every  precaution  was  taken  to 
avoid  waste  of  food  and  fodder  and  to  utilize 


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AGBICtrLTTTBE 


new  sources.  In  France  measures  to  maintain 
the  live  stock  were  adopted,  similar  to  those  in 
Great  Britain.  These  prohibited  the  requisition 
of  cows  in  calf  or  giving  milk,  or  brood  mares 
in  foal  or  with  foal,  male  breeding  stock  which 
had  won  prizes  or  belonged  to  livestock  im- 
provement associations,  registered  stock  or  its 
offspring,  heifers,  and  work  oxen.  In  some 
countries  the  governments  were  empowered  to 
take  over  the  supplies  of  wheat  and  flour,  and 
late  in  the  year  the  Canadian  government  com- 
mandeered 16,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  for  the 
British  government.  These  measures  were 
taken,  not  only  to  insure  sufficient  and  regular 
supplies,  but  to  prevent  speculation  and  control 
prices.  In  Australia  the  government  assumed 
control  of  the  frozen  meat  export,  in  the  interest 
of  Great  Britain.  In  Germany,  transactions  in 
these  food  commodities  were  forbidden  early  in 
the  year. 

Such  measures  were  not  confined  to  the  war- 
ring nations.  The  Government  of  Portugal  took 
over  the  entire  wheat  crop  and  authorized  the 
import  of  nearly  7%  million  bushels  of  wheat 
through  its  War  Office,  in  order  to  regulate  the 
supply  and  price  of  bread.  To  stimulate  pro- 
duction in  that  country  a  large  number  of  prizes 
were  offered  for  the  best  wheat  crops  on  5  and 
20  hectare  areas. 

Methods  were  devised  in  Germany  to  produce 
feed  from  straw,  peat,  and  .various  other  coarse 
materials  through  the  action  of  fungi.  Many 
substitutes  for  oats  were  being  experimented 
with,  besides  the  sugar  feed  containing  10  to 
20  per  cent  of  cut  straw.  The  use  of  dried  beets 
had  become  extensive  in  Germany.  Dried  chic- 
ory roots,  called  "chicory  crumbs,'*  were  found 
to' be  an  excellent  substitute  for  oats. 

France  was  taking  up  the  matter  of  remuner- 
ating the  farmers  for  war  losses.  A  law  passed 
at  the  close  of  1914  established  the  right  to 
compensation  for  material  loss  caused  by  war, 
and  in  February,  1015,  valuation  commissions 
were  organized.  Special  rules  were  formu- 
lated in  regard  to  damage  to  farms.  These  ap- 
plied to  agricultural  machinery  and  equipment, 
cattle,  agricultural  products  and  •  standing 
crops,  vineyards,  hop  yards,  orchards,  gardens, 
nurseries,  drains  and  canals,  the  restoration  of 
fields,  and  permanent  depreciation  of  the  soil 
through  covering  it  with  infertile  layers.  Spe- 
cial rules  also  were  laid  down  in  regard  to  dam- 
age to  forests. 

Agbicultubal  Labor.  Reference  has  been 
made  to  the  natural  effect  of  the  war  on  agri- 
cultural labor.  In  England  about  15V^  per 
cent  of  the  farm  laborers  had  joined  the  forces 
by  the  beginning  of  1915.  The  shortage  was 
keenly  felt,  and  wages  increased.  The  govern- 
ment exempted  from  enlistment  farm  laborers 
of  various  kinds,  teamsters,  shepherds,  engine 
drivers,  and  operators  of  farm  machinery,  old 
age  pensioners  were  permitted  to  labor,  and 
special  leave  was  granted  postmen  to  work  in 
the  harvest.  The  army  council  announced  that 
a  limited  number  of  soldiers  accustomed  to  team 
work  would  be  furloughed  to  assist  in  the  fall 
plowing  and  other  work.  Partially  disabled  sol- 
diers were  placed  on  farms  as  they  became  fit, 
and  the  utilization  of  Belgian  refugees  was 
taken  up.  Strong  appeals  were  made  to  women 
to  offer  themselves  for  light  farm  work  as  "a 
national  war  service."  Thousands  of  women 
were  reported  to  have  responded,  many  of  whom 


18  AGBICTTLTUBE 

were  already  in  training.  The  more  extended 
use  of  labor-saving  implements  and  machinery 
was  advocated,  and  to  enable  their  purchase  at- 
tention was  turned  to  the  formation  of  co5p- 
erative  farm  implement  societies,  on  the  plan 
of  those  in  Ireland.  Local  demonstrations  of 
such  machinery  were  held. 

On  the  Continent  prisoners  of  war  were  used 
quite  extensively  in  farming.  In  Germany  large 
numbers  were  employed  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults. In  France  they  were  assigned  for  the 
purpose  in  gangs  of  20,  the  farmers  to  feed  and 
lodge  them  and  pay  them  40  centimes  per  man 
per  day.  That  country  also  arranged  to  turn 
over  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  20,000 
navy  conscripts  to  be  distributed  where  labor 
was  most  needed. 

The  farm  labor  problem  in  Canada  was  a  vital 
one,  according  to  the  Commission  of  Conserva- 
tion. The  supply  was  insufficient  and  much  of 
it  had  not  had  sufficient  traininfl^  to  do  farm 
work  economically.  The  unequal  distribution 
of  work  through  the  year  also  prevented  the  eco- 
nomical use  of  labor,  as  did  also  the  employ- 
ment of  inadequate  machinery  and  implements 
on  the  farm. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Labor 
undertook  to  assist  farmers  in  securing  laborers 
and  especially  harvest  hands.  The  co5peration 
of  the  Post  Office  Department  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  was  had  in  the  enterprise. 
Approximately  50,000  men  were  directed  to  em- 
ployment through  this  means,  and  the  farmers 
were  enabled  to  gather  their  wheat  harvest  in 
due  season. 

Gesrman  Boabd  of  Agbicultubal  Advisers. 
Mention  has  been  made  of  the  temporary  agri- 
cultural committees  appointed  as  an  oul^owth 
of  the  war  situation.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  noted  that  Germany  had  a  permanent 
Board  of  Agricultural  Advisers,  dating  back  to 
1872,  which  was  in  position  to  render  the  govern- 
ment assistance  in  time  of  peace  or  war.  This 
board,  known  as  the  Landwirtschaftsrat,  is  a 
semi-official  body,  having  the  general  object  of 
improving  the  agricultural  conditions  of  the 
Empire  by  suggesting  needed  measures  or  legis- 
lation. It  is  composed  of  representatives  from 
the  various  German  states  and  colonies,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  number  of  votes  in  the  federal 
council  (Bundesrat).  Meetings  are  held  at  the 
call  of  the  president  of  the  board,  as  necessity 
requires.  Its  work  during  the  war  was  re- 
ported to  have  been  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  conserving  the  national  food  supply,  and  in 
advising  legislation  and  other  measures  for 
promoting  crop  production. 

Agricultural  Machinery.  In  spite  of  the 
increased  interest  in  agricultural  machinery  in 
Europe  to  meet  the  shortage  of  labor,  the  diffi- 
culties of  import  have  limited  the  increase  in 
its  use.  In  Russia  this  difficulty  led  to  move- 
ments to  establish  local  factories  for  its  manu- 
facture. The  exports  of  American  agricultural 
implements  during  the  fiscal  year  1915  totaled 
approximately  $10,000,000  as  against  $40,600,- 
000  in  the  high  record  year  of  1913  and  a 
yearly  average  of  $29,000,000  for  the  decade 
ended  1915.  The  loss  of  trade  fell  most  heavily 
upon  sales  to  Europe,  but  there  were  also  de- 
creases in  shipments  to  Argentina,  Canada,  and 
various  coimtries  of  Africa.  The  European 
war  was  doubtless  the  dominant  factor  in  this 
falling  off.    Thus  the  export  of  implements  to 


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AOBICDXTITSE  19 

European  Russia,  usually  the  greatest  foreign 
market,  practically  ceased,  as  did  also  those  to 
Germany,  while  huge  losses  occurred  in  sales  to 
France  and  other  European  countries. 

A  comparison  of  the  entries  of  farm  ma- 
chinery at  the  first  show  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  England  in  1830  with  those  at 
the  show  in  1915  gives  an  idea  of  the  tremen- 
dous development  in  this  line.  At  the  first 
show  76  years  previously,  only  16  mechanical 
appliances  were  shown,  consisting  of  a  grubber, 
a  mold-board  plow,  two  subsoilers,  two  culti- 
vators, a  swing  plow,  one  horse  hoe,  one  chain 
harrow,  etc.  liiey  were  typical  of  the  beist  and 
most  advanced  farm  machinery  of  that  period. 
The  exhibits  of  farm  machinery  in  1915  num- 
bered 4230,  and  in  addition  19  new  implements 
entered  for  silver  medals.  These  exhibits  in- 
cluded planters,  seeders,  reapers,  binders,  and 
other  harvesting  machinery,  motor  plows,  trac- 
tion engines,  etc.,  besides  the  simpler  forms  of 
implements. 

Activity  was  reported  in  China  in  the  inven- 
tion of  various  agricultural  implements  and 
machines  for  saving  labor.  In  the  United 
States  and  Canada  attention  has  been  attracted 
to  electricity  as  a  source  of  power  for  operating 
labor-saving  machinery,  and  especially  thresh- 
ing outfits.  With  electrical  energy  at  five  cents 
per  kilowatt-hour,  the  operating  expense  was  es- 
timated at  considerably  less  than  that  with  a 
steam  engine.  A  trial  in  Ontario  showed  a 
saving  of  nearly  40  per  cent  as  compared  with 
steam,  basing  electrical  energy  on  the  above  fig- 
ures. 

Binder  Twine.  Early  in  the  spring  the  sup- 
ply of  binder  twine  in  the  United  States  became 
threatened  through  the  closing  of  the  port  of 
Progreso,  Yucatan,  by  the  Mexican  authorities. 
The  supply  of  twine  for  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  made  in  the  former  country,  requir- 
ing about  200,000  tons  of  sisal  hemp  a  year,  de- 
rived in  large  part  from  Yucatan.  This  sup- 
ply is  not  accumulated  at  the  factories  but  is 
brought  in  regularly  through  the  year.  Grain 
is  harvested  so  largely  by  means  of  the  binder 
that  an  adequate  supply  of  binding  twine  is 
necessary  to  a  successful  harvest  of  the  crop. 
This  led  the  government  to  exert  pressure 
which  opened  the  port  of  Progreso  to  United 
States  commerce,  and  a  gunboat  carried  gold 
to  the  port  to  pay  for  the  sisal,  so  that  the 
danger  for  a  time  feared  was  averted. 

A  serious  shortage  of  binder  twine  in  Rus- 
sia resulted  from  the  war  conditions  and  threat- 
ened the  grain  harvest.  The  supply  was  pur- 
chased largely  from  American  manufacturers. 
To  relieve  the  situation  the  Russian  govern- 
ment purchased  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  twine, 
payment  being  made  in  New  York  and  trans- 
portation arranged  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. 

Chinese  Indigo.  The  shortage  of  the  supply 
of  synthetic  indigo  on  the  markets  of  the  world 
as  a  result  of  the  war  in  Europe,  and  the  con- 
sequent high  prices,  led  to  a  revival  of  the  na- 
tive cultivation  of  indigo  in  various  parts  of 
China.  Indigo  production  is  one  of  China's 
oldest  industries.  It  continued  in  some  parts 
in  spite  of  the  synthetic  product,  and  foreign 
dyes  were  said  to  be  comparatively  rare  in 
many  districts.  Ordinarily,  synthetic  indigo 
can  be  delivered  well  into  the  interior  of  China 
at  Id^er  cost  than  the  native  product.     In  1013 


AGBIGUXTTTBE 

it  was  reported  that  artificial  indigo  to  the 
value  of  over  $7,000,000  was  imported.  In 
1915  it  was  expected  that  the  natural  product 
raised  in  China  would  not  leave  a  surplus  for 
export,  but  a  continuation  of  high  prices  would 
lead  to  a  great  revival  of  the  old-time  industry. 

Eggs.  The  extent  to  which  eggs  were  im- 
ported from  China  into  the  Unit^  States  was 
surprising.  The  duty  on  fresh  eggs  was  re- 
moved by  the  tariff  act  of  1913  and  that  on 
other  eggs  much  reduced.  In  1914  the  Chinese 
imports  consisted  of  $1,089,164  worth  of  fresh 
eggs,  and  over  a  half  million  dollars'  worth  of 
yolks  and  frozen  eggs.  Several  of  the  largest 
bakers'  supply  houses  of  the  United  States  con- 
templated erecting  factories  in  China  to  manu- 
facture dried  and  desiccated  eggs.  One  such 
plant  had  already  been  put  in  operation. 

Wejeds.  Attention  was  called  to  the  alarm- 
ing spread  of  weeds  in  Canada,  where  it  was  re- 
ported that  people  had  been  forced  to  leave  their 
farms  because  of  the  invasion  of  weeds.  The 
Commission  of  Conservation  explained  this  by 
the  uncommon  difficulties  of  the  climate  and  the 
large  acreage  the  farmers  were  attempting  to 
cultivate  with  short  labor.  "In  consequence,"  it 
says,  "we  have  the  largest  amount  of  weeds  per 
acre  of  any  country  in  the  world."  The  use  of 
various  chemicals  as  sprays  in  controlling  weeds 
had  been  tried  with  success.  In  view  of  the 
drain  of  weeds  on  the  moisture  and  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and  the  finding  that  one  of  the  chief 
benefits  of  cultivation  is  keeping  down  weeds, 
economical  weed  control  was  highly  important. 
Sodium  arsenite  applied  as  a  spray  had  been 
found  one  of  the  most  effective  weed  killers,  and 
in  some  sections  had  proved  an  economical  and 
practical  success,  both  in  cultivated  fields  and 
in  ridding  grass  lands  of  noxious  weeds.  The 
cost  of  the  spray  was  about  $2.50  per  acre.  In 
Hawaii  it  was  used  on  the  pineapple  planta- 
tions for  five  years,  and  on  one  large  pla^ita- 
tion  resulted  in  a  saving  in  labor  of  $100,000  a 
year. 

Uttuzing  Waste  Products.  A  striking  in- 
stance of  the  utilization  of  waste  agricultural 
products  was  furnished  by  the  case  of  cherry 
and  apricot  pits  and  raisin  seeds.  These  prod- 
ucts, formerly  thrown  away,  were  being  used 
on  quite  an  extensive  scale  for  making  alcohol, 
volatile  and  fixed  oils,  and  other  products. 
About  1600  tons  of  cherry  pits  or  stones  were 
being  produced  in  the  United  States  annually. 
The  kernels  from  these  yielded  approximately 
21,000  gallons  of  sirup  from  which  5000  gallons 
of  alcohol  and  85,000  pints  of  jelly  were  made, 
together  with  large  quantities  of  volatile  and 
fixed  oils.  The  annual  output  of  apricot  pits 
was  some  5000  tons,  the  kernels  of  which 
yielded  350  to  400  tons  of  fixed  oil  and  18,000 
to  22,000  tons  of  volatile  oil.  From  the  annual 
crop  of  3000  to  4000  tons  of  raisin  seeds  were 
derived  large  quantities  of  sirup  from  which 
from  41,000  to  54,000  gallons  of  alcohol  were 
made,  and  the  residues  yielded  many  thousand 
gallons  of  fixed  oil  used  for  paint  and  soap 
making,  and  330  to  445  tons  of  tanning  extract, 
suitable  for  tanning  leather.  Refuse  tomato 
seed  was  utilized  in  some  countries,  notably 
Italy,  for  the  extraction  of  oil  used  for  soap 
and  other  purposes.  Waste  grape  seeds,  a  by- 
product of  wine  making,  were  likewise  used  for 
extracting  oil. 

Insanity  on  the  Fabu.    In  view  of  current 


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AaBicxrLTnB.E  20 

opinion  regarding  the  prevalence  of  insanity  on 
the  farm,  and  especially  among  farm  women, 
the  report  of  an  inquiry  into  this  subject  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census  is  interest- 
ing as  furnishing  some  exact  data.  The  num- 
ber of  insane  admitted  to  hospitals  the  coimtry 
over  in  1910,  per  100,000  population,  was  94.3 
males  and  77.5  females  in  urban  communities, 
and  45.2  males  and  37.3  females  in  rural  com- 
munities. This  shows  the  current  view  to  be 
without  foimdation. 

International  Institute  of  Agriculture. 
With  the  progress  of  the  war  the  difficulty  of 
carrying  on  the  work  of  the  Institute  increased. 
The  delegates  from  the  belligerent  coimtries  re- 
turned home,  and  by  the  time  Italy  entered  the 
war  nearly  half  of  the  present  staff,  ordinarily 
consisting  of  about  100  members,  had  left  Rome. 
Special  efforts  were  made  to  insure  the  issuance 
of  the  regular  bulletins  and  statistical  tables, 
and  it  was  hoped  in  this  way  to  keep  the  cur- 
rent work  up  to  date,  with  a  view  to  resuming 
the  functions  of  the  Institute  with  full  vigor 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace.  Difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced in  securing  crop  statistics  from  the 
countries  at  war.  Tlie  estimates  were  based  to 
the  extent  of  about  80  per  cent  on  definite  re- 
turns, the  balance  being  supplied  on  the  basis  of 
averages  of  previous  years  and  reports  of  gen- 
eral conditions. 

New  Literature!  The  following  are  some  of 
the  books  of  the  year:  H.  J.  Waters,  The  Ea- 
aentiaU  of  Agriculture  (Boston  and  London, 
1915),  a  general  treatise  covering  soils  and  fer- 
tilizers, maintenance  of  fertility,  breeds  of  live 
stock,  the  business  aspects  of  farming,  and  me- 
chanical power  on  tiie  farm;  H.  W.  Wiley,  The 
Lure  of  the  Land  (New  York,  1915),  a  popular 
treatment  of  some  of  the  principles  and  prac- 
tices of  the  new  agriculture,  illustrated  from 
the  author's  experience;  C.  W.  Stoddart,  Chem- 
istry of  Agriculture  (Philadelphia,  1915),  a 
book  for  class-room  and  reference;  E.  J.  Rus- 
sell, Soil  Conditions  and  Plant  Orowth  (Lon- 
don, 1915),  a  revised  edition  of  an  excellent  r6- 
sum6  of  the  theory  of  soil  management  and 
plant  growth;  A.  H.  H.  Matthews,  Fifty  Years 
of  Agricultural  Politics^  1865-1915  (London, 
1915),  a  historical  sketch  of  the  efforts  of  the 
British  Central  Chamber  of  Agriculture  to  af- 
fect legislation  respecting  agricultural  matters; 
F.  I.  Anderson,  Electricity  for  the  Farm  (New 
York  and  London,  1915) ;  J.  B.  Morman,  Prin- 
ciples of  Rural  Economics  (New  York,  1915) ; 
and  F.  E.  L.  Beal,  Some  Common  Birds  Useful 
to  the  Farmer  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui. 
630,  1915). 

Various  cereals,  etc.,  referred  to  above  are 
treated  in  separate  articles,  each  under  its  own 
name. 

AGBICULTUBE,  International  Institute 
OF.    See  Agriculture. 

AGmCTTLTUBE,  United  States  Depart- 
ment OF.  See  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

AIBSHIPS.     See  A£ronautigs. 

ALABAICA.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was 
2,301,277.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,138,- 
093. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


ALABAMA 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

Com    

. .1915 

8,900,000 

66,300,000  $45,747,000 

1914 

8,264,000 

55,488,000 

44,390.000 

Wheat     . . 

..1915 

100,000 

1,200,000 

1.500,000 

1914 

31,000 

408.000 

608.000 

Oats    

..1915 

600.000 

11,400,000 

7,182,000 

1914 

890,000 

8,580.000 

5,920.000 

Rice    

..1916 

800 

8.000 

6,000 

1914 

2T)0 

6,000 

4.000 

Potatoes    . 

..1915 

20,000 

1,600.000 

1,440.000 

1914 

18,000 

1,422,000 

1,436.000 

Hay     .... 

..1915 

250.000 

a  862,000 

4,489.000 

1914 

220,000 

288.000 

3,974.000 

Tobacco     . 

..1915 

200 

h  100,000 

22.000 

1914 

200 

140,000 

39.000 

Cotton    .. 

..1915 

8.400.000 

e  1.050,000 

65,734  000 

1914 

4,007,000 

1,751,000 

56.118.000 

a  Tons. 

h  Pounds,      e  Bales    of    500    pounds    gross 

nv'eight. 

Mineral  Production.  The  coal  production 
in  the  State  in  1914  was  15,593,422  short  tons, 
valued  at  $20,849,919.  This  was  a  decrease  as 
compared  with  1913  of  2,085,100  tons  in  quan- 
tity and  $2,223,805  in  value.  The  decrease  of 
the  output  was  general  throughout  the  State. 
The  markets  for  Alabama  coal  were  affected  by 
the  low  price  of  petroleum  in  the  Southern 
States,  by  increased  water-power  development,  by 
the  competition  of  coal  from  Kentucky  and  Illi- 
nois in  the  markets  of  Louisiana  and  Missis- 
sippi, which  are  normally  supplied  by  Alabama, 
and  by  a  decrease  in  the  bunker  trade,  which  suf- 
fered because  of  the  cutting-down  of  exports  of 
cotton  in  the  summer.  The  iron  ore  mined  in 
the  State  in  1914  was  4,838,959  tons.  The  quan- 
tity marketed  was  4,514,926  tons,  valued  at  $5,- 
727,619.  This  was  a  considerable  falling  off 
from  the  production  of  1913,  which  was  5.333,218 
tons,  valued  at  $6,648,569.  Alabama  ranks  third 
of  the  States  in  the  production  of  iron  ore.  The 
total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $30,879,288  compared  with  $39,660,545  in 
1913. 

Finance.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year, 
1914,  there  was  a  balance  in  the  treasury  of 
$99,267.  The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year 
amoimted  to  $6,607,001,  and  the  disbursements 
to  $6,575,569.  The  bonded  debt  of  the  State  at 
the  end  of  the  year  was  $9,067,000. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  in  1915  was  774,976.  There  was  an 
enrollment  of  464,345  in  the  public  schools,  and 
an  average  daily  attendance  of  291,890.  The  to- 
tal number  of  teachers,  both  male  and  female, 
numbered  8678.  The  average  salary  for  male 
teachers  was  $382  per  year,  and  of  female,  $312. 
The  total  school  expenditures  for  the  year  were 
$4,776,807.  The  Legislature  of  1915  passed  a 
number  of  important  measures  relating  to  edu- 
cation. There  was  created  a  commission  to  be 
known  as  the  Illiteracy  Commission,  composed 
of  five  persons,  including  the  State  Superinten- 
dent of  Education.  The  committee  was  to  col- 
lect data  relating  to  adult  illiteracy  in  the 
State,  and  make  recommendation  for  improve- 
ment in  the  conditions.  A  second  measure  au- 
thorized women  to  serve  on  boards  of  education 
in  cities,  counties,  and  towns.  The  employment 
of  public  school  teachers  of  less  than  seventeen 
years  of  age  was  prohibited,  and  provision  was 
made  for  schools  having  less  than  10  pupils. 
Private,  denominational,  and  parochial  schools 
are  required  to  make  school  reports.  A  limited 
compulsory  education  act  was  passed.  This  re- 
quires an  attendance  at  school  of  all  children 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  15,  at  least  80  days 


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21 


ALASKA 


during  each  year,  with  certain  exceptions  and 
conditions.  Provision  was  made  for  the  hold- 
ing of  teachers'  institutes  in  the  State. 

Charities  and  Cobbections.  The  State 
charitable  and  corrections  institutions  include 
insane  hospitals  at  Tuscaloosa  and  Mount  Ver- 
non, the  Confederate  Soldiers'  Home  at  Moun- 
tain Creek,  Alabama  Industrial  School  for 
White  Boys  at  East  Lake,  State  School  for 
White  Girls,  State  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind 
at  Lineville,  Alabama  Home  for  Refuge,  Reform 
School  for  Juvenile  Negro  Law  Breakers,  and  the 
School  for  the  Negro  Deaf  and  Blind.  There 
is  no  general  board  supervising  these  institu- 
tions. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  and  its  most  important  enactments 
relating  to  regulation  of  the  liquor  traflic  are 
noted  below.  There  was  no  election  of  the 
State  officers. 

The  State  became  a  prohibition  State  on  July 
1,  1015.  On  July  14th  the  Legislature  passed 
prohibition  bills  which  were  vetoed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor. He  asked  that  the  prohibition  question 
should  be  submitted  to  voters  at  a  special  elec- 
tion. Both  Houses  of  the  Legislature  on  Janu- 
ary 22nd  voted  down  this  proposal  and  repassed 
the  bills  by  overwhelming  majorities.  These 
measures  enacted  the  Prohibition  Act  repealed  in 
1911,  after  having  been  in  force  for  two  years. 
In  that  year  a  local  option  law  passed  the  Legis- 
lature under  which  all  but  8  of  the  67  counties 
of  the  State  voted  dry.  Both  houses  of  the 
Legislature  on  February  2nd  passed,  over  the 
Governor's  veto,  the  anti-liquor  advertising  law 
designed  to  prohibit  newspapers  published  in  the 
State  from  printing  liquor  advertisements,  and 
to  prevent  the  circulation  in  the  State  of  papers 
published  outside  of  Alabama  carrying  such  ad- 
vertising. This  measure  also  prohibited  liquor 
advertising  by  circular,  bill-board  display,  or 
otherwise.  This  law  was  upheld  by  the  deci- 
sion of  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  on  March 
26th.  The  chancellor  in  his  opinion  said  that 
the  new  law  would  not  violate  the  Federal  or 
State  Constitutions  or  interfere  with  inter- 
state traffic.  It  was  declared  by  Judge  Miller 
of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  however,  that  news- 
papers published  in  other  States  and  sent  to 
Alabama  by  mail  or  freight  become  articles  of 
interstate  commerce,  and  as  such  could  not  be 
interfered  with  by  State  authority.  A  bill  au- 
thorizing a  vote  at  the  next  general  election 
on  a  women's  amendment  to  the  State  Consti- 
tution was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Delegates 
on  August  26th.  Fifty-two  members  voted  for 
the  measure  and  42  against  it ;  a  two-thirds  vote 
was  necessary  for  the  passage  of  the  bill.  The 
Senate  defeated  an  equal  suffrage  measure  by 
a  vote  of  21  to  10  on  September  1st. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Charles  Hen- 
derson; Lieutenant-Governor,  Thomas  E.  Kilby; 
Secretary  of  State,  John  Purifoy;  Auditor,  if. 
C.  Allgood;  Attorney-General,  W.  L.  Martin; 
Adjutant-General,  G.  J.  Hubbard;  Treasurer,  W. 
L.  Lancaster;  Superintendent  of  Education,  W. 
F.  Feagin;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  J.  A. 
Wade;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  C.  B.  Smith; 
— ^all  Democrats. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
John  C.  Anderson;   Associate  Justices,  Thomas 

C.  McClelUn,  J.  J.  Mayfield,  A.  D.  Sayre,  Or- 
mond  Sommerville,  William  H.  Thomas,  and  L. 

D.  Gardner;  Clerk,  Robert  F.  Ligon. 


State  Legislature. 


Senate 

Democrats     34 

BepublicanB     1 

Democratic    majority.  83 


Howe 

Joint  Ballot 

104 

138 

2 

3 

102 


185 


ATiAKAMAy  University  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education  founded  at  Univer- 
sity, Alabama,  in  1831.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1015  was  1505. 
The  faculty  numbered  101.  There  were  no  not- 
able changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  university  is  supported  al- 
most entirely  by  legislative  appropriations. 
The  library  contains  almut  45,000  volumes.  The 
president  is  G.  H.  Denny,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

ALASKA.  The  year  1915  has  been  one  of 
increasing  prosperity  and  of  great  economic  ad- 
vances for  this  vast  Territory.  In  minerals, 
gold  and  silver  products  have  increased,  the  cop- 
per product  quadrupled,  and  coal  lands  surveyed 
for  lease  and  entry.  Fisheries  flourished,  and 
aids  to  navigation  were  largely  installed.  The 
government  railway  has  been  put  under  construc- 
tion. Education  and  supervision  have  improved 
the  conditions  of  natives,  who  can  now  become 
citizens  or  organize  self-governine  towns.  The 
Legislature  has  enacted  laws  which  deal  with 
modem  life  as  broadly  and  fully  as  any  of  our 
States. 

PopiTLATiON  AND  TowNS.  The  population  is 
estimated  at  70,000,  of  whom  44,000  are  whites. 
The  following  show  the  assessed  value  and  per 
cent  of  taxes  in  towns  in  1014:  Juneau,  $2,- 
852,000,  2.5;  Fairbanks,  $2,829,403,  1.5;  Nome, 
$1,683,564,  1.5;  Ketchikan,  $1,040,175,  1.25; 
Seward,  $929,960,  0.8;  Cordova,  $917,770,  0.6; 
Valdez,  $750,000,  1.5;  Skagway,  $610,215,  1.0; 
Douglas,  $542,205,  1.0;  Wrangell,  $200,227,  1.5; 
Petersburg,  $190,975,  1.5. 

Laws.  The  Legislature  met  March  1,  1915, 
and  enacted  timely  laws  of  special  importance. 
Among  others  were  the  following:  Granting 
citizenship  to  natives  free  from  tribal  relations; 
according  self-government  to  villages  of  40  adult 
Thlinget,  Tsimpsean,  or  Hyday  natives;  exclud- 
ing minors  from  pool-rooms,  etc.;  punishing 
white  slavery  and  seduction;  inhibiting  liquor 
sales  to  natives;  extending  the  eight-hour  law 
to  placers,  etc.;  protecting  wild  game;  providing 
for  education,  roads,  and  revenues;  a  workman's 
compensation  law  surpassing  in  liberality  that 
of  any  other  State.  Referendums  were  author- 
ized at  the  next  general  election  as  to  a  general 
eight-hour  law,  and  for  complete  Prohibition  on 
Jan.  1,  1918,  of  sale  or  manufacture  of  liquor. 

Mineral  Production.  Data  as  to  the  most 
extraordinary  productivity  during  1915  in  min- 
eral outputs  have  been  drawn  from  the  prelim- 
inary report,  dated  Jan.  1,  1916,  of  Mr.  Alfred 
H.  Brooks,  Chief  of  the  Alaskan  Division, 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  The  figures, 
it  is  believed,  will  not  vary  over  5  per  cent  from 
the  final  revision.  The  value  of  the  mineral 
products  in  1915  far  exceeds  that  of  any  pre- 
vious year,  aggregating  $32,000,000  and  exceed- 
ing by  68  per  cent  the  output  of  1914,  which 
amounted  to  $19,064,963.  The  earlier  maxi- 
mum production  of  $23,378,428  was  in  1912, 
when  the  bonanza  placers  of  Fairbanks  and  of 
Nome  were  at  the  height  of  their  productivity. 
Practically  90  per  cent  of  the  increase  of  1915 


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was  due  to  the  copper  output  which  rose  in 
value  from  $2,852,934  in  1014  to  $14,400,000  in 
1015.  There  was  a  small  increase  in  gold  pro- 
duction, from  $15,026,813  in  1014  to  $15,900,000 
in  1915.  It  is  the  largest  annual  output  of  gold 
since  the  record  maximum  of  $17,145,951  in 
1912.  Silver  values  rose  from  $218,327  in  1914 
to  $400,000  in  1915.  Tin,  antimony,  coal,  pe- 
troleum, etc.,  increased  from  $222,802  the  pre- 
vious year  to  $300,000  in  1915.  The  vast  in- 
crease in  the  total  mineral  output  of  1915  is 
not  due  to  a  temporary  expansion  of  the  min- 
eral industry,  or  to  stimulation  from  urgent 
market  demands.  It  is  the  natural  outcome  of 
pioneer  work  on  mines  not  previously  developed 
to  the  producing  stage.  The  current  production 
is  precursory  to  similar  increases  in  the  future 
output  of  both  copper  and  gold  lode  mining. 
Gold  placers  and  coal  seams  await  transporta- 
tion for  fuller  development.  To  date  the  min- 
eral production  of  Alaska  aggregates  in  value 
$300,000,000,  divided  as  follows:  Gold  placers, 
$186,200;  gold  lodes,  $74,850,000;  copper,  $34,- 
150,000;  silver,  about  $2,650,000;  tin,  petro- 
leum, coal,  etc.,  about  $2,150,000. 

Gold  Mining.  The  placer  gold  of  1915  is 
valued  at  $10,500,000,  a  decrease  of  $230,000 
from  1914.  It  is  believed  that  the  current  de- 
crease in  the  Yukon  camps  will  be  fully  offset 
in  coming  years  by  important  developments  in 
the  Tolovana  district,  northwest  of  Fairbanks. 
Ihe  number  of  working  dredges,  42,  remains  un- 
changed. While  productive  gold  lode  mines  de- 
creased from  28  to  23,  yet  the  output  rose  from 
$4,863,028  in  1914  to  $6,200,000  in  1915.  The 
increase  was  in  the  Juneau  district,  where 
steadily  enlarged  outputs  may  be  expected  for 
many  years.  Conditions  of  placers  by  the  prin- 
cipal districts  are  as  follows:  The  products  of 
the  camps  in  the  Yukon  basin  were  $7,795,421  in 
1914;  they  decreased  about  $500,000  in  1915. 
Fairbanks  from  115  placers  obtained  $2,450,000 
in  1915  as  also  in  1914.  Innoko  with  38  mines, 
and  Iditarod  with  31  placers  produced  about 
the  same  in  1914  and  1915.  The  yield  of  Hot 
Springs  from  30  placers  was  about  $550,000  in 
1915.  Koyukuk  increased  from  $260,000  in  1914 
to  $300,000  in  1915.  The  Kenai  and  Susitna  re- 
gions report  about  $500,000,  an  increase  of 
$100,000.  There  were  substantial  gains  in 
Seward  Peninsula,  $2,900,000  in  1915,  against 
$2,700,000  in  1914. 

Copper  Mining.  There  was  produced  in  1915, 
from  14  mines,  copper  to  the  amount  of  83,850,- 
000  pounds,  valued  at  $14,400,000,  as  against 
21,450,628  pounds  and  $2,852,934  in  1914.  In 
the  Ketchikan  district  7  mines  produced  4,500,- 
000  pounds.  The  four  mines  in  the  Prince  Wil- 
liam Sound  region  showed  slight  gains.  In  the 
Chitina  district  the  Bonanza  and  Jumbo  mines 
increased  their  output  enormously,  while  large 
amounts  came  from  Mother  Lode,  despite  its  lo- 
cation, which  entails  14  miles  of  sledding  to  the 
railroad.  While  high  prices  caused  the  reopen- 
ing of  a  few  small  cop|Mer  mines,  the  main  devel- 
opment was  normal. 

Miscellaneous.  The  output  of  tin  has  ma- 
terially increased,  mainly  from  the  York  dis- 
trict, Seward  Peninsula,  from  which  came  the 
greater  part  of  the  200  tons  of  stream  tin  in 
1915.  A  new  source  of  Alaskan  mining  has 
been  developed  from  the  stibnite  ores  of  Seward 
Peninsula  and  of  Fairbanks,  from  which  in  1915 
antimony  was  obtained  to  the  value  of  $70,000. 


22  ArAftlTA 

The  coal  conditions  are  yet  luisatisfactory,  as 
importations  were  necessary  to  the  value  of 
$400,000.  Relief  is,  however,  in  sight.  Surveys 
of  the  more  accessible  parts  of  the  coal  areas 
have  been  made  in  the  Bering  River,  Matanuska, 
and  Nenana  districts,  and  leases  will  soon  be 
available.  Permits  for  free  mining  on  areas 
under  10  acres  have  been  made,  and  in  1915  pat- 
ents for  three  sections  of  coal  lands  were  issued. 

Agbicultube  and  Homesteads.  The  national 
experimental  stations  have  materially  improved 
and  stimulated  agriculture.  The  station  at  Sitka 
fosters  horticulture;  Rampart  devotes  its  efforts 
to  grain,  breeding,  and  forase  plants,  with  suc- 
cess; Fairbanks  continues  demonstration  work 
to  the  advantage  of  the  farmers  of  the  Tanana 
Valley;  Kodiak  is  developing  stock-raising  and 
dairy-farming,  hampered  by  the  law-protected 
and  marauding  brown  bear.  Skagway  and  Fair- 
banks by  annual  fairs  display  the  wealth  of 
Alaskan  farm  products.  Only  50,000  acres  of 
land  have  been  patented  during  1915.  Ihe  ex* 
pensive  and  obligatory  survey  at  private  ex- 
pense, and  restrictive  regulations  discourage 
homesteading,  except  in  national  forests.  £^ 
spite  these  conditions  hundreds  of  homesteads 
were  located  in  1915,  both  on  surveyed  and  on 
unsurveyed  lands.  The  Governor  estimates  that 
there  are  50,000,000  acres  of  land  suitable  for 
agriculture:  large  areas  are  in  the  Matanuska 
and  Susitna  valleys,  which  will  soon  be  accessi- 
ble by  the  railway  under  construction. 

COMMBBCE.  The  total  trade,  including  min- 
erals, to  and  from  Alaska  during  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1915,  was  valued  at  $70,113,916, 
an  increase  of  $9,037,692.  For  the  nine  months 
ending  Sept.  30,  1915,  the  increase  was  12  per 
cent  over  the  same  period  in  1914.  In  the  fiscal 
year  1915  the  shipments  into  Alaska  aggregated 
$20,792,609,  of  which  29  per  cent  were  in  food- 
stuffs. Despite  a  steadily  increasing  white  pop- 
ulation the  shipment  of  liquors  has  decreased 
from  $722,000  in  1913,  to  $555,000  in  1915.  A 
notable  decrease  from  1914  to  1915  is  that  of  8 
per  cent  in  potatoes,  due  to  the  improved  farm- 
ing of  the  Territory.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  the  exportation  from  Alaska  of  salmon  in 
1915,  valued  at  $18,375,000,  exceeded  by  $3,026,- 
000  the  entire  shipments  of  domestic  gold  and 
silver. 

FisuEBiES.    See  article  Fish  and  Fishebies. 

FuB  Seals.  The  provisions  of  the  North  Pa- 
cific Pelagic  Sealing  Convention  of  July  7,  1911, 
remain  in  force  and  are  quite  efficiently  main- 
tained. Sealing  on  the  Pribilof  Islands  is  pro- 
hibited, by  the  act  of  Congress  of  Aug.  24,  1912, 
until  the  year  1917.  In  January,  1915,  the  com- 
mission of  experts — Osgood,  Parker,  and  Preble 
— made  a  full  report  as  to  conditions,  remedies, 
etc.,  of  the  seal  herds  of  the  Pribilofs.  In  1914 
the  herd  consisted  of  approximately  294,700  ani- 
mals, of  which  not  less  than  93,250  were  females 
of  breeding  age.  By  August,  1915,  they  had  in- 
creased to  360,000,  of  which  not  less  than  103,- 
000  were  females.  On  these  reports  it  is  ex- 
pected that  Congress  will  be  able  to  legislate  on 
data  fully  reliable.  Some  3500  seals  were  killed 
in  1915  as  a  food  supply  for  the  natives  during 
the  coming  winter.  Secretary  of  Commerce  Red- 
field  plans  to  develop  a  new  American  industry 
for  the  dressing,  dyeing,  etc.,  of  the  seals,  and 
also  to  utilize  the  seal-bodies  now  wasted. 

Fub-beabino  Animals.  An  inter-departmen- 
tal board  has  considered  the  anomalous  and  con- 


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AT.AftlTA 

fufling  fiystems  of  control  over  the  fur-bearing 
animals  of  Alaska — entrusted  to  several  different 
departments.  Under  ensting  law,  for  instance, 
the  black  bear  is  under  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce, while  the  brown  bear  is  entrusted  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  board  recom- 
mended legislation  by  Congress  to  give  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  control  over  all  ter- 
restrial fur-bearing  animals,  and  that  tiie  De- 
partment of  Commerce  should  "exercise  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  fisheries,  fur  seals,  sea  otters, 
walrus,  sea  lions,  whales,  porpoises,  and  other 
aquatic  mammals."     See  also  FuB. 

Education.  There  were  maintained  47  public 
schools  with  2503  pupils :  of  these  14  schools  and 
1542  pupils  were  in,  and  provided  for  by,  incor- 
porated towns.  The  Legislature  has  provided 
for  educational  facilities,  and  it  enacted  two 
laws  for  the  complete  co5rdination  of  the  con- 
flicting systems.  As  they  are  considered  to  be 
beyond  the  legislative  powers  these  laws  await 
the  action  of  Congress.  The  schools  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  are  men- 
tioned under  Natives. 

Forests.  The  national  forest  reservations  re- 
main imchanged,  except  that  a  considerable  area 
of  the  Chugach  forest  has  been  restored  to  the 
public  domain.  After  paying  all  expenses  from 
the  receipts  of  $47,366,  there  remained  a  net  in- 
come of  $7164.  Applications  for  permission  to 
make  homestead  entries  in  these  forests  have 
largely  increased,  and  there  were  in  1915  100 
pending  cases  for  Tongass  and  188  for  Chugach 
forest.     See  also  Forestby. 

Reindeer.  From  year  to  year  reindeer  be- 
come more  important  to  the  natives.  Their 
value  increases  with  the  gradual  transformation 
of  the  hunting  natives — previously  migratory 
from  Point  Barrow  to  the  Alaskan  peninsula — 
into  settled  stock-growing  communities.  The 
herds  on  June  30,  1914,  aggregated  57,782  head, 
which  through  the  average  annual  increase  of 
20  per  cent  should  approximate  70,000  in  num- 
ber on  June  30,  1915.  Two-thirds  of  the  deer 
are  in  the  hands  of  natives,  who  in  1914,  to  the 
number  of  980,  owned  37,828  reindeer,  valued  at 
$945,700,  and  furnishing  an  income— exclusive 
of  domestic  uses — of  about  $78,000  annually. 
The  herds  near  Bethel  aggregate  8500  head,  and 
at  five  other  places  number  between  two  to  four 
thousand  deer.  Small  herds  have  been  sent  to 
the  islands  of  Amakmak,  Atka,  Annette,  and 
UmniJc. 

Natives.  About  15  per  cent  of  the  natives  are 
reported  to  be  tuberculous,  and  various  epidemics 
are  reducing  their  number.  The  Alaskan  Leg- 
islature of  1915  memorialized  Congress  to  make 
suitable  provisions  for  their  medical  relief.  The 
natives  of  Southeastern  Alaska  are  generally 
industrious  and  self-supporting.  The  Governor 
of  Alaska  reports  that  the  reservation  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands  as  a  game  preserve  has  injuri- 
ously affected  the  natives  and  by  denying  em- 
ployment in  fisheries,  etc.,  has  reduced  them  to 
"actual  want,  even  starvation."  The  Eskimo, 
some  5000,  of  the  Yukon  and  Kuskokwim  deltas, 
are  deteriorating  from  illicit  liquor  trafiic,  and 
lack  the  practical  education  and  industrial  train- 
ing which  would  improve  their  material  condi- 
tion. Thousands  of  natives  elsewhere  are  receiv- 
ing practical  instruction  through  the  67  schools 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  in 
which  about  3500  pupils  are  enrolled.  By  the 
teachers  sanitary  methods  are  enforced,  indus- 


23  ArAft-gA 

tries  promoted,  and  individual  responsibility 
stimulated.  Gardens,  libraries,  village  councils, 
school  republics,  dubs,  shop-work,  and  entertain- 
ments are  methods  used.  Cooperative  stores 
have  been  successfully  conducted  by  natives  at 
Atka,  Hydaburg,  Klawock,  Klukwan,  and  St. 
Lawrence  Island.  Recent  legislation  renders  pos- 
sible citizenship  for  natives,  and  self-government 
for  their  communities.  Reservations  for  such 
villages  have  been  made  on  Kobuk  River  and  at 
Tyonek,  Cook  Inlet.  On  Jan.  28,  1915,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  promulgated  regulations  for 
the  self-government  of  the  Metlakahtlans,  on  An- 
nette Island  reservation,  which  will  be  the  model 
for  the  control  of  other  similar  communities. 
The  officers  of  the  Public  Health  Service,  with  in- 
adequate force  and  insufficient  funds,  have  strug- 
gled with  the  medical  care  of  thousands  of  sick 
natives.  In  addition  to  the  small  hospitals  at 
Kotzebue,  Nulato,  and  Nushugak,  there  are  doc- 
tors and  nurses  at  Nome,  Russian  Mission,  Sew- 
ard, and  Sitka.  Contract  service  is  had  from 
several  hospitals  elsewhere.  Complications  have 
arisen  r^arding  the  Metlakahtla  Indians,  and 
congressional  action  has  been  recommended  by 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  Lane  to  definitely  fix 
their  status,  so  that  they  may  acquire  citizen- 
ship, own  land  in  severalty,  and  have  such  ad- 
vantages as  other  Indians  in  Alaska,  as  to  edu- 
cation, self-government,  etc. 

Roads  and  Railroads.  The  railway  mileage 
remains  unchanged  at  446  miles,  of  which  there 
have  been  operated  only  the  following:  White 
Pass  and  Yukon,  21  miles;  Yakutat  and  South- 
em,  9  miles;  Tanana  Valley,  46  miles;  and  the 
Copper  River  and  Northwestern  (Cordova  to 
Kinnecutt),  196  miles.  The  Alaska  Northern 
has  been  bought  by  the  United  States,  and  con- 
struction work  begun  (about  15  miles  com- 
pleted) on  the  government  branch  from  Anchor- 
age, Knik  Arm,  up  the  Matanuska  Valley.  The 
Board  of  Road  Commissioners,  United  States 
army,  had  completed  up  to  June  30,  1915,  an  ag- 
gregate of  3695  miles  of  roads,  etc.,  divided  as 
follows:  902  miles  of  wagon  roads,  577  miles  of 
winter  sled-roads,  and  2216  miles  of  trails. 
Land  travel  is  now  practicable  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year  from  Valdez  northwards  to  Kotzebue 
Sound,  and  the  upper  Koyuk  Valley.  The  win- 
ter mail  even  reaches  extreme  Northern  Alaska, 
Point  Barrow,  on  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Gbolooig  Surveys.  In  1915  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  covered  about.  20,000  square 
miles  of  Alaska,  9000  miles  being  geologic  work 
and  11,000  square  miles  topographic. 

Coal  Permits.  Under  the  provisions  of  the 
regulations  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Public  Lands  of  Dec.  30,  1914,  several  local 
permits  have  been  issued  for  the  free  mining  of 
coal  lands  of  10  acres  or  less. 

Telegraphs.  The  military  telegraph  system, 
extending  by  cable  to  Sitka,  Jimeau,  and  Valdez, 
reaches  nearly  every  town  as  far  as  Nome  to  the 
west  and  Circle  City  to  the  east.  The  rates  were 
lowered  25  per  cent  in  1915,  and  night  service 
instituted  for  domestic  messages  at  reduced 
rates.  The  naval  wireless  system  reaches  Sitka, 
Cordova,  and  the  Pribilofs. 

Aids  to  Navigation.  Most  successful  efforts 
have  been  made  during  1915  to  increase  safety 
of  navigation  in  Alaskan  waters.  Up  to  Novem- 
ber 30  there  had  been  established,  during  the 
year,  46  aids  (beacons,  buoys,  and  lights).  The 
more   important   are   the   24   flashing  acetylene 


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AT.AflTTA 


24 


ALBANIA 


lightB,  located  as  follows:  Lewis  Reef,  Tongass 
Narrows;  Narrow  and  Middle  Points,  Clarence 
Strait;  Point  Alexander,  Wrangell  Strait;  Mar- 
mion  Island  and  Sheep  Creek,  Gastineau  Chan- 
nel; Clear  Point,  Barlow,  Naked,  and  Little  Is- 
lands, and  Low  Point,  Lynn  Canal;  Kingsmill 
Poinl^  Point  Augusta,  Hawk  Inlet  Entrance,  and 
East  Shoal,  Chatham  Strait;  Otstoia  Island,  and 
McClellan  Rock,  Peril  Strait;  Anchor  and  Race 
Points,  Flat  Island,  East  Chugach,  and  East 
Forelands,  Cook  Inlet;  and  Point  Romanoff, 
Norton  Sound.  Good  progress  was  also  made  in 
the  construction  of  the  new  light  and  fog-signal 
at  Cape  St.  Elias,  Kayak  Island,  for  which 
$116,000  was  appropriated  by  Congress  Oct.  22, 
1913. 

CONOBESSIONAL  LEGISLATION.  During  the 
year  1015  legislation  has  been  principally  con- 
fined to  the  making  of  appropriations.  *  Since 
the  national  administration  adopted  the  policy 
of  developing  Alaskan  resources,  the  necessity 
has  been  recognized  of  reforming  and  modifying 
existing  governmental  methods  so  as  to  ensure 
efficiency.  Secretary  of  the  Interior  Lane  has 
analyzed  current  administrative  regulations,  and 
the  summary  thereof  discloses  amazing  condi- 
tions of  delay,  extravagance,  and  inSSciency. 
To  acquire  a  homestead,  for  instance,  requires 
the  expenditure  by  the  applicant  of  hundreds  of 
dollars  for  surveys,  etc.,  while  periods  ranging 
from  two  to  seven  years  elapse  before  the  nnal 
patent  issues.  A  fox  farmer,  under  advice, 
sought  to  obtain  a  lease  from  three  different  de- 
partments in  turn,  only  to  be  informed  that  no 
one  had  power  in  the  case.  Revenue  taxes  levied 
by  the  Alaskan  Legislature  clash  with  national 
powers.  The  school  systems  are  conflicting  and 
in  an  inchoate  condition,  as  are  other  interests 
of  the  general  public.  Early  congressional  legis- 
lation is  imperative.  To  remedy  the  more  strik- 
ing defects  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  Presi- 
dent be  empowered  to  appoint,  subject  to  con- 
firmation by  the  Senate,  a  Development  Board, 
which  should  be  resident  in  Alaska  and  be 
charged  with  the  control  of  the  greater  part  of 
national  affairs.  Meantime  Alaska  asks  that 
Statehood  be  granted  to  the  Territory. 

ALBANIA.  Nominally  an  independent 
country;  formerly  a  region  of  European  Turkey, 
consisting  of  the  vilayets  of  Scutari  and  Janina, 
and  of  parts  of  Kossovo  and  Monastir.  Al- 
banian independence  was  proclaimed  at  Valona 
Nov.  28,  1912,  and  on  the  20th  of  the  month 
following  the  London  Ambassadorial  Conference 
agreed  to  the  principle  of  Albanian  autonomy. 
Under  the  treaty  of  London  of  May  30,  1913, 
Albanian  boundaries  were  left  to  the  decision  of 
the  Powers.  On  Feb.  23,  1914,  Prince  William 
of  Wied  accepted  the  crown  of  Albania,  offered  to 
him  by  an  Albanian  deputation,  ascended  the 
throne  March  13,  and  in  the  following  Septem- 
ber left  the  country.  Thereupon  Essad  Pasha, 
who  had  been  expelled  from  Albania  in  May,  re- 
turned and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  set 
up  a  military  government.     Anarchy  ensued. 

The  provisional  frontiers  of  the  country  would 
have  embraced  an  area  of  about  10,800  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  850,000.  This 
area  has  been  encroached  upon,  from  the  south, 
by  the  Greeks.  Of  the  inhabitants,  Mohamme- 
dans are  estimated  to  number  590,000,  Orthodox 
140,000,  and  Roman  Catholics  120,000.  Esti- 
mated population  of  towns:  Durazzo  (the  pro- 
visional   capital),    5000;    Scutari,    35,000;    El- 


basan,  13,000;  Argyrocastron,  12,000;  Tirana, 
12,000;  Berat,  8500;  Korytza,  8000;  Valona, 
0500. 

HiSTOBT.  After  the  prudent  but  inglorious 
retirement  of  the  Prince  (Mpret)  William  of 
Wied  (a  German  princeling  who  had  been  placed 
upon  the  throne  by  the  Powers  in  1913,  see  the 
Yfar  Book  for  1913  and  1914)  from  the  turbu- 
lent Principality  of  Albania,  the  government  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Essad  Pasha,  who  had  formerly 
held  the  portfolios  of  war  and  the  interior  in 
William's  cabinet,  and  had  subsequently  been 
exiled  as  a  traitor  to  his  sovereign.  Returning 
in  triumph  after  the  flight  of  the  Prince,  Essad 
seized  the  government  and  declared  that  he 
would  hold  Albania  in  trust  for  Burhan  Ed-din, 
a  younger  son  of  ex-Sultan  Abdul  Hamid.  Es- 
sad, however,  found  it  extremely  difficult  to  re- 
tain the  loyalty  of  his  Mohammedan  supporters, 
since  his  own  sympathies  were  with  Italy  and 
Serbia,  whereas  the  Mohammedans  of  Albania 
in  large  part  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Central 
Powers  at  whose  side  Turkey  was  flghting.  Un- 
rest caused  by  the  scarcity  of  food  supplies  and 
local  disturbances,  which  the  government  was 
powerless  to  prevent,  had  before  the  close  of  the 
year  1914  furnished  Italy  with  an  excuse  for  the 
occupation  of  Avlona  and  given  Greece  a  pretext 
for  the  seizure  of  Albanian  Epirus.  All  these 
circumstances  contributed  to  swell  the  current 
of  discontent  in  Albanian  politics  and  led  di- 
rectly to  the  outbreak  of  rebellion  in  January, 
1915.  Up  to  the  very  gates  of  Durazzo  the  rebel 
forces  surged,  demanaing  the  retirement  of  Essad 
Pasha,  the  reversal  of  his  pro-Serbian  and  pro- 
Italian  policies,  and  the  surrender  of  the  Serbian 
and  Italian  envoys  at  Durazzo.  Terrified,  Essad 
Pasha  appealed  to  Italy  for  aid  in  defending 
himself  against  the  rebels.  In  response  to  his 
appeal,  Italian  warships,  which  had  been  de- 
tailed to  watch  the  Albanian  situation,  directed 
their  guns  against  the  rebels  and  repulsed  the 
attack  on  Durazzo.  In  view  of  the  critical  situ- 
ation, Italy  landed  more  troops  on  the  Albanian 
coast,  and  Greece  hurried  a  warship  to  protect 
the  numerous  Hellenic  inhabitants  of  Durazzo. 
By  recalling  the  warship,  shortly  afterwards,  the 
Greek  government  recognized  Italy's  predominant 
interests  in  the  northern  part  of  Albania. 

In  February  a  large  force  of  Albanian  insur- 
gents crossed  the  frontier  into  Serbia,  near 
Prizrend,  and  occupied  Zapod,  Topliana,  Gla- 
votchnitch,  Vrbnitza,  Jour,  and  Vranichte. 
Sympathetic  observers  interpreted  the  incident 
as  an  indication  of  Albanian  nationalism,  which 
aspired  to  reimite  with  Albania  the  Albanian 
populations  of  Prizrend,  Prishtina,  Mitrovitza, 
Uskub,  Dibra,  Struga,  and  Ochrida,  chafing  un- 
der Serbian  rule,  in  addition  to  Jakova  and 
Ipek,  recently  annexed  by  Montenegro.  The 
Serbian  government,  however,  regarded  the  ir- 
regular Albanian  invasion  of  Serbia  as  an  act 
of  wanton  aggression  which  would  fully  justify 
a  retaliatory  Serbian  invasion  of  Albania.  The 
Albanian  rebels,  it  was  alleged,  were  being  sup- 
plied with  arms  and  incited  to  attack  Serbia  by 
agents  of  Austria.  Serbia  must  therefore  take 
measures  to  pacify  her  Albanian  frontier.  Ac- 
cordingly Serbian  troops  crossed  over  into  Al- 
bania from  Ochrida,  in  Southwestern  Serbia,  and 
advanced  in  the  direction  of  Elbassan.  After  de- 
feating an  Albanian  force  at  Krakew,  the  Serbs 
entered  Elbassan,  June  3d,  and  pressed  on  to 
Tirana.     There  they  were  met  by  Essad  Pasha, 


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25 


ALCOHOL 


who  had  held  out  against  the  rebels  at  Durazzo 
and  had  finally  driven  them  oS,  although  on 
more  than  one  occasion  his  palace  had  been  dam- 
aged and  he  had  stood  in  imminent  danger 
from  the  rebel  artillery.  The  amicable  rela- 
tions between  Essad  Pasha  and  the  invading 
Serbs  was  strikingly  manifested  when  Essad 
joined  the  invaders  and  the  Serbian  commander 
issued  a  proclamation  announcing  his  intention 
to  punish  the  insurgents  who  had  rebelled 
against  Essad  Pasha  and  promising  to  withdraw 
from  Albania  as  soon  as  '^Albania's  son"  (Essad 
Pasha)  had  been  firmly  reinstated.  ''We  bring 
peace  and  love/'  declared  the  Serbian  leader,  ''to 
all  who  are  with  us,  and  against  those  who  are 
opposed  to  us  we  draw  the  sword." 

While  the  Serbian  army  invested  Durazzo  and 
temporarily  opened  Serbia's  long-coveted  "win- 
dow on  t^e  Adriatic,"  Montenegrin  forces  in- 
vaded Albania  from  the  north  and  won  back  for 
King  Nicholas  the  prize  of  which  Austria  had 
deprived  him  in  1913.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
other  Powers  had  occupied  other  parts  of  Al- 
bania, Montenegro  felt  warranted  in  reconquer- 
ing the  important  town  of  Scutari  in  Northern 
Albania,  June  27th.  The  Montenegrin  com- 
mander, General  Vukotich,  lost  no  time  in  ar- 
resting the  Austrian  agents  who,  according  to 
the  Montenegrins,  had  generously  supplied  Al- 
banian nationalists  with  arms,  money,  and 
grievances  for  attacks  on  Montenegro.  Large 
quantities  of  ammunition  of  Austrian  origin 
were  reported  to  have  been  confiscated  in  Scutari 
by  the  Montenegrin  authorities.  While  Serbian 
and  Montenegrin  forces  were  taking  possession 
of  parts  of  Albania,  the  Italian  press  manifested 
some  concern  lest  Italian  interests  might  be  in- 
jured. In  July,  however,  Montenegro  promised 
to  submit  her  Albanian  claims  to  the  decision 
of  the  Entente  Powers,  and  in  the  following 
month  Premier  Pashitch  of  Serbia  was  quoted 
in  an  important  interview  by  the  Corriere  della 
Serra  to  the  effect  that  Serbia  would  fully  recog- 
nize Italy's  dominant  interests  in  the  Adriatic 
littoral. 

In  December,  as  a  result  of  the  Austro-Ger- 
man-Bulgar  campaign  in  Serbia,  some  remnants 
of  the  Serbian  armies,  accompanied  by  throngs 
of  homeless  and  terror-stricken  Serbian  peasants, 
sought  refuge  in  Albania.  The  scarcity  of  food 
and  the  prevalence  of  disease  in  Albania  were 
consequently  still  further  aggravated.  In  De- 
cember also  the  Italian  government  landed  some 
thirty  thousand  troops  in  Albania.  This  step 
was  heralded  in  the  press  as  a  loyal  effort  to 
succor  Serbia;  quite  possibly,  however,  Italy's 
action  was  calculated  solely  to  strengthen  her 
hold  upon  the  coveted  coast  of  Albania.  Just 
at  the  close  of  the  year  it  was  reported  that  a 
Bulgarian  army,  pursuing  the  Serbians  into  Al- 
bania, had  captured  the  Albanian  town  of  El- 
bassan.  Consult  article  on  the  Wab  of  the  Na- 
tions. 

ALBEE,  John.  American  author  and  poet, 
died  March  24,  1015.  He  was  bom  at  Belling- 
ham,  Mass.,  in  1833,  and  graduated  from  Phil- 
lips Academy,  Andover,  in  1854.  He  studied  the- 
ology at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School  in  1858. 
During  his  student  days  he  was  a  frequent  visi- 
tor at  the  home  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  at 
Concord.  He  was  also  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
Alcotts  and  Thoreau.  For  many  years  he  lived 
at  New  Castle,  N.  H.  He  wrote  much  in  prose 
and  verse.     Among  his   writings  are:    Literary 


Art  (1881);  Poems  (1883);  History  of  New 
Castle  (1884);  Prose  Idylls  (1892);  Remem- 
brances of  Emerson  (1900);  and  Confessions  of 
Boyhood   (1910). 

ALBEBTy  Kino  of  Beloiuk.  See  Belgium 
and  Fbance,  History,  passim. 

ALBEBTA.  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  between  Saskatchewan  and  British  Co- 
lumbia. Capital,  Edmonton.  Area,  255,586 
square  miles.  Population,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1911,  374,663,  the  increase  over  1901  being 
413.1  per  cent.  In  1911,  Edmonton  had  24,900 
inhabitants;  Calgary,  43,704;  Lethbridge,  8050. 
These  towns  have  since  greatly  increased  in  pop- 
ulation. The  provincial  government  is  under  a 
lieutenant-governor,  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dominion.  He  acts  through  an 
executive  council,  or  responsible  minority  of 
eight  members.  There  is  a  unicameral  legisla- 
tive assembly  of  66  members  elected  by  direct 
vote  for  five  years.  Lieutenant-Governor  in 
1915,  Robert  George  Brett,  succeeding  George 
Hedley  Vicars  Bulyea.  Premier  in  1915,  A.  L. 
Sifton.    See  Canada. 

ALCOHOL.  The  European  war  has  been  the 
occasion  of  a  great  deal  of  discussion  as  to  the 
effects  of  alcohol  in  relation  to  the  soldiers. 
Early  in  the  war,  as  noted  in  the  1914  Year 
Book,  all  of  the  contending  nations  took  more 
or  less  severe  measures  against  the  production 
and  consumption  of  alcoholic  beverages.  The 
evidence  is  overwhelming  that  the  use  of  alcohol, 
even  in  small  amounts,  impairs  muscular  co- 
ordination, dulls  the  mind  and  special  senses, 
and  reduces  efiiciency  in  work  demanding  rapid 
and  accurate  mental  or  physical  effort.  The 
military  authorities  in  Europe,  however,  evi- 
dently think  that  the  soldier  in  the  field  needs 
some  stimulation  in  times  of  unusual  stress, 
strain,  and  exposure,  and  that  it  compensates 
in  its  stimulating  effects  enough  to  counterbal- 
ance its  admitted  disadvantages.  The  British 
Medical  Journal,  in  discussing  the  question, 
gives  the  amount  of  alcohol  allowed  by  the  army 
regulations  of  various  countries.  The  English 
army  ration  allows  each  man  two  and  a  half 
ounces  of  rum  twice  a  week,  while  in  the  trenches 
the  men  are  allowed  three  ounces  twice  a  week 
in  ordinary  weather,  and  two  and  a  half  ounces 
daily  in  bad  weather.  This  is  a  minimum  of  five 
ounces  a  week  and  a  maximum  of  seventeen  and 
a  half  ounces.  Two  and  a  half  ounces  of  rum  is 
estimated  to  contain  25.5  grammes  of  alcohol. 
In  the  French  army  each  soldier  is  allowed 
daily  50  grammes  of  rum,  an  equivalent  of  20 
grammes  of  alcohol.  The  German  soldier  has  a 
daily  allowance  of  1793  grammes  of  beer  and  20 
grammes  of  brandy,  equivalent  to  70.7  grammes 
of  alcohol.  The  Austrian  soldier  receives  daily 
one-half  litre  of  wine,  equivalent  to  about  40 
grammes  of  alcohol. 

One  of  the  unfortunate  effects  of  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  manufacture  of  vodka  in  Russia,  ac- 
cording to  the  Policlinico  of  Rome,  is  that  lo- 
tions and  medicines  containing  alcohol  and  de- 
natured alcohol  are  being  consumed  in  large 
amounts  since  the  supply  of  liquor  has  been  cut 
off.  As  a  consequence  a  number  of  deaths  have 
occurred  from  poisoning  and  it  was  deemed  nec- 
essary to  issue  a  decree  that  no  remedies  contain- 
ing alcohol  may  be  sold  without  a  physician's 
order.  This  decree  met  with  such  a  storm  of 
protests  that  it  was  rescinded  and  a  new  order 
issued    to    the    effect    that    not    more    than    30 


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ALCOHOL 

grammes  of  any  medicinal  preparation  contain- 
ing alcohol  could  be  sold  to  one  person.  Kuznet- 
zoff  states  that  after  the  prohibition  of  the  sale 
of  vodka  in  Russia  last  August,  cases  of  poison- 
in?  from  denatured  alcohol,  varnish,  and  other 
substitutes  for  the  Russian  whiskey  began  to 
crowd  the  hospitals.  At  Petrograd  the  number 
admitted  to  one  large  hospital  had  reached  1292 
by  the  end  of  the  year,  including  861  cases  of 
poisonins  from  denatured  alcohol,  382  from  var- 
nish, and  48  from  both  combined.  There  were  11 
deaths.  The  cases  are  classified  by  trade  or  pro- 
fession, and  Lukin  discusses  the  pathologic  and 
anatomic   findings. 

Under  a  decree  of  June  3<Hh,  Austria  has  pro- 
hibited the  establishment  and  operation  of  new 
non -agri cultural  distilleries  of  alcohol,  which  are 
subject  to  a  consumption  tax  under  the  laws  of 
1888  and  1889.  The  construction  and  operation 
of  new  alcohol  refineries  is  likewise  prohibited, 
and  no  enlargements  may  be  made  which  would 
result  in  increased  production. 

Lambert,  in  considering  the  reasons  for  the 
relapses  of  periodic  drinkers,  is  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  these  cases  are  really  victims  of  nico- 
tine poisoning  and  this  is  seen  most  frequently 
among  cigarette  smokers,  who  inhale  the  smoke. 
He  explains  the  sequence  of  events  somewhat  as 
follows:  tobacco  at  first  is  used  to  soothe  the 
nerves,  and  for  stimulating  the  circulation  and 
quickening  the  cerebral  action.  It  apparently  in- 
creases mental  activity  in  the  early  stages  of 
moderate  indulgence,  and  it  becomes  at  length 
a  panacea  for  the  small  worries  and  disturbances 
of  daily  life.  Soon  we  have  the  usual  evidence 
of  habit  formation,  the  individual  being  con- 
tented and  soothed  during  the  period  of  indul- 
gence, but  nervous  and  unstrung  at  other  times. 
Finally  the  narcotic  effect  is  lost  and  the  patient 
turns  to  alcohol  as  a  substitute,  and  such  an  oc- 
casion usually  ends  in  a  spree.  With  returning 
sobriety  both  the  alcoholic  and  tobacco  poisons 
are  eliminated,  but  the  victim  soon  begins  smok- 
ing again  as  the  less  harmful  habit.  Lambert  is 
convinced  that  the  majority  of  periodic  drinkers 
are  subjected  to  double  narcotic  poisoning  and  if 
they  are  made  to  stop  smoking  the  alcoholic 
craving  ceases  automatically.  See  Insanity; 
Occupational  Diseases. 

ALDRICHy  Nelson  Wilmabth,  former 
United  States  Senator,  from  Rhode  Island,  died 
April  16.  1915.  He  was  born  in  Foster,  R.  I.,  in 
1841.  His  career  began  as  a  clerk  in  a  whole- 
sale grocery  store  in  Providence.  He  was  suc- 
cessful from  the  very  beginning  of  his  commer- 
cial life.  His  business  career  was  interrupted 
in  1862,  when  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
tenth  Rhode  Island  infantry.  After  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  of  nine  months,  he  returned  to 
Providence,  and  became  a  partner  in  the  whole- 
sale grocery  firm  in  which  he  had  formerly 
work^.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  City 
Council  of  Providence,  and  at  once  showed  re- 
markable adroitness  in  politics.  In  1875  he  was 
elected  to  the  Rhode  Island  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  in  the  following  year  became  speaker. 
By  that  time  he  was  a  power  in  the  politics  of 
his  State.  Elected  representative  to  Congress 
from  the  first  district  of  Rhode  Island  in  1878, 
he  served  two  terms,  resigning  in  1881  to  take 
the  position  in  the  Senate  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Gen.  A.  E.  Burnside.  He  was  succes- 
sively reelected  to  the  Senate  in  1880,  1892,  1898, 
and  1905,  thus  serving  as  senator  from  Oct.  5, 


26  ALBZANDEB 

1881,  until  Mar.  3,  1911.  It  was  not  until  he 
had  been  a  member  of  the  body  for  at  least  tea 
years  that  his  power  b^an  to  be  felt.  In  1883, 
when  a  measure  for  the  revision  of  the  tariff  act 
came  before  Congress,  Senator  Aldrich  gave  first 
expression  to  what  might  be  termed  a  New  Eng- 
land idea  in  regard  to  tariff  revision.  I4iter  it 
became  known  as  the  "Aldrich  Idea."  This  idea 
was  that  the  tariff  should  be  made  as  high  as 
possible.  In  1890,  when  the  McKinley  bill  was 
before  Congress,  Senator  Aldrich  was  chairman 
of  the  committee.  When  it  was  reported  out  of 
this  committee  even  its  author  could  hardly 
recognize  it,  for  in  almost  all  important  items 
the  tariff  had  been  made  higher.  In  spite  of  this 
the  bill  was  paswd,  and  was  signed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. Aldrich  bitterly  opposed  the  Wilson  tariff 
bill,  in  1896  and  1897.  By  this  time  it  had  be- 
come recognized  that  he  was  one  of  tl^e  most  im- 
portant figures  in  the  Senate.  It  was  said  of 
Aldrich  that  he  paid  no  attention  to  what  was 
printed  about  him,  that  he  denied  nothing,  and 
admitted  nothing.  After  his  entrance  into  pub- 
lic life,  chiefly  through  investments  in  Rhode  Is- 
land traction  companies,  he  became  a  rich  man. 
During  the  passage  of  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff 
law  charges  were  made  that  items  in  which  the 
chairman  of  the  Finance  Commitee  was  inter- 
ested received  more  consideration  than  others 
affected  by  the  bill.  For  once  Aldrich  was 
aroused,  and  made  a  categorical  denial.  In  the 
Senate  he,  with  Joseph  G.  Cannon  of  Illinois  in 
the  House,  formed  the  bulwark  of  high  tariff, 
which  long  stood  against  every  attack  of  the  re- 
form element.  Senator  Aldrich  was  greatly  in- 
terested in  financial  measures,  and  had  a  large 
part  in  the  preparation  of  the  Aldrich-Vreeland 
Currency  Law.  His  power  as  a  party  leader  was 
so  great  that  he  was  known  as  the  "Republican 
Boss  of  the  United  States."  This  power  con- 
tinued until  a  wave  of  insurgency  overwhelmed 
the  conservative  group  in  Congress,  and  it  was 
the  clash  between  the  ideas  of  party  managers, 
and  principally  between  the  ideas  of  those  led  by 
Aldrich  and  Cannon  and  those  advanced  by  the 
insurgents,  that  caused  the  split  out  of  which 
grew  the  Progressive  Party.  Senator  Aldrich 
declined  renomination  on  the  expiration  of  his 
term  in  1911.  He  declared  that  he  wished  to  de- 
vote his  time  to  the  work  of  the  National  Mone-. 
tary  Commission,  of  which  he  had  been  made 
chairman  upon  its  organization  in  1908.  As 
chairman  he  directed  a  comprehensive  investiga- 
tion of  American  and  foreign  banking  and  cur- 
rency systems,  with  the  view  of  reforming  the 
banking  system  of  the  United  States.  In  1911 
he  made  public  a  tentative  scheme  designed  to 
increase  the  effectiveness  of  bank  reserves 
through  their  control  by  reserve  associations. 
The  scheme  was  endorsed  by  most  monetary  spe- 
cialists, but  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  was  widely 
regarded  as  the  agent  of  highly  protected  in- 
terests, it  was  not  received  with  much  popular 
approval.  After  his  retirement  from  the  Senate 
he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  his  country  home  at 
Warwick  Neck  on  Narragansett  Bay. 

ALEXANDEB,  Gboss.  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  clergyman  and  editor,  died  Sept.  7, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  Scottsville,  Ky.,  in  1852, 
and  graduated  from  the  University  of  Louisville 
in  1871.  From  1871-73  he  was  tutor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisville,  and  from  1873-76  professor 
of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Warren  College,  Ky. 
After  studying  at  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 


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ALEZANDEB. 


27 


and  after  pastorates  at  Lake  Mohonk,  N.  Y.,  and 
elsewhere,  in  1877  he  joined  the  Louisville  Con- 
ference of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South, 
and  was  a  pastor  in  Kentucky  from  1877  to  1884. 
Returning  from  a  year  spent  in  Europe,  he  be- 
came professor  of  New  Testament  Greek  and 
Exegesis  in  Vanderbilt  University,  holding  this 
position  until  1902,  when  he  became  presiding 
elder  in  Louisville.  From  1006  until  his  death 
he  was  editor  of  the  Methodist  Review,  and  book 
editor  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  many  conventions,  and 
took  part  in  the  most  important  movements  of 
his  church.  He  received  honorary  degrees  from 
Emory  ai^d  Henry  College.  His  published  writ- 
ings include:  A  History  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South  (1804)  ;  The  Beginning 
of  Methodism  in  the  South  (1807) ;  The  Son  of 
Man — Studies  in  His  Life  and  Teachings 
(1809)  ;  and  New  Study  of  the  Resurrection  of 
Jesus   (1013). 

ALEXANDEBy  James  Waddell,  former  life 
insurance  official,  died  Sept.  21,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1839.  When  he  was 
still  a  boy  his  family  removed  to  New  York 
City,  where  his  father  became  pastor  of  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church.  The  yoimg 
man  met  Henry  B.  Hyde,  the  founder  of  the 
Equitable  Life  Insurance  Society,  and  the  friend- 
ship which  followed  resulted  in  the  close  busi- 
ness relations  which  existed  between  the  two 
men  up  to  the  time  of  the  death  of  Hyde  in 
1899.  Mr.  Alexander  graduated  from  Princeton 
in  1860,  and  afterwards  studied  law.  In  1869 
Mr.  Hyde  took  the  first  steps  toward  the  found- 
ing of  the  Equitable  Life,  and  in  1866  Mr.  Alex- 
ander became  secretary  of  the  society.  He  was 
elected  president  in  1899.  Soon  after  the  death 
of  Mr.  Hyde  he  was  made  one  of  the  trustees 
of  his  601  shares  of  Equitable  stock.  Shortly 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  James  Hazen 
Hyde  became  first  vice-president  of  the  society. 
A  controversy  between  him  and  Mr.  Alexander 
began  and  continued  for  five  years,  when  it  was 
ended  by  the  investigation  of  the  insurance  com- 
panies carried  on  by  Charles  E.  Hughes.  In 
February,  1905,  Mr.  Alexander  issued  a  petition 
calling  for  Mr.  Hyde's  withdrawal  as  candidate 
for  reflection  for  the  vice-presidency  of  the  com- 
pany and  calling  also  for  a  mutualization  of  the 
company.  A  compromise  was  reached  and  Mr. 
Hyde  and  Mr.  Alexander  were  reelected.  The 
mutualization  plan,  however,  met  with  delay. 
Mr.  Alexander  then  began  a  publicity  campaign 
against  Mr.  Hyde,  and  the  latter  retorted  with 
charges  against  Mr.  Alexander.  The  State  Su- 
perintendent of  Insurance  was  at  last  forced  to 
investigate  the  society,  and  the  board  of  direc- 
tors also  began  an  investigation,  which  resulted 
in  the  condemnation  of  both  Hyde  and  Alex- 
ander. Nearly  all  the  directors  resigned,  and 
the  business  of  the  society  was  almost  at  a 
standstill  when  Thomas  F.  Ryan  bought  Mr. 
Hyde's  majority  stock  for  $2,500,000,  and  both 
Hyde  and  Alexander  resigned.  Nearly  all  Alex- 
ander's very  large  fortune  was  used  up  in  set- 
tling claims  arising  from  insurance  affairs. 
After  his  business  difficulties,  he  lived  quietly 
at  his  summer  home  until  his  death.  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, of  which  he  was  a  trustee. 

ALEXATJDEBr,  John  White.  American 
artist,  died  May  31,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Allegheny  City,  Pa.,  in  1856.     At  tlie  age  of  six- 


AIiPAIiEA 

teen  he  removed  to  New  York  City,  where  for 
three  years  he  worked  in  the  art  department  of 
Harper  &  Brothers  as  an  illustrator.  He  went 
abroad  in  1877  and  studied  at  the  Munich  Royal 
Academy,  and  later  in  Venice,  Florence,  Holland, 
and  Paris.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States 
(1881)  he  at  once  won  recognition  as  a  portrait 
painter,  and  many  eminent  men  sat  for  him, 
among  them  Walt  Whitman,  Joseph  Jefferson, 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  John  Burroughs,  Qrover 
Cleveland,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  and  E.  L. 
Lewis.  In  1891  he  became  ill  and  went  abroad 
for  his  health;  visited  Spain  and  Morocco;  and 
in  the  course  of  his  travels  made  a  series  of  the 
portraits  of  distinguished  writers.  He  exhibited 
in  Paris  for  the  first  time  in  1893,  and  this  was 
the  beginning  of  his  international  fame.  Three 
portraits  of  women  which  he  sent  to  the  Salon 
were  accepted.  Because  of  the  merits  of  these 
portraits  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Soci4t4  National  des  Beaux- Arts.  The  following 
December  he  exhibited  two  pictures  at  the  GraJf- 
ton  Gallery  in  London,  and  there  won  new  hon- 
ors. Mr.  Alexander  also  did  distinguished  work 
in  mural  painting.  The  six  panels  in  the  Con- 
gressional Library  in  Washington  are  repre- 
sentative of  this  phase  of  his  art.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  active  members  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  and  was,  from  1909  until  his 
resignation  shortly  before  his  death,  president 
of  that  institution.  In  1909  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  from  Princeton  University,  and 
he  also  received  medals  and  other  marks  of  dis- 
tinction at  exhibitions  at  home  and  abroad.  His 
pictures  hang  in  some  of  the  most  important 
galleries  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  A 
public-spirited  citizen,  he  was  a  trustee  of  many 
institutions  in  New  York.  He  was,  also,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Let- 
ters. 

ALFALFA.  Climatic  conditions  in  1915 
were  generally  favorable  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa 
in  all  the  important  alfalfa  producing  countries 
of  the  world,  but  the  harvest  of  the  hay  was 
interfered  with  to  some  extent,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  by  periods  of  rainy  weather.  The 
world's  acreage  devoted  to  the  crop,  as  indicated 
by  reports,  was  increased  mainly  in  North  and 
South  America,  and  principally  in  the  United 
States  and  Argentina,  the  two  countries  in 
which  alfalfa  culture  is  assuming  highly  im- 
portant proportions.  Statistics  on  the  world's 
production  or  on  the  yields  by  countries  and 
states  are  not  generally  available.  In  the 
United  States  reports  showed  that  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, California,  and  Colorado  continued  to  be 
the  leading  alfalfa  producing  States.  In  Kansas 
the  acreage  increased  from  less  than  35,000 
acres  in  1891  to  approximately  1,200,000  acres 
in  1915.  Nebraska  also  reported  an  area  of 
over  1,000,000  acres  devoted  to  the  crop  the  past 
year.  The  production  in  each  of  these  two 
States  was  estimated  at  about  2.500,000  tons  of 
hay.  Among  the  Eastern  States  New  York 
again  held  first  place  in  alfalfa  hay  production. 
It  was  estimated  that  over  7,000,000  acres  of 
alfalfa  are  now  grown  in  the  United  States,  and 
that  the  hay  yield  is  approximately  18,500,000 
tons  annually.  The  alfalfa  seed  crop  of  1915 
was  produced  principally  in  Utah,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, California,  Arizona,  Oklahoma,  Idaho, 
and  Montana.  The  annual  yield  of  seed  in  the 
United  States  is  reported  as  ranging  at  present 
from  350,000  to  375,000  bushels.     The  choicest 


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AIiFALFA 


28 


ALLEN 


seed,  or  seed  given  preference  by  many  buyers, 
18  produced  in  Montana  and  other  parts  of  the 
northern  Great  Plains  regions. 

Experience  during  the  past  year  gave  further 
proof  that  alfalfa  is  not  successful  under  arid 
or  semi-arid  conditions  when  grown  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  but  that  it  requires  seeding  in  rows 
and  cultivation  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
growing  period.  Ftom  some  localities  in  the 
Southern  States  alfalfa  grown  in  a  mixture  with 
orchard  grass  was  reported  as  giving  a  high 
tonnage  per  acre,  preventing  lodging  of  the  al- 
falfa and  furnishing  in  the  hay  a  better  balanced 
ration  than  either  grown  alone.  For  this  pur- 
pose 16  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  and  28  pounds  of 
orchard  grass  seed  were  sown  per  acre.  Work 
conducted  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  showed  that  silage  may  be  made 
from  weedy  alfalfa  not  well  suited  for  hay,  and 
that  such  silage  can  be  used  profitably  as  a  sup- 
plementary feed  for  fattening  steers  on  alfalfa 
hay  and  barley.  In  feeding  trials  by  the  Ne- 
braska Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  a  ra- 
tion of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay  produced  the  cheap- 
est gains  of  any  ration  used,  and  the  steers  fed 
corn  and  alfalfa  hay  gained  as  rapidly  as  the 
steers  on  any  of  the  other  rations  in  the  com- 
parison. 

ALGEBL/L  A  north  African  country,  called 
a  colony  but  regarded  administratively  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  French  Republic.  Algiers  is 
the  capital. 

Abea  and  Population.  Area  by  departments, 
European  and  native  population  (1911  census), 
and  total  density  per  square  kilometer,  are 
shown  below: 

Department  Bq.  Kms.  Europeans     Natives  D. 

Algiers    54,640     271,767     1.421.819  81 

GonBtantine     87.802      155.654     1,945,443  24 

Oran     65,897     819,089         892,212  19 

Algeria  proper  ...207.789  746,510  4.259,474  24 
Southern    TerritorieB.867,550  5.588         481,052        1 

Total     575,289*752,043     4,740,526     10 

*222,119  square  miles. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the  population 
counted  apart  numbered  27,295  in  Algiers,  17,- 
349  in  Constantine,  18,894  in  Oran,  and  7721  in 
the  Southern  Territories;  making  a  total  for  all 
Algeria  of  5,663,828  inhabitants.  The  principal 
towns  are:  Algiers,  with  (1911)  172,397  in- 
habitants; Oran,  123,086;  Constantine,  65,173; 
BAne,  42,039;  Tlemcen,  39,874;  Blidah,  35,461; 
Tizi-Ouzou,  31,404;  Sidi-bel-Abbfts,  30,942;  Phil- 
ippeville,  27,370. 

The  births  for  the  year  1910  numbered  153,- 
157,  still  births  2338.  deaths  108,950,  marriages 
40,776.  For  the  year  1912:  161,851  living  births 
(22,557  of  which  European),  2352  still  births, 
41,917  marriages,  10,730  divorces,  92,752  deaths. 

Pboduction.  The  country  is  largely  agricul- 
tural. In  the  table  below  are  given,  by  depart- 
ments and  with  totals  for  Algeria  proper,  areas 
in  thousands  of  hectares  and  yield  in  thousands 
of  metric  quintals  (wine  in  thousands  of  hecto- 
litres) of  main  crops  for  the  year  1912: 

Crops                          Al.  Con.  O.  Total 

Vines,    ha 68.6  84.4  18.1  166.1 

Vines,    hs 4,217.0  1,883.0  571.0  6,671.0 

Cereals,     ha 686.0  917.2  1.443.0  3.046.2 

Cereals,    qs 4,161.0  5,576.0  6,716.0  16.453.0 

Other,*     ha 44.0  22.0  49.0  115.0 

Other,    qs 486.0  896.0  434.0  1,315.0 

Meadows,t    ha.     ..       13.6  7.7  7.2  28.5 


Crops  At.  Con.  O.  Total 

Meadows,  qs 490.0        186.0        208.0  884.0 

Olives,   no 2,098.0         734.0     8.487.0       M14.0 

Olives,    qs 401.0  95.0     2,758.0       8.254.0 

*  Other  foodstaffs,  including  roots  and  legumes. 

t  Sown  grasses. 

The  area  under  vines  in  1910  was  152,100  hec- 
tares, yielding  8,414,000  hectolitres  of  wine; 
cereals,  3,001,000  hectares,  yielding  22,147,000 
metric  quintals;  roots,  legumes,  etc.,  89,300  hec- 
tares, 1,319,000  quintals;  forage  plants  and  sown 
grass,  26,000  hectares,  822,000  quintals.  Natu- 
ral grasses  covered  851,000  hectares,  the  harvest 
being  estimated  at  3,871,000  quintals.  Olive 
trees  number  6,655,000,  yielding  3,364,000  quin- 
tals of  olives  and  351,000  hectolitres  of  oil.  In 
the  table  below  will  be  foimd  the  areas  devoted 
to  principal  cereal  crops  for  two  years,  with  the 
total  yield  and  the  average  yield  per  hectare 
(preliminary  figures)   for  1914-15: 

Hectares  Quintals  Qs. 

1913-14         191415  1914-15  ha. 

Wheat    1,868,084     1,298,688  9,481,472  7.8 

Barley    1,267.982     1,094.005  8.679,885  7.9 

Oate     281,714        288,770  2,189,172  9.2 

Fruits,  olive  oil,  timber,  cork,  and  live  stock 
are  also  produced  for  export.  Silk  culture  is 
practiced.  The  mines  yield  iron,  zinc,  lead,  sil- 
ver, copper,  mercury,  coal,  and  petroleum.  The 
phosphate  industry  is  progressing.  The  fisheries 
products  are  of  appreciable  value.  Live  stock 
(1911):  226,764  horses,  192,484  mules.  279,315 
donkeys,  1,113,952  cattle,  8,528,610  sheep,  3,861,- 
847  goats,  110,012  swine. 

COMMEBCE    AND    COMMUNICATIONS.      The    tabic 

below  shows  the  imports  for  consumption  and 
exports  of  domestic  produce  in  thousands  of 
francs : 

1908         1909         1910         1912        1913 
Importo     ...449.300  462,000  512,000  669.638   729.112 
Exports    ...819,200  859.200  518.800  546.099  562,917 

In  the  table  below  is  given  the  1912  trade  by 
great  classes,  values  in  francs: 

Imports  Exports 

Animals,   etc 87.888,000  64.804.000 

Vegetable    produete     114,904.000  409,416.000 

Minerals,  etc 45,452  47,058 

Manufactures    471,394  24,821 

Total    669,638,000  546,099,000 

Vessels  entered  (1912  trade),  6375,  of  6,589,- 
265  tons.  Railway  in  operation  Dec.  31,  1912, 
3285  kilometers  of  main  and  150  kilometers  of 
local  lines;  telegraph  lines,  15,199  kilometers, 
wires,  39,662. 

Finance,  etc.  The  budget  for  1914  esti- 
mated the  revenue  at  171,364,660  francs  and  the 
expenditure  at  171,325,658:  for  the  Southern 
Territories  revenue  and  expenditure  were  calcu- 
lated at  5,531,025  and  5,508,468  francs,  respec- 
tively. The  debt  stood  Jan.  1,  1913,  at  71,853,- 
205  francs.  A  governor-general  administers  the 
country. 

ALIEN  LABOB  LAWS.     See  under  Labob. 

ALLEN,  Chables  Julius.  American  soldier, 
died  June  16,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  in  1840,  and  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1864.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  first  lieutenant  in  the 
engineers.     He  was  brevetted  captain  in  August, 


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AIiLEN  20 

1864,  for  highly  meritorious  service  in  the  forts 
at  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  received  the  brevet  of 
major  for  gallant  services  in  the  following  year. 
During  the  war  he  served  in  the  division  of 
West  Mississippi  and  the  Department  of  Louisi- 
ana. He  rose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  in  1897, 
and  brigadier -general  in  1904,  retiring,  by  his 
own  wish,  in  the  last  named  year.  His  chief 
work  was  in  the  construction  of  fortifications 
and  in  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  harbors. 
During  the  Spanish-American  War  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  defenses  in  Washington. 

ALLEN,  William  Fbedebick.  An  American 
editor  and  engineer,  died  Nov.  9,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  in  1836.  Civil  engi- 
neering he  learned  from  practice  in  the  field,  and 
from  private  study.  His  early  engineering  work 
was  followed  by  a  lon^  career  as  manager  of  the 
National  Railway  Publication  Company,  begin- 
ning in  1873.  To  him  was  referred  in  1881  the 
problem  of  working  out  a  standard  time  reckon- 
ing that  would  obviate  the  confusion  due  to  the 
use  of  the  more  than  fifty  time  standards  then 
prevailing  in  the  United  States.  His  plan, 
which  was  adopted,  is  the  one  now  used  through- 
out the  North  American  continent.  He  was  for 
several  years  a  delegate  to  the  meetings  of  the 
International  Railway  Congress,  and  in  1905  was 
associate  secretary-general  of  this  body.  He  re- 
ceived an  honorary  degree  from  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, and  from  the  Belgian  government  he 
received  a  decoration.  He  contributed  to  vari- 
ous magazines  and  encyclopaedias  on  subjects  re- 
lating to  railways  and  standard  time. 

a£L0TS.  See  Chemistry,  Industrial,  sec- 
tion so  entitled;  and  Metallurgy. 

ALSACE-LOBBAINE.  See  War  of  the 
Nations. 

ALTEBNATING  CUBBENTS.  See  Dyna- 
mo-£lectrig  Machinery;  Electric  Power, 
Transmission  of;  and  Electric  Railways. 

ALUMINUM  AND  BAUXITE.  The  pro- 
duction of  bauxite  and  the  consumption  of 
aluminum  in  the  United  States,  in  1914,  was  the 
largest  ever  recorded.  There  was  an  output  of 
219,318  long  tons  of  bauxite,  valued  at  $1,069,- 
104,  compared  with  202,241  long  tons,  valued  at 
$997,698  in  1913.  The  States  which  produced 
bauxite  in  1914  were:  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Georgia,  and  Tennessee.  Arkansas  produced 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  output.  The  produc- 
tion in  Georgia,  which  held  second  place  for 
two  years,  and  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee  was 
considerably  less  in  1914  than  in  1913.  The 
imports  of  bauxite  amounted  to  22,484  tons, 
valued  at  $96,500.  Bauxite  is  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  metallic  aluminum,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  aluminum  salts,  bauxite  bricks,  and 
alumdon.  Its  use  in  the  production  of  metal 
aluminum  is  by  far  the  most  important  one. 
The  quantity  of  aluminum  consumed  in  the 
United  States  in  1914  was  79,129,000  pounds, 
compared  with  72,379,000  pounds  in  1913.  The 
growth  of  the  industry  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  production  in  1844  was  150  poimds,  in  1894, 
550  pounds,  and  in  1904,  8,600,000  pounds.  The 
value  of  the  exports  of  aliuninum  and  of  the 
manufactures  of  aluminum  amounted  to  $1,546,- 
510  in  1914,  compared  with  $996,964  in  1913. 
Aluminum  is  the  most  abundant  of  materials, 
and  ranks  third  among  the  elements  on  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  beine  exceeded  only  by  oxy- 
gen and  cilicon.  See  also  Chemistry,  Indus- 
trial. 


ANDEBSON 


ALVEBSTONE,  Sir  Richard  Everard  Web- 
ster, first  baron.  An  English  jurist,  died  Dec. 
15,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1842,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Charter  House  School,  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  At  Cambridge  he  was  an 
honor  man,  and  received  the  honorary  degrees 
of  LL.D.  and  D.C.L.  In  1868  he  became  a  bar- 
rister, and  ten  years  later  queen's  counsel.  He 
stood  successfully  for  Parliament  in  1885;  was 
knighted  in  the  same  year;  and  was  appointed 
attorney-general,  an  office  which  he  held  three 
times  under  Lord  Salisbury.  In  1899  he  was 
made  a  baronet.  Lord  Alverstone  was  chiefly 
known  in  the  United  States  as  the  English  rep- 
resentative in  the  Alaska  Boundary  Commission. 
His  vote  in  upholding  the  principal  claims  of 
the  United  States  government  before  the  com- 
mission resulted  in  the  United  States  receiving 
a  favorable  decision.  As  a  result  of  his  action 
in  this  matter,  he  was  severely  criticised  in 
Canada,  the  Canadians  contending  that  the 
United  States  government  went  into  the  con- 
ference with  foreknowledge  that  the  United 
States  claims  were  to  be  upheld  and  that  Lord 
Alverstone  had  been  made  a  commissioner 
largely  to  carry  through  the  pre-arranged  pro- 
gramme. This  contention  was  never  proved. 
Lord  Alverstone  also  served  as  one  of  the  Eng- 
lish counsel  to  the  Boundary  Arbitration  Com- 
mission, which  met  in  Paris  in  response  to  the 
message  of  Cleveland  on  the  Venezuela  boimdary 
dispute.  In  1893  he  was  chairman  of  the 
British  Commission  at  the  World's  Fair.  He 
was  made  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England  in 
1900,  and  at  the  same  time  was  elevat^  to  the 
peerage. 

AMAZON,  The.  See  Exploration,  South 
America. 

AMEBICAN  ASSOCLAiTIONS  AND  SOCI- 
ETIES. For  any  organization  whose  official 
title  begins  with  the  word  American,  see  under 
the  specifically  descriptive  word  in  that  title. 

AMEBICAN  COMMISSION  FOB  BELIEF 
IN  BELGIUM.    See  Reuep  for  War  Victims. 

AMHEBST  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  learning,  foimded  in  1821  at  Amherst, 
Mass.  The  enrollment  in  the  several  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  425.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  44.  Prof.  Walton  Hale  Hamil- 
ton, formerly  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  was 
appointed  professor  of  economics,  and  Stark 
Young,  formerly  of  the  University  of  Texasj  was 
appointed  professor  of  English  literature.    The 

fifts  received  during  the  year  amounted  to  about 
25,000.  The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1915  amounted  to  $2,796,000,  and  the  in- 
come to  $176,364.  The  library  contains  110,000 
volumes.     President,  Alexander  Meiklejohn. 

ANAESTHESIA,  Bevan  made  a  study  of  the 
methods  of  anesthesia  now  in  vogue  and  at- 
tempted to  analyze  them  from  the  standpoints  of 
safety,  comfort,  efficiency,  control,  simplicity, 
and  the  after  effects  and  complications.  The 
agents  or  methods  studied  are  chloroform,  ether, 
nitrous  oxide  g^s,  scopolamine  and  morphine, 
spinal  anesthesia,  nerve  blocking,  infiltration, 
intravenous  anaesthesia,  both  general  and  lo- 
cal, intrarectal,  intratracheal,  intrapharyngeal, 
Crile's  anoci-association,  together  with  mixtures 
and  sequences.  Most  of  his  conclusions  are 
those  generally  accepted  at  the  present  time. 
Ether  given  by  the  drop  method  is  considered 
the  most  safe  and  simple  form  of  inducing  im- 
consciousness.    The  mortality  is  given  as  one  in 


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ANDSBSOIT  30 

5000  to  10,000  cases.  There  is  a  growing  dis- 
trust of  scopolamine  and  morphine  (see  Twi- 
light Sleep).  It  is  unreliable  and  unsafe. 
After  the  dose  is  once  injected  it  is  beyond  the 
control  of  the  surgeon.  Delirium,  sometimes  of 
a  serious  character,  is  produced.  As  a  prelimi- 
nary to  f^eneral  ansDsthesia  the  evidence  is  that 
scopolamine  and  morphine,  even  in  small  dosage, 
add  to  the  anaesthetic  risk  and  to  the  after  com- 
plications. Bevan's  study  demonstrates  it  to  be 
more  dangerous  than  chloroform,  and  he  esti- 
mates the  risk  as  one  death  to  500  cases.  It  is 
uncomfortable  and  inefficient  in  a  considerable 
number  of  cases.  Nerve  blocking,  i.e.  the  infil- 
tration with  an  anesthetic  such  as  cocaine  or 
novocaine  of  the  nerve  supply  to  the  part  to 
be  operated  upon,  requires  a  high  degree  of 
skill,  occasions  the  patient  considerable  suffer- 
ing, is  not  always  efficient,  and  has  often  to  be 
supplemented  by  general  aniesthesia.  In  the 
hands  of  a  specially  skilled  operator  the  method 
has,  however,  many  advantages.  Bevan's  paper 
is  notable  for  its  open  condemnation  of  rec- 
tal anaesthesia  and  Crile's  anoci-association. 
Against  rectal  anaesthesia  the  same  objections 
are  urged  as  against  the  previously  cited  meth- 
ods, namely,  lack  of  safety,  lack  of  control,  dis- 
comfort to  the  patient,  in^ciency,  the  possible 
complications  of  distention  of  the  bowels,  severe 
local  irritation  of  the  colon,  with  sometimes 
bloody  diarrhoea,  which  may  be  fatal.  Crile's 
assertion  that  in  anoci-association  the  brain  is 
completely  severed  from  the  field  of  operation 
by  blocking  the  nerve  with  novocaine  finds  no 
acceptance;  and  the  complicated  sequence  of 
scopolamine  and  morphine,  nitrous  oxide,  oxy- 
gen, ether,  novocaine  and  quinine,  and  urea 
hydrochlorid  is  also  open  to  many  objections. 
Rectal  anaesthesia  and  anoci-association  are  de- 
scribed in  the  1914  Year  Book. 

Sacbal  ANiEBTHESiA.  This  is  a  term  applied 
to  the  injection  of  a  local  anaesthetic  into  the 
sacral  canal,  called  by  Cathelin  "epidural,"  and 
Lllwen  "extradural"  anaesthesia.  The  procedure 
consists  of  injecting  through  the  dorsal  hiatus 
20  c.c.  of  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  novocaine, 
to  which  a  small  amount  of  epinephrin  has  been 
added.  Bull  has  used  this  technic  in  64  cases, 
the  result  being  ideal  in  47  of  them,  and  failure 
in  the  rest.  Of  the  complications  incident  to  the 
method  there  were  slight  bleeding  from  the 
sacral  canal  in  two  cases,  six  cases  had  transient 
pallor,  vertigo,  and  rapid  pulse.  These  symp- 
toms, however,  were  evanescent.  The  parts  an- 
aesthetized are  those  which  lie  below  the  level 
of  the  exit  of  the  sacral  nerve. 

Blocking  the  pudic  nerves  by  injecting  them 
with  novocaine  in  order  to  secure  painless  child- 
birth will  be  described  under  Twilight  Sleep 
(q.v.). 

Smith  and  Porter  explain  the  dangers  of 
spinal  anaesthesia  on  the  ground  of  exsanguina- 
tion  of  the  important  nerve  centres  of  respira- 
tion and  circulation.  A  druff  may  affect  the 
respiratory  centre  directly,  or  indirectly,  by  low- 
ering the  blood  pressure  to  a  point  where  this 
fluid  is  insufficient  to  supply  the  nutritive  needs 
and  the  amount  of  oxygen  necessary  to  carry 
on  life.  An  alarming  fall  of  the  blood  pressure 
is  the  first  serious  symptom  noted  in  fatal  cases 
of  spinal  anaesthesia,  and  Smith  and  Porter  re- 
mark that  the  dilatation  of  the  arteries  con- 
trolled by  the  splanchnic  vasomotor  fibres  may 
permit  ti^e  corresponding  veins  to  become  dis- 


AKOPBSLfiS 

tended  so  that  not  enough  blood  is  left  in  the 
bulb  and  cord  to  supply  these  needs.  They  say, 
for  instance,  that  a  rabbit  "may  be  bled  to  deatii 
into  its  own  portal  system,  by  section  of  the 
splanchnic  nerves."  When  death  does  not  en- 
sue, permanent  injury  to  important  vital  cen- 
tres may  be  caused. 

ANBEBSONy  Gbobge  Smith.  American  sol- 
dier, died  March  8,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Bemardsville,  N.  J.,  in  1849,  and  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1861.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  sec- 
ond lieutenant  to  the  sixth  cavalry,  and  served 
in  frontier  duty  at  Fort  Hays,  Kan.  After  tak- 
ing part  in  many  campaigns  against  hostile  In- 
dians, he  was  appointed  assistant  to  the  pro- 
fessor of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
at  West  Point,  in  1877.  In  1881  he  was  sent 
back  to  Arizona,  and  after  remaining  there  a 
year  was  transferred  to  Colorado.  In  1886  he 
was  appointed  captain  of  the  sixth  cavalry.  In 
1899  he  was  major  in  the  second  cavalry,  but 
was  transferred  back  to  the  sixth.  In  the  same 
year  he  went  to  the  Philippines  as  colonel  of  the 
United  States  volunteer  infantry,  and  he  with 
this  regiment  took  a  prominent  part  in  quelling 
the  Philippine  insurrection.  Appointed  colonel 
of  the  eighth  cavalry  in  1903,  he  later  became 
colonel  of  the  ninth  cavalry.  In  1911  he  was 
made  brigadier-general,  and  was  given  command 
of  the  Department  of  Visaya  in  the  Philippines. 
The  following  year  he  was  retired. 

ANGLICAN  GHUSCH.  See  ENGLiUVD, 
Church  op. 

ANGLO-FBENCH  LOAN.  See  Financial 
Review,  section  so  entitled. 

AN(K>LA.  A  West  African  Portuguese  col- 
ony, with  an  estimated  area  of  about  490,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  estimated  at 
4,200,000.  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  is  the  capital. 
Tropical  agricultural  products  are  exported. 
The  rubber  supply  is  failing.  The  trade  is 
mainly  with  Portugal.  In  1909  the  imports 
were  valued  at  6,674,861,  and  the  exports  at  6,- 
485,085  milreis;  transit,  326,349  milreis.  In 
1910  the  imports  were  valued  at  6,022,294  mil- 
reis, and  the  exports  at  3,311,863;  transit,  326,- 
349.  The  trade  for  1912  is  unofficially  reported, 
exclusive  of  Congo,  at  £1,068,200  imports, 
and  £1,394,200  exports.  Revenue  (estimate)  in 
1909-10,  2,321,373  milreis;  expenditure,  3,171,- 
373;  1913-14,  the  budget  balanced  at  6,092,677 
milreis.  Work  on  the  railway  line  from  Lobito 
Bay,  in  the  southwest  frontier  of  the  Belgian 
Congo,  which  is  to  connect  with  the  Central 
African  system,  is  progressing.  Total  lengiJi  of 
lines  open  for  traffic  in  1913,  323  miles.  The 
colony  is  administered  by  a  governor-general. 

ANNAM.  A  French  '  protectorate  on  the 
China  Sea;  a  part  of  the  dependency  of  French 
Indo-China  (q.v.).  Hu6  is  the  capital,  with 
66,000  inhabitants,  and  Bin-Dinh  the  largest 
town  (76,000).  The  trade  is  included  with  that 
of  French  Indo-China.  Raw  silk,  cattle,  and  ag- 
ricultural and  forest  products  are  exported. 
There  are  valuable  mineral  deposits,  but  mining 
is  not  well  developed.  The  native  king  (Duy- 
Tan)  is  the  nominal  head  of  the  government. 
He  succeeded,  in  1907,  at  the  age  of  eight,  and 
was  placed  under  a  council  of  regency.  Internal 
affairs  are  actually  administered  by  the  French 
resident. 

ANNIVEBSARIES.     See  Exfositions. 

ANOPHELES.     See  Malaeia. 


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ANTABCTIC  EXPLORATION 

AKTABCTIC  EXPLORATION.  See  Potjib 
Research. 

ANTH&AX.    See  Vettebinabt  Medicine. 

ANTHBOPOLOGT.  While  the  European 
war  has  interfered  with  the  commencement  of 
novel  researches  on  the  previous  scale  and  pre- 
vented the  continuation  of  old  ones,  anthropol- 
ogy is  still  reaping  a  considerable  harvest  of 
publications  based  on  investigations  dating  far- 
ther back.  In  America,  indeed,  anthropological 
activity  seems  unabated  either  in  point  of  pub- 
lication or  research. 

ANTiQumr  OF  Man  and  Physical  Anthbo- 
pchjOGT.  While  no  epoch-making  discovery  can 
be  registered  for  this  year,  there  has  been  a  pro- 
nounced tendency  to  synthetize  the  entire  prob- 
lem of  man's  origin  and  development.  Arthur 
Keith's  The  Antiquity  of  Man  is  primarily  an 
anatomical  treatise;  the  second  edition  of  W.  J. 
SoUas's  Ancient  Hunters  and  Their  Modem  Rep- 
resentatives is  a  more  popular  attempt,  brought 
up  to  date,  to  sketch  human  evolution  and  to 
reconstruct  ancient  European  culture  by  com- 
parison with  modern  primitive  peoples;  some- 
what similar  in  scope  is  6.  Scott  Elliot's  Pre- 
historic Man  and  His  Story;  H.  F.  Osborn's 
Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  is  distinguished  by 
the  welding  together  of  anthropological,  geolog- 
ical, and  palieontological  evidence  for  the  pur- 
pose of  presenting  a  definite  chronology  of  hu- 
man development. 

A  startlingly  new  interpretation  of  *'The  Jaw 
of  the  Piltdown  Man"  has  been  given  by  Gerrit 
8.  Miller  {Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collec- 
tions, vol.  Ixv,  no.  12).  According  to  him,  the 
remains  concerned  include  parts  of  a  brain-case 
clearly  human,  but  a  mandible,  two  lower 
molars,  and  an  upper  canine  showing  features 
hitherto  unknown  except  among  members  of  the 
genus  Pan  (chimpanzee).  Since  the  two  groups 
of  finds  possess  the  exact  characters  of  genera 
belonging  to  distinct  families,  the  best  assump- 
tion is  not  that  they  belonged  to  a  single  un- 
known genus,  but  to  two  distinct  individuals,  the 
skull  belonging  to  a  man,  the  jaw  to  a  chimpan- 
zee. While  it  has  been  supposed  that  chimpan- 
zees were  lacking  in  the  Pleistocene  European 
faunas,  some  corroboration  for  Miller's  theory 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  a  tooth  not  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  first  lower  molar  of  a 
chimpanzee  has  been  discovered  in  the  German 
Pleistocene. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  Baining  of  New  Britain, 
L.  Bauer  (Archiv  fur  Anthropologic,  p.  145  et 
se^.)  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  a  host  of 
primitive  features  are  united  in  their  short,  high 
crania,  which  suggest  Mongoloid  and  Australian 
affinities.  The  very  small  cranial  capacity  is  ex- 
plained by  retrogression  since  all  the  surround- 
ing types  from  which  the  Baining  might  have  de- 
veloped have  a  distinctly  larger  capacity.  Po- 
litical events  have  stimulated  somatological  re- 
searches among  European  populations.  Thus 
Drontschilow  {ibid.,  pp.  1-76)  publishes  the  re- 
sults of  an  important  investigation  of  the  Bul- 
garians. He  finds  that  besides  the  undoubted 
Slavic  factor  there  is  also  a  numerically  very 
important  Finnish  element,  dark-haired  and 
long-headed,  which  is  racially  allied  to  the  primi- 
tive Russian  population.  He  further  shows 
(ibid.,  p.  837  et  seq.)  that  the  stature  of  the 
Bulgarians  increases  as  one  proceeds  southward. 
The  same  nation  is  studied  by  Loritz  (Kor- 
respondenehlatt,  p.  21  et  seq.),  who  distinguishes 


31  ANTfiBOPOLOGY 

the  North  Bulgarian  from  the  South  Bulgarian 
long-heads.  While  the  former  must  be  traced  to 
a  northern  zone  of  origin,  the  dolichocephalic 
southerners  are  due  to  South  Macedonian  rela- 
tions and  are  probably  connected  with  the  peo- 
ple of  Crete.  "The  Bronze  Age  Invaders  of  Brit- 
ain"   {Journal  Royal  Anthropological  Institute, 

1915,  pp.  1-22)  are  discussed  by  A.  Keith,  who 
finds  their  cradle  in  the  plains  along  the 
northern  fianks  of  the  central  mountainous  region 
of  Europe.  The  racial  a£Snities  of  the  Jews  are 
discussed  by  Schiff  and  Weissenberg  {Arch.  /. 
Anthropol.,  pp.  348  et  seq.,  383  et  seq.).  Schiflf 
corroborates  the  view  of  Von  Luschan,  that  the 
Jews  represent  two  distinct  types,  one  allied  to 
the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  the  other  peculiarly 
Semitic,  i.e.  akin  to  the  Bedouin  Arabs.  Weis- 
senberg confirms  Von  Luschan's  conclusion  with 
respect  to  the  fusion  of  these  two  distinct  races, 
but  differs  as  to  the  time  and  place  of  the  proc- 
ess. Instead  of  being  prehistoric  and  occurring 
in  Palestine,  the  mixing  took  place  in  historic 
times  and  in  Armenia. 

General  Ethnologt 
In  general  ethnology  the  extensive  use  of  dif- 
fusion to  account  for  similarities  hitherto  prefer- 
ably explained  by  the  psychic  unity  of  mankind 
persists  with  unabated  force.  Thus  in  The  Mi- 
grations of  Early  Culture,  G.  Elliot  Smith  in- 
fers from  the  examination  of  a  mmnmy  from 
Torres  Straits  that  the  natives  must  have  bor- 
rowed the  technique  of  mummification  prevalent 
among  the  Egyptians  of  a  definite  period.  He 
further  suggests  that  at  about  800  B.C.  the 
processes  of  preserving  corpses  spread  widely 
from  northern  Africa  in  association  with  many 
other  cultural  traits,  such  as  megaliths,  head- 
deformation,  ear-piercing,  the  svastika,  and  a 
cult  of  sun  and  serpent.  The  transmission  of 
such  a  cultural  complex  to  remote  areas  is  in 
thorough  harmony  with  the  views  defended  dur- 
ing the  last  decade  by  F.  Graebner  in  Germany 
and  more  recently  by  W.  H.  R.  Rivers  in  Eng- 
land. Rivers,  indeed,  comments  sympathetically 
on  Elliot  Smith's  theory,  suggesting  merely  that 
instead  of  a  single  process  of  diffusion  there  may 
have  been  a  number  of  successive  waves  of  migra- 
tion    {The    Journal    of    Egyptian    Archcsology, 

1916,  p.  256  f.).  An  elaborate  scheme  of  hypo- 
thetical layers  of  culture  in  Oceania  has  been  de- 
veloped by  Rivers  himself  (see  below),  while 
Ankermann  operates  with  corresponding  concep- 
tions in  dealing  with  the  problem  of  totemism 
(see  Africa). 

The  relation  of  ethnology  to  other  sciences  has 
also  occupied  the  attention  of  students.  In  his 
"Eighteen  Professions"  {American  Anthropolo- 
gist, 1915,  p.  283  et  seq.)  Kroeber  takes  an  un- 
compromising attitude  against  any  attempt  to 
connect  ethnology,  which  he  defines  as  a  purely 
historical  science,  with  either  psychology  or  bi- 
ology. A  less  decided  position  is  maintained  by 
Lowie  in  an  essay  on  "Psychology  and  Soci- 
ology" {American  Journal  of  Sociology,  1915,  217 
et  seq. ) ;  while  he  recognizes  much  of  so-called 
psychological  explanation  of  ethnologic  phenom- 
ena as  worthless,  he  believes  that  scientific 
psychology  may  lend  greater  vigor  in  the  formu- 
lation of  ethnological  facts  and  act  as  a  cor- 
rective in  speculative  interpretation,  besides  sug- 
gesting new  vistas  of  inquiry. 

The  problems  of  social  organization  are  in 
large  measure  dealt  with  in  Rivers's  The  His- 


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32 


AWrBMOVOJJOaT 


iorf  of  Meimmetimm  Forietp  tgee  OcEAXiikl. 
Lowie  has  ponit#d  out  that  in  North  Amoica 
**ExofaBiT  aad  the  Claasificatorr  Sy«taiis  of 
Relationship'*  tAwteriemm  Autkropolo'iiMt.  1015. 
p.  223  ct  aeq.i  are  eo-extcn«iTe  and  emainelj 
eofTc-lated,  as  demanded  br  Rirers's  th«>orT.  In 
hi*  LiUrmry  Aspects  of  \ortk  Awtfrirmm  Myth- 
otoojf  Radin  calU  attention  to  the  oft-ne^lcetcd 
laet  that  the  taka  eollccted  from  primitiTe  tribes 
Bost  be  studied  not  nwrelr  from  the  point  of 
rittw  of  their  reli^ons  or  philosophies]  interest 
or  that  of  the  distribution  of  certain  plots  and 
sneedotes,  bnt  slao  as  literary  prodoeta. 

XoBTH  Amcxica.  The  tendener  to  rednee  the 
nnmber  of  lingnistie  stoeks  persists  in  spite  of 
mneh  skepticism  on  the  part  of  some  seholars 
as  to  the  gcnetie  affinities  of  certain  families  re- 
eentlj  united  by  other  lingnista.  Moet  note- 
worthj  among  the  recent  syntheses  is  Sapir  s 
''The  Kadcne  Languages"  Maiericsa  Autkropol' 
o^ist,  1915,  534  et  seq.),  in  vhich  an  attempt 
is  made  to  prore  the  kinship  of  Haida,  Tlin^t, 
and  Athapascan.  The  same  student  has  also 
presented  further  eridmce  for  the  existence  of  a 
Uto-Aztekan  stodc  (ihid^  p.  306  et  seq.i. 

Of  general  culture-historical  sisnidcanoe  is 
Porsild's  attempt  to  establish  the  indigenous  in- 
Tcntion  of  "The  Principle  of  the  Screw  in  the 
Technique  of  the  Eskimo"  (jisiericaa  Autkropol- 
o^ist,  1915,  p.  1  et  seq.),  which  has  been  ablj 
discussed  hj  Lauf   {ibtd^  pp.  396-406). 

Interesting  data  on  FawUiy  Huntimg  Terri- 
tones  mrnd  Social  Life  of  Various  Algonkiau 
Bamds  of  the  Ottawa  VaUcy  hare  been  published 
hj  Ut.  F.  G.  Sped^  to  whom  we  are  likewise  in- 
debted for  a  colketion  of  Myths  aad  Folk-Lore 
of  the  Timiskamig  Algonquin  and  Timagami 
Ojibwa.  The  theoreticallj  most  snggestire  point 
in  these  studies  is  the  social  importance  of  the 
familj  hunting  territorj,  in  which  all  the  male 
members  share  the  right  of  hunting  and  fishing. 
There  are  two  bonds  of  union  in  these  Algonkian 
societies, — the  family  group  corresponding  to  the 
hunting  territory,  and  the  gens,  which  is  exo- 
gamous  and  totemic,  though  without  any  belief 
in  descent  from  the  totem  or  any  taboo  relating 
to  the  animal  from  which  the  group  takes  its 
name.  The  two  types  of  unit  are  more  or  less 
permanently  associated  with  each  other,  yet 
the  hunting  territory  groups  haTe  distinct 
names  aad  are  of  greater  practical  significance. 
Hunting  outside  of  one's  own  territory  was 
punishable  with  death.  The  history  of  the  de- 
Telopment  of  these  divisions  seems  to  be  that 
their  founders  represented  members  of  a  few 
gentes  of  the  Great  Lakes  Ojibwa,  who  had 
migrated  northward  in  search  of  better  game. 
After  the  death  of  the  founder  his  tract  of  land 
was  dirided  amon^  his  sons,  each  of  whom 
founded  a  new  family,  which  received  a  distinc- 
tive name.  In  the  Timagami  band  there  were 
three  officers  with  definite  political  functions. 
The  hcasd  chief  was  a  twisted  by  a  deputy  who 
officiated  during  his  absence  and  acted  as  his 
speaker.  Chiefs  were  elected  for  life  tenure 
and  were  generally  succeeded  by  their  deputies. 
The  third  officer's  duty  was  to  collect  provisicms 
for  feasts  and  to  distribute  meat  among  the 
families  of  the  camp. 

Two  substantial  additions  to  our  knowledge  of 
Central  Algonkian  mytholc^  are  offered  in 
Skinner  and  Satterlee*s  Folklore  of  the  Meno- 
mini  Indians,  and  W.  Jones  and  T.  Michelson's 
Kickapoo  Tales.    Radin  has  supplied  us  with  an 


account  of  The  Social  Organization  of  the  Win- 
n^hogo  Indians^  who.  while  Siouan  in  language. 
belon?  with  the  Eastern  Woodland  tribes  cul- 
turally. An  interesting  phase  of  Central  Algon- 
kian culture  finds  treatment  in  A.  Skinner's  As- 
sodations  and  Cercwtonies  of  the  Menomimi  In- 
diams.  Most  of  these  societies  are  equally  typ- 
ical of  other  Woodland  tribes,  bnt  there  are  also 
traces  of  recent  Plaina  Indian  inflnenre.  In  one 
spectacular  eercmony  the  performer  plunges  his 
naked  arms  into  boiling  water  aad  takes  them 
out  unscathed.  There  is  an  importaat  order  of 
seers  or  shsmans  who  enter  into  direct  cosununi- 
cation  with  the  spirit  world  through  the  medium 
of  the  turtle  aad  are  thus  enabled  to  recover  lost 
property  for  their  clients  or  to  dispense  appro- 
priate treatment  to  those  smitten  with  dismae. 
In  the  latter  case  the  cause  of  the  suffering  is 
extracted  in  the  form  of  a  worm  or  some  snuill 
object  and  is  either  destroyed  or  sent  against  the 
evil  sorcerer  who  planted  it  in  the  patient's 
body.  Except  for  the  Medicine  Dance,  the  as- 
sociations of  the  Menomini  are  not  firmly  knit 
and  definitely  organized  units  like  the  societies 
of  the  Plains,  but  consist  simply  of  men  who 
share  the  same  supernatural  experiences. 

Wissler's  Riding  Gear  of  the  Xorth  American 
Indians  is  at  the  same  time  a  contribution  to  the 
recent  ethnology  of  the  Plains  region  aad  to  the 
wider  subject  of  cultural  diffusion.  The  Indians 
seem  to  have  adopted,  without  essential  change, 
the  South  European  and  Asiatic  type  of  saddle 
In  vogue  at  the  period  of  colonization.  The 
main  part  of  the  riding-gear  was  borrowed  by 
the  tribes  in  direct  contact  with  the  Spaniards 
and  thence  spread  as  far  as  the  Plains  of  Can- 
ada without  important  alteration.  While  the 
Indian  generally  mounts  cm  the  right  side,  this 
variation  is  merely  a  return  to  the  normal 
method,  which  was  deviated  from  in  Europe  sim- 
ply because  the  sword  was  worn  on  the  left  side. 
Most  interesting  is  the  thoroughness  with  which 
the  horse  culture  was  assimilated  by  the  Amer- 
ican aborigines.  If  a  non-historical  people  had 
brought  it  to  America,  the  similarities  between 
the  f<Mrms  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World  would 
be  a  source  of  perplexity  and  the  tendency  would 
be  to  view  them  as  independently  evolved.  This 
indicates  that  the  theory  of  independent  inven- 
tion may  become  a  skeptical  form  of  dogmatism. 
Similar  issues  are  discussed  in  the  same  author's 
Costumes  of  the  Plains  Indians,  The  typical 
style  of  the  area  baaed  on  the  use  of  two  skins 
seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  natural  con- 
tour of  the  materials  used.  The  notion  of  tail- 
oring dress  so  as  to  have  it  follow  the  lines  of 
the  body  is  absent  in  America  except  among  the 
coat-wearing  Eskimo  and  northern  Indian  tribes. 
In  the  Old  World  the  practice  of  tailoring  ap- 
pears am<mg  the  primitive  peoples  of  northern 
Asia,  but  the  idea  of  treating  cloth  in  this  way 
seems  to  have  developed  on^  in  central  Asia. 
The  extensive  use  of  rectangular  ponchos  seems 
to  be  due  to  Uie  limitations  imposed  by  the 
technology  of  weaving.  Whether  the  northern 
tribes  developed  tailoring  from  the  exigencies  of 
climate  or  borrowed  the  processes  from  a  more 
highly  civilized  central  Asiatic  people,  remains 
a  moot-problem.  As  regards  the  other  aspects  of 
the  question  of  diffusion  as  against  independent 
development,  the  distribution  of  both  the  two- 
skin  garment  and  such  minor  features  as  the 
cut  of  skirt-bottoms  over  continuous  regions 
strongly  suggests  diffusi<m. 


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AKTHBOPOLOGY 


LfOwie's  paper  on  Societies  of  the  Arikara  In- 
dians establishes  the  former  existence  of  hitherto 
unrecorded  women's  organizations  in  this  tribe, 
one  of  them  clearly  associated  with  the  planting 
of  com  and  both  historically  connected  with  cor- 
responding bodies  of  women  among  the  Mandan 
and  Hidatsa.    The  men's  organizations  display 
some  striking  resemblances  to  those  of  the  Paw- 
nee, of  whom  the  Arikara  are  an  offshoot,  but  on 
the  whole  the  unity  of  the  society  systems  of 
these  two  tribes  has  become  obscured,  doubtless 
owing  partly  to  recent  contact  with  the  Man- 
dan  and  Hidatsa.    Nevertheless,  the  Arikara  did 
not  adopt  the  method  of  grading  their  societies 
as  current  among  these  neighbors.    Dances  and 
Societies  of  the  Plains  Shoshones  by  Lowie  con- 
tains a  description  of  the  ceremonial  life  of  the 
Comanche,  Ute,  and  Wind  River  Shoshone.    This 
aspect    of    culture    is    very    slightly    developed 
among  all  the  tribes  concerned,  only  the  Wind 
River  people  showing  clear  affinities  with  the  po- 
lice organizations  found  to  the  east  and  north. 
The   most  important  of  all   the  ceremonies   in 
question,  the  Ute  Bear  Dance,  is  of  a  quite  dif- 
ferent character,  symbolizing  the  awakening  of 
bears  after  their  long  hibernation.     In  The  Sun 
Dance  of  the  Crow  Iwlians  the  same  author  gives 
a    detailed    account    of    a    performance    briefly 
sketched   in   a  last  year's  publication   and   re- 
ported in  the  Yeas  Book  for  1014. 

A  number  of  unsuspected  features  of  Southern 
Siouan  life  are  revealed  in  A.  Skinner's  Societies 
of  the  Iowa,  Kansa,  and  Ponca  Indians,  the 
traits  in  question  appearing  in  full  force  among 
the  first-named  people.  The  Iowa  are  not  only 
organized  in  exogamous  gentes  but  also  in  three 
more  or  less  endogamous  castes  of  chiefs,  noble- 
men, and  the  common  people,  this  institution 
suggesting  possible  influence  from  the  Natchez. 
Moreover  it  appears  that  the  military  organi- 
zations are  much  more  highly  developed  among 
these  southern  tribes  than  had  been  supposed. 
The  societies  are  ungraded  like  those  of  the 
Crow  Indians  and  share  with  Crow  orsanizations 
a  highly  developed  senee  of  rivalry  both  as  to 
war  exploits  and  in  the  stealing  of  one  another's 
wives.  In  recent  times  all  other  social  and 
ceremonial  usages  of  the  Iowa  have  been  eclipsed 
by  the  peyote  cult,  involving  the  ritualistic  eat- 
ing of  the  narcotic  peyote  plant,  and  strangely 
combining  Christian  with  ancient  pagan  ele- 
ments of  belief. 

In  the  Southwest  of  the  United  States  con- 
siderable activity  may  be  recorded.  N.  C.  Nel- 
son has  published  his  researches  among  the  Pue- 
blo Ruins  of  the  Oalisteo  Basin,  New  Mexico. 
The  Galisteo  Basin  formed  the  last  permanent 
home  of  the  Tano  tribe,  a  Pueblo  people  related 
to  the  Tewa.  A  considerable  number  of  ruins 
had  been  reported  from  this  region,  not  all  of 
which,  however,  could  have  been  occupied  simul- 
taneously unless  a  quite  incredibly  large  Tano 
population  be  postulated.  It  is  more  reasonable 
to  assume  that,  though  essentially  sedentary,  the 
Tano  shifted  occasionally  from  stress  of  circum- 
stances. The  remains  of  the  seven  settlements 
excavated  by  Nelson  belong  to  the  same  type  of 
culture,  all  the  pueblos  being  large  and  ar- 
ranged on  the  same  plan.  There  is  further  prac- 
tical identity  with  the  culture  of  the  Jemez 
Plateau.  The  presence  of  charred  maize  with 
numerous  metaies  and  mullers  indicates  an  agri- 
cultural population,  especially  since  there  is  a 
paucity  of  indigenous  animal  bones,  indicating 

T.  B.— 2 


33  AKTHBOPOLOGY 

the  subordinate  place  of  hunting  in  the  economic 
scheme.  The  circular  and  partly  subterranean 
kiva  occurred  in  all  but  one  or  two  sites,  but  its 
scarcity  presents  a  contrast  to  the  region  west 
and  northwest  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Artificial 
reservoirs  form  a  noteworthy  feature  in  all  the 
pueblos.  While  some  of  the  ruins  fall  within 
the  historic  period,  their  architecture  presents 
no  marked  alterations  due  to  Spanish  influence 
as  compared  with  the  prehistoric  ruins.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  introduction  of  domesticated  ani- 
mals from  Europe  is  indicated  by  osseous  re- 
mains of  goats,  cows,  hogs,  and  horses. 

The  prehistoric  art  of  part  of  this  area  has 
been  exhaustively  treated  by  A.  V.  Kidder  in  his 
"Pottery  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau  and  of  Some 
Adjacent  Regions  in  New  Mexico"  {Memoirs  of 
the  American  Anthropological  Association,  vol. 
ii,  part  6) .  Kidder  divides  the  ruins  of  this  ter- 
ritory into  two  groups,  small  scattered  dwellings 
and  large  pueblos,  and  discovers  a  fundamental 
difference  between  their  ceramic  products.  In 
the  former  there  is  a  black-and-white  ware  such 
as  is  distributed  over  practically  the  entire 
Southwest  and  which  appears  to  be  the  oldest  of 
the  types  found;  its  decorative  character  is 
strictly  geometric.  The  potterv  of  the  great 
ruins  is  markedly  different  and  may  be  provi- 
sionally defined  as  "Pajaritan"  though  related 
forms  occur  from  the  Chama  and  Taos  in  the 
north  to  the  vicinity  of  El  Paso  in  the  south, 
and  from  Pecos  and  the  Manzana  Salt  basin  in 
the  east  to  Acoma  and  the  Rio  Puerco  in  the 
west.  Among  the  distinctive  features  of  a  large 
class  of  Pajaritan  pottery  vessels  is  the  glaze, 
which  was  produced  by  mixing  a  flux  with  the 
black  pigment  so  as  to  produce  a  vitrification  of 
the  lines  of  the  ornament,  while  the  remainder 
of  the  surface  remained  unglazed.  The  decora- 
tive motives  include,  in  addition  to  numerous 
geometrical  patterns,  a  number  of  realistic  ele- 
ments. In  ruins  of  intermediate  size  there  are 
again  distict  ceramic  types,  one  of  which  is,  how- 
ever, clearly  related  to  the  Pajaritan,  while  the 
other  may  be  a  more  remotely  connected  prede- 
cessor and  is  almost  certainly  affiliated  with  the 
pottery  of  ancient  Zufii  and  the  Little  Colorado 
ruins.  Ethnographically  the  literature  of  the 
area  has  been  enriched  by  a  popular  account  of 
The  Hopi  by  Walter  Hough,  one  of  the  pioneer 
field-workers  in  this  region. 

For  the  Northwest  Coast  tribes  we  have  E. 
Sapir's  Sketch  of  the  Social  Organization  of  the 
Nass  River  Indians.  Though  closely  related 
otherwise,  these  natives  include  four  politically 
distinct  groups.  In  social  organization  these 
Indians  resemble  the  Tsimshian  proper  with 
whom  they  form  a  common  linguistic  stock. 
There  are  four  exogamous  units  with  maternal 
descent.  Two  of  these  bear  animal  names,  the 
others  have  designations  of  unknown  meaning. 
The  exogamous  groups  are  subdivided  into  fam- 
ilies which  are  graded  in  rank  and  have  distinc- 
tive crests,  songs,  and  myths.  Names  are  be- 
stowed by  the  father,  who  necessarily  belongs  to 
a  different  exoeamous  division  from  his  children, 
and  accordingly  they  reflect  the  crest  of  the 
namers  rather  than  of  the  individuals  bearing 
them.  The  customary  Northwestern  division  of 
the  people  into  three  castes  of  chiefs,  common 
folk,  and  slaves  also  obtains  in  the  Nass  River 
country. 

Central  and  South  America.  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  the  Maya  Hieroglyphs  by 


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34 


AKTHBOPOLOOY 


S.  G.  Morley  fllls  the  long-felt  want  of  a  brief 
summary  of  this  abstruse  subject,  which  will  be 
as  useful  to  the  general  ethnologist  as  to  the 
lay  reader. 

The  moot-problem,  whether  the  South  Ameri- 
can specimens  composed  of  copper  and  tin  indi- 
cate a  native  bronze  technique,  has  been  settled 
by  Charles  W.  Mead's  Prehistoric  Bronze  in 
South  America,  It  had  been  assumed  by  some 
writers  that  the  copper  mined  by  the  aborigines 
contained  among  its  other  impurities  a  certain 
admixture  of  tin  while  others  favored  the  view 
that  the  two  metals  were  obtained  separately 
and  smelted  together  in  order  to  secure  a  harder 
material.  Mec^  gathers  together  relevant  his- 
torical data  given  by  the  old  Spanish  writers 
and  presents  the  results  of  recent  chemical  an- 
alyses, specially  conducted  for  the  purposes  of 
his  investigations.  It  appears  clearly  that  the 
bronze  objects,  especially  those  of  Bolivian  pro- 
venience, under  discussion,  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  tin,  while  the  copper  ones  of  the  re- 
gion contain  none.  The  ruins  of  Machu  Picchu 
yielded  a  piece  of  pure  tin,  from  which  presum- 
ably slices  were  cut  by  the  artisan  to  make 
bronze.  Finally,  smelting  furnaces,  slag  with 
tin,  and  molds  for  casting  have  been  found  in 
Argentina,  where  all  known  coppers  lack  tin  in 
their  impurities;  thus  supporting  the  positive 
statement  of  early  Spanish  sources  that  the  Bo- 
livians consciously  mixed  tin  and  copper.  All 
this  evidence  renders  it  practically  certain  that 
a  genuine  bronze  technique  existed  in  Bolivia, 
the  high  plateau  region  of  Peru,  and  Argen- 
tina. 

A  new  line  of  investigation  has  been  under- 
taken by  M.  D.  C.  Crawford  in  his  Peruvian  Tew- 
tiles.  Crawford  examines  the  fabrics  of  ancient 
coastal  Peru  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  modern 
technical  expert,  discussing  in  detail  the  proc- 
esses of  spinning,  weaving,  and  design  technique. 
It  is  clear  from  this  attempt  that  in  the  treat- 
ment of  such  topics  the  ethnologist  will  hence- 
forth have  to  rely  largely  on  the  cooperation  of 
the  textile  specialist,  lest  significant  features 
shall  escape  his  notice. 

Asia.  An  aching  void  in  ethnological  litera- 
ture has  been  filled  by  Miss  M.  A.  Czaplicka's 
Aboriginal  Siberia,  which  for  the  first  time  ren- 
ders accessible  a  host  of  data  hitherto  buried 
in  Russian  and  Polish  publications  and  also  sum- 
marizes all  other  information  available  on  the 
social  organization  and  religion  of  the  natives. 
On  the  basis  of  this  material  she  proposes  a 
tentative  historico-geographical  classification  of 
tribes  into  Palseo-Siberians  and  Neo-Siberians. 
The  former,  embracing  the  Chukchee,  Koryak, 
Kamchadal,  Ainu,  Gilyak,  Siberian  Eskimo, 
Aleut,  Yukaghir,  Chuvanzy,  and  Yenisei  Ostyak, 
represent  the  autochthonous  population  which 
formerly  occupied  a  much  wider  territory,  but 
was  forced  to  retreat  northward  and  eastward  by 
the  encroachments  of  the  Neo-Siberians.  These 
relative  newcomers  are  grouped  in  five  stocks :  the 
Finnic,  including  the  Ugrian  Ostyak  and  Vogul; 
the  Samoyedic;  the  Turkic,  embracing  in  Sil^ria 
the  Yakut  along  the  Lena  and  southward  to  the 
Amur;  the  Mongolic,  confined  in  Siberia  almost 
wholly  to  the  Buryat  of  Lake  Baikal;  and  the 
Tungusic,  which  includes,  besides  the  Tungus 
proper,  the  Goldi  of  the  Amur,  the  Siberian 
Manchu,  and  a  number  of  other  tribes.  The 
Neo-Siberians  have  caused  a  number  of  impor- 
tant migrations  and  movements  of  population. 


Thus,  the  Mongolic  Buryat  arrived  in  the  Lake 
Baikal  region  about  the  thirteenth  century  a.d., 
displaced  the  Turkic  Yakut  and  caused  the  lat- 
ter to  move  northward  to  and  along  the  Lena 
River.  Thus  the  Yakut  cut  into  the  territory 
of  the  Tungus,  part  of  whom  went  west  and 
northwest,  while  the  rest  migrated  to  the  Stano- 
voi  Mountains,  the  Okhotsk  and  Amur  country 
in  the  extreme  east. 

The  first  comprehensive  study  of  Philippine 
folklore  is  presented  in  Fay-Cooper  Cole's  Tradi- 
tions of  the  Tinguian,  a  pagan  tribe  of  north- 
western Luzon.  The  mode  of  thought  that  ap- 
pears in  this  body  of  aboriginal  literature  cor- 
responds closely  with  that  still  current  among 
the  people.  The  tales  are  of  three  types, — ^those 
dealing  with  the  mythological  period;  the  ritual- 
istic and  explanatory  tales,  of  which  the  me- 
diums possessed  by  spirits  during  ceremonies  are 
the  depositaries;  and  folk-tales  representing  the 
native  store  of  fictitious  narratives  without  seri- 
ous meaning.  The  last  group  shows  much  sim- 
ilarly with  alien  tales,  some  stories  being  bor- 
rowed from  the  Christianized  Ilocano,  while 
others  even  suggest  in  a  startling  manner  inci- 
dents in  American  Indian  plots,  though  not  to  a 
sufficient  degree  to  indicate  historical  connec- 
tion in  the  present  stage  of  our  knowledge.  The 
mythical  stories  seem  to  enable  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  a  remote  period  of  the  Tinguian  past,  in 
which  the  people  did  not  yet  have  terraced  rice- 
fields,  were  ignorant  of  the  domestic  work  ani- 
mals, and  had  not  yet  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  horse. 

Oceania.  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers  has  contrib- 
uted a  work  of  fundamental  significance  in  The 
History  of  Melanesian  Society  (2  vols.).  It  re- 
cords new  field  data,  particularly  on  the  secret 
organizations  of  the  Banks  Islands  and  the  cul- 
ture of  the  hitherto  all  but  unknown  Island  of 
Tikopia,  which  is  proved  to  be  closely  related 
to  that  of  Tonga.  More  important  than  the  ad- 
ditions of  fact,  however,  is  the  analysis  of  Oce- 
anian culture  into  a  number  of  component  strata 
superposed  upon  one  another  by  successive  mi- 
grations. The  author  here  applies  the  principle 
that  far-reaching  effects  may  be  produced  by 
small  bodies  of  immigrants  and  discusses  the 
mechanism  by  which  new  conceptions  are  in- 
troduced, pointing  out  how  contact  of  different 
cultures  results  in  features  formerly  lacking  in 
both.  Polynesian  culture  is  regarded  as  a  com- 
poimd  of  two  elements,  while  Melanesian  culture 
is  considered  the  joint  product  of  two  successive 
migrations  among  an  earlier  people  possessing 
an  organization  of  society  into  exogamous  matri- 
lineal  moieties.  The  later  Polynesian  stratum 
is  affiliated  with  the  earlier  Melanesian  immi- 
gration, while  the  earlier  Polynesian  stratum 
entered  into  the  structure  of  the  old  dual  people, 
whose  culture  in  turn  is  explained  by  the  fusion 
of  two  distinct  peoples. 

Afbica.  In  his  "Recherches  Pr^historiques" 
(L* Anthropologic,  1915,  p.  193  et  seq.)  Pallary 
establishes  a  number  of  important  conclusions 
as  to  the  archaeology  of  Morocco.  He  finds  that 
this  region  was  already  occupied  as  far  as  the 
foot  of  the  Atlas  Range  in  the  most  ancient 
paleolithic  periods.  The  abundance  of  stone  im- 
plements by  itself  indicates  a  very  long  habita- 
tion. Neolithic  stations  are  rare,  and  in  the 
south  neither  ground  axes  nor  arrow  points  were 
discovered.  A  considerable  number  of  Berber 
ruins  and  timiuli  show  that  the  population  of 


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ancient  times  rather  exceeded  that  of  the  recent 
era. 

A  highly  significant  inquiry  as  to  the  distribu- 
tion and  character  of  African  toiemism  is  given 
in  Ankermann's  "Verbreitung  und  Formen  des 
Totemismus  in  Afrika"  {Zeitschrift  fur  Eth- 
nologie,  1916,  pp.  114-180),  which  is  practically 
the  first  summary  of  known  data  as  to  African 
social  organization.  Ankermann  finds  that  the 
conditions  in  the  Dark  Continent  corroborate 
Frazer's  view  as  to  the  independence  of  totemism 
and  exogamy.  In  Africa  totemism  is  almost 
uniformly  associated  with  paternal  descent;  sys- 
tems in  which  the  rule  of  totemic  inheritance 
is  mixed  indicate  confusion  of  a  patrilineal 
totemic  organization  with  a  matrilineal  non-to- 
temic  system.  Whether  the  Bushmen  and  Pyg- 
mies were  totemic,  remains  undecided.  Apart 
from  them  probably  all  of  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara  formed  a  continuous  totemic  area  prior 
to  the  advent  of  Christianity  and  Mohammed- 
ism,  which  have  reduced  this  feature  to  a  mere 
vestige,  as  among  the  Islamized  Mandingo.  The 
highly  developed  animal  cult  of  ancient  Egypt 
suggests  that  region  as  the  possible  point  of  ori- 
gin of  totemism.  However,  the  essential  belief 
of  a  blood-relationship  with  the  sacred  animal 
was  certainly  lacking  in  historic  times  and  the 
hypothesis  of  an  Egyptian  starting-point  would 
involve  the  auxiliary  assumption  that  totemism 
existed  in  a  far  more  remote  epoch  and  that  all 
the  transitional  forms  leading  to  the  later  ani- 
mal cult  disappeared.  As  a  member  of  Graeb- 
ner's  school,  Ankermann  attempts  to  assign  to 
African  totemism  a  place  in  some  one  definite 
cultural  layer.  The  simplest  supposition  would 
be  to  assign  it  to  the  stratum  of  the  primitive 
negro  from  whom  both  Sudanese  and  Bantu  de- 
veloped by  differentiation,  i.e.  the  second  Afri- 
can stratum  immediately  succeeding  that  of  the 
autochthonous  Pygmies.  The  feature  is  char- 
acterized in  this  scheme  by  a  union  of  totemism 
with  exogamy  and  patrilineal  descent.  Unfor- 
timately  a  difiSculty  arises  because  the  totemic 
group  is  in  a  niunber  of  instances  a  unit  of 
higher  order  than  the  exogamous  clan.  We  are 
thus  obliged  to  assume  a  totemic  layer  superim- 
posed on  the  culture  of  an  exogamous  patrilineal 
non-totemic  people.  Since  the  peoples  in  ques- 
tion are  clearly  composed  of  a  substratum  of 
negroes  lorded  by  a  Hamitic  caste,  it  seems 
plausible  to  regard  the  Hamites  as  the  carriers 
of  totemism,  but  here  another  obstacle  develops 
from  the  fact  that  no  purely  Hamitic  people  is 
known  to  possess  a  totemistic  organization.  An- 
kermann is  thus  led  to  revert  to  the  hypothetical 
totemism  of  prehistoric  Egypt.  Now  early  pic- 
tures of  the  Old  Kingdom  never  represent  ne- 
groes but  only  Semitic  and  Hamitic  types,  and 
li^ptologists  only  assume  an  infiltration  of  ne- 
gro elements  into  Nubia  towards  the  end  of  that 
period.  If,  therefore,  the  prehistoric  Egyptians 
possessed  a  totemic  system  antecedent  to  their 
animal  cult,  it  cannot  have  been  derived  from 
negroes  but  must  have  originated  with  one  of 
the  earlier  ethnic  factors  of  the  Egyptian  popu- 
lation. We  should  thus  be  driven  to  assume 
that  the  Hamites  were  in  fact  the  transmitting 
agency  in  the  spread  of  African  totemism  unless 
the  alternative  be  adopted  that  it  came  from 
Madagascar,  where  it  might  have  been  carried 
originally  by  the  Malays  or  may  have  consti- 
tuted a  pre-Malayan  element.  On  the  whole, 
however,   Ankermann   is   disposed   to  disregard 


35  AHTI0UA 

this  line  of  argument,  partly  on  account  of  its 
largely  hypothetical  character,  but  also  because 
of  the  many  features  shared  by  the  totemic 
stratum  of  Africa  with  the  so-called  West-Pa- 
puan stratum  of  Oceania,  to  which  a  very  high 
antiquity  must  be  conceded.  It  seems  hardly 
admissible  to  attribute  this  entire  complex  of 
cultural  traits  to  the  Hamites,  hence  totemism  is 
probably  after  all  an  element  of  ancient  negro 
stratum. 

Meetings,  Expeditions,  Pebsonalia.  The  In- 
ternational Congress  of  Americanists  met  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  December  27-31,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Second  Pan-American  Scientific 
Congress,  the  American  Anthropological  Associa- 
tion, and  the  American  Folk-lore  Society. 

For  obvious  reasons  practically  no  expedi- 
tions were  undertaken  by  citizens  of  the  bellig- 
erent European  countries.  We  may  record,  liow- 
ever,  the  safe  return  to  England  of  Miss  M.  A. 
Czaplicka  from  a  successful  trip  to  the  Yenisei 
Ostyak  and  Timgus  of  Siberia.  American  opera- 
tions have  been  but  little  affected  by  conditions 
abroad.  The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
supported  Dr.  J.  R.  Swanton's  Muskhosean  field- 
work  in  Oklahoma  and  Dr.  T.  MicheTson's  lin- 
guistic researches  among  Algonkian  tribes.  Un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  the  partial  collaboration  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Prof.  F. 
Boas,  assisted  by  Dr.  H.  K.  Haeberlin,  Dr.  J.  A. 
Mason  and  Mr.  R.  T.  Aitken,  has  investigated 
the  physical  anthropology  of  Porto  Rico,  as  well 
as  laid  the  foundation  for  intensive  archaeolog- 
ical research.  The  American  Museum  of  Nat- 
ural History  equipped  expeditions  to  the  Zufii 
(Prof.  A.  L.  Kroeber);  the  Hopi  (Dr.  R.  H. 
Lowie) ;  continued  archseological  activities  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City 
(Messrs.  L.  Spier  and  A.  Skinner) ;  conducted 
excavations  of  New  Mexican  sites  (Mr.  N.  C. 
Nelson) ;  and  continued  work  on  Pawnee  cere- 
monialism (Dr.  C.  Wissler  and  Mr.  J.  Murie). 
For  the  University  of  California  Mr.  W.  E.  Gif- 
ford  studied  the  social  organization  of  the  Mi- 
wok,  Yokuts,  and  Mono,  while  Dr.  E.  Sapir  in- 
vestigated the  Yahi  dialect  of  Yana  from  the 
lips  of  the  last  survivor  of  the  tribe.  The  Ge- 
ological Survey  of  Canada  supported  Mr.  C.  M. 
Barbeau's  studies  of  the  social  life  of  the  Tsim- 
shian.  Various  explorations,  mainly  archseolog- 
ical, were  conducted  on  behalf  of  the  George  G. 
Heye  Museum  by  Messrs.  G.  G.  Heye  and  Peppei 
in  Georgia,  Mr.  T.  De  Booy  and  Prof.  M.  H. 
Saville  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America,  and 
Mr.  M.  R.  Harrington  in  Cuba. 

American  anthropology  lost  its  dean  through 
the  death  of  Prof.  F.  W.  Putnam,  formerly  the 
head  of  the  anthropological  departments  at  Har- 
vard and  the  University  of  California,  and  the  or- 
ganizer and  stimulator  of  an  infinite  number  of 
anthropological  investigations  and  institutions. 
The  growing  recognition  of  the  scientific  status 
of  anthropology  is  refiected  in  the  award  of  a 
Royal  Society's  Medal  to  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers. 

ANTI-BOYCOTT  ASSOCIATION,  Ameri- 
can. See  Employebs'  Associations,  section  so 
entitled. 

ANTIDOTES.    See  Fuller's  Earth. 

ANTIGUA.  A  presidency  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  colony,  consisting  of  the  islands  of  An- 
tigua, Barbuda,  and  Redonda.  (See  Leeward 
Islands.)  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  negroes. 
St.  John,  the  capital    (also  the  capital  of  the 


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AKTiaUA  30 

T>oe\vard  Islands),  had,  in  1911,7910  inhabitants. 
About  62,000  acres  are  under  cultivation,  the 
products  including  sugar,  cotton,  and  pineapples. 
There  are  no  rivers  and  few  springs,  and 
droughts  are  frequent.  Revenue  (1913-14), 
£52,218;  expenditure,  £51,017;  imports,  £167,- 
577;  exports,  £138,219. 

AKTt-MUJTASISM.    See  Sooiausm,  pas- 
sim; and  United  States,  History. 

ANTISEPTICS.    Hypebtonio  Saline  Solu- 
tions.   During  the  European  war  now  in  prog- 
ress, the  antiseptic  value  of  salt  solutions,  of 
more  than  ordinary  strength,  has  received  seri- 
ous consideration.    It  has  been  noted  that  sail- 
ors suffering  from  injuries  and  often  from  shock 
incident  to  prolonged  immersion  in  salt  water, 
have  recovered  promptly  from  the  most  severe 
wounds;  whereas  soldiers  receiving  even  slight 
wounds,  often  undergo  a  lengthy  period  of  con- 
valescence  or   die.    The   differoice   in    environ- 
ment   may     account    for    this.    The    soldier's 
wounds  nearly  always  become  dirty,  owing  to 
the  peculiar  conditions  of  trench  warfare  in  soil 
where  an  intensive  process  of  cultivation  has 
been  carried  on  and  which  swarms  with  anserobic 
bacteria.    Both    the    English   and    French    sur* 
geons  report  particularly  favorable  results  in  the 
military  arm  following  the  use  of  sea  water  or 
hypertonic  saline  solutions.     A  memoranda  ap- 
pearing in  the  London  Lancet  advised  the  appli- 
cation of  a  6  per  cent  solution  of  common  salt 
to  which  0.5  per  cent  sodium  citrate  is  added 
to  prevent  coagulation  of  serum.    When  citrate 
of  soda  is  not  available,  a  5  per  cent  solution  of 
salt   is  advised.     Sea   water   may   also  be  em- 
ployed, this  being  equivalent  to  a  2.6  per  cent 
salt  solution.     Dry  and  infiltrated  wound  sur- 
faces call  for  solutions  up  to   10  per  cent  in 
strength.    Deep,  open  wounds  are  best  treated, 
after  the  removal  of  foreign  bodies,  by  filling 
them  with  a  hypertonic  salt  solution  and  plug- 
ging    them     lightly     with     gauze.    Superficial 
wounds  call  for  a  simple  application  of  gauze 
saturated  in  the  solution.    It  is  noted  that  a 
free  flow  of  serous  fluid  takes  place  from  the 
wounds,  and  the  dressing  must  be  changed  fre- 
quently, and  the  skin  covered  with  vaseline  to 
protect  it  from  irritation.    Such  wounds  become 
rapidly  healthy  and  clean  and  are  then  covered 
with  a  simple  dressing.    In  France,  Abadie  re- 
ports good  results  from  treating  wounds  with 
concentrated  solutions  of  sea  salt  which,  being 
hypertonic,   promote  exosmosis   and   diapedesis, 
there  being  a  free  flow  of  lymph  and  escape  of 
the  phagocytes  into  the  wounds.     Abadie  irri- 
gates the  cavity  with  a  0.7  per  cent  solution  of 
sea  salt  and  then  packs  it  with  gauze  moistened 
in  a  solution  of  from  14  to  28  per  cent.    He  ad- 
vocates it,  not  only  for  fresh  wounds,  but  for 
old    infected    injuries.    Morestin    has    had    ex- 
cellent results  in  old  wounds  and  varicose  ul- 
cers.    The  salt  rapidly  modifies  wounds  which 
are  atonic  or  covered  with  unhealthy  granula- 
tions.    See  SuBOEBY. 

The  relative  value  of  antiseptics  for  emergency 
wounds  which  cannot  be  treated  immediately  has 
also  received  careful  study.  The  British  govern- 
ment supplies  each  man  in  the  army  and  navy 
with  two  packages,  the  first  containing  a  paste 
composed  of  20  per  cent  phenol  in  lanolin,  to 
which  may  be  added  sufficient  while  wax  to 
stiffen  it;  the  second,  a  powder  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  boric  acid  and  salicylic  acid. 
Kellty   and  Packer   experimented  with   various 


APPSNBIGinS 


antiseptics  to  determine  their  relative  inhibitory 
and  germicidal  power  as  well  as  their  diffusi- 
bility.  The  organisms  used  were  cultures  of  the 
staphylococcus  aureus,  streptococcus  pyogenes 
and  bacillus  coli.  The  drugs  tested  were  nu- 
merous and  included  the  following  classes :  ( 1 ) 
Those  drugs  which  are  markedly  active,  exam- 
ples of  which  are:  tricresol,  10  to  20  per  cent; 
thymol,  10  to  20  per  cent;  creosote,  25  per  cent; 
mercuric  iodide,  10  to  20  per  cent;  tincture  of 
iodine,  5  to  10  per  cent.  (2)  Those  drugs  which 
are  slightly  active:  salicylic  acid,  20  to  30  per 
cent;  Japanese  powder  (salicylic  and  boric  acid 
— so  called  because  of  its  use  in  the  Russo-Jap- 
anese War),  20  to  30  per  cent;  zinc  chloride,  20 
per  cent;  mercuric  chloride,  0.2  to  0.4  per  cent; 
guaiacol  ointment,  10  per  cent;  mercuric  oint- 
ment, 33  per  cent;  creosote,  10  per  cent;  carbol- 
fuchsin  (which  contains  5  per  cent  of  phenol). 
(3)  Drugs  which  are  inactive:  iodine,  2  to  6 
per  cent;  menthol  and  camphor,  of  each  20  per 
cent;  boric  acid,  30  per  cent;  iodoform,  90  per 
cent;  zinc  sulphate,  1  to  5  per  cent;  alcohol,  95 
per  cent;  calcium  chloride,  20  per  cent;  liquor 
formaldehyde,  0.1  and  0.6  per  cent  (in  solution 
1:1000,  1:500)  ;  lead  nitrate,  5  to  10  per  cent; 
silver  nitrate,  5  per  cent  (in  solution,  20  grains 
to  1  ounce) ;  turpentine,  1  per  cent;  ether; 
chloroform;  Delafield's  hematoxylin;  Sudan  III; 
Loeffler's  methvlene  blue;  eosin,  watery  solu- 
tion; iodine  green;  glycerin;  bismuth  beta- 
naphthol,  20  per  cent;  salol,  20  per  cent;  hexa- 
methylenamin,  20  per  cent;  zinc  oxide,  25  per 
cent;  scarlet  red  (2  per  cent  scharlach  R) ;  bis- 
muth subnitrate,  50  per  cent;  balsam  of  Peru 
ointment,  25  per  cent;  scharlach  R,  saturated 
solution. 

Summarizing  their  work,  the  authors  con- 
cluded that,  of  the  more  important  drugs,  thy- 
mol and  tricresol  were  very  active,  both  alone 
and  in  combinations;  and  had  the  advantege  of 
being  very  diffusible.  Another  notable  finding 
was  that  scarlet  red,  much  advocated  as  an  an- 
tiseptic, had  a  very  slight  inhibitory  action  on 
the  growth  of  bacteria.  The  authors  recommend 
a  paste  or  ointment  composed  of  thymol  and 
tricresol,  of  each  10  per  cent,  incorporated  into  a 
base  composed  of  70  parts  of  castor  oil,  20  parts 
of  white  wax,  and  10  parts  of  spermaceti. 
ANTITOXIN.  See  Dipiithebia. 
APPENDICITIS.  Noteworthy  contributions 
to  the  study  of  the  causation  of  appendicitis 
have  been  recently  made  in  the  United  States. 
The  older  view  of  causation  by  foreign  materials, 
such  as  fecal  concretions,  seeds,  ete.,  is  now  prac- 
tically abandoned  and  interest  centers  in  the  bac- 
teriology of  the  disease.  The  microorganism 
most  frequently  foimd  in  the  appendix  is  the 
colon  bacillus,  sometimes  in  pure  cultures,  in 
other  cases  associated  with  streptococci  or  sta- 
phylococci. In  the  majority  of  cases  the  infec- 
tion is  mixed.  Rosenow  studied  the  fluids  and 
tissues  in  and  about  the  appendix  and  introduced 
isolated  strains  of  microorganisms  into  the  gen- 
eral circulation  of  animals.  He  further  dis- 
covered that  in  the  lumen  of  the  appendix  the 
colon  bacillus  predominated,  while  in  ite  walls 
the  chief  bacteria  were  streptoccoci.  The  elec- 
tive affinity  of  bacteria  for  certain  tissues  of  the 
body  is  discussed  in  the  article  Bactebiologt 
(q.v.).  Rosenow's  experiments  indicate  that 
appendicitis  is  commonly  a  blood-borne  infection, 
secondary  to  some  distant  focus  such  as  the  ton- 
sil.   In  comparison  with  the  appendix,  no  part 


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APPENDICanS  37 

of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  is  so  rich  in  lymph- 
oid tissues  except  the  tonsillar  region  in  each 
of  these  anatomic  localities,  especially  in  the 
young  in  whom  lymphoid  tissue  is  abundantly 
developed.  The  colon  bacillus  is  looked  upon  as 
a  secondary  invader  and  experimentally  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  produce  appendicitis  by  in- 
troducing these  bacilli  into  the  blood  stream 
without  injury  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
appendix.  Rosenow's  work  is  another  link  in 
the  chain  of  evidence  that  attacks  of  appendi- 
citis as  well  as  other  affections  of  the  abdominal 
viscera  are  most  probably  produced  by  bacteria 
which  find  their  way  into  the  circulation  from 
a  focus  of  suppuration,  in  the  teeth,  tonsils,  or 
other  portions  of  the  upper  respiratory  and  gus- 
tatory tracts.    See  Bagtebiologt. 

APPLES.    See  Hobtigultuke. 

AQUEDUCT.  The  Catskill  Aqueduct  sup- 
plying the  city  of  New  York  was  practically 
completed  at  the  end  of  the  year  1916,  and  its 
use  to  supply  the  city  with  water  was  predicted 
for  the  following  year,  although  it  was  expected 
that  most  of  the  time  tests  of  the  installation 
and  equipment  would  be  required  and  general 
practice  in  its  operation  concluded.  In  fact  at 
the  end  of  1915  Catskill  Aqueduct  water  was 
entering  into  the  distribution  mains  of  the  city 
so  that  the  testing  and  general  tuning  up  of 
the  system  could  l^  undertaken.  The  last  step 
in  the  construction  of  the  aqueduct  proper  was 
the  building  of  a  by -pass  timnel  around  the 
leaky  section  of  the  Moodna  pressure  tunnel  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  just  pre- 
vious to  where  the  line  of  the  aqueduct  passes 
beneath  the  river  bed.  The  new  tunnel,  17  feet 
in  diameter  and  900  feet  in  length,  was  driven 
400  feet  below  the  original  section.  The  old 
shaft  which  had  been  sealed  was  used  in  han- 
dling the  material,  and  a  new  shaft  was  sunk 
from  the  old  tunnel  to  make  the  connection  with 
the  supplementary  tunnel  below.  The  old  sec- 
tions were  sealed  and  the  new  portion  was  found 
in  satisfactory  working  order  by  the  end  of  the 
year. 

Large  quantities  of  water  were  stored  in  both 
the  AeJiokan  and  Kensico  reservoirs. 

The  Kensico  Dam  was  nearing  completion,  and 
it  was  expected  that  within  two  years  at  the 
outside  it  would  be  entirely  finished.  This  dam 
had  reached  a  point  where  the  architectural 
features  of  its  exterior  could  be  appreciated, 
and  it  was  unique  among  American  structures  of 
this  class  for  tae  fact  that  some  pains  had  been 
spent  in  its  ornamentation,  and  the  massive 
masonry  structure  was  architecturally  treated 
so  as  to  afford  a  pleasing  appearance. 

Quite  in  contrast  with  the  Kensico  Dam  and 
Reservoir  was  the  Hill  View  Reservoir,  of  900,- 
000,000  gallons  capacity,  which  serves  as  a  pres- 
sure equalizing  reservoir  for  the  aqueduct  sys- 
tem, and  at  the  same  time  affords  two  or  three 
days'  supply  for  the  city  or  for  emergency  use 
in  case  of  a  large  fire  or  other  service.  This 
reservoir  is  formed  by  earth  embankments  and 
required  about  3,000,000  cubic  yards  of  excava- 
tion. It  is  an  earth  embankment  with  an  im- 
pervious 4-inch  inner-face  of  concrete.  It  began 
to  fill  on  Nov.  30,  1916. 

The  flexible  submarine  pipe  line  under  the  nar- 
rows of  New  York  Harbor  carrying  the  water 
from  Brooklyn  to  the  Borough  of  Richmond  was 
also  completed,  while  the  Silver  Lake  Reservoir 
m  Staten  Jslan4  wiw  piore  thaji  half  finished. 


AQUEDUCT 


The  distribution  tunnels  under  Manhattan 
were  completed  at  the  end  of  the  year  thoiigh 
work  remained  .to  be  done  on  the  distribution 
system,  and  the  connections,  valves,  etc.  The 
city  tunnel  was  under  pressure  as  far  as  the 
shaft  near  93rd  Street,  and  tests  were  beginning 
to  be  made  of  the  connection  with  the  distribu- 
tion mains  in  the  city  streets. 

Los  Angeles.  With  the  successful  completion 
of  the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct  the  problem  of  dis- 
posing of  the  surplus  waters  interested  the  gov- 
ernment of  that  city.  During  the  year  a  district 
involving  more  than  100,000  acres,  including  all 
the  irrigable  area  of  the  rich  San  Fernando  Val- 
ley, between  the  northwestern  limits  of  Los  An- 
geles and  the  outlet  of  the  aqueduct,  and  extend- 
ing west  of  the  aqueduct,  voted  to  annex  itself 
to  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  This  district  agreed 
to  assume  a  proportionate  share  of  the  cost  of 
the  aqueduct  in  addition  to  $2,660,000,  previ- 
ously voted  for  the  installation  of  a  distribution 
system  of  steel  pipes.  The  Los  Angeles  Water 
Department  immediately  began  on  the  construc- 
tion of  a  temporary  unlined  conduit  from  the 
lower  San  Fernando  Reservoir,  so  that  some  10,- 
000  acres  could  be  put  under  irrigation  imme- 
diately. 

In  connection  with  the  plan  of  developing 
power  from  the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct,  the  first 
hydraulic  plant  in  the  proposed  chain  of  sta- 
tions was  built  in  the  San  Francisquito  Canyon 
for  a  100,000  volt  transmission  line  to  convey 
current  to  the  city  47  miles  distant.  This  plant 
was  designed  for  six  7500  kilowatt  units  work- 
ing under  a  head  varying  from  914  to  814  feet. 
This  plan  was  made  possible  by  the  California 
State  Supreme  Court  validating  a  $6,500,000 
bond  issue,  of  which  $1,250,000  was  for  com- 
pleting the  generating  station  and  transmis- 
sion line,  and  $6,250,000  for  providing  or 
acquiring  the  distributing  system  in  Los  An- 
geles. 

San  Fbancjisco.  During  the  year  1914  work 
was  begun  on  the  much  discussed  Hetch  Hetchy 
water  supply  project  for  the  city  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. A  main  road  was  constructed  to  the  dam 
site,  9.09  miles,  and  a  saw  mill  was  erected  for 
utilizing  timber  in  the  area  owned  by  the  city. 
A  diversion  dam  was  to  be  constructed  to  direct 
the  waters  of  the  Tuolumne  River  into  a  tunnel 
around  the  main  dam  site  while  the  large  ini- 
pounding  dam  was  being  constructed.  This 
dam  was  to  be  of  gravity  section,  arched  to  af- 
ford additional  safety,  and  was  estimated  to  cost 
approximately  $4,000,000,  but  the  plans  were 
only  tentative  and  were  subject  to  final  approval 
by  the  expert  engineer  to  be  named  by  the  city. 
These  tentative  designs  called  for  a  structure 
750  feet  long  on  the  crest  and  300  feet  in  height. 
Work  was  begun  on  the  Early  intake  which  is  a 
tunnel  through  rock  lOi/^  to  13  feet  in  diameter, 
20  miles  in  length,  extending  from  a  point  12 
miles  below  the  dam  to  a  foreoay  above  the  Moc- 
casin Creek  power  plant;  and  also  on  the  diver- 
sion tunnel,  20  feet  in  diameter,  to  the  Tuolumne 
River,  during  the  construction  of  the  main  dam. 
In  addition  to  the  water  supplied  to  the  city  a 
power  development  was  planned  which  will  ul- 
timately develop  a  total  of  72,000  kilowatts. 
For  the  construction,  a  railway  67  miles  in 
length  extending  from  the  junction  of  the  Sierra 
Railway  at  Rosaseo  to  the  dam,  has  been  decided 
upon,  as  the  transportation  of  much  material 
will  be  required  in  the  construction. 


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AQUSDTTCT 


Canada.  Winnipeg.  During  the  year  1915 
the  project  for  the  construction  of  the  100-mile 
Winnipeg  Aqueduct  was  thoroughly  organized 
and  work  was  begun.  The  general  plan  was 
recommended  in  1913  by  a  board  of  consulting 
engineers  consisting  of  Rudolph  Hering,  Fred- 
erick P.  Stearns,  and  James  H.  Fuertes,  and 
comprised  essentially  a  low  diversion  dam  at 
Indian  Bay,  an  arm  of  Shoal  Lake;  85.036  miles 
of  horseshoe-shaped  concrete  aqueduct,  the 
largest  section  of  which  is  10  feet,  9  inches  wide 
and  9  feet  high  inside;  some  10  miles  of  5-foot 
steel  pipe;  900  linear  feet  of  tunnel  under  the 
Red  River;  and  12,000  linear  feet  of  cast  iron 
pipe  leading  to  the  city  reservoir.  The  carrying 
capacity  of  the  aqueduct  is  102,000,000  gallons 
in  24  hours,  which  will  be  an  ample  supply 
through  the  year  for  850,000  inhabitants.  This 
aqueduct  was  to  supply  not  only  the  city  of  Win- 
nipeg but  several  municipalities  which  combined 
to  form  the  Greater  Winnipeg  Water  District, 
though  of  course  Winnipeg,  with  a  population  of 
200,000  out  of  226,000  in  1913  in  the  area  to  be 
supplied,  is  the  largest  consumer,  the  other  cities 
being  St.  Boniface,  Transcona,  St.  Vital,  Assini- 
boia.  Fort  Garry,  and  Kildonan. 

The  work  requires  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
way about  105  miles  long,  including  sidings,  the 
last  spike  of  which  was  driven  on  Dec.  17,  1914. 
The  estimated  cost  was  $13,045,600,  and  the  plan 
of  construction  was  somewhat  novel  in  that  the 
aqueduct  administrative  board  in  behalf  of  the 
district  not  only  builds  and  operates  the  con- 
struction railroad,  but  purchases  all  cement  di- 
rectly, supplies  the  contractor  with  sand  and 
gravel,  and  will  grade  tliis  material  in  the  proper 
proportion  for  use  as  concrete  aggregate.  The 
direct  purchase  of  the  cement  was  decided  on  in 
order  to  secure  uniform  sound  waterproof  con- 
struction. 

The  construction  of  the  aqueduct  naturally  has 
been  influenced  by  topographical  conditions. 
Near  the  district  to  be  supplied  the  ground  and 
river  water  is  so  hard  that  it  is  unsuitable  for 
manufacturing  and  laundry  purposes,  and  not 
very  satisfactory  for  domestic  uses.  The  nearest 
suitable  water  supply  was  to  be  found  to  the 
east  and  north  of  Winnipeg,  in  the  granite  coun- 
try, at  about  300  feet  higher  level  than  the  city. 
Consequently  the  available  slope  is  only  about 
3  feet  to  the  mile,  and  this  head  is  consumed  in 
delivering  the  water  into  the  city  reservoir.  It 
was  hoped  that  the  aqueduct  would  be  finished 
before  the  fall  of  1918,  and  the  whole  organiza- 
tion of  railway  and  construction  was  so  pro- 
vided that  there  would  be  as  little  chance  for 
delay  as  possible. 

Brooks  Aqueduct.  An  interesting  feature  of 
the  great  irrigation  development  in  the  Province 
of  Alberta,  Canada,  was  the  Brooks  Aqueduct, 
which  is  the  first  aqueduct  in  which  the  hydro- 
static catenary  has  been  adoptcni  for  the  shape  of 
the  water  section,  and  it  is  the  longest  aqueduct 
yet  constructed,  with  a  large  carrying  capacity, 
having  a  length  of  10,500  feet,  and  a  capacity 
of  900  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  aqueduct 
forms  a  part  of  the  western  section  of  the  Bow 
Valley  irrigation  block,  which  includes  the  horse- 
shoe bend  on  the  Bow  River  at  Bassano,  where 
the  great  dam  is  located,  and  Lake  Newell,  an 
artificial  reservoir  constructed  in  a  large  natu- 
ral hollow. 

The  water  section  of  the  aqueduct  was  selected 
in  the  form  of  a  hydrostatic  catenary  or  curve, 


38  ABBITRATION 

as  the  total  fall  was  limited  to  4.85  feet  in 
10,000,  and  consequently  it  was  necessary  to  use 
this  small  head  to  the  very  best  advantage. 
This  shape  afforded  a  low  friction  head  and 
structurally  was  economical.  To  carry  the 
water  conduit  various  arches  and  trestle  designs 
were  worked  out,  but  the  trestle  system  was 
chosen,  as  this  was  found  about  25  per  cent 
cheaper  than  arches. 

Ottawa.  During  the  year  progress  was  made 
towards  increasing  the  water  supply  of  the  city 
of  Ottawa,  the  result  of  a  threatened  50  per  cent 
increase  in  fire  insurance  rates  which  had 
aroused  the  efforts  of  local  insurance  interests 
and  the  Board  of  Trade.  Contracts  were  let 
during  the  year  for  building  a  pumping  station 
on  Lemieux  Island  in  the  Ottawa  River,  and  lay- 
ing a  force  main  thence  to  the  mainland,  cross- 
ing the  river  channel  on  a  bridge  in  order  to 
avoid  the  dangers  of  a  submerg^  pipe  line  be- 
neath Nepean  Bay.  This  was  the  fifth  water 
supply  project  proposed  for  the  city  of  Ottawa 
within  a  few  years,  as  the  voters  had  defected 
bond  issues  for  a  near-by  lake  gravity  supply 
and  for  a  mechanically  filtered  supply  from  the 
Ottawa  River ;  while  the  city  administration  had 
discarded  plans  proposed  for  a  distant-lake 
gravity  supply  and  a  modified  filtered  supply 
from  the  Ottawa  River. 

Italy.  The  great  Apulia  Aqueduct,  which 
was  being  constructed  to  supply  water  from  the 
river  Sele  to  about  3,000,000  inhabitants  of 
cities  and  towns  in  several  arid  provinces  in 
Southeastern  Italy,  was  put  to  use  on  April  13, 
1915,  when  water  was  turned  in.  The  project, 
which  involves  the  construction  of  an  aqueduct 
and  many  branch  lines,  with  a  combined  length 
of  about  1800  miles,  was  not  completed  and 
construction  was  being  continued.  This  project 
dates  back  to  1868,  and  has  involved  many  ex- 
tensive surveys  and  geological  examinations  of 
the  territory  from  which  the  supply  is  drawn. 
The  general  plan  involves  the  collection  of  wat^ 
by  means  of  a  series  of  canals  which  lead  into  a 
connecting  canal,  and  this  in  turn  into  a  supply 
canal.  Ine  main  canal  rims  from  Caposele  to 
Fasano,  a  distance  of  132.67  miles,  of  which  6.02 
miles  are  tunnel,  5.28  miles  canal  bridges,  and 
4.59  miles  are  siphons.  The  supply  of  water 
from  the  main  canal  goes  to  260  towns  and  three 
provinces  in  Apulia,  through  a  system  of  branch 
canals,  independent  reservoirs,  pumping  stations, 
pipe  lines,  siphons,  and  tunnels.  The  construc- 
tion of  this  wonderful  aqueduct  has  involved 
extraordinary  masonry  and  concrete  work,  tun- 
neling, and  other  varieties  of  constructive  engi- 
neering. 

India.  The  Gaulapar  Aqueduct,  which  car- 
ries a  supply  of  water  for  the  irrigation  of  7000 
acres  of  Bhabar  land,  on  the  east  of  the  Gaula, 
in  the  Haldwanitahsil,  was  opened  during  1915 
by  the  Viceroy  of  India.  This  aqueduct  includes 
probably  the  second  largest  re^nforced-concretc 
arch  in  the  world.  Twelve  concrete-arch  bridges 
and  aqueducts  had  been  built  in  the  Tarai  estates 
by  the  Indian  Irrigation  staff.  The  Gaulapar 
Viaduct  was  designed  and  carried  out  by  Mr. 
W.  L.  Stampe,  executive  engineer  of  the  Tarai 
and  Bhabar  government  estates,  and  the  con- 
struction   was   commenced   in   November,    1914. 

ARABIC  CASE.  See  United  States  and 
THE  War. 

ABBITBATION,    Intebnational.    See    In- 

TEBNATIONAL   PEACB  AND  ABBITBATION. 


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ABBITBATION 


39       ABBITBATION  AND  CONCILIATION 


ABBITBATION,  Labob.    See  Railways. 
ARBITRATION    AND     CONCIUATION, 

Industbial.  The  large  number  of  strikes  dur- 
ing the  year  brought  clearly  before  the  country 
the  fact  that  in  addition  to  loss  in  actual  money 
and  lives,  millions  are  lost  in  disrupted  produc- 
tivity, deterred  investment,  crippled  business, 
and  animosities  bred  bv  strife.  The  violences  of 
Colorado,  West  Virginia,  and  New  Jersey  do  not 
confine  their  harmful  effects  to  those  States,  but 
make  a  direct  appeal  to  the  sympathies  of  all 
workers  and  employees  in  the  United  States, 
thus  intensifying  the  class  struggle.  For  this 
reason  there  never  was  a  time  when  more  general 
public  interest  attached  to  various  plans  for  col- 
lective bargaining.  This  principle  embodies  the 
right  of  laborers  to  sell  their  labor  as  a  whole 
and  not  individually.  About  350  employers  tes- 
tified before  the  United  States  Commission  on 
Industrial  Relations,  including  such  great  cap- 
tains of  industry  as  J.  P.  Morgan,  John  D. 
Rockefeller,  Jr.,  and  George  W.  Perkins,  and 
freely  admitted  that  the  employing  side  of  busi- 
ness should  be  conducted  on  a  collective  basis. 
Many  also  admitted  that  labor  had  the  right  to 
organize  and  yet  as  a  result  of  an  antagonistic 
attitude  toward  such  organization  on  the  part 
of  some  employing  concerns,  employees  remained 
unorganized.  The  trouble  seems  to  lie  in  the 
fact  that  collective  bargaining  is  conceived  in 
terms  of  unionism,  closed  shop,  and  walking 
delegates,  and  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  com- 
prehension of  the  fact  that  a  compromise  exists 
which  will  safeguard  the  rights  of  the  employer 
and  the  worker  without  Injustice  to  either.  The 
Hart,  Schaffner,  and  Marx  clothing  house  of 
Chicago,  which  was  one  of  the  two  large  houses 
not  entering  the  Chicago  clothing  strike  (see 
Stbikes  and  Lockouts)  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  year,  was  converted  to  a  system  of  arbitra- 
tion some  time  ago.  Mr.  Schaffner  said,  "Indus- 
trial peace  will  never  come  so  long  as  employer 
or  employee  believes  he  is  being  deprived  of 
rights  honestly  belonging  to  him.  Arbitration 
and  conciliation  should  to  applied  to  all  depart- 
ments of  business  wherever  there  is  a  conflict  of 
interests.  It  insures  exhaustive  discussion  of 
every  matter  of  importance,  gives  everybody  a 
chance  to  express  his  opinion,  brings  to  light 
valuable  suggestions,  and  makes  possible  a 
higher  degree  of  cooperation  and  team  work." 
Where  collective  bargaining  has  been  tried  it 
has  uniformly  resulted  in  increased  efficiency, 
higher  productivity,  higher  wages,  and  higher 
dividends.  The  retention  of  the  traditional  au- 
tocracy of  the  employer  is  thus  an  impediment 
to  industrial  progress  from  the  standpoint  of  his 
own  interests  as  well  as  those  of  his  employees 
and  the  public.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  al- 
though the  members  of  the  Commission  on  In- 
dustrial Relations  (q.v.)  split  into  various  fac- 
tions, they  all  agr^  in  approving  collective 
bargaining. 

Depabtment  of  Labob.  The  act  of  March  4, 
1913,  creating  the  Department  of  Labor,  pro- 
vided that  the  Secretary  of  Labor  should  have 
power  to  act  as  a  mediator  in  labor  disputes. 
Under  this  authority  the  Department,  through 
ite  commissioners  of  conciliation,  offered  its  serv- 
ices during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  in 
32  labor  disputes  involving  nearly  100,000  work- 
men. Of  these  disputes  24  were  amicably  ad- 
justed. In  five  settlement  was  pending,  two 
could  not  be  settled,  and  in  one  mediation  was 


refused.  From  July  1  te  Nov.  13,  1915,  the  De- 
partment handled  42  disputes  involving  over 
40,000  workers.  These  disputes  comprised  a 
wide  variety  of  industries  and  processes,  as  pat- 
tern making,  dyeing  and  mercerizing,  silver 
plating,  boiler  making,  iron  molding,  wireless 
operators,  steam  and  electric  railways,  textile 
mills,  plumbing,  coal  mining,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  firearms,  lace,  locks,  and  graphophones. 
Among  the  notable  disputes  settled  by  the  De- 
partment was  that  in  the  Eastern  Ohio  coal 
field  of  more  than  a  year's  duration  and  involv- 
ing 16,000  men  (see  Stbikes  and  Lockouts). 

Westebn  Railboadb.  The  most  important 
single  instance  of  arbitration  in  the  United 
States  during  the  year  was  that  at  Chicago  in- 
volving the  64,000  locomotive  engineers,  firemen, 
and  enginemen  of  98  western  railroads.  An  ar- 
bitration board  consisting  of  the  vice-presidente 
of  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Burlington  roads, 
representatives  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive 
Engineers  and  the  Brotherhood  of  Firemen  and 
Engineers,  Secretary  of  Labor  Nagel,  and  Judge 
Pritehard  of  Virginia,  chairman,  reached  a  com- 
promise agreement  April  30.  The  employees' 
representatives  refused  to  sign  the  award,  which 
covered  wages,  overtime,  transfers,  seniority, 
pay  for  delays,  and  other  items.  The  award 
holds  for  one  year  only,  when  it  is  expected  the 
contest  will  be  renewed. 

COLOBADO  InDUSTBIAL  DISPUTES  INVESTIGA- 
TION Act.  The  Legislature  of  Colorado  enacted 
a  law  embodying  provisions  relative  to  labor  dis- 
putes that  differs  from  any  other  existing  legis- 
lation in  this  country  and  resembles  in  several 
respecte  the  well-known  Canadian  Industrial 
Disputes  Investigation  Act.  The  act  creates  an 
industrial  commission  with  a  wide  range  of 
powers.  Among  the  duties  is  the  promotion  of 
the  voluntary  adjustment  of  labor  disputes,  with 
a  view  to  avoiding  the  necessity  of  resorting  to 
strikes,  lockouts,  boycotte,  blackli^,  discrimi- 
nations, and  legal  proceedings  in  matters  of  em- 
ployment. The  commission  may  act  directly,  or 
it  may  appoint  temporary  boards  of  arbitration, 
providing  also  for  their  necessary  expenses. 
Power  to  enforce  the  attendance  of  witnesses, 
administer  oaths,  and  other  court  powers  are 
conferred  on  the  commission  or  a  board  ap- 
pointed by  it.  Parties  to  proceedings  may  be 
compelled  to  give  evidence  as  witnesses,  and  evi- 
dence is  not  restricted  to  that  of  a  strictly  legal 
nature,  but  such  as  seems  to  fit  in  equity  and 
good  conscience  may  be  accepted.  Employers 
and  employees  must  give  at  least  30  days'  notice 
of  any  intended  change  affecting  conditions  of 
employment  as  regards  wages  or  hours.  If  an 
investigation  has  been  begun,  and  until  the  dis- 
pute has  been  finally  dealt  with  by  the  commis- 
sion or  board,  the  existing  status  must  be  main- 
tained, and  the  relationship  of  employer  and 
employee  continued  "uninterrupted  by  the  dis- 
pute." Any  attempt  at  delay  in  order  to  main- 
tain a  continuation  of  the  status  is  punishable 
as  a  misdemeanor.  It  is  also  unlawful  for  an 
employer  to  declare  or  cause  a  lockout,  or  for  an 
employee  to  go  on  strike,  prior  to  or  during  an 
investigation,  hearing,  or  arbitration  of  such  dis- 
pute. Employers  may  declare  lockouts  and  em- 
ployees may  strike  without  violating  the  statute 
if  they  choose  to  do  so  after  a  dispute  has  been 
duly  investigated,  heard,  or  arbitrated.  Deter- 
minations by  the  commission  or  a  board  arc 
binding  only  when  the  parties  to  a  dispute  have 

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ABBITBATION  AND  CONdlJATION       40       ABBITBATION  AND  CONdlJATION 


either  agreed  in  writing  prior  to  action  that  they 
will  abide  by  the  conclusion  reached,  or  have  ac- 
cepted the  action  of  the  commission  or  board 
after  the  same  has  been  made  'known  to  them. 
Penalties  are  provided  for  violations  of  the  act 
by  employers  or  by  employees,  as  well  as  by  any 
person  who  incites  employers  or  employees  to  act 
in  contravention  of  the  law. 

Rockefeller  Plan.  Following  the  conclusion 
of  the  strike  in  the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Com- 
pany's camps,  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  dur- 
ing an  extended  inspection  of  conditions,  pre- 
sented his  Industrial  Representation  Plan 
wherebv  he  thought  to  create  a  ''Republic  of 
Labor,**  in  which  every  citizen  is  to  be  free  and 
independent.  This  is  a  very  comprehensive 
scheme  for  handling  all  of  the  relations  of  em- 
ployers and  employees.  It  is  based  on  the 
theory  that  every  corporation  is  composed  of 
four  parties,  namely,  stockholders,  directors,  offi- 
cers, and  employees,  whose  interests  are  so  mu- 
tually bound  together  that  an  "effort  to  advance 
one  interest  at  the  expense  of  another  means 
loss  to  all." 

The  plan  provides  for  an  annual  meeting  of 
employees  for  the  election  of  representatives. 
Each  camp  is  to  choose  one  representative  for 
every  150  wage-earners,  the  balloting  in  such 
elections  to  be  secret.  The  camps  are  divided 
into  five  districts,  and  district  conferences  are 
to  be  held  within  two  weeks  following  the  annual 
election  of  representatives  and  within  every  four 
months  thereafter.  In  such  conferences  the  rep- 
resentatives of  employers  shall  not  exceed  the 
number  of  representatives  of  employees.  These 
conferences  shall  consider  all  matters  of  mutual 
interest,  including  working  and  living  condi- 
tions, discipline,  the  avoidance  of  friction,  pro- 
motion of  efficiency,  and  of  friendly  relations. 
These  conferences  fi^all  provide  for  the  following 
four  joint  committees  of  six  members  each:  on 
industrial  cooperation  and  conciliation;  on 
safety  and  accidents;  on  sanitation,  healtii,  and 
housing;  on  recreation  and  education.  Each  of 
these  committees  may  of  their  own  initiative 
consider  all  matters  in  any  way  pertaining  to 
the  general  field. 

The  settlement  of  industrial  disputes  is  dealt 
with  at  great  length  in  the  plan.  In  the  first 
place  it  IS  provided  that  the  company  and  its 
employees  shall  strictly  observe  the  Federal  and 
State  laws.  In  the  second  place  there  is  to  be 
no  discrimination  against  an  employee  on  ac- 
count of  membership  in  any  union  or  society; 
but  all  features  of  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness are  reserved  exclusively  to  the  company. 
Offenses  for  which  an  employee  may  be  dis- 
missed shall  be  conspicuously  posted  at  each 
property.  Employees  may  assemble  outside  of 
working  hours  at  appropriate  places  on  the  com- 
pany property  or  elsewhere.  They  are  not 
obliged  to  trade  at  company  stores.  Tliey  may 
employ  checkweighmen.  Finally,  elaborate  pro- 
vision is  made  for  a  series  of  appeals  for  any 
grieved  employee.  The  plan  provides  that  the 
president  of  the  company  shall  have  a  special 
industrial  representative  who  must  visit  each 
camp  at  least  once  every  three  months.  The 
plan  then  provides  that  adjustment  of  a  griev- 
ance shall  be  sought  first  with  conference 
through  the  mine  superintendent;  then  through 
the  president's  industrial  representative;  then 
through  the  division  superintendent,  assistant 
manager,  or  manager,  general  manager,  or  presi- 


dent of  the  company  in  consecutive  order.  If 
all  these  fail  the  joint  committee  on  industrial 
mediation  and  conciliation  of  the  district  shall 
take  up  the  case.  If  they  divide  evenly  on  the 
matter  they  shall  call  in  an  umpire.  If  this 
does  not  succeed  the  matter  may  be  referred  to 
arbitration  or  made  the  subject  of  investigation 
by  the  State  Industrial  Commission. 

Considerable  attention  is  given  to  social  and 
industrial  betterment.  A  special  executive  as- 
sistant to  the  president  is  to  co5perate  with  a 
permanent  advisory  board  with  reference  to  sani- 
tary, medical,  educational,  social,  religious,  and 
other  needs  of  the  various  communities.  The 
publication  of  a  periodical  to  serve  as  communi- 
cation between  the  management,  employees,  and 
the  public  is  also  provided.  The  first  quarterly 
number  of  this  periodical,  called  the  0.  F.  attd 
I.  Industrial  BuHetin,  was  issued  in  October. 

In  addition  to  these  general  features  the  plan 
provides  special  features  of  an  agreement  to 
continue  in  force  until  Jan.  1,  1918,  and  there- 
after subject  to  revision  upon  90  days'  notice  by 
either  party.  These  special  features  include 
the  charges  for  dwellings,  electric  light,  water, 
powder,  and  domestic  coal;  agreement  of  the 
company  to  fence  lots  for  gardens  and  to  remove 
garbage;  and  to  provide  ^th  houses  and  social 
centres.  An  eight-hour  day  for  underground 
employees,  and  a  nine-hour  day  for  others  is 
established.  Wages  are  not  to  be  reduced  dur- 
ing the  term  of  the  agreement,  but  may  be 
raised  in  proportion  to  the  advances  in  com- 
peting districts. 

The  plan  includes  three  of  the  seven  demands 
presented  preceding  the  strike  of  1913-14,  and 
a  part  of  a  fourth.  It  does  not  recognize  the 
union,  advanced  wages,  nor  pay  for  dead  work, 
while  the  abolition  of  the  guard  system  is  not 
touched  upon.  While  Mr.  Rockefeller  claimed 
the  plan  to  be  "more  democratic  than  unionism," 
critics  did  not  believe  it  afforded  adequate  pro- 
tection to  representatives  of  the  men  serving  on 
committees,  nor  indeed  of  any  workers  deemed 
too  active.  Moreover,  while  the  company  as- 
sumed the  expenses  for  the  operation  of  the  plan, 
it  at  the  same  time  retained  complete  control. 
It  was  believed  thus  to  introduce  a  degree  of 
paternalism  and  guardianship  not  entirely  in 
harmony  with  free  democratic  institutions. 
Moreover,  the  plan  did  not  include  the  several 
thousand  employees  of  the  company  in  the  steel 
works  at  Pueblo.  The  plan  was,  however,  unani- 
mously adopted  by  representatives  of  the  com- 
pany and  of  employees  at  Pueblo  on  October  2. 
It  was  then  submitted  to  the  directors  of  the 
company  and  to  a  referendum  vote  of  the  miners, 
being  approved  in  both  cases. 

New  York  Clothing  Industry.  One  of  the 
most  elaborate  and  effective  trade  agreements 
ever  completed  in  the  history  of  American  in- 
dustry was  the  protocol  established  between  the 
Cloak,  Suit  and  Skirt  Manufacturers'  Protective 
Association  of  New  York  City  and  the  Interna- 
tional Ladies'  Garment  Workers'  Union  and  the 
Cloak  and  Skirt  Makers'  Union  in  September, 
1910,  and  continuing  to  May,  1915.  Termina- 
tion of  that  agreement  led  to  strikes  and  threat- 
ened disruption  of  the  industry,  with  the  result 
that  Mayor  Mitchel  appointed  a  council  of  con- 
ciliation with  a  view  to  establishing  a  new  col- 
lective agreement.  This  council  consisted  of 
Felix  Adler,  chairman,  Charles  L.  Bernheimer, 
Louis   D.   Brandeis,   Henry   Brufere,   George   W. 


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A&BiTBA9i0if  And  conciliation     4i     abbitbation  and  conciliation 


Kirchwey,  and  Walter  C.  Noyes.  They  secured 
the  adoption  of  a  new  agreement  to  be  in  force 
for  two  years  with  renewal  for  a  like  term  un- 
less two  months'  notice  of  desire  to  abrogate  is 
.jrivui  by  eithor  party.  A  wage  scale  represent- 
ing an  advance  of  approximately  10  per  cent 
•over  the  preceding  agreement  is  fixed.  The 
'Union  agrees  to  avoid  strikes,  but  the  workers 
«re  guaranteed  "an  inalienable  right  to  associate 
and  organize  themselves/'  and  shall  be  immuned 
from  discharge  or  discrimination  on  account  of 
union  activities.  Complaints  shall  be  investi- 
gated first  by  representatives  of  the  two  parties, 
and,  if  settlement  is  not  reached,  by  a  trial  board 
consisting  of  one  employer,  one  worker,  and  an 
impartial  person.  The  employer,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  given  complete  freedom  in  the  selection 
of  employees;  the  right  to  discharge  the  incom- 
petent, the  insubordinate,  the  inefficient,  the  un- 
suitable, and  the  unfaithful  (which,  however, 
he  agrees  not  to  exercise  in  an  oppressive  man- 
ner) ;  the  right  to  distribute  work  among  the 
employees  possessing  the  requisite  skill;  but  he 
agrees  to  distribute  work  during  slack  seasons 
as  equably  as  expedient;  and  he  may  reorgan- 
ize his  shop  whenever  conditions  of  business 
make  it  necessary  for  him  to  do  so.  The  coun- 
cil which  planned  this  agreement  was  requested 
by  the  mayor  to  continue  as  an  investigating 
commission  in  order  to  increase  the  regular- 
ity of  the  industry,  fix  wages  and  other  stand- 
ards, and  encourage  trade  education  and  more 
thorough  organization  throughout  the  indus- 
try. 

Denmark.  Denmark  recognizes  practically 
the  same  principles  of  State  interference  in  the 
settlement  of  labor  disputes  as  does  the  Aus- 
tralian Commonwealth.  A  permanent  arbitra- 
tion court  was  established  by  the  law  of  April 
12,  1910.  It  consists  of  12  members.  Three  as- 
sociates and  their  alternates  are  elected  annually 
by  the  Association  of  Danish  Employers  and 
Masters;  the  other  three  and  their  alternates 
are  chosen  by  the  Danish  Federation  of  Labor, 
as  long  as  these  organizations  represent  the  ma- 
jority of  employers  and  workmen  on  either  side; 
and  when  they  cease  to  do  so,  steps  are  to  be 
taken  for  a  change  in  the  law.  Since  the  or- 
ganization of  the  court,  136  cases  have  been  de- 
cided by  it.  During  the  years  1913-14,  48 
cases  (24  in  each  year)  were  referred  to  the 
court  for  decision.  During  the  same  years  31 
proceedings  were  begim  by  employers*  associa- 
tions or  individual  employers,  and  17  by  trade 
unions;  8  oases  were  settled  by  the  parties  be- 
fore final  proceedings  were  had,  4  were  dropped, 
and  1  was  postponed.  During  the  same  two 
years,  the  largest  number  of  disputes  occurred  in 
the  building  trades,  where  22  oases  were  repre- 
sented; transportation  and  the  woodworking 
trades  oame  next  with  7  and  5  oases,  respec- 
tively. The  questions  at  issue  were  strikes  and 
lookouts  in  20  oases;  interpretation  of  agree- 
ments or  awards  in  17  oases;  alleged  boycotts,  5; 
working  conditions,  2;  wages,  1;  blacklisting  or 
dismiseal,  1;  employment  of  non-unionists  and 
non-pomplianoe  with  the  award  of  the  court,  1. 
Fines  were  imposed  during  1913  and  1914  in  15 
oases,  amounting  approximately  to  $1207.  The 
total  oosts  involved  In  the  settlement  of  the  48 
oases  during  the  same  two  years  amounted  to 
f  1817,  of  wBioh  1888  was  assessed  on  employers 
ftlone,  $6^2  upon  trade  unions  alone,  $229  upon 
both    «»ployers    and    trade    unions    in    equal 


amounts,  while  $44  was  assessed  upon  both  par- 
ties unequally. 

NoBWAT.  The  enactment,  Aug.  6,  1916,  of  an 
arbitration  law  in  Norway  is  of  special  interest, 
as  it  recognized  the  principle  of  compulsory  in- 
vestigation and  enforced  delay  in  striking,  which 
forms  the  essential  feature  of  the  Canadian  In- 
dustrial Disputes  Act  of  1907.  As  originally 
drafted,  the  Norwegian  law  was  a  compulsory 
arbitration  law,  but  opposition  to  it  from  the 
time  of  its  proposal  in  1910  compelled  the  omis- 
sion of  the  compulsory  feature.  For  its  pur- 
poses, the  law  provides  for  the  registration  of 
trade  unions  and  employers'  associations  and 
the  legal  recognition  of  the  collective  agreement; 
conciliation  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  act. 
In  order  to  incorporate,  a  trade  union  must 
have  at  least  25  members.  Collective  agree- 
ments are  required  to  be  in  writing  and  remain 
eflfective  for  three  years  unless  otherwise  pro- 
vided, and  three  months'  notice  is  required  be- 
fore their  lawful  termination.  It  is  specifically 
provided  that  an  individual  contract  of  hire  can- 
not waive  the  provisions  of  the  collective  agree- 
ment. Resort  may  not  be  had  to  a  strike  for  de- 
termining the  application  or  intent  of  a  collec- 
tive agreement,  nor  may  it  be  resorted  to  under 
any  circumstances  unless  conciliation  proceed- 
ings be  first  attempted;  and  as  Ions  as  the 
right  to  strike  is  in  abeyance,  it  is  not  lawful  to 
make  changes  in  the  conditions  of  work  or  wages 
of  the  employees,  a  provision  inserted  to  pre- 
vent a  so-called  masked  lockout.  The  labor 
court  established  under  the  act  is  the  only 
tribunal  before  which  the  questions  arising  from 
an  unlawful  strike  may  be  tried;  but  the  parties 
themselves  are  left  free  to  settle  their  disputes 
out  of  court  by  voluntary  arbitration.  The  or- 
ganization as  such,  and  not  an  individual  rep- 
resentative of  it,  is  alone  recognized  before  the 
court.  The  court  consists  of  a  chairman  and 
four  associates  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  a 
period  of  three  years,  two  being  nominated  from 
trade-union  members,  and  two  from,  employers' 
associations.  The  country  is  divided  into  con- 
ciliation districts,  at  the  head  of  each  of  which 
is  a  conciliation  board.  It  is  obligatory  to  re- 
port every  actual  or  threatened  cessation  of 
work  to  this  board.  Fines  ranging  from  5 
crowns  ($1.34)  up  to  25,000  crowns  ($6700) 
may  be  assessed  against  an  employer  or  work- 
man who  takes  part  in  or  assists  in  an  unlaw- 
ful labor  dispute. 

Switzerland.  The  new  Swiss  Factory  Act 
provided  for  permanent  cantonal  conciliation 
boards.  These  boards  may  intervene  in  a  dis- 
pute either  on  their  own  initiative,  or  at  the 
request  either  of  the  parties  concerned  or  of 
the  local  authorities.  Ihe  boards  have  the  right 
to  compel  the  attendance  of  witnesses  and  to 
conduct  investigations  under  oath.  These  con- 
ciliation boards  are  established  for  settling  dis- 
putes only  in  private  industries,  while  a  special 
permanent  committee,  entitled  "the  Government 
Workshops  Committee,"  is  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  claims  of  labor  in  government  work- 
shops and  departments.  The  functions  of  this 
body  are  purely  advisory,  the  power  of  action 
lying  wholly  with  the  Federal  Council.  The 
Government  Workshops  Committee  has  no  au- 
thority in  connection  with  the  Federal  railroad 
system.  The  conciliation  boards  and  the  gov- 
ernment committee  both  contain  representatives 
of  employers  and  of  employees. 


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ABBITBATION  AND  CONCILIATION       42 


ABCHJBOLOOY 


Gbeat  Britain.  The  Australian  Bystem  of 
arbitration  was  suggested  for  Great  Britain 
during  the  war  period.  A  conference  was  held 
about  the  middle  of  1915  between  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  government  and  labor,  35 
workmen's  organizations  being  represented.  It 
was  agreed  that  there  will  1^  no  stoppage  of 
work  on  mimitions  or  equipments  of  war.  Dif- 
ferences on  wages  and  conditions  of  employment 
shall  be  subject  to  conference  between  parties. 
In  the  case  of  failure  to  reach  settlement  there 
are  three  possible  means  of  dealing  with  the  situ- 
ation: 1.  Reference  to  the  Committee  on  Pro- 
duction; 2.  reference  to  a  single  arbitrator 
agreed  upon  by  both  parties  or  appointed  by  the 
board  of  trade;  and  3.  reference  to  a  court  of 
arbitration  upon  which  labor  is  represented 
equally  with  employers.  A  threatened  strike  at 
the  Vickers  Navai  Construction  Works  was 
settled  by  arbitration;  a  dispute  involving  12,- 
000  men  engaged  in  admiralty  work  at  South- 
ampton was  compromised. 

After  a  conference  between  the  executive  coun- 
cil of  the  miners  and  the  representatives  of  the 
government  in  the  strike  of  the  Welsh  coal 
miners,  tentative  terms  were  agreed  upon,  in- 
cluding a  new  standard  rate  of  wages,  payment 
for  overtime,  abolition  of  the  maximum  wage; 
these  terms  to  be  operative  until  six  months  after 
the  close  of  the  war,  then  to  be  terminated  by 
the  government  or  miners  on  three  months'  no- 
tice. 

Australia.  The  war  caused  considerable  dis- 
turbance in  industry  in  1914  and  it  became  a 
problem  for  the  different  conciliation  boards  to 
meet  the  demands  for  increases  in  wages  in  the 
making  of  new  agreements.  The  question  was 
appealed  to  the  Industrial  Arbitration  Court. 
The  court  declared  that  government  employees 
must  not  look  for  higher  wages.  As  to  other 
workers,  increases  should  not  be  asked  for  which 
will  prove  detrimental  to  public  interest.  Com- 
munity interests  were  emphasized  as  being 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  deciding  dis- 
putes. 

ABCHiEOLOGICAL  INSTITXJTE  OF 
AMERICA.  The  seventeenth  general  meeting 
was  held  in  conjunction  with  the  American  Phil- 
ological Association  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  on  Dec. 
28-30,  1915.  A  joint  session  'with  the  Society 
of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  was  held  in 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  on  the  after- 
noon of  Dec.  28th,  and  a  joint  session  with  the 
International  Congress  of  Americanists  was  held 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  on  Dec.  31st.  The  annual 
meeting  of  the  council  of  the  Institute,  and  meet- 
ings of  the  managing  committees  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Oriental  Research  in  Jerusalem 
and  the  School  of  American  Archieology  were 
also  held.  A  special  meeting  of  the  Archsolog- 
ieal  Institute  was  held  in  San  Francisco,  Aug. 
2-5,  1915,  in  connection  with  the  Panama-Pa- 
cific Exposition,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science.  Sessions  were  held  at  the  University  of 
California  and  Leland  Stanford  University,  and 
an  adjourned  meeting  took  place  in  San  Diego, 
August  11-12,  under  the  auspices  of  the  San 
Diego  Society  of  the  Archaeological  Institute. 
Tuesday,  August  3rd,  was  Archaeological  In- 
stitute '  Day  at  the  Exposition,  and  President 
Shipley  was  presented  with  a  bronze  medal  in 
honor  of  the  occasion.  Among  the  papers  read 
were:     "The  Architecture  of  the  Panama-Pacific 


Exposition,"  by  Eugen  Xeuhaus;  "Spanish  Co- 
lonial Architecture  at  the  Panama-California  Ex- 
position," by  Carleton  M.  Winslow;  "Aspects  of 
Neolithic  Culture  of  the  Santa  Barbara  Channel 
Islands,  California,"  by  Hector  Alliot;  "Roman 
Portrait  Sculpture,"  by  F.  W.  Shipley;  "The  Re- 
lation of  Religion  to  Art  in  Antiquity  and  the 
Middle  Ages,"  by  Osvald  Siv^n ;  "Ghiberti's  Gate 
of  Paradise  in  Florence,"  by  George  Bryce;  and 
"Archaeology  of  the  Panama-California  Exposi- 
tion," by  Edgar  L.  Hewett.  The  president  of  the 
Institute  is  F.  W.  Shipley;  secretary,  Mitchell 
Carroll;  Willard  V.  King,  treasurer.  Besides 
the  School  of  Oriental  Research  at  Jerusalem, 
the  Institute  maintains  the  American  School  at 
Athens  and  the  School  of  Archaeology  at  Santa 
F6,  N.  Mex.     It  has  about  3500  members. 

ABCHJEOLOOY.  The  great  war  has  had  its 
effect  upon  the  activities  of  the  scholars  who  in 
the  past  busied  themselves  with  archaeological 
investigations.  In  Turkey,  for  example,  it  has 
been  impossible  to  carry  on  excavations,  not  only 
because  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country, 
but  also  because  the  need  for  troops  has  with- 
drawn men  from  the  localities  where  work  has 
been  carried  on.  Mesopotamia,  now  a  field  of 
combat,  is  no  place  for  excavation,  and  at  Sardis, 
where  the  Americans  have  been  engaged  for  sev- 
eral years,  it  has  been  necessary  to  give  up 
work,  both  because  of  the  unsettled  conditions 
there  and  because  of  the  lack  of  laborers.  In 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  no  archeological 
work  has  been  done:  and  in  the  past  some  ex- 
cavation has  always  been  done  there.  In  Italy, 
too,  there  has  been  no  archaeological  research. 
See  also  Pbabodt  Museum. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  war  has  in  a  curious 
way  been  responsible  for  at  least  two  discoveries 
of  archaeological  interest.  The  first  of  these  wsis 
made  in  the  Necropolis  of  Eleantos  in  the 
peninsula  of  Gallipoli.  On  Ma^  15th,  during  the 
fighting,  a  shell  of  large  calibre,  fired  by  the 
Turks,  in  exploding,  blew  open  an  excavation  of 
considerable  size  behind  the  Allies'  lines  and 
laid  bare  a  remarkably  well  preserved  sarcopha- 
gus. Upon  enlarging  the  opening  thus  made  by 
the  shell  the  Commandant  Vermeersch  found  in 
addition  to  the  sarcophagus  a  number  of  tombs 
and  vases  dating  from  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
Among  the  finds  were  many  terra  cotta  figurines 
of  the  Myrin  type  and  of  exceptional  beauty. 
Particularly  interesting  was  the  discovery  of 
two  great  jars,  or  pithoi,  1.60  m.,  both  with 
an  opening  .50  cm.  broad,  which  contained  two 
skeletons  each.  The  suggestion  made  is  that 
these  were  the  tombs  of  a  couple  of  married 
people  or  lovers. 

The  second  discovery  referred  to  was  made 
on  the  Island  of  Lemnos,  where  French  troops 
were  stationed.  Here  at  Palaiapolis  ("old 
town")  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island  and 
fau;ing  toward  Samothrace,  the  soldiers  in  dig- 
ging a  trench  uncovered  a  statue  of  Eros  two- 
thirds  life  size.  The  head,  right  arm,  the  left 
as  far  as  the  elbow,  and  both  legs  were  missing. 

Egypt.  Work  in  Egypt  apparently,  in  spite 
of  the  rumors  reaching  this  country  of  unrest 
in  that  quarter,  has  been  carried  on  much  ba 
before.  At  Ballabish,  near  Nag'  Hamfldi,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  the  work  of  the  Egyptian  Explora- 
tion Fund  has  met  with  success.  The  work  is 
being  carried  on  under  joint  Anglo-American 
direction,  and  reports  already  show  that  Pro- 
fessor Whittemore  has  found  a  number  of  graves 


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ABCHJBOLOOY 


which  have  been  excavated.  These  are  "pan" 
graves  and  they  contained  a  vast  quantity  of 
pottery,  chiefly  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  or 
later.  They  throw  interesting  light  upon  the 
burial  customs  of  the  common  people  of  that 
period. 

Acting  on  behalf  of  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 
in  Boston  and  Harvard  University,  Dr.  Reisner 
has  just  published  the  results  of  the  work  at 
Gizeh  in  1914.  One  of  the  results  of  the  work 
was  the  identification  of  the  royal  cemetery  of 
Chefreu  (Khafra),  and  the  proving  that  the 
custom  of  placing  magical  "reserve  h^uls"  of  the 
dead  in  the  tombs  dates  in  this  period.  Among 
these  heads  some  especially  fine  ones  were  recov- 
ered— notably  that  of  a  princess  and  one  of 
Prince  Sneferu-senb.  Two  heads  of  foreign  type 
led  Reisner  to  argue  that  Egypt  experienced  an 
early  infiltration  of  stock  from  Syria.  This  was 
demonstrated,  he  believes,  by  the  discovery  in 
the  tombs  of  strange  vases  of  hard  reddish  clay 
similar  to  those  found  in  first  dynasty  tombs  at 
Abydos.  Petrie  believed  them  to  be  of  jEgean 
origin.  Reisner  thinks  them  Syrian.  The  por- 
trait heads  referred  to  above  are  of  especial  in- 
terest, not  only  because  of  their  lifelike  quality, 
but  also  because  there  seems  to  be  some  reason 
for  believing  that  they  indicate  that  sometime 
during  the  fourth  dynasty,  2900-2760  B.C.,  Egyp- 
tian blood  experienced  negroid  contamination. 
Some  of  these  heads  came  to  light  in  1914. 

At  H&r6t,  Dr.  Breccia  cleared  out  the  pylons 
of  the  first  doorway  of  the  temple  of  Sebek. 
On  the  cornice  was  found  an  inscription  which 
stated  that  the  vestibule  and  the  pylon  had  been 
dedicated  in  the  34th  year  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
II  (B.C.  137)  to  the  deity  Pnepheros  '(P-nefer-ho, 
'the  beautiful-faced')  or  Soknopaios,  in  honor  of 
Ptolemy  and  his  consort  Cleopatra  and  their 
children,  by  one  Agathodoros  and  Isidora  his 
wife,  citizens  of  Alexandria.  In  place  at  the 
entrance  which  led  into  a  large  outer  court,  were 
found  two  crouching  lions.  Around  the  sides  of 
this  court  were  niunerous  doorways  opening  into 
various  apartments.  The  walls  had  b«en  covered 
with  stucco  except  in  certain  places,  where  spaces 
were  left  for  the  insertion  of  paintings.  Of  these 
paintings  the  only  one  in  a  good  sUtte  of  pres- 
ervation exhibits  a  procession  of  Pnepheros.  In 
it  the  god  appears  as  a  mimimified  crocodile 
crowned  and  borne  by  priests  upon  a  stretcher, 
while  other  priests,  some  with  palms  or  flowers, 
participate  in  the  ceremonial.  In  the  same 
court  two  sphinxes  stood  on  guard  at  another 
doorway,  which  led  into  a  smaller  room.  Be- 
side this  doorway  was  found  a  column  bearing 
an  inscription  which  tells  that  it  was  erected  by 
the  corporation  of  water-bird  breeders  in  honor 
of  Ptolemy  X  and  Cleopatra  III.  A  third  court, 
entered  through  a  pylon,  had  on  one  side  a  figure 
of  a  warrior  in  full  armor  and  an  inscription 
saying  that  the  dedication  was  an  act  of  grati- 
tude on  the  part  of  Heron  Soubattos.  The  third 
court,  into  which  this  doorway  gave  access, 
opened  into  the  principal  chapel  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, which  contained  a  large  and  elaborate  altar, 
and  which  showed  upon  its  walls  the  figures  of 
deities.  The  altar  is  a  very  important  illustra- 
tion of  the  furniture  of  an  Egyptian  temple. 

The  results  of  the  excavations  of  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  at  Lisht  have  just  appeared. 
The  work  centred  about  the  south  pyramid,  that 
is,  the  pyramid  of  Sesostris  I  (twelfth  dynasty, 
about  1950  B.C.).    On  the  northern  side  of  the 


43  ABCHAOLOGY 

pyramid  temple  two  small  pyramids  were  un- 
covered. One  of  these  had  been  rifled.  The 
shaft  of  the  other  was  discovered  at  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  structure.  It  was  2  meters 
square  and  descended  for  15  meters  into  the 
rock.  At  this  depth  a  passage  led  off  seemingly 
under  the  centre  of  the  pyramid.  This  monu- 
ment also  had  been  rifled.  Its  chapel  lay  on  the 
eastern  side.  As  the  excavation  was  carried  on 
beyond  the  outer  enclosure  wall  of  the  pyramid 
of  Sesostris,  a  tomb  was  found  near  the  cause- 
way. This  proved  to  be  the  burial  place  of 
Imhotep,  one  of  the  high  officials  of  the  King. 
It  was  a  mastaba  measuring  13  m.  by  6  m.,  and 
was  surrounded  by  a  thick  wall  of  sun-dried 
brick.  In  the  paved  area  between  the  tomb  and 
the  wall  were  located  two  shaft  burials  which 
had  been  robbed  in  the  past.  One  of  the  inter- 
esting finds  in  connection  with  these  shafts  was 
a  rope  some  11  m.  long,  which  had  been  hastily 
braided  by  the  robbers  from  strips  of  linen. 
The  shaft  of  Imhotep's  tomb  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  mastaba,  2.5  m.  square,  penetrated 
the  bed  rock  to  a  depth  of  15  m.  llien  in  a 
southerly  direction  a  passage  led  for  some  6  m. 
into  a  burial  chamber  4  m.  square  and  3  m. 
high.  In  the  fioor  of  this  chamber  a  small  sar- 
cophagus chamber  had  been  hewn  in  the  solid 
rock  and  covered  over  with  heavy  blocks  of 
limestone  level  with  the  floor.  The  tomb  had 
been  sacked. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  in  con- 
nection with  this  tomb  proved  to  be  a  chamber, 
about  65  cm.  square,  concealed  in  the  thickness 
of  the  enclosure  wall  of  the  mastaba.  It  was 
roofed  with  planks  and  these  covered  with  sun- 
dried  brick.  The  interior  of  this  small  chamber 
was  lined  with  pinkish  plaster.  The  noteworthy 
part  of  the  flnd  was  not  the  chamber,  but  two 
small  royal  figures  carved  out  of  cedar  and 
identical,  except  that  one  wore  the  red  and  one 
the  white  crown.  That  with  the  white  crown 
stood  66  cm.  tall;  that  with  the  red  crown,  58 
cm.  Traces  of  pinkish  color  remained  on  the 
nude  portions  of  the  figures,  while  the  skirts  and 
crowns  were  covered  with  stucco,  the  better  to 
furnish  a  body  for  the  color.  Along  with  these 
two  figures  was  found  a  small  wooden  shrine 
painted  yellow,  68.7  cm.  high  by  31.6  cm.  broad, 
and  22.5  cm.  deep.  It  was  closed  by  a  bolt 
shot  through  copper  staples  in  the  double  doors. 
Within  it  was  an  alabaster  vase  half  full  of  a 
bluish  ointment  which  had  solidified.  In  this 
ointment  stood  a  curious  object  which  proved  to 
be  a  cedar  rod  about  53  cm.  long  and  1.5  cm. 
thick  at  the  point  where  it  entered  the  ointment. 
This  rod  was  carefully  bound  with  linen  wrap- 
pings which  enclosed  as  well  a  "dummy"  animal 
made  up  of  skin  and  padding.  It  is  believed  to 
be  the  Anubis  symbol;  this  and  the  other  objects 
in  the  chamber  are  unique. 

Work  carried  on  eastward  of  Imhotep's  tomb 
brought  to  light  many  tomb  shafts.  Among 
these,  one  particularly  is  interesting.  It  had 
never  been  disturbed  and  was  a  tomb  of  three 
chambers,  all  opening  out  of  the  same  shaft  at 
a  depth  of  6  m.  In  the  northern  chamber  was 
found  two  wooden  coffins,  in  one  of  which  was 
the  owner  of  the  tomb  with  his  walking  stick 
beside  him,  and  a  little  figure  of  the  man  him- 
self. The  eastern  chamber  contained  but  one 
burial,  but  the  other,  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  shaft,  was  so  packed  with  burials  that  the 
chamber  was  filled  to  the  roof.     Two  coffins  had 


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GooqIc 


ABCHiBOLOOY 

been  even  shoved  in  on  their  sides  so  as  to  be 
able  to  get  them  in. 

To  the  south  of  the  tomb  of  Imhotep  the  exca- 
vators found  a  series  of  house  walls  which  seem 
to  have  been  those  of  the  houses  of  guardians 
and  priests  of  the  precinct  of  the  temple. 

At  Memphis  the  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  Jr.,  expedi- 
tion has  unearthed  a  temple  which  the  exca- 
vators believe  to  belong  to  the  period  of  Rameses 
II.  The  belief  is  held  that  it  was  erected  by 
Seti  I,  and  that  it  is  the  particular  building 
described  by  Herodotus. 

The  expedition  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  at  work  at  Thebes  has  devoted  particular 
attention  to  clearing  the  tomb  of  Surer,  the 
scribe  and  fan-bearer  of  Amenhotep  III,  the 
heretic  king,  llie  tomb,  quite  elaborate  in  its 
organization,  consists  of  these  features,  all  hewn 
from  the  rock.  After  passing  through  a  court- 
yard one  enters  a  transverse  hall,  the  ceiling  of 
which  is  supported  by  20  fluted  shafts  of  the 
proto-Doric  type.  This  part  had  been  cleared 
two  years  ago.  From  this  transverse  hall  one 
then  passed  into  an  inner  hall,  the  axis  of  which 
was  at  right  angles  to  the  preceding,  74  feet 
long,  and  divided  into  three  aisles  by  20  lotus- 
bud  columns.  In  this  hall  was  found  a  papyrus 
manuscript  containing  an  account  of  a  suit  be- 
tween two  women  over  a  slave  girl.  Proceed- 
ing still  further  inward  one  enters  another  hall, 
somewhat  rougher  in  execution  than  the  others, 
containing  four  rows  of  20  lotus-bud  columns 
of  that  ungraceful  type  in  which  the  bud  is  in- 
verted. Finally,  behind  this  last  room  one 
comes  to  a  pillared  hall,  excavated  only  to  one- 
half  its  height,  with  three  aisles  of  six  piers. 

An  interesting  feature  in  connection  with  this 
tomb  is  the  fact  that  the  name  of  Surer,  the 
owner,  had  been  scrupulously  eliminated  wher- 
ever it  appeared  in  the  inscriptions.  Even  the 
figure  of  the  hapless  man  had  been  obliterated 
from  a  relief  in  which  he  was  represented  hold- 
ing the  fan  for  his  royal  master.  The  apparent 
reason  for  this  is  that  Surer  did  not  sympathize 
with  Amenhotep,  or  Akhnaton,  in  his  attempt  to 
substitute  the  worship  of  the  one  god,  the  sun, 
for  that  of  all  others. 

In  the  courtyard  of  the  tomb  were  found  sev- 
eral later  burials,  all  of  which  had  been  pillaged. 
In  one  cofiin  the  body  of  a  woman  had  been 
crowded  in  on  top  of  that  of  a  man. 

The  same  expedition  also  partially  cleared 
the  tomb  of  Pulmre,  also  at  Thebes.  The  tomb 
was  located  high  on  the  face  of  a  cliff.  A  close 
examination  of  the  tomb  showed  that  shafts 
and  chambers  ran  in  every  direction,  over,  under, 
and  even  into  each  other.  At  one  place,  which 
was  reached  by  a  flight  of  stairs  about  80  feet 
long,  the  chambers  were  three  stories  deep.  In 
two  large  rooms  the  debris,  made  by  earlier  plun- 
derers who  had  torn  the  bodies  limb  from  limb, 
was  knee  deep.  The  tomb  chamber  of  Pulmre 
himself  was  at  length  discovered  at  a  point 
deep  in  the  rock  and  reached  by  a  deep  shaft 
that  made  down  from  the  court,  then  by  a  slop- 
ing passage,  two  stairways,  and  finally  through 
two  intermediary  chambers.  Ihe  burial  cham- 
ber itself  was  small,  cut  in  the  rock,  and  lined 
with  slabs  of  sandstone  to  make  it  into  a  great 
sarcophagus.     Even  this  had  been  robbed. 

At  Thebes,  also,  the  same  excavators  cleared 
out  the  tombs  of  Userh&t  and  Thotemhab.  Dur- 
ing the  clearing  of  the  tomb  of  Nakht,  the  kneel- 
ing statue  of  Nakht,  about  40  cm.   high,  was 


44 


ABCHITECTUBE 


found  in  the  filling  of  the  pit  where  it  had 
fallen  from  a  niche  at  the  top.  This  statue  was 
lost  when  the  steamship  Arabic  was  sunk. 

Gbeeoe.  As  might  be  expected,  little  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  excavating  in  Greece.  How- 
ever, by  making  use  of  boys  and  old  men,  since 
the  adult  population  for  the  most  part  is  under 
arms,  the  American  school  in  Athens  has  been 
able  to  carry  on  its  work  at  Corinth.  The  exca- 
vations proved  to  be  a  godsend  to  the  natives, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  employment  brought  on  by 
the  war.  The  most  notable  finds  made  in  clear- 
ing the  Roman  part  of  ancient  Corinth  consist  in 
a  draped  statue  of  Augustus  and  of  two  youthful 
figures  which  are  thought  possibly  to  represent 
his  grandsons.  Experimental  diggings  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Corinth  have  brought  to  light 
Mycenaean  remains  in  six  places.  These  remains 
consist  of  late  pottery.  As  yet  no  great  necropo- 
lis has  been  located.  Some  ruined  walls  of  this 
Mycensean  period  were  also  found.  At  Palaio- 
kastro,  in  Cephalenia,  excavations  have  brought 
to  light  indications  of  a  cemetery  of  the  My- 
cenaean Age. 

In  Crete,  the  Greeks  have  opened  the  Tholas 
tomb  at  Platanos,  in  the  Messarfi,  in  Southern 
Crete.  Here  were  discovered  two  bronze  votive 
double  axes,  diadems,  necklaces,  rings,  and  other 
gold  objects,  besides  70  bronze  daggers  ( 10  beins 
of  the  primitive  triangular  form),  10  ivory  and 
stone  seals,  and  370  variegated  stone  vases  simi- 
lar to  those  found  .by  Seager  at  Mochlos  some 
years  ago.  Among  the  particularly  interesting 
discoveries  were  a  small  stone  idol  resembling 
those  of  the  pre-dynastio  period  in  Egypt,  and 
an  ivory  seal  showing  two  apes.  This  is  the 
first  appearance  of  such  a  device  uoon  a  Minoan 
seal.  From  these  the  early  relation  of  Crete 
and  Egypt  is  thus  established  and  they  explain 
the  similarity  noted  between  certain  early  Cretan 
stone  figures  and  those  of  wood  or  ivory  that 
have  been  recovered  from  early  pre-dynastic  cem- 
eteries in  Egypt. 
ABCHIBALD,  F.  J.  See  U.  S.  and  the  War. 
ABGHITECTTJBAL  LEAOTJE  EXHIBI- 
TION.   See  Painting  and  Sculpture. 

ABCHITECTUBE.  Everywhere  but  in  the 
United  States,  and  sporadically  in  other  neutral 
countries,  the  toll  of  war  was  laid  heavily  upon 
architectural  progress  during  1915.  European 
effort  was  practically  at  a  s&ndstill  in  all  the 
belligerent  countries  except  England  and  Ger- 
many. In  the  former,  due  to  the  availability  of 
men  in  the  absence  of  any  system  of  universal 
military  service,  a  certain  amount  of  building 
activity  was  apparent,  although  no  great  project 
of  permanent  value  had  been  undertiJcen;  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  year  even  this  little  ac- 
tivity began  to  ebb  out.  In  Germany,  by  a 
seeming  trick  of  circumstances,  the  output  was 
very  nearly  normal  in  all  but  monumental  struc- 
tures, and  large  public  buildings  and  dwellings, 
but  there  were  numerous  competitions  under  way 
for  schools,  churches,  city  halls,  and  hospitals, 
not  to  mention  various  civic  extensions — totaling 
in  the  case  of  Berlin  alone  no  less  than  $75,- 
000,000  for  improvements  to  be  undertaken  at 
once.  France,  Italy,  and  the  other  nations  at 
war  produced  nothing;  in  these  countries  even 
the  periodicals  in  most  cases  suspended,  or  de- 
voted their  pages  to  historic  buildings,  restora- 
tions, and  the  like,  as  had  been  done  for  some 
time  in  the  publications  of  the  other  nations  as 
well.    In  the  United  States  the  year's  contribu- 


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Hon  was  not  highly  commendable,  though  very 
nearly  normal  in  quantity.  Many  buildings, 
even  under  the  conditions  of  reduced  output, 
must  perforce  be  omitted  in  the  succeeding  para- 
graphs, but  an  attempt  is  made  to  strike  a  rea- 
sonable balance  between  quality  and  quantity 
in  each  country  considered,  a  concise  r6sum6 
rather  than  an  accurate  compilation.  Since  great 
reliance  must  be  placed  upon  weekly  and  monthly 
publications  in  the  preparation  of  such  mate- 
rial, a  goodly  number  of  completed  structures 
which  are  properly  to  be  dated  within  the  year 
1915  cannot  be  included  and  must  remain  in- 
edited  until  the  succeeding  issue  of  the  Year 
Book. 

United  States 

American  financial  supremacy,  as  determined 
by  American  agricultural  and  industrial  ad- 
vancement, bade  fair  in  a  short  time  to  close  the 
hiatus  of  architectural  inactivity  that  had  char- 
acterized the  years  1914  and  1915.  There  was 
current  a  persistent  general  feeling  that  the 
United  States  had  weathered  successfully  the  un- 
steadying  first  effects  of  the  gathering  world 
storm  that  had  all  but  snuffed  out  architectural 
growth  in  Europe.  A  noteworthy  parallel  was 
the  increase  in  public  confidence  which  invari- 
ably results  in  improved  building  conditions. 
That  improvement  had  not  been  substantiated  by 
any  unprecedented  number  of  new  buildings;  in 
fact,  by  way  of  discouraging  example,  the  low 
tide  conditions  in  New  York  City  alone  are  well 
indicated  by  a  single,  though  fortunately  not 
representative,  week  in  October,  when  but  one  set 
of  plans  for  a  new  building  had  been  filed  for  in- 
spection. When  it  is  recalled  that  New  York's 
buildings  cost  over  $33,000,000  less  in  1914  than 
in  1913,  the  report  would  lead  us  to  expect  but 
little  of  the  year  under  review.  On  the  other 
hand,  San  Francisco  and  Chicago  were  busy. 
The  latter  outstripped  New  York  by  about  $9,- 
000,000  in  the  cost  of  its  new  buildings  during 
1914,  and  to  the  credit  of  San  Francisco  was 
placed  the  greatest  increase  in  the  country  for 
the  same  period,  over  $7,000,000.  These  amounts 
must  be  modified  somewhat  for  1915. 

A  survey  of  the  field  shows  practically  the 
usual  quota  of  residences,  perhaps  slightly  re- 
duced in  nimib^r  for  the  first  half  of  the  year, 
when  war  profits  had  not  been  so  definitely  es- 
tablished. Of  smaller  private  dwellings,  whose 
owners  would  be  most  readily  affected  by  money 
conditions,  there  were  very  few.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  theatres — ^with  the  exception  of  those 
devoted  to  films — ^monuments,  and  public  build- 
ings. On  the  other  hand,  there  were  erected  a 
fair  nimiber  of  hospitals,  schools,  churches,  clubs, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  ofiice  buildings;  the 
output  of  apartment  houses  was  practically  nor- 
mal. 

Fortunately  the  decreased  output  has  not 
resulted  in  any  serious  qualitative  deteriora- 
tion. American  effort  toward  a  proper  expres- 
sion of  American  needs  must  ultimately  result  in 
an  American  architectural  language;  each  year 
contributes  its  quantum  of  study  and  interpreta- 
tion, not  to  say  of  imitation  of  accepted  older 
forms;  but  the  insistent  problems  of  our  daily 
life  demand  an  architectural  outlet  that  older 
manners  cannot  offer,  and  American  ability  is 
ample  and  able  to  devise  such  an  outlet,  both 
practically  and  stylistically.  Even  a  poor  build- 
ing year,  such  as  1916,  bears  nevertheless  the 


indication  of  the  slow  but  well-defined  trend 
toward  the  goal  of  style  and  utilitarian  perfec- 
tion, manifested  by  conservative  advance  in  the 
East,  by  bold  experimental  ism  in  the  West,  by 
solutions  many  and  varied  in  the  greater  mu- 
nicipal centres. 

Expositions.  The  whole  field  of  architecture 
in  the  United  States  was  dominated  by  the 
fabulous  groups  of  the  Panama-Pacific  Interna- 
tional and  the  PanamA-California  Expositions  at 
San  Francisco  and  San  Diego,  respectively. 
These  demonstrated  the  true  province  of  expo- 
sitions as  factors  in  life;  not  only  to  enhance 
industrial  possibilities,  nor  only  to  acclaim  a 
memorable  achievement  of  international  scope 
and  value,  but  also  to  offer  a  thorough  index  of 
national  strength,  ability,  and  resource  in  archi- 
tectural planning  and  design,  a  record  by  the 
nation's  best  architects  and  a  school  of  examples 
for  many  years  to  follow. 

Panama-Padfio  International  Exposition,  To 
the  municipal  courage  of  San  Francisco  in  liv- 
ing down  the  trials  incidental  to  the  earth- 
quake and  fire  of  1906,  but  five  years  before  the 
inception  of  its  international  project,  the  splen- 
did Panama-Pacific  buildings  may  be  considered 
a  fitting  monument.  The  undertaking  was 
financed  to  the  extent  of  $17,000,000  solely  by 
residents  of  California,  without  the  usual  Fed- 
eral subsidy.  The  architectural  control  de- 
volved upon  a  commission  of  nine  practitioners 
from  different  parts  of  the  country.  After  much 
preliminary  consultation  with  various  govern- 
ment offices  and  many  experts  in  construction, 
gardening,  and  the  like,  and  after  numerous  con- 
ferences among  themselves,  the  commission  unan- 
imously adopted  the  court  plan,  to  be  carried  out 
on  a  site  fronting  the  bay,  near  the  Presidio 
Military  Reservation,  and  overlooking  the 
Golden  Gate. 

The  work  of  grading  and  filling  ground  pre- 
paratory to  the  actual  erection  of  units  was 
one  of  the  most  extensive  projects  of  the  kind 
ever  undertaken,  for  no  less  than  80  per  cent  of 
the  whole  site  was  involved.  Of  similar  impor- 
tance were  the  matters  of  piling  and  founda- 
tions, sewers  and  drains,  tracks  and  roadways, 
ferry  slips  and  piers,  basins,  lighting,  planting. 
Full  gauge  railroad  tracks  during  the  period  of 
construction  ran  into  each  palace;  in  fact,  a 
tunnel  was  built  under  Fort  Mason  to  facilitate 
connections  with  main  railway  lines.  Separate 
ferry  slips  with  regular  service  were  likewise 
built,  definite  connection  with  transcontinental 
trains  established,  and  a  protected  bay  inlet  pro- 
vided for  smaller  boat  traffic  along  the  shores. 

The  plan  was  conceived  on  the  basis  of  a  sin- 
gle central  circulation  area  or  highly  empha- 
sized major  axis,  as  was  the  case  in  previous 
expositions.  The  so-called  court  plan,  however, 
which  was  adopted  in  the  present  instance,  de- 
veloped the  whole  project  as  a  series  of  court- 
yards as  the  nuclei  of  design  motives,  rather 
than  as  a  series  of  axially  located  buildings. 
Minor  axes  cut  across  the  major  artery  at  right 
angles  and  at  each  intersection  a  new  court  mo- 
tive appears.  As  a  result  the  various  buildings 
took  the  keynote  in  design  from  the  schemes 
adopted  for  the  courtyards  upon  which  they 
face.  That  is  to  say,  as  units  in  design,  there 
were  no  buildings  at  all,  but  simply  a  series  of 
coordinated  courtyards.  Thus,  for  instance,  tlie 
Palace  of  Varied  Industries  was  an  agglomera- 
tion of  five  facades,  determining  the  design  of  the 


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AUcnX^^^^^tr^ 


Court  of  Abundance,  the  Court  of  Flowers,  the 
Avenue  of  Palms,  the  Avenue  of  ProgresB,  and 
the  Court  of  Mines.  To  understand  the  point  of 
view  properly,  then,  it  is  essential  to  conceive 
of  courts  and  avenues  only,  and  not  of  build- 
ings, for  the  latter  changed  front  chameleon- 
like in  accordance  with  the  surrounding  open 
areas;  thus  each  building  in  the  main  block,  at 
least,  was  subject  to  four  or  five  influences  in  de- 
sign. While  no  general  scheme  of  design  in  a 
definite  sense  controlled  the  whole  exposition,  the 
courts  themselves  were  marvels  of  imagination 
and  manipulation  of  ornamental  forms ;  great 
ability  likewise  appeared  in  the  mural  paintings 
and  sculptural  units.  The  styles  illustrated 
varied  from  a  Spanish  Renaissance-Gothic  combi- 
nation to  Italian  and  French  Renaissance,  and 
from  suggested  Roman  Classic  to  entirely  novel 
conceptions,  such  as  that  of  the  remarkable 
Tower  of  Jewels,  facing  the  southern  gardens. 
In  color  scheme  this  exposition  far  outstripped 
its  predecessors;  a  fine  travertine  texture  and 
color  prevailed,  softening  all  high  lights  and 
eliminating  glare.  The  night  illumination  was 
a  wonder  of  ingenuity  and  colored  light,  both  di- 
rect and  indirect,  reflected  and  diffused;  most 
actual  light  sources  were  concealed,  electric 
scintillators  coming  largely  into  requisition. 

Panama-California  Exposition.  The  splendid 
monumental  quality  of  the  San  Francisco  groups 
was  not  present  at  San  Diego;  it  was,  indeed, 
studiously  avoided.  Instead,  there  was  at  once 
apparent  a  picturesqueness  and  irregularity  that 
found  an  immediate  appeal.  The  treatment 
throughout  indicated  a  more  homelike  quality 
concomitant  with  its  more  individual  purpose 
of  exploiting  a  single  State;  it  had  not  an  in- 
ternational purpose.  The  color  scheme  was  a 
simple  white  without  glare;  the  architectural 
style  was  uniformly  Spanish-Colonial,  involving 
the  use  of  finely  wrought  detail  relieved  against 
plain  wall  areas.  The  plan  maintained  a  prin- 
cipal east  and  west  axis,  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent two  minor  axes.  The  former  of  these  was 
£1  Prado,  a  broad  roadway  continuing  the  line 
of  the  Puente  Cabrillo,  an  exceptionafly  attrac- 
tive engineering  feature  bridging  the  deep  can- 
yon of  a  small  brook,  with  a  highroad  and  lake, 
all  named  after  Cabrillo,  the  founder  of  the  city 
of  San  Diego.  The  arrangement  of  buildings 
and  squares  was  dependent  upon  the  axes,  but 
at  the  same  time  suggested  a  random  feeling 
which  was  one  of  the  exposition's  greatest 
charms.  Thus  the  great  Plaza  de  Panama  ran 
north  and  south,  was  of  longish  oblong  plan,  and 
made  a  right  angle  with  the  Prado,  instead  of 
forming  in  symmetrical  fashion  a  regular  widen- 
ing of  the  main  avenue ;  in  the  same  manner  the 
Plaza  in  turn  narrowed  into  an  Esplanade  ter- 
minated by  a  hemicycle  motive  centring  about  a 
giant  open-air  organ.  In  both  expositions  the 
amusement  concessions,  as  well  as  the  areas  de- 
voted to  cattle  exhibits  and  athletic  contests, 
were  not  accorded  with  the  main  scheme  of  de- 
sign; but  on  the  other  hand,  all  concessions,  as 
well  as  the  spaces  assigned  to  State  Buildings  at 
San  Francisco  or  to  County  Buildings  at  San 
Diego,  were  carefully  treated  with  reference  to 
their  own  planning  needs.  At  San  Diego,  espe- 
cially, the  natural  features  were  of  great  advan- 
tage, the  climate  of  Southern  California  being  in 
fact  a  bona  fide  assistant  in  the  work  of  con- 
struction. Judging  the  whole  conception  prop- 
erly as  a  State  exposition,  the  San  Diego  groups 


must  be  considered  an   ^^/ij^'ifled  auccese.    See 

also    AORICULTTBAL    ^VVCATXoi^ .     ^^j     Bi:iI-DI5G 

Opebations. 

Churches.     Ecclesiastic    archii^ture    during 
1914  is  not  of  certain  trend;   the  decided  domi- 
nation of  the  Gothic  of  Cram  and  Ferguson,  as 
well  as  that  of  B.  G.  Croodhue,  is  not  much  m 
evidence,  although  the  mediaeval  styles   are  still 
in  great  favor.     The  Colonial  manner    is   repre- 
sented by  one  or  two  examples  and  the   Italian 
Renaissance  is  well  exemplified  in  two    others. 
In  general,  however,  the  church  building  of  the 
year  is  of  modest  proportions  both  in   the  num- 
ber and  quality  of  buildings.     Several  ^ood  plan 
solutions  are  noteworthy,  as,  for  instance,  those 
of  Trinity  Lutheran  Church  at  Akron,   Ohio,  by 
J.    W.    C.    Corbusier,    and    Christ   Church,    Los 
Altos,   Cal.,  by   Coxhead  &   Coxhead.     Brick    is 
finding   always    greater    favor    for   the     smaller 
church  buildings,  due  in  part  to  the  more   fre- 
quent use  of  the  north  Italian   styles,    both   in 
Romanesque    and    in    Renaissance.     Good     brick 
examples    are    Carrollton    M.    E.    Church,    New 
Orleans,  La.,  by  Sam  Stone,  Jr.;   First    Church 
of  Christ  Scientist,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  by  Elmer 
Grey;   the  Ravenswood  Presbyterian  Church   at 
Chicago,  by  Pond  &  Pond;  and  the  church  and 
rectory  of  St.  George,  New  York,  by  Robert  J. 
Reiley.     Among  the  best  designed  examples  may 
be   mentioned   the   quiet   and   attractive    Chapef 
of   Divine   Love,   Philadelphia,   by   Paul    Mona- 
ghan;    the    Italian    Romanesque    St.    Patrick's 
Church   in   the   same   city,   by   Lafarge   &    Mor- 
ris;   the  House  of   Hope  Presbyterian    Church, 
St.    Paul,    Minn.,    by    Cram    &    Ferguson;    the 
Italian  Renaissance  Church  of  St.  Vincent  Fer- 
rer,  New  York,  by   Bertram   G.   Goodhue;    and 
the  chapel  of  the  Dominican  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes, 
Sparkill,   N.   Y.,   by   Davis,   McGrath   &    Kiess- 
ling.     Other    examples    are:     St.    Mark's,    Dor- 
chester,   Mass.,    by    Brigham,    Coveney    &    Bis- 
bee;  St.  Henry's,  Bayonne,  N.  J.,  by  T.  H.  Poole 
&     Company;      First     Congregational     Church, 
San    Francisco,    by    Reid    Brothers;     Emanuel 
Church   of   the   Evangelical   Association,   in  the 
same  city,  by  Falch  &  Knoll;  St.  James's  Pres- 
byterian Church,  New  York,  by  Ludlow  &  Pea- 
body;   First  Presbyterian  Church  at  San  Diego, 
Cal.,    by    Robert    H.    Orr;    First    Presbyterian 
Church  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  by  L.  B.  Valk;  First 
Church  of  Christ  Scientist,  Worcester,  Mass.,  by 
O.   C.   S.   Ziroli;   St.  Luke's,   Evanston,  lU.,  by 
Lowe   A   BoUenbacher ;    First  Church  of  Christ 
Scientist,   Seattle,   Wash.,   by   Charles   H.    Bebb 
Sl  L.  L.  Mendel;   All  Saints  Episcopal  Church, 
Newbury,    Mass.,    by    Clark    &    Russell;    Plym- 
outh  Congregational,   at   Chicago,  by  Riddle  & 
Riddle;    St.   Rita's,   Philadelphia,  by   George  I. 
Lovatt;   St.  Elizabeth's,  Philadelphia,  by  Baily 
&   Bassett;    the  temple  of   B'Nai   Jeshurun,  at 
Newark,  by  Albert  S.  Gootlieb,  is  the  only  note- 
worthy synagogue  erected  during  the  year. 

Schools.  While  the  output  of  school  build- 
ings is  not  characterized  by  a  memorable  in- 
crease numerically,  it  is  notable  for  the  high 
quality  of  planning  skill  everywhere  in  evidence. 
At  Coronado,  Cal.,  Quayle  Brothers  &  Cressey 
produced  a  particularly  good  result.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Francis  W.  Parker  School  at  San 
Diego,  by  Templeton  Johnson.  This  is  named 
after  the  well-known  philanthropist  whose  bene- 
factions in  Chicago  and  generally  in  Cook 
County,  111.,  have  largely  taken  the  form  of 
school  improvements.     The  school  in  question  is 


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PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION,  SAN  FRANCISCO 


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ABCHITECTITBE 

of  the  southwestern  patio  plan,  one  story  high, 
all  rooms  facing  and  actually  open  toward  the 
courtyard;  the  result  is  practically  that  of  an 
open  air  group  of  class  rooms.  Another  notable 
example  in  this  field  is  that  accomplished  by  £. 
F.  Guilbert  in  the  McKinley  School  at  Newark, 
N.  J.  This  is  designed  in  stucco  with  decora- 
tive motives  in  tapestry  brick  and  colored  tile, 
following  in  general  the  manner  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance.  The  building  constitutes  more  of  a 
cheerful  neighborhood  centre,  than  simply  a 
school  of  text-book  instruction.  Several  of  the 
rooms  are  of  the  open  air  type  and  a  large  play 
court  is  provided  at  street  level.  The  solution 
of  the  problem  involved,  in  view  of  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  site,  is  without  question  very 
creditable.  Brick  is  still  largely  favored  in  the 
East  and  Middle  West,  while  stucco  naturally 
predominates  in  the  Far  West.  Good  brick  ex- 
amples of  notable  design  are :  the  Trenton  School 
of  Industrial  Arts,  by  Cass  Gilbert,  in  which 
tapestry  brick  and  tile  appear;  the  Regis  High 
School,  New  York,  by  Maginnis  &  Walsh,  a 
monumental  Italian  Renaissance  building;  the 
brick  and  half-timber  Donners  Grove  Kinder- 
garten at  Donners  Grove,  111.,  by  Perkins,  Fel- 
lows &  Hamilton,  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best 
designed  examples  in  several  years;  the  collegi- 
ate Gothic  St.  Ignatius's  Loyola  Day  Nursery, 
New  York,  by  W.  Weissenberger,  Jr.;  the  South 
Side  High  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  by  E.  F.  Guil- 
bert; the  Fresno  Normal  School,  Fresno,  Cal., 
by  the  Architectural  Division  of  the  California 
State  Department  of  Engineering;  the  grouped 
scheme  of  three  buildings  in  the  Edward  Devo- 
tion School,  Brookline,  Mass.,  by  Kilham  & 
Hopkins;  the  Crookston  High  School,  Crookston, 
Minn.,  by  Bert  D.  Keck;  the  Dickerman  School, 
Boston,  Mass.,  by  J.  R.  Schweinf urth ;  the  dining 
hall  of  the  Hill  School,  Pottstown,  Pa.,  by  Hew- 
itt k  Bottomley.  Other  examples  are:  the 
Walker  School,  Concord,  N.  H.,  by  H.  Tem- 
pleton  Blanchard;  the  Addison  School,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  by  F.  S.  Bamum  &  W.  R.  McCor- 
mack;  a  parochial  school  at  Holyoke,  Mass.,  bv 
John  William  Donohue;  the  South  Park  High 
School,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  by  Green  &  Wicks;  the 
Norwood  High  School,  Norwood,  Ohio,  by  Ban- 
smith  &  Drain^e;  a  public  school  building  at 
Riverton,  N.  J.,  by  Heacock  k  Hokanson;  the 
High  School  of  Commerce,  Springfield,  Mass.,  by 
Kirkham  &  Parlett;  and  the  Hebrew  Institute, 
Chicago,  by  Ottenheimer,  Stern  &  Reichert,  a 
struc^re  entirely  of  concrete,  the  design  sug- 
gesting certain  German  work,  and  achieving  a 
decidedly  interesting  result. 

UNIVEB8ITIES.  The  year  does  not  offer  any 
remarkable  examples  of  planning,  such  as  the 
various  general  group  schemes  adopted  during 
1914  among  the  important  universities  of  the 
country.  Times  of  financial  stress  are  apt, 
among  their  first  effects,  to  reduce  benefactions 
to  institutions,  and  when  the  slow  work  of  res- 
toration of  equilibrium  gathers  strength  it  shows 
its  effects  in  turn  upon  the  dwellings  and  busi- 
ness buildings  and  only  secondarily  in  institu- 
tional structures.  A  few  notable  single  build- 
ings are  to  be  put  down  to  the  credit  of  1915, 
however,  such  as  the  Evans  Museum  and  Dental 
Institute  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia,  by  John  T.  Windrim;  Prudence 
Risley  Hall,  in  the  collegiate  Gothic  manner, 
by  Miller  &  Mallory,  at  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca;   the  excellent  Gothic  work  of  Allen  & 


47  ABCHITEGTTJBE 

Collens  in  Taylor  Hall,  at  Vassar  College, 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.;  Gilman  Hall  and  other 
buildings  on  the  new  site  of  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, by  Parker,  Thomas  &  Rice,  and  by 
Joseph  Evans  &  Sperry;  Green  Hall  Audi- 
torium, at  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass., 
by  Charles  A.  Rich;  an  art  building  for  Oberlin 
College,  by  Cass  Gilbert;  a  men's  gymnasium 
for  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  by 
Charles  A.  Rich,  and  a  similar  building  at 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  Palo  Alto, 
Cal.,  by  Bakewell  k  Brown;  an  Infirmary  for 
Haverford  College,  at  Haverford,  Pa.,  by  Baily 
&  Bassett;  and  a  large  concrete  stadium  for 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  by  A.  W. 
Brunner.  With  these  should  also  be  included 
the  Nelson  Morris  Memorial  Institute  for  Medi- 
cal Research,  Chicago,  by  Richard  E.  Schmidt, 
Garden  &  Martin. 

Hospitals.  In  the  field  of  hospital  construc- 
tion it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  last  five 
years  witnessed  the  greatest  contribution  in  the 
way  of  bequests  and  direct  donations  that  has 
ever  accrued  to  any  single  type  of  building.  The 
six  most  important  examples,  of  which  four  are 
also  teaching  hospitals,  are  the  following:  that 
at  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal., 
$616,000;  the  Isaac  L.  Rice  Hospital,  New  York 
(not  yet  begun),  $1,000,000;  the  New  Haven 
Hospital,  used  by  the  Yale  Medical  School,  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  $1,600,000;  the  Burke  Convales- 
cent Hospital,  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  $5,000,000; 
the  Peter  Bent  Brigham  Hospital,  connected  with 
Harvard  University,  Boston,  Mass.,  $7,000,000; 
and  the  large  project  to  be  undertaken  by  the 
Presbyterian  Hospital  of  New  York  and  Colum- 
bia University  upon  a  new  site  in  upper  Man- 
hattan, $8,500,000.  In  this  connection  the  fol- 
lowing well  planned  buildings  and  groups  should 
also  he  noted:  the  Cincinnati  General  Hospital, 
by  Samuel  Hannaford  k  Sons;  the  Jewish 
Maternity  Hospital,  Philadelphia,  by  Hewitt, 
Granger  k  Paish;  ilie  Abington  Memorial  Hos- 
pital, Abington,  Pa.,  by  Bissell,  Sinkler  k 
Tilden;  the  Central  Dispensary  and  Emergency 
Hospital,  Washington,  D.  C,  by  Nathan  C. 
Wyeth;  the  Highland  Private  Hospital,  Fall 
River,  Mass.,  by  Parker  M.  Hooper. 

Public  Buildings.  Among  the  Federal  struc- 
tures erected  during  the  year,  the  most  impor- 
tant were  the  Post  Office  and  Court  House  at 
Denver,  Colo.,  by  Tracy,  Swartwout  k  Litch- 
field; the  United  States  Treasury  Building,  San 
Francisco,  by  J.  Milton  Dyer;  the  Post  Office, 
Washington,  by  Graham,  Burnham  k  Com- 
pany; the  Post  Office,  New  Orleans,  La.,  by 
James  Gamble  Rogers;  the  fine  arcaded  Floren- 
tine design  of  the  Post  Office  at  Berkeley,  Cal., 
by  William  Arthur  Newman  k  Oscar  Wen- 
deroth;  and  the  additions  to  the  Custom  House 
at  Boston,  by  Peabody  k  Stearns.  In  the  last 
named  the  old  building  was  made  a  base  for  a 
tall  office  tower,  erected  over  an  earlier  dome. 
The  fine  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
Office  Buildings  were  also  occupied  during  the 
year,  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  com- 
pleted the  Bieber  Building  from  designs  by  Mac- 
Neil  k  MacNeil.  All  of  these  edifices  are  in 
the  Capital  city.  Among  the  other  public  build- 
ingS)  municipal  and  others,  erected  during  the 
year  are  to  be  mentioned:  the  Hamilton  County 
Court  House,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.,  a  $2,500,000 
structure  by  Parker,  Kellogg  k  Crane;  the  arm- 
ory of  the  Eighth  Coast  Artillery,  New  York,  by 


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ABOHlTECTtrSB 

Pilcher  k  Tadhau;  a  fine  Municipal  Building 
for  Waterbury,  Cottn.,  by  Cass  Gilbert;  a  City 
Hall  for  Burlingame,  Cal.,  by  Chas.  P.  Weeks; 
the  Town  Hall  of  Bourne,  Mass.,  by  James  Pur- 
don;  the  remodeling  of  the  Delaware  County 
Court  House,  Media,  Pa.,  by  Brozer  &  Robb;  an 
annex  to  the  Boston  City  Hall,  by  E.  T.  P. 
Graham.  Two  well  conceived  bath  houses 
should  be  included  in  this  list:  the  Fordyce  Bath 
House,  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  by  George  R.  Mann  & 
Eugene  J.  Stern,  and  the  South  Side  Bath  House, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  by  MacClure  k  Spahr.  One  of 
the  very  good  buildings  of  the  year  is  undoubt- 
edly the  great  Auditorium  which  forms  the  per- 
manent building  left  as  a  monumental  record  of 
the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition. 
This  edifice  will  seat  12,000  persons,  and  was 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  It  is  located  in 
San  Francisco's  new  Civic  Centre,  some  distance 
from  the  Exposition  Grounds. 

LiBRABiBB.  The  year's  best  library  buildings 
were  that  erected  in  Denver,  Colo.,  by  Ackerman 
&  Rose  and  the  Widener  Memorial  Library,  by 
Horace  Trumbauer,  at  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  notable 
buildings  of  1915  and  has  at  once  taken  its  place 
among  the  foremost  library  buildings  of  the 
country.  At  Bar  Harbor,  Me.,  the  Morris  K. 
Jesup  Memorial  Library  was  built  from  designs 
by  Delano  &  Aldrich ;  Beverly,  Mass.,  built  a  pub- 
lic library  building  from  designs  by  Cass  Gil- 
bert; while  D.  Knickerbacker  Boyd  designed  the 
Southwark  Branch  of  the  Philadelphia  Public 
Library.  Other  examples  of  note  are  the  Har- 
risburg.  Pa.,  Public  Library,  by  E.  S.  Child,  and 
the  Warren  Library,  Chicago,  by  Wm.  E.  k 
Arthur  A.  lusher. 

Banks.  The  policy  of  locating  banking  firms 
in  large  office  buildings  continues  in  favor;  in 
this  field  1915  exceeds  1914  by  about  30  per 
cent  in  the  number  of  buildings  erected.  Cases 
in  point  are  the  Boatmen's  Bank  at  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  by  Fames  k  Young;  the  Citizen's  National 
Bank,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  by  John  Parkinson  k 
Edwin  Bergstrom;  the  First  National  Bank  of 
Pueblo,  Col.,  by  R.  E.  Schmidt,  Garden  k  Mar- 
tin; the  Murchison  National  Bank,  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  by  K.  M.  Murchison ;  the  Holston  National 
Bank,  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  by  John  Kevan  Peebles; 
the  Hartford  National  Bank,  Hartford,  Conn.,  by 
Donn  Barber;  the  Brooklyn  Trust  Company, 
New  York,  by  York  k  Sawyer.  Smaller  banking 
buildings  of  the  year  were  the  Corn  Exchange 
Bank's  Bronx  and  Eighty-sixth  Street  Branches, 
New  York,  by  H.  T.  Lindeberg;  the  Stockton, 
Cal.,  Savings  Bank,  by  Charles  W.  Dickey;  the 
Far  Rockaway  National  Bank,  New  York,  by 
Jos.  L.  Steinam;  the  Amsterdam  Savings  Bank, 
Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  by  M.  T.  Reynolds;  the  First 
National  Bank,  Champaign,  HI.,  by  Mundie  k 
Jensen ;  the  First  National  Bank,  Allegheny,  Pa., 
by  F.  J.  Osterling. 

.  Hotels.  The  great  era  of  hotel  building  of 
the  year  1914  has  been  succeeded  by  a  decided 
falling  off  in  the  number  of  new  hotels,  although 
no  reduction  is  noticeable  in  the  sumptuousness 
of  the  larger  examples  contributed  by  1915. 
The  finest  of  the  year  was  the  William  Penn 
Hotel,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  b^  Janssen  k  Abbott,  a 
20-story  structure  containing  900  rooms;  the 
enormous  Hotel  Traymore  at  Atlantic  City,  N. 
J.,  by  Price  k  McLanahan;  the  well-designed 
Hotel  Muhlbach,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  by  HoliAird 
k  Rocke;  the  Hotel  Morrison,  Chicago,  by  Mar- 


48  ABCUITECTU&B 

shall  k  Fox,  with  1600  bedrooms;  the  attractive 
Hotel  Pantlind,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  by  War- 
ren k  Wetmore;  the  brick  and  terra  cott^  Adel- 
phia  Hotel,  Philadelphia,  by  Horace  Trumbauer. 
Other  less  important  examples  were:  the  Hotel 
Allerton,  New  York,  by  Paul  C.  Hunter;  the 
Capitol  Park  Hotel,  Washington,  D.  C,  by  A.  B. 
Mullett  k  Co.,  the  Gothic  Hotel  Fontenelle  at 
Omaha,  Neb.,  by  Thomas  R.  Kimball;  the  Hotel 
Black  Hawk  at  Davenport,  la.,  by  Temple  k 
Burrows,  and  the  Hotel  Brunswick  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  by  C.  Emlen  Unbau,  involving  the  use  of  a 
hot-water  heating  system  in  an  eight-story  build- 
ing. 

Stores.  No  important  work  was  accom- 
plished in  this  field  during  the  year  just  closed. 
The  largest  buildings  of  the  type  to  be  erected 
were  probably  the  May  Store,  Cleveland,  by  Gra- 
ham, Burnham  k  Company,  and  the  Ames  Store 
in  the  same  city,  by  Starrett  k  VanVleck.  The 
severe  Arnold  Constable  Store,  New  York,  by  T. 
J.  Bartley,  should  also  be  mentioned.  What 
may  be  the  beginning  of  a  new  departure  in  New 
York  City  architecture  is  seen  in  the  Standard 
Arcade,  by  Severance  k  VanAlen.  Two  very 
good  public  markets  may  be  properly  classed 
here,  the  Astor  Public  Market,  New  York,  by 
Tracy  k  Swartwout,  and  the  Worcester,  Mass., 
Public  Market,  by  O.  C.  S.  Ziroli,  both  of  well 
studied  design. 

Office  Buildings.  The  largest  office  building 
of  1915  was  the  Equitable  Building,  New  York, 
by  E.  R.  Graham.  This  is  the  largest  structure 
of  its  kind  in  existence,  covering  48,000  square 
feet  of  ground,  measuring  545  feet  in  height,  ris- 
ing to  45  stories  above  the  street,  and  requiring 
foundations  85  feet  in  depth.  Other  large  exam- 
ples are :  the  Merritt  Building,  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
by  Reid  Brothers;  the  terra  cotta  Goelet  Build- 
ing, New  York,  by  Warren  &  Wetmore:  the 
Hasco  Building,  New  York,  by  Walter  Haefeli; 
the  Victoria  Building,  New  York,  by  Schwartz  k, 
Gross;  the  Federal  Realty  Building,  Oakland, 
Cal.,  a  devious  Gilbert  inspiration,  by  B.  G.  Mo- 
Dougall;  the  Gothic  building  of  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Company,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  by  Marcus 
T.  Reynolds;  the  Hurt  Building,  Atlanta,  Ga., 
by  J.  E.  R.  Carpenter;  the  Balboa  Building,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  by  Bliss  k  Faville.  The  Russell 
Sage  Building,  New  York,  by  Grosvenor  Atter- 
bury  is  the  most  attractive  single  example  from 
the  standpoint  of  design.  The  only  newspaper 
buildings  erected  during  the  year  were  the  Farm, 
Journal  Building,  Philadelphia,  by  Bunting  k 
Slougley;  the  News  Press  Building,  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  by  Eckel  k  Aldrich;  and  the  Circle  Build- 
ing, New  York,  by  J.  C.  Greene.  The  last  named 
is  to  be  the  home  of  the  Hearst  papers  in  New 
York.  Only  two  stories  have  been  completed  to 
date;  a  huge  tower  will  ultimately  surmount  the 
long  low  main  body  of  the  building.  Other  good 
examples  of  office  buildings,  without  the  sky- 
scraper element,  are:  the  Parkway  Exchange  of 
the  Bell  Telephone  Company,  Philadelphia,  by 
John  T.  Windrim;  the  Widener  Building,  Phila- 
delphia, by  Horace  Trumbauer;  the  Hallenbeck- 
Hungerford  Building,  New  York,  by  William  E. 
Austin. 

Factobies,  Wabehouses.  Owing  usually  to 
their  lack  of  architectural  merit,  factories  and 
warehouses  are  rarely  heralded  in  the  architec- 
tural press;  the  same  holds  true  to  a  great  ex- 
tent of  the  loft  building  type  of  factory,  which 
resembles  the  office  building  in  construction  and 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


ABCHITECTtTEE 

often  is  of  similar  design.  A  few  of  the  more 
interesting  examples  contributed  by  the  year 
may  be  mentioned,  however:  namely  the  bakery 
of  Montgomery,  Ward  &  Company  at  Kansas 
City,  Mo.,  by  J.  W.  McKecknie;  the  building  of 
the  Frank  P.  Lewis  Cigar  Company,  at  Peoria, 
111.,  by  Hewitt  &  Emerson;  the  Kuppenheimer- 
elothing  factory,  by  8.  N.  Crowen,  and  the  Burke 
&  James  factory,  by  Hill  &  Woltersdorff,  both  in 
Chicago;  and  the  Thompson  Malted  Food  Com- 
pany Building,  Waukedia,  Wis.,  by  Henry  C. 
Hengels.  Of  the  warehouses  we  may  mention 
the  Larkin  Warehouse  at  Philadelphia,  by  Bal- 
linger  &  Perrot,  and  the  Wenter  &  Drechsler 
Warehouse  at  Oak  Park,  111.,  by  Geo.  S.  Kings- 
ley.  In  this  connection  is  also  to  be  noted  the 
$5,000,000  factory  terminal  begim  by  the  Hobo- 
ken  Land  and  Improvement  Company  at  Hobo- 
ken,  N.  J.,  comprising  six  12-story  manufactur- 
ing lofts. 

Clubs,  etc.  Among  the  year's  club  and  so- 
ciety buildings  the  largest  single  group  is  again 
that  of  the  secret  orders.  Thus  we  find  new 
Elks'  Club  homes  erected  in  Mankato,  Minn. . 
from  designs  by  Bell,  Tyrie  &  Chapman ;  at  Pas- 
adena, Cal.,  by  Myron  Hunt;  and  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  by  H.  VanBuren  Magonigle  &  A.  W.  Ross, 
the  last  named  a  fine  building  in  the  style  of  the 
Italian  Gothic  to  Renaissance  transition.  An 
Odd  Fellows'  Hall  was  built  at  Oakland,  Cal., 
by  J.  Henry  Boehrer,  another  Masonic  Building 
at  Camden,  N.  J.,  by  Heacock  Sl  Hokanson.  The 
only  pretentious  athletic  club  of  the  year  was 
the  new  building  of  the  Detroit  Athletic  Club,  a 
well  designed  and  well  appointed  building,  by 
Albert  Kahn  &  Ernest  Willy.  The  only  Chris- 
tian Association  building  was  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
branch  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  by  George  B.  Post  & 
Sons.  Among  the  social  clubs  are  to  be  noted: 
the  Suburban  Club  at  Stamford,  Conn.,  a 
Georgian  brick  structure,  by  Frederick  B. 
Stearns  &  George  F.  Shepard;  the  Golf  Club 
House  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  by  Melville  Seth-Ward ; 
the  Knickerbocker  Country  Club,  Tenafly,  N.  J., 
by  Aymar  Embury  II.  Various  collegiate  dub 
buildings  were  also  erected  as  follows:  the  Har- 
vard Club  addition.  New  York,  by  McKim,  Mead 
&  White;  the  Phi  Gamma  Delta  Fraternity 
House,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  by  Mellor  &  Meigs ;  the 
''Michigan  Union"  Building,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
a  very  successful  modernized  Gothic  design,  by 
Pond  k  Pond;  and  the  University  Club,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  a  good  brick  design  modeled 
after  the  suggestions  of  the  Italian  Renaissance 
palace,  by  Bliss  &  Faville.  Buildings  were  like- 
wise erected  by  the  following  organizations  of 
various  purposes:  the  Musicians'  Mutual  Relief 
Society  Building,  Boston,  Mass.,  by  Maher  & 
Winchester;  the  City  Club,  Boston,  Mass.,  by 
Newhall  ft  Blevins;  the  T  Square  Club,  Philadel- 
phia, by  Wilson  Eyre  &  Mcllvaine;  the  Three 
Arts  Club,  Chicago,  an  original  brick  design,  by 
Holabird  &  Roche;  the  Church  Club  House,  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  by  Frederick  H.  Brooke;  and  the 
stately  Congressional  Club,  at  the  National  Cap- 
ital, by  G.  O.  Totten. 

Apartments.  It  is  of  little  avail  to  chron- 
icle a  large  number  of  apartment  house  designs, 
for  these  offer  but  little  of  interest  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases.  Certain  stereotyped  solutions 
appear  again  and  again,  and  architects  seem  not 
yet  to  have  mastered  fully  the  general  problem 
of  this  type  of  building.     Much  nuiy  be  expected 


T^ 


in  this  field,  however,  in  the  near  future,  for  the 


49  ABCHITECTUEB 

larger  city  populations  are  becoming  more  and 
more  accustomed  to  the  inconveniences  of  "  liv- 
ing in  layers,"  and  the  numerous  space-saving 
devices  and  time-savers  invented  by  eager  ex- 
ponents of  present-day  rush,  not  to  mention 
the  reduction  in  running  expenses  and  responsi- 
bility offered  by  the  apartment  house,  have  ren- 
dered this  mode  of  life  increasingly  attractive. 
Little  of  this  kind  of  material  finds  its  way  into 
the  periodicals,  owing  to  the  small  scale  at  which 
illustrations  must  be  shown  to  give  the  full 
height  of  the  buildings,  and  owing  also  to  the 
general  paucity  of  good  designs.  We  might  re- 
cord, among  others,  the  Craig  Apartments,  Chi- 
cago, by  Richard  E.  Schmidt,  Garden  &  Martin; 
the  Brown  Apartments,  Portland,  Ore.,  by  Claus- 
sen  A  Claussen;  a  number  of  examples  in  Chi- 
cago and  New  York,  by  Rouse  &  Goldstone,  Cross 
&  Cross,  I^uis  Bouchard,  and  others.  The  rap- 
idly growing  districts  of  apartment  houses  in 
the  West  End  Avenue  and  Park  Avenue  sections 
of  New  York  offer  a  fairly  close  index  of  prog- 
ress in  this  field.  In  this  connection  should  also 
be  mentioned  the  increasing  number  of  model 
tenements,  such  as  those  recently  erected  in 
Avenue  A,  New  York,  providing  sanitary,  safe, 
and  attractive  small  homes  at  a  minimum  rental. 
Thus  a  recent  example  offers  in  one  building  60 
two-room  suites,  118  three-room  suites,  and  12 
four-room  suites,  a  total  of  190  apartments,  with 
a  maximum  rental  of  $1.80  per  room  per  week, 
leases  being  made  by  the  week.  Record  must 
also  be  made  of  the  fine  solution  by  Schenck  & 
Mead,  of  the  housing  problem  involved  in  the 
clearing  of  Washington's  alleys;  a  piece  of  work 
made  possible  by  the  Alleys  Bill  passed  after  the 
death  of  Mrs.  Wilson.  This  project  has  been 
called  the  Ellen  Wilson  Memorial  Homes,  and 
was  fostered  by  the  District  of  Columbia  Sec'tion 
of  the  Women's  Department  of  the  National 
Civic  Federation.  The  homes  will  comprise  130 
houses,  offering  accommodations  for  250  fam- 
ilies or  1000  persons. 

Residences.  The  rapid  progress  of  domestic 
architecture  has  been  seriously  hampered  by 
money  stringency  resulting  from  European  con- 
ditions, chiefly  because  funds  have  been  diverted 
temporarily  to  more  directly  lucrative  channels. 
War  conditions  have  likewise  imposed  added  dif- 
ficulties upon  the  small  house  builder,  and  for 
some  montiis  the  residental  work  is  restricted  to 
larger  dwellings.  As  the  year  draws  to  a  close 
profits  from  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and 
from  allied  sources  have  become  available  and  a 
gradually  increasing  number  of  domestic  build- 
ings is  reported,  only  to  be  hindered  again  by  the 
high  cost  of  building  materials  due  to  the  causes 
indicated  above.  Among  the  dwellings  erected 
in  the  Eastern  States  the  following  deserve  men- 
tion: in  Massachusetts,  the  Rantoul  Residence 
at  Ipswich,  by  Andrews,  Jaques  &  Rantoul;  the 
Rogers  Residence  at  Newton  Centre,  by  Oscar  A. 
Thayer;  in  Connecticut,  the  Marble  Residence  at 
Greenwich,  by  Rowe  &  Smith;  the  VanShaack 
Residence,  by  A.  Raymond  Ellis;  and  the  Allen 
Residence,  by  E.  T.  Hapgood,  both  at  Hartford; 
the  Leigh  Residence  at  Bridgeport,  by  Ernest  G. 
Southey;  the  Houghtaling  Residence  at  Sharon, 
by  Mann  &  MacNeille;  in  Rhode  Island,  the  Dun- 
can Residence  at  Newport,  probably  the  most 
pretentious  mansion  of  the  year,  by  John  Rus- 
sell Pope;  in  New  Jersey,  the  Hughes  Residence 
at  Plainfield,  by  Wilder  &  White;  the  Miller 
Residence,  Newark,  by  Jordan  Green;  the  Fowler 


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Residence  at  Peapack,  by  Hewitt  &  Bottomley; 
in  New  York,  a  city  house  on  Manhattan,  by  W. 
W.  Bosworth;  the' Phillips  Residence  at  Tuck- 
ahoe,  by  John  H.  Phillips,  an  Italian  villa  adap- 
tation; the  important  Lewisohn  Residence  at 
Ardsley,  by  Coulter  &  Westhoff;  the  Winthrop 
Residence,  Syosset,  L.  I.,  by  Delano  &  Aldrich; 
the  Weld  Residence,  Huntington,  L.  J.,  by  C.  A. 
Piatt;  the  Billings  Residence  at  Locust  Valley, 
L.  I.,  by  Guy  Lowell;  the  Delano  Residence  at 
Syosset,  L.  I.,  by  Delano  k  Aldrich;  the  Von 
Stade  Residence  at  Westbury,  L.  I.,  by  Cross  & 
Cross.  The  best  work  of  the  year  in  Pennsyl- 
vania includes  the  following,  many  of  which 
show  the  old  Dutch  Colonial  tradition  fittingly 
adapted  to  modern  needs:  the  Saunders  Resi- 
dence at  Germantown,  by  Duhring,  Okie  Sl  Zieg- 
ler;  the  Harper  Residence  at  Chestnut  Hill,  by 
McGoodwin  &  Hawley;  "Tredinnock"  at  Ash- 
bourne, by  Lawrence  Visscher  Boyd;  the  Walton 
Residence  at  St.  David's,  by  D.  Knickerbacker 
Boyd;  the  Harris  Residence,  by  Duhring,  Okie  & 
Ziegler,  and  the  Lloyd  Residence,  by  Baily  & 
Bassett,  both  in  Villa  Nova;  the  Moore  Resi- 
dence at  Elkins  Park,  by  Heacock  &  Hokanson; 
the  Walker  Residence  at  South  Bethlehem,  by 
Wilder  &  White;  the  large  Tudor  scheme  of  the 
two  Glatfelder  Residences  at  Spring  Grove,  by 
J.  A.  Dempwolf;  the  Ellis  Residence  at  Bryn 
Mawr,  by  Wilson  Eyre  &  Mcllvaine.  At  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  was  erected  the  French  Renais- 
sance design  of  G.  O.  Totten  for  the  Moran  Resi- 
dence, and  also  the  Parmelee  Residence,  by  C.  A. 
Piatt;  at  Greensboro,  N.  C,  the  well  scaled  Co- 
lonial Brooks  Residence,  by  A.  Raymond  Ellis; 
and  at  Annapolis  the  Labrot  Residence,  by  Par- 
ker, Thomas  &  Rice.  In  the  Middle  West  va- 
riety controls  design  and  the  whole  gamut  of 
stylistic  possibilities  is  repeatedly  tried.  In  Il- 
linois were  built,  among  others,  the  Paxter 
Residence  at  Lake  Forest,  by  Richard  Schmidt, 
Garden  &  Martin;  the  Riley  Residence  at  Evans- 
ton,  by  Perkins,  Fellowes  &  Hamilton;  and 
at  Chicago  the  Stevenson  Residence,  by  George 
W.  Maher,  and  the  severe  Italian  Renaissance 
Blair  Residence,  by  McKim,  Mead  &  White. 
In  Michigan:  the  Newburry  Residence,  by  Trow- 
bridge &  Ackerman,  the  Speck  Residence,  by  Al- 
bert H.  Spahr,  and  the  McMillan  Residence,  by 
Albert  Kahn,  all  at  Grosse  Pointe;  the  Stevens 
Residence  at  Detroit,  by  George  D.  Mason  &  Al- 
bert C.  MacDonald.  From  Louisville,  Ky.,  was 
reported  the  attractive  Allis  Residence,  by  Lewis 
Coit  Albro,  and  from  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  Drury 
Residence,  by  Frank  B.  Meade  &  James  M.  Ham- 
ilton. Of  the  Western  examples  by  far  the 
greater  number  were  again  built  in  California, 
frequently  using  the  Mission  type  of  design,  now 
destined  to  still  greater  popularity  because  of 
the  success  of  the  San  Diego  Exposition  groups. 
To  the  fine  residential  district  of  Pasadena  were 
added:  the  Harper  Residence,  by  Reg.  D.  John- 
son; the  Mc Williams  Residence,  by  the  same 
architect;  and  the  B\imes  Residence,  by  Mvron 
Hunt  &  Elmer  Grey.  At  San  Diego  was  built 
the  Putnam  Residence,  by  Bristow  &  Lyman;  at 
San  Francisco  the  Ehrman  Residence,  by  Willis 
Polk  &  Company;  and  in  the  rapidly  growing 
residential  town  of  Hollywood,  a  suburb  of  Los 
Angeles,  the  following:  the  Engstrom  Residence, 
by  F.  A.  Brown,  of  tlie  chdlet  type,  not  by  any 
means  connoting  the  type  of  the  same  name  on 
Swiss  soil;  the  Russell  Residence,  by  Elmer 
Grey;   and  "Yama  Shiro,"  a  highly  attractive 


60  ABCHITECTTTBE 

Japanese  villa  scheme,  standing  on  a  knoll  and 
approached  by  completely  circular  terraces,  de- 
signed by  Franklin  M.  Small.  In  Los  Angeles 
proper  were  built  the  Denker  Residence  and  the 
Sharp  Residence,  both  by  C.  Cooper  Corbett.  In 
Texas,  B.  P.  Briscoe  designed  the  Garrow  Resi- 
dence at  Houston,  and  in  Denver,  Col.,  were 
erected  the  Webster  Residence  and  the  Ross  Resi- 
dence, both  by  W.  E.  k  A.  A.  Fisher. 

Miscellaneous.  The  chief  railroad  stations 
of  the  year,  including  also  a  few  months  of  1914, 
were:  the  N.  Y.  C.  A  H.  R.  R.  stations  at 
White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  a  brick  building,  by  Warren 
&  Wetmore,  and  at  Hartsdale,  N.  Y.,  a  brick  and 
half -timber  structure  by  the  same  firm;  the  Le- 
high Valley  R.  R.  station  at  Buffalo,  by  K.  M. 
Murchison;  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  station  at 
Johnstown,  Pa.,  by  the  same  designer ;  the  Santa 
F6  Station  at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  by  Bakewell  ft 
Brown. 

But  few  new  theatres  are  recorded;  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned :  the  Toy  Theatre,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  a  Georgian  brick  design,  by  Putnam 
&  Cox;  the  Orpheum  Theatre,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
by  G.  Albert  Lansburgh;  the  Keeney  Theatre, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  by  Wm.  E.  Lehman. 

Among  the  year's  monuments  should  be  noted : 
the  excellent  Spencer  Trask  Memorial,  Saratoga^ 
N.  Y.,  by  Henry  Bacon  and  D.  C.  French;  the 
Joseph  Pulitzer  Fountain,  New  York  City,  by 
Carr^re  k  Hastings;  the  Arlington  Amphithea- 
tre, Washington,  D.  C,  by  the  same  firm;  the 
Valley  Forge  Memorial,  at  Valley  Forge,  Pa.,  by 
Paul  P.  Cret;  the  Soldiers*  Memorial  at  West- 
ville.  Conn.,  by  Brown  k  VanBuren;  the  Eddy 
Monument,  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery,  N.  Y.,  by 
Egerton  Swartwout. 

The  only  museum  completed  within  the  year 
was  the  Robert  Dawson  Evans  Gallery,  an  exten- 
sion of  the  Boston  Museum. 

EUBOPE 

Great  Britain.  The  following  buildings  of 
note  were  completed  in  England  during  the 
last  12  months.  Churches. — All  Saints'  Church, 
Goodmayes,  by  P.  K.  Allen;  St.  Barnabas's 
Church,  Mitcham,  by  H.  P.  Burke  Downing;  Our 
Lady  and  St.  Casimir,  London,  by  P.  A.  Lamb; 
Baptist  Memorial  Church,  Twickenham,  by  In- 
gall,  Bridgewater  k  Porter;  St.  Michael's  and 
All  Angels'  Church,  Beaconsfield,  by  G.  H.  Fel- 
lowes Prynne;  St.  Cuthbert's  Church,  Ports- 
mouth, by  E.  Stanley  Hall;  Second  Church  of 
Christ  Scientist,  London,  by  John  J.  Burnet; 
Catholic  Church,  Northfleet,  by  G.  Gilbert  Scott; 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George's,  Heswell,  by  Rich- 
ard Beckett;  St.  Margaret's  Church,  Ilford, 
by  Edwin  T.  Dunn;  Liverpool  Cathedral,  a  con- 
scientious piece  of  stonework,  designed  by  G.  Gil- 
bert Scott;  St.  Anselm's  Church,  Kennington,  by 
Adshead  k  Ramsey,  an  easily  recognized  inspira- 
tion from  Santa  Maria  del  la  Grazie,  Milan. 
Schools. — Lord  Digby's  School,  Sherborne,  by 
Edward  C.  H.  Maidman;  Wiggiston  Grammar 
School,  Leicester,  by  Howard  S.  Thomson;  St. 
John's  School,  London,  by  A.  H.  Ryan  Tenison; 
Bromsgrove  School  additions,  Worcestershire,  by 
Arthur  Bartlett.  Universities,  etc. — ^The  Liver- 
pool University  School  of  Architecture,  by  Pro- 
fessor Reiley;  Rutherford  College  for  Girls, 
Rutherford,  by  Marshall  k  Tweed;  Lord  Wands- 
worth's Institution  for  Agricultural  Education, 
by  E.  Guy  Dawber;  St.  Hugh's  College,  Oxford, 
by  Buckland)  Haywood  k  Farmer.    Hospitals. — 


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The  King  Edward  VII  Memorial  East  Sussex 
Hospital,  Hastings,  by  John  Saxon  Snell  &  Stan- 
ley M.  Spoor;  Royal  Infirmary,  Bristol,  by  H. 
Percy  Adams  &  Charles  H.  Holden;  Tubercu- 
losis Dispensary,  Sheffield,  by  F.  E.  P.  Edwards. 
Puhlio  Buildings, — ^Metropolitan  Water  Board 
OfiSees,  London,  by  H.  Austen  Hall;  Government 
Buildings,  Cardiff,  by  Richard  J.  Allison;  Mu- 
nicipal Buildings,  Stepney,  by  Nicol  &  Nicol; 
Board  of  Trade  Offices,  London,  the  largest  single 
project  of  the  year,  the  building  of  which  has 
but  recently  been  begun,  by  Vincent  Harris;  Mu- 
nicipal Buildings,  Devonport,  by  Wilkinson  A, 
Binning;  Police  Buildings,  Stockport,  by  Hal- 
liday  &  Paterson;  Briti^  Colonial  Government 
Building,  London,  by  Alfred  Burr.  Libraries, — 
Carnegie  Library,  Diosbury,  N.  Manchester,  by 
Henry  Price.  Office  Buildings. — Westminster 
House  for  the  American  Tobacco  Company,  Lon- 
don, by  Gordon  &  Gunton;  Canada  House,  Lon- 
don, by  Treheame  &  Norman;  British  Dominion 
General  Insurance  Company's  offices,  London,  by 
Arthur  H.  Moore;  Premier  Buildings,  Liverpool, 
by  G.  deC.  Eraser;  Prudential  Insurance  Com- 
pany's offices,  Leicester,  by  Paul  Waterhouse; 
Pearl  Life  Insurance  Company's  Building,  Lon- 
don, by  H.  Percy  Monckton;  Alliance  Assurance 
Company's  offices,  Sheffield,  by  Goddard  &  Cat- 
law;  Cunard  Building,  Liverpool,  by  Willink 
&  Thicknesse.  Banks, — Capital  and  Counties 
Bank,  St.  Albans,  by  E.  Brantwood  Maufe; 
Royal  Exchange,  Manchester,  additions  by  Brad- 
shaw,  Gass  &  Hope.  Residences. — Brantham 
Court,  Suffolk,  by  W.  Harold  Hillyer;  "Monck- 
ton Croft,"  Alverstoke,  by  Wm.  Acworth ;  "Great 
Roke,"  Witley,  by  M.  T.  Buckland  &  E.  Hay- 
wood-Farmer;  "Old  Cleve,"  Lewes,  by  Rowland 
H.  Halls;  "Cariad,"  Goring-on-Thames,  by  W.  T. 
Walker;  "Islet,"  Maidenhead,  by  Ernest  Flint; 
"North  Lodge,"  Putney,  by  Williams  A  Cox; 
"Pembury  Ridge,"  Pembury,  by  W.  Henry 
White;  "Overway,"  Tilford,  by  Henry  M.  Flet- 
cher; "Beneffrey,"  Pollokshields,  N.  Glasgow,  by 
Wm.  Hunter  McNab.  Howe*.— Edith  Cavell 
Home  for  Nurses,  London,  by  Rowland,  Plumbe 
&  Partners.  Theatres. — Carlton  Theatre,  Lon- 
don, by  Charles  T.  Ruthen;  Concert  Hall,  Worth- 
ing* by  Peter  D.  Stonham.  Museums.—Shipley 
Art  Gallery,  Gateshead,  by  Arthur  Stockwell; 
Belfast  Art  Gallery,  Belfast,  by  Geoffrey  Lucas 
k  Arthur  Lodge.  MemorialSf  Monuments^  etc, — 
Lifford  Memorial  Hall,  Broadway,  by  Andrew  N. 
Prentice;  Welsh  National  War  Memorial,  Car- 
diff, by  Albert  Toft;  Margaret  MacDonald  Me- 
morial, London,  by  Richard  R.  Goulden.  Miscel- 
laneous.— Wesley  an  Hall,  Stoke-on-Trent,  by  Reg. 
T.  Longden;  Institute  of  Marine  Engineers,  Lon- 
don, by  Victor  Wilkins;  General  Medical  Coun- 
cil Meeting  Hall,  London,  by  Eustace  C.  Frere; 
Coburg  Court  Hotel,  London,  by  Delissa  Joseph; 
Regent's  Park  Restaurant,  London,  by  John  Bel- 
cher &  J.  J.  Joass;  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  Edin- 
burgh, by  G.  Washington  Brown.  From  other 
parts  of  the  British  Empire  the  following  were 
reported:  Canada. — Manitoba  Parliament  Build- 
ings, a  formal  and  uninteresting  work,  with 
Gredc  detail,  by  Frank  W.  Simon;  Union  Sta- 
tion, Quebec,  by  H.  E.  Prindle;  Bancroft  School, 
Montreal,  by  Nobbs  &  Hyde;  First  Church  of 
Christ  Scientist,  Toronto,  by  S.  S.  Beman;  St. 
Faith's  Church,  Edmonton,  by  Thomas  G.  Jack- 
son; St.  Michael's  Church,  Montreal,  by  Beau- 
grand-Champagne  &  Chenevert;  Provincial  Law 
Courts.    Winnipeg,  by  Strachan;  Bakery,  Mon- 


61  ABQBNTIKA 

treal,  by  Sydney  Comber ;  Rumely  Products  Com- 
pany Building,  Saskatoon,  by  Hill  &  Wolters- 
dorf;  Walker  House,  Ontario,  by  Burrowes  & 
Welles;  Registry  Office  Building,  Toronto,  by  C. 
S.  Cobb;  Fire  Station  and  Recorder's  Court,  Mai- 
sonneuve,  by  Marius  Dufresne;  Putnam  County 
Court  House,  Ottawa,  by  Frank  L.  Packard  & 
Ralph  Snyder;  Dominion  Express  Building, 
Montreal,  by  Edward  &  W.  S.  Maxwell;  Do- 
minion Bank,  Toronto,  by  Darling  &  Pearson; 
Police  Headquarters,  Calgary,  by  I^ng  ft  Major ; 
Public  Library,  Regina,  by  Storey  &  VanEg- 
mond;  Knox  College,  Toronto,  by  Chapman  & 
Grifiin;  University  of  Alberta,  Edmonton,  by 
Nobbs  A  Hyde,  /ndta.— Central  Telegraph  Of- 
fice, and  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Calcutta, 
by  Henry  A.  Crouch;  new  Municipal  Building, 
Karachi,  by  James  dimming  Wynne;  Cathedral 
of  Colombo,  Ceylon,  by  G.  H.  Fellowes  Prynne. 
Africa, — ^Nairobi  Cathedral,  by  Temple  Moore; 
Town  Hall  and  Municipal  Offices,  Johannisburg, 
by  Hawke  &  MacKinley;  Cathedral  of  Khar- 
toum, Sudan,  by  Robert  Schultz  Weir. 

Continental  Eubope.  From  France  and  from 
Spain,  and  the  invaded  territories  nothing  what- 
ever was  reported.  There  was  much  discussion 
concerning  the  rebuilding  of  Belgium,  this  grow- 
ing more  animated  with  each  recurring  rumor  of 
a  possible  peace  at  an  early  date.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  instances  of  economic  self-suffi- 
ciency is  that  of  Germany,  which  continues  to 
build  on  an  extensive  scale,  though  its  buildings 
are  chiefly  public,  such  as  schools,  hospitals,  and 
homes;  there  are  but  few  residences;  nothing  at 
all  is  done  in  the  way  of  libraries,  clubs,  hotels, 
theatres,  and  the  like,  while  there  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  an  enormous  increase  in  industrial  build- 
ings. But  little  of  this  material  can  be  reported 
in  these  columns  because  received  too  late  for 
inclusion,  since  English  control  of  the  seas  de- 
lays all  periodicals,  the  only  source  of  such 
information.  A  similarly  interesting  example  is 
that  of  England,  which,  however,  owes  the  con- 
tinuance of  its  building  activity  to  the  large 
percentage  of  technical  workers  still  available 
at  home,  while  in  Germany  such  activity  is  car- 
ried on  only  by  those  not  required  in  the  ranks. 
It  is  obvious  that  a  continuation  of  hostilities 
over  12  or  18  months  longer  will  undoubtedly 
result  in  a  stagnation  in  all  fields  but  that  of 
hospital  construction. 

ABCTIC  EXPLORATION.  See  Polab  Re- 
search, Arctic. 

ABQENTINA.  A  Federal  republic  of  south- 
em  South  America.  The  capital  is  Buenos 
Aires,  co-extensive  with  the  Federal  district. 

Abea  and  Population.  Argentina,  or  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  consists  of  14  provinces,  10 
territories,  and  the  Federal  district.  Esti- 
mates of  the  area,  even  those  published  by  the 
Argentine  authorities,  differ  considerably.  The 
estimate  which  at  present  seems  most  acceptible 
is  2,987,366  square  kilometers  (1,153,417  square 
miles) ;  another  is  2,952,661  square  kilometers 
(1,139,980*  square  miles) ;  while  a  recent  plani- 
metric  calculation  made  at  the  University  of 
La  Plata  shows  an  area  of  2,789,462  square 
kilometers  (1,077,011  square  miles).  The  cen- 
sus of  1895  returned  a  population  of  4,044,911, 
including  an  estimate  of  30,000  Indians  and  60,- 
000  others  not  censused.  Recent  estimates  of 
population  are  not  reliable,  but  it  is  certain  that 
the  number  of  inhabitants  has  rapidly  increased. 
One  estimate  for    1912   is  about  7,468,000;    of 


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ABGEKTINA  62 

this  number  the  Federal  district  was  credited 
with  1,360,400,  and  the  provinces  of  Buenos 
Aires,  Santa  F4,  and  Cordoba,  2,017,200,  916,100, 
and  641,000,  respectively.  An  estimate  for  Dec. 
31,  1913,  is  7,988,383.  The  Federal  district  (Bue- 
nos Aires  city)  has  an  area  of  18,584  hectares,  or 
about  72  square  miles;  its  population,  June  1, 
1914,  is  reported  at  1,560,163,  and,  as  estimated 
for  Jan.  1,  1916,  1,684,106,  Buenos  Aires  being  the 
largest  city  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  and  the 
largest  Latin  city  of  the  world  after  Paris.  Es- 
timated population  of  other  Argentine  cities: 
Rosario  (Dec.  31,  1912),  219,677;  OSrdoba, 
(1914),  136,000;  La  Plata  (Dec.  31,  1912),  106,- 
382;  Tucumftn  (1913),  78,696;  Bahfa  Blanca, 
72,706;   Mendoza,  60,000;   Santa  F^,  48,600. 

For  the  period  1857-1913  the  number  of  im- 
migrants by  sea  is  reported  at  4,550,402;  emi- 
grants, 2,949,137.  Of  the  immigrants,  Italians 
numbered  2,247,760;  Spaniards,  1,420,393; 
French,  211,608;  Russians,  155,285;  Syrians, 
etc.,  130,937;  Austro-Hungarians,  85,063;  Ger- 
mans, 59,688;  British,  63,792.  Immigrants  and 
emigrants  in  1912  are  reported  at  323,403  and 
120,260  respectively;  in  1913,  302,047  and  181,- 
056.  Of  the  immigrants,  in  1913,  215.871  were 
males.  Of  the  to^l  immigrants  in  that  year, 
there  were  122,271  Spaniards,  114,262  Italians, 
19,642  Syrians,  etc.,  and  18,616  Russians.  Im- 
migrants in  1914  are  reported  to  number  116,- 
308  (of  whom  76,946  males) ;  Spaniards  nmn- 
bered  52,211,  and  Italians  35,946.  Emigrants  in 
1914,  178,684.  Marriages  in  1912  and  1913, 
51,582  and  63,556;  births,  272,071  and  286,181; 
deaths,  120,480  and  122,109. 

Education.  About  one-half  of  the  population 
over  six  years  of  age  is  illiterate,  but  the  dif- 
fusion of  elementary  education  is  increasing. 
Primary  instruction  is  free,  secular,  and  nomi- 
nally compulsory  between  the  ages  of  6  and  14. 
Estimated  population  of  school  age  in  1913, 
about  1,276,000,  of  whom  804,000  were  in  school 
attendance.  In  that  year  there  were  7247  pri- 
mary schools  (5894  public,  1353  private),  with 
22,964  teachers  and  746,725  pupils.  For  sec- 
ondary education  there  are  30  national  colleges 
(about  8800  students)  and  38  private  schools  of 
the  same  grade  (3200  students).  There  are  67 
normal  schools  (about  6600  students)  and  va- 
rious establishments  for  commercial,  industrial, 
technical,  and  other  special  instruction.  There 
are  national  universities  at  Buenos  Aires,  La 
Plata,  and  Cordoba,  and  provincial  universities 
at  Paranfl,  Santa  F6,  and  Tucumftn;  students 
number  about  7500,  of  whom  the  majority  are  at 
the  University  of  Buenos  Aires.  There  is  no 
state  religion,  biit  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
receives  government  support. 

Pboduction.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  repub- 
lic, over  seven-tenths  is  stated  to  be  productive. 
Of  the  two  great  industries,  agriculture  and 
stock-raising,  the  former  in  recent  years  has 
progressed  the  more  rapidly,  encroaching  upon 
the  grazing  lands  and  forcing  the  flocks  and 
herds  farther  from  the  cities  and  towns.  The 
extension  of  the  cultivated  area  is  reported  as 
follows,  in  thousands  of  hectares: 


ABGEKTINA 


19001 

10089 

1912-18 

191814 

1914  IB 

Wheat    .. 

.  .    3.880 

6,063 

6.918 

6.574 

6,261 

Corn     . .  . 

..    1.255 

2,974 

3,830 

4,152 

4,203 

Linseed    . 

607 

1,534 

1,733 

1.779 

1.723 

Alfalfa    .. 

.  .    1,512 

5,955 

Oats     . . . 

638 

1,192 

1,249 

1,161 

Barley    .. 

61 

108 

169 

.... 

19001 

Rye    

Potatoes 

Sn^r  cane 

Vines    

Total.  In- 
cluding 
other    .    7,811 


1908-9 

10 

48 

71 

122 


191818  191814  1914  16 

40  92         

112  119         

94  107         

102  106         


22,988 


Yield  in  1913-14  and  1914-15  respectively 
(some  of  the  figures  being  subject  to  slight  re- 
vision) :  Wheat,  31,000,000  and  45,800,000 
metric  quintals;  corn,  66,840,000  and  85,916,450; 
linseed,  9,960,000  and  11,265.000;  oats,  7,400,- 
000  and  8,310,000;  barley,  1,750,000  in  1913-14; 
rye,  850,000  and  460,000;  potatoes,  10,350,000  in 
1912-13;  raw  sugar,  1,472,490  in  1913-14,  and 
2,761,400  in  1914-15;  wine,  5,000,050  hectolitres 
in  1912-13,  and  5,144,262  in  1913-14. 

According  to  the  live  stock  census  of  May  1, 
1908,  horses  numbered  7,531,376;  cattle,  29,116,- 
625;  sheep,  67,211,764;  swine,  1,40.3,591;  mules, 
465,037;  asses,  285,088;  goats,  3,945,986.  Live 
stock  according  to  the  census  of  May  1,  1908, 
and  an  estimate  of  1914:  Horses,  7,531,376 
and  9,700,000;  mules,  465,037  and  580.000; 
asses,  285,088  and  340,000;  cattle,  29,116,625 
and  29,600,000;  sheep,  67,211,754  and  80,000,- 
000;  goats,  3,945,986  and  4,500,000;  swine, 
1,403,591  and  3,050,000. 

Various  minerals  occur,  including  petroleum, 
but  mining  has  not  become  of  any  great  impor- 
tance. Much  capital  is  invested  in  meat  pack- 
ing, etc.,  and  flour  milling  shows  a  considerable 
development. 

Ck>MMEBCE.  Imports  and  exports  of  merchan- 
dise have  been  valued  as  follows,  in  thousands  of 
pesos  gold: 

1900  1905  1910  1918  1918  1914 

Imports — 
113,485    205.154    851,771    384,858    421.353    271,818 

Exports — 
154,600    822,844    872,625    480,891    483,505    349,254 

As  the  table  shows,  there  was  a  very  great  de- 
cline in  trade  in  1914;  this  was  due  both  to  do- 
mestic economic  conditions  and  to  the  war.  In 
the  last  three  months  of  the  year  wheat  exports 
were  suspended.  •  The  total  wheat  export  for  the 
year  amounted  to  about  960,000  metric  tons,  as 
compared  with  2,812,149  tons  in  1913.  Other 
important  exports  in  1913  were  as  follows: 
Corn,  4,806,951  metric  tons;  linseed,  1,016,732; 
oats,  889,746;  bran,  274,058;  wheat  flour,  124,- 
649;  barley,  40,742;  live  cattle,  224,911  head; 
sheep,  103,977  head;  frozen  beef,  332,054  metric 
tons;  chilled  beef,  34,175;  frozen  mutton,  45,- 
928;  wool,  120,080;  sheepskins,  20,124;  goat 
skins,  2441;  cattle  hides,  86,974.  Values  of  the 
more  important  exports  in  1912  and  1913,  in 
thousands  of  pesos  gold:  Corn,  108,908  and 
112,292;  wheat,  97,835  and  102,631:  linseed,  34,- 
214  and  49,910;  wool,  58,149  and  45,270;  cattle 
hides,  42,129  and  38,532;  frozen  and  chilled  beef, 
34,285  and  36,623;  oats,  21,859  and  20,447; 
rendered  tallow  and  grease,  11,315  and  9445; 
wheat  flour,  6926  and  7224;  cattle,  9140  and 
6849;  sheepskins,  7657  and  5848. 

The  larger  classified  imports  in  1912  and  1913, 
in  thousands  of  pesos  gold:  Textiles  and  manu- 
factures thereof,  78,370  and  89,560;  iron  and 
steel  and  manufactures  thereof,  45,998  and  50,- 
040;  vehicles  and  railway  equipment,  32,799  and 


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ABGBNTINA  63 

37,223;  earthenware,  glass,  stone,  earth,  coal, 
etc.,  33,617  and  36,578;  building  materials,  31,- 
265  and  36,776;  food  products,  30,140  and  34,- 
934. 

Trade  by  principal  countries  is  shown  below  in 
thousands  of  American  dollars: 

Jmporta  Export* 

1918            1914  1918            1914 

United  Kingdom   126.960       88,700  116,757       99.086 

Germany     69,172       88.796  56.178       29.809 

United  States  . .  .    60,172       85,586  22.208       41,681 

France     86.084       21,722  86.587        19.872 

Total,  including 

oth«rg    408,712     268,668     468,999     888,777 

The  following  figures  show  the  percentage  of 
imports  and  exports  as  shared  by  the  leading 
countries : 


Import*  Export* 

1912    1918    1914  1918  1918  1914 

United    Kingdom. 80.8     31.1     84.0  25.8  24.9  29.2 

Germany    16.6     16.9     14.8  11.8  12.0  8.8 

United    States    ..15.4     14.7     18.4  6.7  4.7  12.8 

France     9.8       9.0       8.2  7.5  7.8  5.7 

Italy    8.5       8.8       ...  4.4  4.1  ... 

Belgium     5.8        5.2       ...  7.8  6.8  ... 

Braiil    2.5       2.2       ...  4.7  5.0  ... 

For   orders 28.9  24.4  28.7 


The  exports  "for  orders"  are  not  recorded  at 
the  Argentine  ports  as  for  specific  countries,  but 
are  subject  to  cable  or  other  orders  for  final  des- 
tination. Nearly  all  of  these  shipments  reach 
the  western  European  countries,  in  about  the 
same  proportion  as  the  direct  ^ipments  given 
in  the  foregoing  table.  Therefore  the  percentage 
of  Argentine  exports  assigned  to  such  coimtries 
as  the  United  States  and  Brazil  is  in  reality  too 
high. 

Imports  and  exports  of  merchandise  at  the 
principal  ports,  in  1913,  in  thousands  of  pesos 
gold:  Buenos  Aires,  337,643  and  170,445;  Ro- 
sario,  37,111  and  90,575;  Bahfa  Blanca,  13,381 
and  65,772;  La  Plata,  10,005  and  43,065. 

For  the  first  half  of  1916,  imports  were  valued 
at  100,127,910  pesos  gold,  showing  a  decrease  of 
41.4  per  cent  as  compared  with  the  imports  of 
the  first  half  of  1914;  exports,  310,910,368  pesos 
gold,  showing  an  increase  of  46.4  per  cent.  The 
balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  the  republic  during 
this  period  was  the  highest  ever  reached. 

CoHMUNiCATiONS.  The  length  of  railway  re- 
ported in  operation  in  1014  is  21,880  miles,  of 
which  3481  miles  belong  to  the  state. 

Railway  mileage  in  1916  amounted  to  22,826 
miles.  The  state  railways  were  increased  by 
200  miles  during  1914,  giving  a  total  mileage  of 
3209,  of  which  2908  miles  were  narrow-gauge. 
In  the  course  of  1914-15  the  Buenos  Aires  Great 
Southern  Railway  opened  66  miles  of  additional 
line,  making  its  total  mileage  3792  miles.  The 
Buenos  Aires  Western  Company  also  completed 
34  miles  of  line  upon  the  Valentin  Q6mez  ex- 
tension; and  a  second  section  of  41  miles  of  the 
same  extension  was  also  completed  with  the  ex- 
ception of  station  and  other  buildings.  In  1914 
and  1915  the  railways  of  Argentina  suffered  con- 
siderably from  the  effects  of  floods,  as  the  rain- 
fall was  so  great  that  rivers  and  ordinary  chan- 
nels could  not  carry  it  off  and  great  lakes  were 
formed.  With  high  winds  the  flood  water  was 
raised  into  waves  and  in  many  parts  the  track 
was   undermined   and    washed    away,    requiring 


ABGBNTIKA 

extraordinary  measures  for  protection  of  the 
line,  including  piling  with  wood,  laying  sheets 
of  galvanized  iron  where  the  banks  were  most  ex- 
poMd,  filling  in  washouts  with  cement  and 
broken  brick  in  wire  netting,  and  similar  meas- 
ures. The  extra  cost  to  the  Buenos  Aires  West- 
em  Railroad  was  $600,000.  Similar  work  was 
required  on  the  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern 
and  Central  Argentine  Railways. 

Telegraph  lines  (1914),  43,163  miles  (of 
which,  national  telegraph  lines,  18,709  miles), 
with  131,586  miles  of  wire.  Wireless  telegraph 
stations,  12.    Post  offices,  3312. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  peso 
(gold),  equivalent  to  about  96.47  cents.  Under 
the  conversion  law  of  1899,  the  paper  peso  is 
current  with  a  value  of  44  per  cent  of  the  gold 
peso,  or  42.46  cents.  The  budget  for  1915  fixed 
the  expenditures  at  381,320,746  pesos  paper. 
The  budget  submitted  to  the  Congress  for  1916 
placed  tiie  expenditures  at  343,207,692  pesos 
paper.  The  larger  estimated  ordinary  expendi- 
tures for  1916  are:  Treasury,  16,314,646  pesos, 
and  88,738,069  pesos,  the  latter  sum  being  for 
account  of  the  public  debt;  justice  and  public 
instruction,  67,863,292;  interior,  46,298,017; 
war,  25,064,636;  marine,  21,207,118.  About  half 
the  ordinary  revenue  is  derived  from  import 
duties,  estimated  at  149,000,000  pesos  paper  for 
1916. 

llie  national  debt  at  the  end  of  1913  stood  at 
466,669,909  pesos  gold ;  in  addition,  paper  money 
in  circulation,  178,082,840  pesos.  At  the  end  of 
1914  the  debt  was  468,413,567  pesos  gold,  with 
174,113,440  pesos  paper  in  circulation. 

Navy.  Argentina  has  2  dreadnoughts,  the 
Rivadavia  and  the  Moreno,  both  launched  in 
1911,  the  former  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  and  the  lat- 
ter at  Camden,  N.  J.;  each  displaces  28,000  tons. 
Besides  the  2  dreadnoughts  the  navy  includes 
2  old  coast  guards  (1890  and  1891),  aggre- 
gating 4600  tons;  1  old  coast  guard  (1880),  of 
4200  tons;  4  armored  cruisers  (1896  to  1898), 
aggregating  27,400  tons;  3  protected  cruisers 
(1890  to  1895),  aggregating  11,620  tons;  2 
old  torpedo  cruisers  (1890  and  1893),  1776  tons; 
2  armored  river  gunboats  (1908),  2100  tons; 
11  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  9000  tons;  torpedo 
boats,  transports,  etc. 

Government.  Argentina  is  a  federal  repub- 
lic. The  executive  is  vested  in  a  President,  who 
is  elected  for  six  years  by  indirect  vote,  and  is 
ineligible  for  the  next  term;  he  is  assisted  by  a 
responsible  ministry  of  eight  members.  The 
legislative  power  devolves  upon  a  Congress  of 
two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Senators  are  30  in  number,  elected  in- 
directly for  nine  years,  two  from  each  province 
and  the  Federal  district.  Deputies,  numbering 
120,  are  elected  for  four  years  by  popular  vote. 
Roque  Sftenz  Pefia,  elected  President  for  the 
term  ending  Oct.  12,  1916,  died  on  Aug.  9,  1914, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  Vice-President,  Vic- 
torino  de  la  Plaza. 

History 
Effect  of  the  Wab  Upon  Argentina.  Ar- 
gentina suffered,  as  well  as  the  other  South 
American  countries,  from  the  effects  of  the  war 
in  Furope,  but  recovered  more  rapidly  than  the 
others.  On  January  2nd  the  republic  floated  a 
loan  for  $15,000,000  in  New  York,  Chicago,  Bos- 
ton, Pittsburgh,  and  Philadelphia.  The  notes 
were  all  taken  up  within  a  few  hours  by  the 


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ABGENTINA 


bankers  of  these  cities.  This  was  the  first  time 
that  the  United  States  had  ever  negotiated  a  di- 
rect loan  to  any  South  American  country. 
With  the  aid  of  this  loan  Argentina  was  able 
to  bolster  her  financial  administration  until  it 
again  reached  its  normal  condition.  In  May  the 
government  made  a  second  attempt  to  secure 
money  by  means  of  a  loan.  This  time  it  decided 
to  issue  $60,000,000  worth  of  Treasury  war- 
rants, half  of  which  were  to  be  sold  in  the  United 
States  and  the  other  half  in  England.  Amer- 
ican financiers  subscribed  to  their  half  of  the 
loan  in  less  than  a  week's  time,  but  London 
bankers  received  the  proposition  with  less  en- 
thusiasm and  at  the  end  of  a  week  had  sub- 
scribed to  only  12  per  cent  of  their  share.  This 
augured  well  for  the  formation  of  a  closer  rela- 
tionship between  Argentina  and  the  United 
States  than  had  been  possible  hitherto  because 
of  the  dependence  of  Argentina  on  British  fi- 
nancial backing. 

The  "ABC"  Peace  Treaty.  Coincident  with 
its  celebration  of  the  105th  anniversary  of  the 
formation  of  the  republic  Argentina,  on  May 
25th,  acted  as  host  to  the  ministers  of  Brazil 
and  Chile  while  the  ABC  treaty  of  peace  was 
being  signed.  This  was  the  first  actual  treaty 
between  the  three  strongest  powers  of  South 
America,  although  they  had  worked  harmoni- 
ously together  on  several  occasions  when  the  in- 
terests of  all  demanded  it.  The  treaty  which 
was  signed  at  Buenos  Aires  on  May  25th  by 
Sefior  Alejandro  Lira  of  Chile,  Dr.  Lauro  Muller 
of  Brazil,  and  Sefior  Jos^  L.  Murature  of  Argen- 
tina, provided  for  five  years  of  peace  between 
the  three  nations,  during  which  time  each  of  the 
three  nations  was  pledged  not  to  make  war 
against  either  of  the  others  until  the  causes  of 
conflict  had  been  investigated  and  reported  upon 
by  an  impartial  commission. 

Aboentina  and  the  United  States.  Argen- 
tina acted  in  connection  with  the  United  States 
in  attempting  to  bring  about  a  reign  of  law  and 
order  in  Mexico,  and  was  one  of  the  nations 
which  recognized  Carranza,  after  the  latter  had 
been  selected  as  Provisional  President  of  Mex- 
ico by  the  representatives  of  the  seven  American 
nations.  Argentina  likewise  took  part  in  the 
Pan-American  Financial  Congress  in  May,  her 
delegates  being  Samuel  Hale  Pearson,  one  of  Ar- 
gentina's leading  financiers,  Richard  C.  Aldao,  a 
prominent  attorney,  V.  Villamil,  and  John  E. 
Zimmerman,  business  men.  All  urged  closer  re- 
lations between  Argentina  and  the  United  States. 
The  establishment  of  a  branch  bank  at  Buenos 
Aires  by  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York 
was  thought  by  the  delegates  to  be  a  splendid 
instrument  in  bringing  about  this  relationship. 
President  Wilson  while  attending  a  dinner,  given 
in  his  honor  by  Ambassador  Na6n,  on  board  the 
Argentine  battleship  Moreno  in  March,  said: 

"1  want  to  congratulate  you  upon  the  comple- 
tion of  this  ship  and  upon  all  that  she  stands 
for  in  the  way  of  reciprocity  between  ourselves 
and  the  great  country  you  represent,  and  I  want 
to  express  my  feeling  as  President  of  the  United 
States  that  we  are  rapidly  approaching  a  day 
when  the  Americans  will  draw  together  as  they 
have  never  drawn  together  before,  and  that  it 
will  be  a  union,  not  of  political  ties,  but  of  un- 
derstanding and  of  mutual  helpfulness." 

Cabinet  Changes.  In  August,  Minister  of 
Finance  Carbo  and  Minister  of  Justice  Cullen 
resigned   their   portfolios,   and   were   succeeded. 


64  ARIZONA 

respectively,  by  Francisco  Oliver  and  Carlos 
Saavedra. 

A&IZONA.  Population.  The  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was  247,- 
290.     It  was  204,354  in  1010. 

Agbicultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1014-15,  were  as  follows: 


Aertaoe 

Prod,  Bu. 

Yalue 

20.000 

600,000 

$690,000 

18,000 

576.000 

691.000 

89,000 

1,092.000 

1,256.000 

81,000 

868.000 

1,085.000 

9.000 

833,000 

213,000 

8,000 

886.000 

285,000 

85,000 

l,2d5.n'00 

725.000 

85,000 

1,260.000 

756,000 

1.000 

95,000 

95.000 

1.000 

110.000 

182.000 

147.000 

a  470,000 

4,512.000 

142.000 

454.000 

8.995.000 

Corn  1915 

1914 
Wheat  1915 

1914 
OaU  1915 

1914 
Barley    1915 

1914 
Potatoes     1915 

1914 
Hay    1915 

1914 
a  Tona. 


Mineral  Pboducts.  The  value  of  the  pro- 
duction of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  in 
1914  was  $59,956,029,  compared  with  $70,875,- 
027  in  1913,  a  decrease  of  $10,918,998.  The 
gold  produced  in  the  State  in  1914  amounted  to 
202,167  ounces,  valued  at  $4,179,155,  an  increase 
of  $155,244;  silver  production  increased  from 
3,948,091  ounces,  valued  at  $2,384,647,  in  1913, 
to  4,377,994  ounces,  valued  at  $2,441,417,  in 
1914.  The  copper  output  from  the  ores  of  the 
State,  chiefly  from  crude  ores  and  concentrates, 
decreased  from  407,923,402  pounds,  valued  at 
$63,228,127,  in  1913,  to  393,017,400  pounds, 
valued  at  $52,271,314,  in  1914.  In  spite  of  this 
decrease,  Arizona  continued  at  the  head  of  the 
list  of  copper  producing  States.  The  lead  in 
Arizona  ores  in  1914,  which  were  shipped  to 
smelters  outside  the  State,  amounted  to  15,003,- 
068  pounds,  valued  at  $585,125,  compared  with 
16,144,772  pounds  in  1913.  The  spelter  recov- 
ered from  Arizona  zinc  ores  in  1914  amounted 
to  9,792,337  pounds,  valued  at  $449,409,  com- 
pared with  an  output  of  9,928,067  pounds, 
valued  at  $527,972,  in  1913.  There  were  during 
the  year  395  producers  engaged  in  the  produc- 
tion of  copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc,  com- 
pared with  380  in  1913.  The  production  of  gold 
from  the  mines  of  the  State  in  1914  was  greater 
than  that  of  any  previous  year.  Lead  ores 
yielded  494,226  ounces  of  silver  in  1914.  Of  the 
total  output  of  silver  for  the  year,  3,286,267 
ounces  came  from  crude  ore  shipped  to  smelters, 
423,892  ounces  from  concentrates  shipped,  and 
617,049  ounces  from  mill  bullion.  The  value  of 
the  State's  total  mineral  production  in  1914  was 
$60,391,272  compared  with  $71,429,705  in  1913. 
This  represented  a  decrease  of  15.5  per  cent. 
Arizona  ranked  seventh  in  value  in  1914. 

Finance.  At  the  b^inning  of  the  fiscal  year 
1914  there  was  in  the  treasury  a  balance  of"$l,- 
034,183.  The  receipts  for  the  year  amounted 
to  $2,770,571,  and  the  disbursements  to  $3,061,- 
356,  leaving  a  balance  in  the  treasury  of  $703,- 
298.  The  bonded  debt  of  the  State,  consisting 
wholly  of  bonds,  of  which  the  greater  part  was 
issued  for  funding  purposes,  amountea  to  $3,- 
500,000. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
the  State  in  1915  was  56,471.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  public  schools  was  43,316,  with  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  29,582.  Teachers 
numbered  160  male  and  1059  female.     The  total 


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ARIZONA 

school  expenditure  for  the  year  was  $1,348,242. 

Chabities  and  CoBBEcnoNS.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  in- 
clude a  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  State 
Prison,  State  Industrial  School,  and  State  Home 
for  Aged  and  Infirm  Pioneers.  During  the  year 
the  Legislature  enacted  a  law  giving  city  police 
courts  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  justices  of 
the  peace,  also  a  law  providing  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  relief  to  the  amount  of  $10,000  in 
Navajo  County,  and  $30,000  in  Apache  County, 
on  account  of  floods  due  to  the  breaking  of  the 
reservoir.  Since  the  operation  of  a  State- wide 
prohibition  law  on  the  first  of  the  year  the 
number  of  arrests  in  city  and  county  courts  de- 
creased considerably,  and  the  population  of  the 
prisons  declined  from  565  in  September,  1014, 
to  400  in  September,  1915.  An  old  age  and 
mothers'  pension  law  was  passed  by  the  Legis- 
lature, was  taken  to  the  courts,  and  was  at 
the  end  of  the  year  awaiting  a  hearing  before 
the  Supreme  Court. 

TBA^'8POBTATION.  The  railway  mileage  in  the 
State  on  Jime  30,  1915,  was  2989.  Kailways 
having  the  longest  mileage  are  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  F6,  1159;  Southern  Pacific, 
682;  Arizona  Eastern,  448;  and  the  El  Paso  and 
Southwestern,  349. 

Politics  and  Govebnhent.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  but  passed  no  measures  of  un- 
usual importance.  The  United  States  Court  in 
San  Francisco,  on  January  7th,  declared  the 
anti-alien  employment  act  adopted  by  the  voters 
of  the  State  in  November,  1914,  unconstitu- 
tional, as  being  in  conflict  with  the  14th  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution.  The  act  provided 
that  not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  employees 
of  a  firm  should  be  aliens.  A  substitution  bill, 
passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  on  Feb- 
ruary 9th,  provided  among  other  things  that 
all  persons  engaged  in  hazardous  occupations 
should  be  able  to  read  and  write  English,  lliis 
bill  was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  The  anti-alien 
law  was  carried  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  but  no  decision  had  been  rendered  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  A  State-wide  prohibition  bill 
went  into  effect  in  the  State  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
as  a  result  of  the  constitutional  amendment 
adopted  Nov.  3,  1914.  The  law  was  contested, 
and  was  upheld  in  all  points  by  the  State  Su- 
preme Court  on  February  13th. 

State  Officebs.  Governor,  George  W.  P. 
Hunt;  Secretary  of  State,  Sidney  P.  Osborn; 
Assistant  Secretary,  R.  E.  McGillen;  Auditor, 
J.  C.  Callaghan;  Treasurer,  Mit  Sims;  Attor- 
ney-General, Wiley  E.  Jones;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  C.  O.  Case;  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral, Charles  W.  Harris;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Health,  R.  N.  Looney — all  Democrats. 

SuPBEME  CouBT.  Chief  Justice,  Henry  D. 
Ross;  Associate  Justices,  Alfred  Franklin,  D.  L. 
Cunningham;   Clerk,  C.  F.  Leonard. 

Statb  Lboislatube. 


OomArrAtii      

Senate 
.      18 
1 

.      17 

House 

85 

0 

85 

Joint  BaUot 
53 

Republicftns    

1 

Demoeratic  majority. 

62 

ABIZONA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  univer- 
sity for  higher  education  founded  in  1885  at 
Tucson,  Arizona.  The  students  enrolled  in  the 
several  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915 
were    400.    The    faculty    numbered    52.    There 


55  ABKANSA8 

were  added  during  the  year  to  tlie  faculty 
D.  H.  H.  Foster,  head  of  the  Department  of 
Education;  Dr.  S.  J.  Frank,  head  of  the  De- 
partment of  Law;  Dr.  H.  M.  Colvin,  instructor 
in  Law  and  Economics;  Dr.  H.  M.  Leonard, 
head  of  the  Department  of  Mathematics.  Dr. 
£.  S.  Bates,  head  of  the  Department  of  Eng- 
lish, resigned.  There  were  no  noteworthy  bene- 
factions received  during  the  year.  The  uni- 
versity is  almost  entirely  supported  by  l^is- 
lative  appropriations.  The  receipts  amount  to 
about  $350,000  annually.  The  library  contains 
about  22,359  volumes.  The  president  is  R.  B. 
Von  Kleiss  Smid. 

ARKANSAS.  Populatign.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was 
1,713,102.  The  population  in  1910  was  1,574,- 
449. 

AQBiCTn.TUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  Stat^  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 

Acreage  Prod.  Bu,  Value 

Corn    1915  2,700.000  62,100,000  $89,744,000 

1914  2.400,000  42,000.000  88.600.000 

Wheat     1915  220,000  2.750,000  2,778.000 

1914  125,000  1,626,000  1.609,000 

Oats     1915  875.000  10,125,000  5,265.000 

1914  260.000  6,240,000  8,807.000 

Rye   1915  1,000  10,000  10,000 

1914  1,000  10,000  10.000 

Rice     1915  100,000,000  4,840.000  4,598,000 

1914  92,580.000  8,685,000  8,816.000 

Potatoes    .  . .  1915  28,000  2,520,000  8.022,000 

1914  25,000  1,500,000  8.815,000 

Hay     1915  850,000  a  560,000  5,768.000 

1914  820,000  886,000  4,884,000 

Tobacco     ...1915  500  &  800.000  51,000 

1914  700  427,000  77,000 

Cotton     1915  2,150,000     c  785.000  48,590,000 

1914  2,480,000  1.016.000  82,084.000 

a  Tons,    b  Pounds,    e  Bales  of  500  pounds  gross  weight. 

MiNEBAL  Pboducts.  The  coal  production  of 
the  State  in  1914  was  1,836,540  tons,  valued  at 
$3,158,168.  This  is  a  decrease  of  397,567  tons 
from  the  production  of  1913.  This  is  attributed 
to  the  falling  off  of  the  use  of  coal  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  due  to  demoralization  in  the 
cotton  industry,  and  to  the  decrease  in  the  do- 
mestic consumption,  because  of  mild  weather 
during  the  winter  of  1914.  There  were  labor 
troubles  during  the  year,  and  1415  men,  or  about 
one-third  of  the  total  number  employed,  were  on 
strike  for  one  reason  or  another.  There  were 
during  the  year  11  fatal  accidents  in  the  coal 
mines  of  the  State.  The  total  value  of  the  min- 
eral products  of  the  State  in  1914  was  $5,785,199. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  June  30,  1914,  was  5335. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  from  Jan.  1, 
1916,  to  Sept.  30,  1915,  amounted  to  $3,- 
730,651.  The  disbursements  for  the  same  pe- 
riod amounted  to  $3,711,340.  There  was  a 
balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  of 
$234,744,  and  at  the  end  of  $254,055.  The 
chief  source  of  revenue  is  direct  taxation.  The 
chief  expenditures  are  for  charitable  institu- 
tions, agricultural  schools,  and  the  University 
of  Arkansas.  The  bonded  debt  of  the  State 
was  $1,250,500. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
the  State  on  June  30,  1915,  was  649,689.  The 
enrollment  in  the  public  schools  was  453,834, 
with  an  average  daily  attendance  of  302,963. 
There  were  10,832  teachers,  who  received  an 
average   annual    salary    of    $303.50.    The   total 


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ASTBONOMY 


expenditures  for  the  support  of  schools  was  $4,- 
470,936. 

Charities  and  Corbegtions.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  under 
the  control  of  the  State  Board  are  the  State 
Hospital  for  Nervous  Diseases  at  Little  Rock, 
Deaf  Mute  Institute  at  Little  Rock,  School  for 
the  Blind  at  Little  Rock,  the  Confederate  Sol- 
diers' Home  at  Sweet  Home,  Arkansas  State 
Penitentiary  and  State  Farm,  and  the  Arkansas 
State  Reform  School  at  Little  Rock. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  and  passed  several  measures  of 
importance.  The  first  of  these  related  to  the 
matter  of  liquor  regulation.  A  State-wide  pro- 
hibition bill  Known  as  the  Newberry  Bill  passed 
the  House  of  Representatives  on  February  1. 
This  measure  prohibits  the  sale  or  giving  away 
of  liquor  after  June  1,  1915.  It  made  a  viola- 
tion of  the  law  a  felony,  and  provided  for  prison 
terms  of  not  less  than  one  year.  The  Senate 
adopted  the  bill  with  an  amendment  that  it  be- 
come effective  on  July  1,  1915.  It  was  signed  by 
Governor  Hays.  The  Senate  on  February  1 
passed  a  resolution  referring  a  constitutional 
amendment  providing  for  woman  suffrage  to 
popular  vote.  On  account  of  the  provision  of 
the  State  Constitution  which  provides  for  the 
submission  of  not  more  than  three  proposed 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  at  any  elec- 
tion, it  was  necessary  to  defer  the  settlement 
of  the  question  for  two  years. 

State  OrFicEES.  Governor,  George  W.  Hays; 
Secretary  of  State,  Earle  W.  Hodges;  Auditor, 
M.  F.  Dickenson;  Treasurer,  Rufus  G.  McDau- 
iel;  Attorney-General,  Wallace  Davis;  Commis- 
sioner of  State  Lands,  Highways,  and  Improve- 
ments, William  B.  Owen;  Commissioner  of 
Mines,  Manufacture,  and  Agriculture,  John  H. 
Page;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
George  B.  Cook. 

Supreme  Court.  Chief  Justice,  E.  A.  McCul- 
loch;  Associate  Justices,  Carroll  D.  Wood,  J.  C. 
Hart,  W.  F.  Kirby,  and  Frank  Smith. 

State  Legislature. 


Democrats     

Senate 
.     85 
0 

.      85 

Houee 
97 
8 

94 

Joint  Ballot 
182 

Republicans    

Democratic  majority. 

8 
129 

ARKANSAS,  University  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  education  established  in 
1872,  at  Fayetteville,  Arkansas.  There  were  in 
attendance  in  all  departments  in  the  autumn 
of  1915,  783  students,  llie  faculty  numbered 
75.  There  were  no  notable  changes  in  the  fac- 
ulty, and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  re- 
ceived. The  library  contains  about  25,000  vol- 
umes.    The  president  is  J.  C.   Futrall,  M.A. 

AJtMENIAN  CASE.  See  United  States 
and  the  War. 

ABMIES.  See  Military  Progress,  and  sec- 
tion Army,  under  the  various  countries. 

ABMSTBONG,  Paul.  American  dramatist, 
died  Aug.  30,  1916.  He  was  born  in  Kidder, 
Mo.,  in  1869,  and  began  life  as  a  sailor  on  the 
Great  Lakes,  eventually  becoming  master  of  a 
steamer.  Later  he  went  to  New  York,  and  en- 
gaged in  journalism.  During  this  period  he 
wrote  hip  first  play,  A  Night  in  the  Police  Sta- 
tion. His  ft'st  success  was  The  Heir  to  the 
Hoorah,  produced  in  1904.  This  was  followed 
by  Salomy  Jane    (1905)    and   by   his  greatest 


success,  Al%a9  Jimmy  Valentine  (1909).  fie 
collaborated  in  Via  Wtrelees  (with  Winchell 
Smith,  1909),  Going  Some  (with  Rex  Beach, 
1909),  and  Deep  Purple  (with  Wilson  Mizner, 
1911).  Nearly  all  Mr.  Armstrong's  plays  met 
with  unusual  success. 

ABT.  See  Architecture;  Music;  and 
Painting  and  Sculpture. 

ABT  EXHIBITIONS.  See  Painting  and 
Sculpture. 

ABTILLBBY.  See  Military  Progress,  and 
section  Army,  under  United  States,  and  under 
various  foreign  countries. 

ASBESTOS.  This  has  never  been  produced 
in  larffe  quantities  in  the  United  States.  The 
annual  production  has  ranged  from  71  short 
tons  in  1890  to  7604  in  1911.  In  1914  there 
was  an  increase  in  the  output  of  high  grade 
crude  fibre.  The  total  amount  of  asbestos 
mined  and  sold  in  that  year  was  1247  short 
tons,  valued  at  $16,810,  compared  with  1100 
valued  at  $11,000  in  1913.  Asbestos  is  pro- 
duced practically  in  only  two  States,  G^rgia 
and  Arizona,  though  small  quantities  are 
mined  in  California  and  Virginia.  The  largest 
production  is  from  Georgia.  Canada  is  the 
principal  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  as- 
bestos, and  large  quantities  are  imported  into 
the  United  States.  These,  during  the  twelve 
months  ending  Dec.  31,  1914,  amounted  to 
71,781  short  tons,  or  more  than  74  per  cent  of 
all  the  asbestos  mined  in  Canada.  The  value 
of  the  manufactured  and  unmanufactured  as- 
bestos imported  for  consumption  in  the  United 
States  in    1914   was  $1,779,223. 

ASIA.  See  Anthropology;  Exploration; 
and  articles  on  the  various  Asiatic  countries. 

ASPHALT.  Although  there  was  a  decrease 
in  the  marketed  production  of  asphalt  and  of 
manufactured  or  oil  asphalt  derived  from  do- 
mestic sources  in  the  United  States  in  1914,  the 
decrease  was  more  than  offset  by  the  eroatly 
increased  output  of  oil  asphalt  derived  from 
crude  petroleum  imported  from  Mexico.  The 
output  of  natural  asphalt  amounted  to  77,588 
short  tons,  valued  at  $030,623;  the  output 
of  oil  asphalt  from  domestic  petroleum 
amounted  to  360,683  short  tons,  valued  at  $3,- 
016,969;  and  the  output  from  American  refin- 
eries of  oil  asphalt  from  Mexican  petroleum 
amounted  to  313,787  short  tons,  valued  at  $4,- 
131,153.  In  Texas  and  Utah  the  output  of  cer- 
tain varieties  of  natural  asphalt,  required  for 
special  purposes,  showed  an  increase.  In  Cal- 
ifornia there  was  a  notable,  increase  of  oil  as- 
phalt, derived  wholly  from  domestic  petroleum. 
During  the  calendar  year  1914  asphaltic  ma- 
terial and  productions  to  the  value  of  $186,- 
142  were  imported.  Exports  during  the  s^me 
period  were  valued  at  $1,247,020. 

ASFHTXIATING  GASES.  See  Chemistry, 
Industrial;  and  Military  Progress, 

ASQUITH,  Herbert  Henry.  See  Great 
Britain,  History,  paaaim. 

ASTBONOIXT.  During  1915  the  Amerioan 
observatories  maintained  their  usual  high  level 
of  productivity  in  the  field  of  astronomioftl 
research,  but,  owing  to  the  European  war,  a 
marked  decrease  of  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
observatories  of  the  Old  World  was  evident, 
Further  details  concerning  the  ninth  satelUta 
of  Jupiter,  discovered  bv  Prof.  Seth  B,  Nich- 
olson in  1914,  were  published,  and  this  tifiy 
celestial  body  is  now  firmly  established  ai  » 


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ASTBONOMY 

member  of  the  Jovian  family  of  Batellites.  The 
periodic  comets  discovered  by  Winnecke  and 
Tempel  in  1858  and  1873,  respectively,  reap- 
peared, and  three  new  comets  were  found.  The 
death  roll  of  the  year  included  the  names  of 
Arthur  Auwers,  famous  for  his  re-reduction  of 
Bradley's  observations  and  the  compilation  of 
star-catalogues;  Lady  Huggins,  the  able  assist- 
ant of  her  distinguished  husband,  the  late  Sir 
William  Huggins,  in  his  epoch-making  re- 
searches in  astrophysics;  G.  F.  Chambers,  whose 
popular  works  on  astronomy  have  been  largely 
instrumental  in  spreading  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  science;  and  Theodore  Albrecht,  chief  of 
the  International  Bureau  for  the  Investigation 
of  Latitude  Variation  from  its  foundation  in 
1808. 

MoTTiTT  Wilson  Solab  Obsebvatobt.  In  his 
report  of  the  work  accomplished  by  himself  and 
his  assistants  at  this  observatory  during  1914, 
Prof.  George  £.  Hale  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  opening  of  the  second  decade 
of  the  existence  of  the  observatory  was  marked 
by  a  vigorous  revival  of  solar  activity  after 
a  prolonged  period  of  calm.  The  first  decade 
was  remarkable  for  the  amount  of  work  ac- 
complished and  the  new  fields  of  inquiry  in 
solar  physics  which  were  opened  up.  The  skill 
of  the  director  and  his  co-workers  in  devising 
new  methods  of  research  was  unparalleled  in 
the  history  of  astronomical  activity  in  this 
field,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  in 
quality,  as  well  as  quantity,  of  output,  the  ob- 
servatory stood  unrivaled  among  those  devoted 
to  the  investigation  of  the  physics  of  the  sun. 
The  methods  which  were  developed  and  tested 
during  the  first  decade  became  firmly  estab- 
lished and  gave  promise  of  even  greater  and 
more  important  results  for  the  future.  The 
year  1014  was  one  of  the  most  productive  in 
the  history  of  the  observatory.  The  princi- 
pal conclusions  derived  from  the  work  of  the 
year  were  summarized  tmder  50  heads.  Inves- 
tigations were  made  of  the  general  magnetic 
field  of  the  sun,  and  of  the  magnetic  fields  of 
sun  spots.  In  the  case  of  the  former,  its  ex- 
istence was  shown  by  25  lines,  representing  the 
elements  iron,  chromium,  vanadium,  and  nickel 
(with  one  unidentified),  and  all  originating  at 
comparatively  low  levels  in  the  solar  atmos- 
phere. Attempts  were  made  to  observe  the 
Stark  effect  due  to  electric  fields  in  sun  spots, 
but  yielded  no  positive  results.  On  "flash** 
spectra  taken  without  an  eclipse  more  than 
1000  bright  lines  were  measured,  surpassing  in 
number  those  photographed  in  the  same  region 
of  the  spectrum  at  eclipses  and  representing  a 
lower  level  in  the  solar  atmosphere.  A  pre- 
liminary study  of  the  displacements  of  solar 
lines  at  the  sun's  centre  gave  no  evidence  of 
the  gravitational  shift  toward  the  red  predicted 
by  Einstein,  and  the  results  also  failed  to  sup- 
port the  anomalous  dispersion  theory  ad- 
vanced by  Julius.  From  an  investigation  of 
the  levels  of  the  various  elements  in  the  sun's 
atmosphere,  the  conclusion  was  reached  that 
the  great  mass  of  the  vapors  present  is  con- 
densed in  a  very  thin  layer  close  to  the  photo- 
sphere. 

The  first  determinations  of  stellar  parallax 
with  the  80-foot  Cassegrain  combination  of  the 
60-inch  reflector  were  completed  and  found  very 
satisfactory.  The  enormous  velocity  in  space 
of  577  kilometers  per  second  was  found  in  the 


57  ASTBONOMY 

case  of  the  star  O.Arg.S.  14320.  By  the  meas- 
urement of  some  600  stars  near  the  North  Pole, 
there  was  established  for  stars  from  the  sec- 
ond to  the  twentieth  magnitude  a  photographic 
scale,  which  agrees  closely  with  the  Harvard 
scale  for  the  middle  interval  but  shows  diver- 
gencies for  both  bright  and  faint  stars.  The 
disappearance  of  the  chief  nebular  lines  from 
the  spectra  of  Nova  Aurigse  and  Nova  Persci 
was  observed;  these  spectra  are  now  identical 
with  those  of  certain  Wolf-Rayet  stars,  and  it 
is  suggested  that  the  latter  may  be  temporary 
stars  in  the  later  stages  of  their  historv. 
Work  on  the  100-inch  mirror  was  steadily 
maintained,  an  almost  perfectly  spherical  fig- 
ure being  obtained,  and  preparations  for  its 
parabolization  were  made,  including  the  com- 
pletion of  the  60-inch  plane  mirror  for  testing 
its   figure. 

PoLABiTY  OP  Sun  Spots.  When  the  mag- 
netic polarity  of  sun  spots  was  discovered  at 
Mount  Wilson  in  1907,  it  was  expected  that  the 
spot  vortices  in  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres  of  the  sun  would  have  opposite 
directions  of  rotation.  This  expectation  was 
not  immediately  realized,  for  spots  showing  op- 
posite directions  of  rotation  were  soon  observed 
in  each  hemisphere.  Professor  Hale's  discov- 
ery of  bipolar  spots  in  1909,  however,  afforded 
a  basis  for  a  reconsideration  of  the  whole 
question,  and  it  was  found  that,  if  every  spot 
were  classified  as  the  preceding  or  following 
member  of  a  bipolar  group,  as  a  rule  the  pre- 
ceding (or  following)  spots  in  opposite  hemi- 
spheres showed  opposite  polarities.  Later  work 
at  Mount  Wilson  on  the  polarity  of  sun  spots 
brought  out  the  interesting  fact  that,  while  in 
the  new  spot  cycle  just  begun  the  rule  of  op- 
posite polarity  for  the  preceding  (or  follow- 
ing) spots  in  the  two  hemispheres  still  holds, 
the  polarities  in  a  given  hemisphere  are  op- 
posite to  those  observed  in  that  hemisphere 
just  before  the  recent  spot  minimum.  Since, 
in  accordance  with  the  well-known  law  of  sun 
spot  distribution,  the  spots  of  a  cycle  appear 
at  first  in  high  solar  latitudes  and  descend  as 
the  cycle  progresses,  it  seems  likely  that  the 
polarity  is  determined  by  the  solar  latitude, 
and  it  is  suggested  that  the  simplest  explana- 
tion of  the  anomaly  lies  in  assuming  the  ex- 
istence of  high  and  low  latitude  zones,  distin- 
guished by  spots  of  opposite  polarity.  Future 
observations  are  expected  to  test  this  view,  and 
also  to  reveal  what  happens  in  the  intermediate 
zone. 

Solab  Radiation  Constant.  In  spite  of  the 
extremely  accordant  values  of  the  solar  radia- 
tion constant  obtained  by  Messrs.  Abbot,  Fowle, 
and  Aldrich,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
from  measurements  made  under  diverse  condi- 
tions of  height  above  sea  level,  atmospheric 
transparency,  temperature,  etc.,  their  results 
were  severely  criticized.  It  was  urged  by  some 
that  their  allowance  for  the  heat  absorbed  by 
the  atmosphere  was  too  low;  by  others  it  waa 
claimed  that  the  amount  of  solar  radiation  re- 
flected from  the  outside  of  the  atmosphere  was 
underestimated,  and  that  the  true  value  of  the 
constant  should  be  at  least  3,  and  perhaps  as 
high  as  4  calories  per  square  centimeter  per 
minute  instead  of  1.93  calories,  the  value  de- 
duced by  the  Smithsonian  observers,  lliis 
value  was  derived  from  nearly  1000  measure- 
ments   made    during   the   period    1903-1914    at 


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Washington  (sea  level),  Basaour,  Algeria 
(1160  meters).  Mount  Wilson,  California  (1730 
meters),  and  Mount  Whitney,  California  (4420 
meters).  In  addition,  a  series  of  high-altitude 
observations,  in  which  sounding  balloons  were 
used,  was  carried  out  by  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution in  cooperation  with  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  during  the  summers  of  1913 
and  1914.  On  Jul^  14,  1914,  a  ballon  sonde 
carrying  a  recording  pyrheliometer  was  re- 
leased at  Omaha,  and  reached  a  height  of  24,- 
000  meters,  or  nearly  15  miles.  The  mean 
value  of  the  solar  radiation  constant  deduced 
from  the  best  three  records  made  on  this  oc- 
casion was  1.84  calories,  or,  when  corrected  for 
the  radiation  scattered  and  absorbed  in  the  at- 
mosphere above  the  level  attained,  1.88  calor- 
ies, a  value  which  accords  satisfactorily  with 
the  value  previously  obtained. 

Mars.  Spectograms  were  obtained  at  the 
Lowell  Observatory  showing  strongly  intensi- 
fied oxygen  and  water  vapor  bands  as  com- 
pared with  similar  bands  in  lunar  spectro- 
grams. It  was  claimed  that  they  prove  that 
the  water  vapor  in  the  Martian  atmosphere  is 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  regions  over  the 
melting  snows  at  the  poles  of  the  planet.  The 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  Martian  atmosphere 
was  estimated  to  be  about  half  as  great  as  in 
our  own. 

During  the  opposition  of  Mars,  Prof.  W. 
H.  Pickering  issued  a  series  of  monthly  re- 
ports dealing  with  the  planet.  The  coopera- 
tion secured  by  means  of  these  reports  proved 
BO  valuable  that  the  formation  of  a  permanent 
association  for  the  systematic  observation  of 
the  planet  was  contemplated. 

The  Ninth  Satellite  or  Jupiter.  In  the 
Year  Book  for  1914,  mention  was  made  of  the 
discovery  of  a  new  satellite  of  Jupiter  by  Prof. 
Seth  B.  Nicholson  at  the  Lick  observatory  on 
July  21,  1914.  The  first  record  of  this— the 
ninth — satellite  of  Jupiter  was  obtained  on 
plates  which  had  been  exposed  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  positions  of  the  fainter  satellites 
of  the  planet.  It  is  a  tiny  body  of  the  nine- 
teenth magnitude  only,  and  is  therefore  even 
fainter  than  the  eighth  satellite  near  which  it 
was  found.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  differentiated 
from  the  older  satellites  discovered  by  Galileo 
by  its  great  distance  from  the  primary,  its 
small  size,  the  high  inclination  of  its  orbit,  and 
its  retrograde  motion.  The  latest  determina- 
tion of  its  elements  gave  for  its  distance  from 
the  primary  14,700,000  miles,  or  about  340 
times  the  radius  of  Jupiter,  and  for  its  period 
796  days.  The  corresponding  figures  for  the 
eighth  satellite  are  13,950,000  miles  and  739 
days,  respectively.  The  close  resemblance  be- 
tween the  orbits  of  the  two  satellites  suggests 
they  were  added  to  the  Jovian  system  in  the 
same  way,  possibly  by  capture  from  outside 
space. 

Stellar  Photometry.  In  an  important 
paper  read  before  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Prof.  Joel  Stebbins,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois,  gave  an  account  of  his  re- 
cent researches  on  the  electrical  photometry 
of  stars.  In  these  researches  he  employed  a  se- 
lenium cell  which  served  as  one  arm  of  a 
Wheatstone  bridge,  the  intensity  of  the  light 
falling  on  the  cell  from  any  bright  source  being 
determined  from  the  diminution  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  cell.     The  difficulty  of  the  problem 


58  ASTBOKOKY 

becomes  apparent  when  it  is  realized  that  the 
measurement  of  the  light  of  a  star  like  the 
Pole  Star  with  a  probable  error  of  1  per  cent  is 
equivalent  to  the  detection  of  a  candle  at  a 
distance  of  about  a  mile.  Increased  sensitive- 
ness of  the  apparatus  was  secured  by  sur- 
rounding the  cell  with  an  ice-pack  so  as  to 
maintain  it  at  a  low  temperature.  Observa- 
tions were  made  on  eclipsing  binaries  of  three 
types,  namely,  Algol,  in  which  a  bright  star  is 
accompanied  by  a  large  faint  companion;  ^ 
Aurigee,  a  spectroscopic  binary  with  compo- 
nents of  practically  equal  size  and  brilliancy; 
and  8  Orionis,  in  which  the  components  are 
equally  brilliant  but  unequal  in  size.  The  pe- 
riodicity of  Algol,  which  loses  about  %  of  its 
light  once  in  every  69  hours,  the  temporary 
eclipse  lasting  about  12  hours,  was  discovered 
in  1783  by  Goodricke,  who  suggested  as  the 
cause  of  the  phenomenon  the  periodical  inter- 
position of  a  large  dark  satellite.  Unless  the 
companion  star  is  entirely  dark,  there  should 
be  another  loss  of  light  midway  between  two 
successive  primary  eclipses,  but  no  such  loss 
has  ever  been  observed  visually.  With  the 
selenium  photometer,  however,  Stebbins  was 
able  to  detect  a  diminution  of  about  6  per  cent, 
proving  conclusively  that  the  companion,  while 
dark,  is  not  entirely  so.  In  the  case  of  ^ 
Aurigae,  spectroscopic  observation  has  shown 
that  we  have  a  system  of  two  bodies  revolving 
round  each  other  in  a  period  of  about  four 
days.  Although  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
the  two  stars  in  the  telescope,  still  the  eclipses 
of  one  star  by  the  other  can  be  determined 
spectroscopically,  for,  whenever  they  occur,  the 
spectrum  lines  are  seen  single  instead  of 
double,  as  they  are  when  light  waves  are  re- 
ceived from  both  components  simultaneously. 

The  photometric  observations  showed  that  at 
the  precise  times  when  the  eclipses  take  place 
the  light  of  the  system  is  diminished  by  7  per 
cent,  successive  diminutions  following  one  an- 
other at  intervals  of  half  the  period.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  surface  brightness  of  each 
body  is  12,  and  possibly  25,  times  that  of  the 
sun,  the  total  light  emitted  by  the  system  being 
from  150  to  300  times  the  solar  light.  In  the 
case  of  8  Orionis,  the  observations  indicated 
that  the  two  components  of  the  system  have 
almost  equal  intensities  but  differ  in  size,  the 
radius  of  the  smaller  being  only  half  that  of 
the  larger.  Professor  Stebbins  also  succeeded 
in  constructing  a  photoelectric  cell  from  one 
of  the  alkali  metals  which  is  twice  as  sensitive 
as  anything  of  the  kind  hitherto  available,  and 
far  more  uniform  in  its  action  than  the  selen- 
ium cell.  A  tenfold  improvement  over  the  best 
obtained  with  the  selenium  cell  was  expected 
from  the  later  apparatus,  and  the  results  of 
the  further  prosecution  of  his  researches  were 
awaited  with  interest. 

The  Orion  Nebula.  In  the  Year  Book  for 
1914,  attention  was  drawn  to  the  spectroscopic 
evidence  of  rotation  in  the  Virgo  nebula  which 
had  been  recently  obtained  by  Professor  Slipher 
of  the  Lowell  observatory.  Further  evidence 
of  nebular  rotation  was  found  by  Messrs.  Buis- 
son,  Fabry,  and  Bourget  in  their  studies  of  the 
great  nebula  in  Orion.  The  interferometer 
method  was  used.  Interference  rings  were 
formed  with  light  of  known  wave-length  from 
the  nebula,  and  the  wave-length  for  this  par- 
ticular ray  was  then  calculated  from  the  size 


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of  the  rings  produced.  Any  decrease  or  in- 
crease of  wave-length  is  of  course  due  to  the 
Doppler  effect,  and  the  radial  velocity  of  the 
region  of  the  nebula  from  which  the  light  was 
derived  can  be  easily  determined.  It  was 
found  that,  on  the  whole,  the  nebula  has  a  ro- 
tary motion  about  a  line  running  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  though  many  irregularities 
were  observed;  and  that  the  northeast  region 
is  withdrawing  at  the  rate  of  about  5  kilo- 
meters per  second  relatively  to  the  axis  of  ro- 
tation, while  the  southwest  region  is  approach- 
ing with  about  the  same  relative  velocity.  In 
the  region  surrounding  the  Trapezium  a  mean 
radial  velocity  of  15.8  kilometers  per  second 
relative  to  and  directed  away  from  the  sun 
was  obtained.  The  atomic  weight  of  nebulium 
and  the  temperature  of  the  nebula  were  also 
investigated.  It  was  found  that  the  two  dis- 
tinctive lines  in  the  ultra-violet  are  emitted  by 
an  element  of  approximate  atomic  weight  three, 
which  agrees  with  the  theoretical  atomic 
weight  of  nebulium,  but  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that  the  green  line  usually  associated 
with  that  element  belongs  to  another  element 
of  even  lower  atomic  weight.  The  temperature 
of  the  nebula  was  estimated  to  be  15,000'*C. 

Measttbino  the  Heat  of  the  Stabs.  In  a 
recent  contribution  to  the  Bulletin  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Standards,  Prof.  W.  W.  Coblentz  de- 
scribed his  important  work  of  measuring  the 
amount  of  heat  radiated  from  the  stars.  Sev- 
eral previous  attempts  had  been  made  to  de- 
termine the  amount  of  stellar  radiation.  One 
of  the  earliest  was  by  Sir  William  Huggins, 
who  employed  a  thermoelement  to  measure  the 
minute  amounts  received  from  Sirius,  Pollux, 
Regulus,  and  Arcturus,  but  his  results  were 
qualitative  rather  than  quantitative.  Stone, 
somewhat  later,  and,  quite  recently,  Pfund, 
were  more  successful  in  their  application  of  the 
thermoelement  to  this  problem.  Stone's  ob- 
servations were  confined  to  Arcturus  and  Vega, 
and  showed  that  the  former  emitted  more  radia- 
tion than  the  latter  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  2. 
Pfund  investigated  Jupiter,  Vega,  and  Altai r, 
and  concluded  that,  with  one  of  the  largest 
reflectors  and  a  more  sensitive  galvanometer,  it 
would  be  possible  to  make  measurements  in  the 
case  of  stars  down  to  the  fourth  magnitude. 
In  1001  Nichols  made  use  of  his  improved  radi- 
ometer which  was  so  sensitive  that  a  candle 
placed  at  a  distance  of  5  miles  would  have 
given  a  deflection  of  1  mm.  on  his  galvano- 
meter scale.  For  Arcturus  and  Vega  he  found 
a  somewhat  higher  ratio  than  that  obtained  by 
Stone.  The  telescope  employed  by  Professor 
Coblentz  was  the  large  Crossley  reflector  of  the 
Lick  observatory.  By  using  for  his  radiometer 
a  bismuth-platinum  thermocouple  mounted  in 
vacuo,  he  succeeded  in  securing  a  sensitivity 
more  than  100  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Nichols  radiometer,  so  that  a  deflection  of  1 
mm.  would  be  produced  by  a  candle  at  a  dis- 
tance of  63  miles.  Measurements  were  made 
on  112  celestial  objects,  including  105  stars,  the 
bright  and  dark  bands  of  Jupiter,  a  couple  of 
Jupiter's  satellites,  the  rings  of  Saturn,  and  a 
planetary  nebula.  Quantitative  measurements 
of  stars  down  to  magnitude  5.3  were  obtained, 
and  it  was  found  possible  to  get  qualitative  re- 
sults in  the  case  of  stars  as  faint  as  magni- 
tude 6.7.  Red  stars  were  found  to  emit  from 
two  to  three  times  as  much  total  radiation  as 


blue  stars  of  the  same  photometric  magnitude. 
Ab  an  indication  of  the  extremely  minute 
amounts  of  stellar  radiation  involved,  it  is 
stated  that,  if  the  radiation  from  the  Pole  Star 
falling  on  a  square  centimeter  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face could  be  absorbed  and  conserved,  it  would 
take  a  million  years  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
one  gram  of  water  PC,  while  the  total  radiation 
from  all  the  stars  similarly  absorbed  and  con- 
served would  require  from  100  to  200  years. 
This  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  solar  radia- 
tion, which  can. produce  the  same  effect  in  about 
a  minute. 

Minor  Planets.  Although  the  number  of 
minor  planets  announced  as  new  in  1911,  1912, 
and  1914  showed  some  diminution  when  com- 
pared with  the  numbers  discovered  annually 
during  the  period  1906-1910,  there  appears  to 
be  no  indication  that  the  exhaustion  of  the 
zone  is  near.  Since  the  issue  of  the  Yeab 
Book  for  1914,  74  of  these  small  bodies  have 
been  reported,  and  have  been  assigned  provi- 
sional designations  ranging  from  1914  VS  to 
WH,  and  1916  WJ  to  YH,  together  with  1901a, 
1913k  to  o,  and  1914a  and  b,  the  single-letter 
designations  being  due  to  belated  recognition 
or  reporting.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  1915 
we  were  nearing  the  end  of  the  second  series 
of  double-letter  designations.  Of  the  24  minor 
planets  not  properly  belonging  to  1915,  the  five 
designated  1913k  to  o  were  discovered  by  Met- 
calf  at  Winchester,  Mass.;  1914a  and  b  were 
found  by  Beljawskv  at  Simeis;  and  1901a  was 
detected  on  an  old  plate  exposed  by  Wolf  at 
Heidelberg  as  far  back  as  1901,  having  been 
overlooked  at  the  time  of  its  discovery.  Of  the 
remaining  16  belonging  to  1914,  5  were  re- 
ported from  Heidelberg,  4  falling  to  the  share 
of  Professor  Wolf,  and  1  to  his  assistant  Kein- 
muth,  while  the  rest  were  discovered  by  Neuj- 
min  at  Simeis.  This  year  the  Heidelberg  ob- 
servatory claimed  more  than  half  of  the  total 
number  of  minor  planets  announced  as  new,  no 
fewer  than  29  having  been  found  by  Wolf  (27), 
and  Reinmuth  (2).  Of  the  remaining  21,  9 
were  reported  from  Simeis  (7  by  Neujmin,  and 
2  by  Beljawsky),  6  by  Thiele  (Bergedorf),  3 
by  Tomfls  Solft  (Barcelona),  2  by  Palisa  (Vi- 
enna), and  1  by  Demetrescu  (Bucharest).  One 
surprising  feature  of  the  year's  work  in  this 
field  was  the  number  of  long-missing  planets 
which  were  re-observed.  1915  WJ,  discovered 
by  Wolf,  proved  to  be  the  long-lost  99  Dike, 
last  seen  m  1868,  the  year  of  its  first  discov- 
ery, and  1915  XU  is  probably  identical  with 
193  Ambrosia.  Other  minor  planets  not  ob- 
served since  their  discovery  and  refound  in 
1915  were  290  Bruna  (1890),  353  Ruperta- 
Carola  (1893),  392  Wilhelmina  (1894),  493 
Griseldis  (1902),  573  Rebekka  (1905),  and  594 
Mireille   (1906);  of  these,  392  is  identical  with 

1914  WG,   493   with    1916  WK,   and  572   with 

1915  WU. 

Permanent  numbers  were  assigned  to  the  fol- 
lowing minor  planets: 

Temporary  Date  of 

Number  designation         Discoverer  discovery 

792  1907 — ZC       MetcaM  1907 — Mar.  20 

793  ZD       Lowell  Apr.  9 

794  1914 — ^VB       Palisa  1914 — Aug.  27 

795  VE  Palisa  Sep.  26 

796  VH  Reinmuth  Oct.  15 

797  VR  Thiele  Nov.  17 

798  VT  Wolf  Nov.  21 

799  1915— WO       Reinmuth        1915 — Mar.  9 


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ATHLETICS 


Temporary 

Dat9of 

Number 

deeiffruUion 

Dieeoverer 

diseovery 

eoo 

WP 

Wolf 

Mar.  20 

801 

WQ 

Wolf 

Mar.  20 

802 

WR 

Wolf 

Mar.  20 

808 

WS 

Paliaa 

Mar.  21 

804 

WT 

Comas  Soli 

Mar.  20 

%05 

WW 

Wolf 

Apr.  17 

806 

wx 

Wolf 

Apr.  18 

807 

WY 

Wolf 

Apr.  18 

Other  identifications  were  as  followB:  1914 
VS  =  400  Veritas;   1915  XO  =  468  Lina. 

OoMETS.  Three  comets  of  short  period — 
Winnecke's,  Tempel's  Second,  and  Swift's — 
were  due  to  reappear  in  1915.  The  first  two 
were  observed,  and  were  designated  1915b  and 
1916c,  respectively.  Winnecke's  comet,  orig- 
inally discovered  by  Pons  in  1819  and  redis- 
covered by  Winnecke  in  1858,  has  a  period  of 
5.89  years,  and  since  its  rediscovery  has  been 
observed  at  every  return  except  those  of  1863, 
1880,  and  1903.  It  was  detected  by  Thiele  at 
Bergedorf  on  April  4  as  an  object  of  the  six- 
teenth magnitude.  Its  perihelion  passage  oc- 
curred on  September  1.  Comet  Tempel  II  was 
discovered  by  Tempel  at  Milan  in  1873.  Its 
period  is  6.28  years.  It  was  seen  again  in 
1878,  1894,  1899,  and  1904,  but  was  not  de- 
tected in  1883,  1889,  or  1010  on  account  of  its 
unfavorable  position  at  each  of  these  returns. 
Its  return  this  year  was  first  observed  by  Dela- 
van  at  La  Plata  on  May  16.  It  passed  througli 
perihelion  on  April  13.  The  comet  discovered 
by  Swift  in  1889,  with  a  period  of  about  9 
years,  was  due  to  make  its  third  reappearance, 
but  as  it  had  not  been  seen  since  its  discov- 
ery, it  was  scarcely  expected  that  it  would  be 
found  this  year. 

Three  new  comets  were  discovered.  These 
were  designated  1915a,  191 5d,  and  19]5e,  re- 
spectively. The  first  two  were  found  by  Mel- 
lish  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  the  former  on  Feb- 
ruary 9,  the  latter  on  September  13.  Comet 
1915a  was  of  the  11th  magnitude  at  discov- 
ery, and  presented  the  appearance  of  a  circular 
nebulosity  with  vague  boundaries.  It  had  a 
very  small  nucleus  excentric  toward  the  sun, 
and  a  short  fan -shaped  tail.  About  the  end  of 
April  it  became  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
attained  its  maximum  brightness  about  the  be- 
ginning of  June.  In  May  disintegration  ap- 
parently set  in,  subsidiary  nuclei  being  thrown 
off  by  the  principal  nucleus.  Perihelion  pas- 
sage took  place  on  July  25,  its  distance  then 
being  110,000,000  miles.  It  was  nearest  to  the 
earth  about  October  26,  when  it  was  at  a  dis- 
tance of  47,000,000  miles.  Comet  1915d  passed 
through  perihelion  on  October  13.  Comet 
1915e  was  discovered  by  Taylor  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  on  December  2,  but  details  con- 
cerning its  magnitude,  etc.,  were  lacking  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  An  object  discovered  at  Har- 
vard University  by  Miss  Leavitt  in  February, 
and  at  first  announced  as  Metcalf's  comet, 
proved  to  be  the  minor   planet  393  Lampetia. 

Other  Events.  The  Bruce  Gold  Medal  of 
the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific  was 
awarded  to  Prof.  W.  W.  Campbell,  director  of 
the  Lick  observatory,  for  his  distinguished 
services  to  astronomy;  and  Prof.  Joel  Stebbins, 
of  the  University  of  Illinois,  was  the  recipient 
of  the  Draper  Medal  of  the  National  Academy 
of   Sciences. 

Books.  Among  the  more  important  books  on 
astronomy  published  during  1915  may  be  men- 


tioned: Tyckonis  Brake  Dani  Opera  Omnia, 
vol.  ii,  edited  by  J.  L.  E.  Dreyer;  and  W.  V. 
Ball,  Reminiaoences  and  Letiera  of  Sir  Robert 
Ball. 

ATHIiBTICS.  See  under  the  various  sports, 
as  Baseball,  Basketball,  Ctclino,  Biluabds 
AND  Pool,  Bowling,  Boxing,  etc. 

ATHLETICS,  Track  and  Field.  The  Euro- 
pean war  spoiled  the  year  1915  so  far  as  inter- 
national competition  on  the  track  and  field  was 
concerned.  In  the  United  States,  however,  this 
particular  branch  of  sport  thrived  and  several 
new  records  were  established. 

The  most  notable  performance  of  the  year  was 
that  of  Norman  S.  Taber,  who  once  wore  the 
colors  of  Brown  and  Oxford  universities.  Taber 
ran  the  mile  on  the  Harvard  Stadium  track  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  July  16th,  in  4  minutes, 
12%  seconds,  the  occasion  being  the  try-outs 
for  the  national  championships  held  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  at  San 
Francisco.  The  best  previous  figure  for  the  mile 
was  that  set  by  W.  G.  George,  a  professional  of 
Lillie  Bridge,  EngUnd,  on  Aug.  23,  1886. 
George's  time  was  4  minutes,  12%  seconds. 

George  H.  Goulding,  of  Toronto,  Canada,  also 
distinguished  himself  by  walking  seven  miles 
in  50  minutes,  40%  seconds,  a  new  world's  record. 
This  feat  was  performed  at  New  Brunswick,  N. 
J.,  on  October  23rd.  E.  E.  Merrill  up  to  this 
time  held  the  record,  having  covered  the  same 
distance  at  Boston,  Mass.,  on  Oct.  5,  1880,  in  54 
minutes  and  7  seconds. 

Although  Taber  and  Goulding  des(*rve  the 
highest  mention,  other  names  as  well  are  en- 
titled to  special  recognition.  W.  H.  Meanix  of 
the  Boston  A.  A.  established  a  record  for  the 
quarter-mile  low  hurdles  at  the  Harvard  Sta- 
dium in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  July  16th,  run- 
ning the  distance  in  54%  seconds. 

Fred  W.  Kelly  of  the  University  of  Southern 
California,  tied  the  record  for  the  220-yard  low 
hurdles,  24%  seconds.  Thomas  J.  Halpin  of 
the  Boston  A.  A.  set  a  new  mark  of  1  minute, 
13%  seconds  for  the  600-yard  run  at  the  indoor 
national  championships  held  at  Madison  Square 
Garden,  New  York,  on  March  2nd.  Alvah  T. 
Meyer  of  the  Irish-American  A.  C.  at  the  same 
time  and  place  ran  300  yards  in  32%  seconds. 

The  efforts  of  the  officials  of  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  to  remove  from  its  ranks  those 
who  commercialized  their  athletic  skill  were 
rewarded  when  Abel  R.  Kiviat  of  the  Irish- 
American  Athletic  Club,  New  York,  and  Harry 
J.  Smith  of  the  Bronx  Church  House,  New 
York,  were  convicted  on  charges  of  professional- 
ism and  disbarred  from  amateur  competition 
for  all  time. 

The  National  A.  A.  U.  senior  championships 
were  contested  at  San  Francisco  on  August  7th, 
during  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition.  The 
Olympic  Club  of  San  Francisco  won  the  team 
championship  ^dth  a  score  of  30.  The  Irish- 
American  A.  C.  of  New  York  City  finished  sec- 
ond with  24  and  the  Illinois  A.  C.  of  Chicago 
third  with  21. 

Other  clubs  to  score  points  were:  Chicago 
A.  A.  17;  Boston  A.  A.  16;  Kansas  City  A.  C. 
13;  University  of  Wisconsin  11;  Los  Angeles 
A.  C.  10;  Multnomah  A.  C.  10;  New  York  A.  C. 
9;  l^niversity  of  Chicago  7;  Salem-Crescent  A. 
C.  7;  Mohawk  A.  C.  5;  Meadowbrook  Club  5; 
I'oiversity  of  Missouri  4;  Caledonian  Club  4; 
Boston  Irish- American  A.  C.  3;  Brigham  Youn^ 


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ATHLBTICS  01 

UniverBity  3;  Notre  Dame  University  3;  Long 
Island  A.*  C.  3;  Young  Men*8  Gymnastic  Club 
2;  Millrose  A.  A.  1. 

In  the  junior  championships  also  held  at  San 
Francisco,  the  Olympic  Club  was  again  a  vic- 
tor, scoring  a  total  of  28  points.  The  Chicago 
A.  A.  was  second  with  27  points  and  the  I^s 
Angeles  A.  C.  third  with  24.  Other  scores 
were:  New  Orleans  Association  21;  New  York 
A.  C.  14;  University  of  Notre  Dame  11;  Cale- 
donian Club  10;  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce 10;  Denver  A.  C.  8;  Brigham  Young  Uni- 
versity 8;  Multnomah  A.  C.  6;  Salem-Crescent 
A.  C.  5;  University  of  Chicago  6;  Rock  Island 
High  School  5;  Illinois  A.  C.  4;  Millrose  A.  A. 
3;  Pittsburgh  A.  C.  2;  Mississippi  Agricultural 
Club  1. 

The  fortieth  annual  track  and  field  meet  of 
the  Intercollegiate  Association  of  Amateur 
Athletes  of  America  was  held  at  Franklin 
Field,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  on  May  28th  and 
29th.  Cornell  won  the  championship  with  a 
total  point  score  of  45%.  Harvard  finished 
second  with  26  and  Yale  third  with  25.  The 
standing  of  the  other  colleges  was:  Pennsyl- 
vania 21;  Princeton  21;  Dartmouth  14;  Michi- 
gan 14;  Columbia  10;  Maine  9;  Penn  State  6; 
Johns  Hopkins  1%;  Massachusetts  School  of 
Technology  1 ;  Bowdoin  1. 

The  University  of  Wisconsin  won  the  annual 
games  of  the  conference  colleges  of  the  Middle 
West  with  a  total  of  38  points.  Chicago  was 
second  with  37  and  Missouri  third  with  21. 
Other  scores  were:  Illinois  18;  Notre  Dame 
11;  De  Pauw  9;  Northwestern  7;  Lake  Forest 
5;  Minnesota  4;  Coe  3^;  Ames  3;  Ohio  State 
3;  Iowa  2^;  Kansas  1;  South  Dakota  1. 

Madison  Square  Qarden  was  the  scene  of  the 
first  indoor  intercollegiate  championships,  Cor- 
nell making  the  best  all-round  showing  of  the 
teams  entered.  Alma  Richards  of  Cornell  set 
a  new  intercollegiate  mark  for  the  high  jump 
with  a  leap  of  6  feet  4  inches. 

In  the  college  relay  races  held  at  Philadel- 
phia, Princeton  won  the  two-mile  event,  making 
a  new  record  of  7  minutes  55%  seconds.  Other 
victors  were:  One  mile,  freshmen,  Yale;  one- 
mile,  preparatory  schools,  Mercersburg;  one- 
mile,  high  schools,  Washington  Central;  one- 
mile,  colleges,  Pennsylvania;  four-mile,  colleges, 
Cornell. 

Frederick  W.  Rubien,  secretary -treasurer  of 
the  Amateur  Athletic  Union,  made  the  follow- 
ing selections   for  All- America  athletic  teams: 

All- America  Athletic  Team — 100-yard  dash, 
Joseph  Loomis,  Chicago  A.  A.;  220-yard  dash, 
R.  F.  Morse,  Salem-Crescent  A.  C;  440-yard 
run,  J.  E.  (Ted)  Meredith,  Meadowbrook  A. 
C;  880-yard  run,  LeRoy  Campbell,  University 
of  Chicago;  1-mile  run,  Norman  S.  Taber,  Bos- 
ton A.  A.;  2-mile  run,  Joie  Ray,  Illinois  A.  C; 
5-mile  run,  Hannes  Kolehmainen,  Irish-American 
A.  C;  10-mile  run,  Hannes  Kolehmainen; 
cross-country  running,  Hannes  Kolehmainen; 
120-yard  high  hurdles,  F.  W.  Kelly,  Los  Angeles 
A.  C.;  220-yard  low  hurdles,  F.  Murray,  Olym- 
pic Club,  Sisin  Francisco;  440-yard  hurdles,  W. 
H.  Meanix,  Boston  A.  A.;  walking,  Edward 
Renz,  Mohawk  A.  C;  marathon  running,  H. 
Honohan,  New  York  A.  C;  standing  broad 
jump,  W.  H.  Taylor,  Illinois  A.  C;  running 
broad  jump,  H.  F.  Worthington,  Boston  A.  A.; 
standing  high  jump,  W.  H.  Taylor,  Illinois  A. 
C;   nmning  high  jump,  W.  M.  Oler,  Jr.,  New 


AXTSTSALIA 

York  A.  C;  three  standing  broad  jumps,  P 
Adams,  New  York  A.  C;  throwing  the  discus, 
A.  W.  Mucks,  University  of  Wisconsin;  nmning 
hop,  step  and  jump,  D.  J.  Aheam,  Illinois  A. 
C;  pole  vault,  S.  Bellah,  Multnomah  A.  C, 
Portland,  Or^.;  putting  16-pound  shot,  P.  J. 
McDonald,  Irish-American  A.  C;  putting  56* 
pound  weight  for  distance,  M.  McGrath,  Irish- 
American  A.  C;  throwing  16-pound  hammer, 
P.  Ryan,  Irish- American  A.  C;  throwing  the 
javelin,  G.  A.  Bronder,  Jr.,  Irish-American  A. 
C;  decathlon,  Alma  W.  Richards,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. 

All-America  College  Team — 100-yard  dash, 
H.  L.  Smith,  University  of  Michigan;  220-yard 
dash,  A.  £.  Ward,  University  of  Chicago;  440- 
yard  run,  J.  £.  (Ted)  Meredith,  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  880-yard  run,  LeRoy  Campbell, 
University  of  Chicago;  1-mile  run,  I.  D.  Mack- 
enzie, Princeton  University;  2-mile  run,  D.  F. 
Potter,  Cornell  University;  120-yard  high  hur- 
dles, F.  W.  Kelly,  University  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia; 220-yard  low  hurdles,  F.  Murray,  Le- 
land  Stanford  University;  running  high  jump, 
W.  M.  Oler,  Jr.,  Yale  University;  running  broiul 
jump,  H.  T.  Worthington,  Dartmouth  Univer- 
sity; pole  vault,  F.  K.  Fobs,  Cornell  University; 
putting  16-poimd  shot,  A.  W.  Mucks,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin;  throwing  16-pound  ham- 
mer, H.  P.  Bailey,  University  of  Maine;  cross- 
country running,  J.  W.  Overton,  Yale  Univer- 
sity. 

ATKINSON,  Rkv.  Edwabd.  English  scholar, 
died  March  1,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  1819; 
educated  at  Cambridge;  and  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1844.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
master  of  Clare  Collie,  Cambridge,  and  con- 
tinued to  hold  this  post  imtil  his  death.  This 
tenure  of  the  headship  of  a  college  is  ti^e  long- 
est on  record  at  Cambridge.  Although  Ih. 
Atkinson's  specialty  was  the  classics,  he  was 
also  an  excellent  German  scholar,  and  was  fa- 
miliar with  Dutch,  Italian,  and  Anglo-Saxon. 
He  was  deeply  interested  in  missionary  work, 
and  did  much  to  further  it. 

AUBEBT,  Mabie  Jaoqubs  Chablbs.  French 
admiral,  died  June  8,  1915.  He  was  born '  in 
1848,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1864.  After 
serving  in  various  capacities  until  1905,  he  was 
appointed  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  navy. 
This  appointment  he  retained  until  1909  when 
the  Clemenceau  administration  was  overthrown 
as  a  result  of  an  investigation  into  naval  short- 
comings. In  October  of  that  same  year  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  second  bat- 
talion. Two  years  later  he  became  inspector  of 
navy  training  establishments  and  shortly  after- 
wards he  returned  to  his  old  post  as  chief  of 
the  general  staff.  He  reached  the  age  limit  for 
active  service  in  1913,  but  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  in  Europe  returned  by  special  request. 
At  the  time  of  his.  death  he  held  the  rank  of 
vice-admiral. 

AUCKLAND  ISLANDS.  A  dependency  of 
New  Zealand  (q.v.). 

AUDION     LAMP.    See     Wibeless     Tblbg- 

BAPHY  AND  TKLEPHONY. 

AUBOBA  BORFiALTS.     See  Metboboloqt. 

AUSTRALIA,  Comiconwealth  of.  A  self- 
governing  dominion  of  the  British  Empire,  con- 
sisting of  six  original  states  and  two  territories. 
The  temporary  seat  of  the  Federal  government 
is  Melbourne,  in  Victoria;  the  permanent  capi- 
tal   will    be    Canberra,    founded    1913,    in    the 


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AXTSTBAXIA 


Federal    Capital   Territory,    which    lies    within 
the  State  of  New  South  Wales. 

Area  and  Population.  In  the  table  below 
are  shown  by  states  and  territories  the  esti- 
mated area  and  the  population  according  to  the 
census  of  April  3,  1911,  compared  with  the  popu- 
lation as  estimated  June  30,  1914: 


New    South    WaleB... 

Victoria     

Queensland     

South    Australia    . . .  . 
Western    Australia    . . 

Tasmania     .«.  .  . 

Northern  Territory    .  . 
Federal    Capital    Ter.. 

Commonwealth 


Square 

miles 

809,460 

87,884 

670.500 

880,070 

975,920 

26,215 

528,620 

912 


1911 

1,646,734 

1,315,551 

605.818 

408.558 

282,114 

191,211 

8.810 

1,714 


Population 


1914 

1,855,561 

1,421,985 

678,864 

488.178 

823.952 

196.758 

8,664 

2,868 


.2,974,581     4,455,005     4.921,825 


The  population  figures  are  exclusive  of  full- 
blooded  aboriginals.  Their  number  is  not 
known,  as  many  of  them  live  in  the  unexplored 
interior;  but  it  is  believed  that  they  do  not 
exceed  100,000.  Full-blooded  aboriginals  in  the 
employ  or  within  the  settlements  of  whites 
numbered  19,939  at  the  1911  census. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1911,  males  num- 
bered 2,313,035  and  females  2,141,970.  Persons 
bom  in  Australia  numbered  3,667,670;  United 
Kingdom  590,722;  other  European  countries, 
73,940;  New  Zealand,  31,868;  Asia,  36,442; 
America,  11,278;  Africa,  4958;  Polynesia,  3410; 
at  sea,  4238;  unspecified,  30,470.  Unmarried 
males  and  unmarried  females  in  1911  numbered 
1,506,877  and  1,276,666  respectively;  married, 
735,849  and  733,773;  widowed,  63,675  and  128,- 
068;  divorced,  2360  and  2140;  not  stated,  4274 
and  1323. 

By  occupation  the  population  was  thus  clas- 
sified in  1911:  professional,  91,638  males  and 
52,973  females;  domestic,  48,235  and  153,131; 
commercial,  236,499  and  50,188;  transport  and 
communication,  152,554  and  4837;  industrial, 
453,743  and  108,594;  primary  producers,  570,- 
268  and  15,880;  independent,  13,939  and  9116; 
dependents,  706,773  and  1,743,213;  unspecified, 
30,386  and  4038. 

A  feature  of  the  distribution  of  population 
in  Australia  is  the  excessive  tendency  to  ac- 
cumulate in  towns,  especially  in  the  capital 
cities.  In  1911,  the  aggregate  metropolitan 
population  (i.e.  the  population  of  the  state  capi- 
tals with  suburbs)  was  1,694,329,  or  38.05  per 
cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  Common- 
wealth; as  estimated  for  Dec.  31,  1912,  1,823,- 
900,  or  38.53  per  cent.  The  capital  of  New 
South  Wales  is  Sydney,  which  with  suburbs 
had  in  1911  629,503  inhabitants;  capital  of  Vic- 
toria, Melbourne,  588,971;  of  Queensland,  Bris- 
bane, 139,480;  of  South  Australia,  Adelaide, 
189,646;  of  Western  Australia,  Perth,  106,792; 
of  Tasmania,  Hobart,  39,937.  The  capital  of 
the  Northern  Territory  is  Darwin,  with  958 
inhabitants  in  1911.  Population  of  the  larger 
cities  and  towns  at  the  1911  census  (the  figures 
are  for  the  ''localities"  named,  in  which  case  no 
clearly  defined  boundaries  exist,  but  the  figures 
represent  the  persons  who  returned  themselves 
as  belonging  to  the  specified  localities) :  Syd- 
ney, N.  S.  W.,  107,133;  Adelaide,  S.  A.,  32,981; 
Ballarat,  Vic,  38,686;  Balmain,  N.  S.  W.,  31,- 
961;  South  Brisbane,  Qld.,  21,332;  Broken  Hill, 
N.  S.  W.,  30,953;  Brunswick,  Vic,  32,202; 
Carlton,  Vic,  27,476;  CoUingwood,  Vic,  20,254; 


02  AUSTBAXIA 

Fitzroy,  Vic,  34,141;  Footscray,  Vic,  21,933; 
Geelong,  Vic,  21,630;  Glebe,  N.  S.  W.,  21,444; 
Hawthorn,  Vic,  24,353;  Hobart,  Tas.,  27,505; 
Launceston,  Tas.,  20,937;  Leichhardt,  N.  S.  W., 
24,139;  Marrickville,  N.  S.  W.,  25,993;  Mel- 
bourne, Vic,  38,293;  South  Melbourne,  Vic,  46,- 
016;  Newtown,  N.  S.  W.,  26,427;  Paddington, 
N.  S.  W.,  24,150;  Perth,  W.  A.,  31,300;  Peters- 
ham, N.  S.  W.,  20,407;  Prahran,  Vic,  25,489; 
Redfern,  N.  S.  W.,  24,275;  Richmond,  Vic,  38,- 
559;  St.  Kilda,  Vic,  25,449;  North  Sydney,  N. 
S.  W.,  32,764;  North  Melbourne,  17,760;  Bris- 
bane, Qld.,  17,715;  Northcote,  Vic,  17,491; 
Bendigo,  Vic,  17,883;  Toowoomba,  Qld.,  16,160. 

Mean  annual  increase  of  population  in  the 
Commonwealth  from  1881  to  1886,  3.86  per 
cent;  from  1886  to  1891,  3.06;  from  1891  to 
1896,  1.86;  from  1896  to  1901,  1.49;  from  1901 
to  1906,  1.38;  from  1906  to  1911,  2.03;  1911  to 
1912,  3.44. 

Marriages,  births,  and  deaths  respectively  in 
1913:  New  South  Wales,  16,307,  52,186,  and 
19,699;  Victoria,  11,324,  35,970,  and  15,474; 
Queensland,  5655,  19,731,  and  6783;  South  Aus- 
tralia, 4094,  12,627,  and  4603;  Western  Aus- 
tralia, 2572,  9218,  and  2934;  Tasmania,  1620, 
5886,  and  2131;  Northern  Territory,  16,  52, 
and  64;  Federal  Capital  Territory,  6,  44,  and 
11;  Commonwealth,  41,594,  135,714,  and  51,- 
789.  In  1912,  marriages  numbered  42,147  (the 
highest  ever  recorded),  births  133,088,  and 
deaths  52,177. 

Arrivals  in  the  Commonwealth  in  1913,  141,- 
806;   departures,   87,131. 

Reuoion  and  Education.  The  1911  census 
made  the  following  returns  of  the  population 
classified  as  to  religion:  Christian,  4,274,414; 
non-Christian,  36,785;  indefinite,  14,673;  no  re- 
ligion, 10,016;  object  to  state,  83,003;  unspeci- 
fied, 36,114.  The  Church  of  England  had  1,710,- 
443  adherents;  Roman  Catholics  numbered  921,- 
425;  Presbyterians,  558,336;  Methodists,  547,- 
806;  Baptists,  97,074;  Congregationalists,  74,- 
046;  Lutherans,  72,395. 

Persons  of  five  years  of  age  and  upwards  in 
1911  numbered  4,019,372;  of  these,  139,749  were 
not  able  to  read,  and  95,727  were  not  recorded 
as  to  literacy. 

The  number  of  state,  or  public,  schools,  teach- 
ers, pupils  enrolled,  and  the  average  attendance 
were  as  follows  in  1912: 


SehooU     Teaehert  PupiU  Av.At. 

N.  S.  W 8,234          6.454  235,803  171.028 

Vic 2,178          5,567  209,209  154,410 

tld 2,278          2,992  95,641  77,885 

.A 768          1,473  58.278  40,838 

W.    A 536          1,189  88.184  82,959 

Tm 896             840  25,868  19,561 

N.  Ter 3                 8                    98  71 

ToUl     8,393        18,518  662,576  496,252 

In  1911,  the  enrollment  was  633,850,  and  the 

average  attendance   463,799.  Statistics  of  pri- 
vate schools  in  1912: 


Schools  Teachers  PupHs 

N.   S.   W 754  8,673  61,744 

Vic 548  1,856  56.035 

Qld 151  767  17,289 

S.  A 174  681  12,031 

W.    A 118  427  10.000 

Tas 116  360  6,983 

N.  Ter 1  2  53 

TotBl  1,862  7,766  164.085 


Av.  At. 

51.168 

45.000 

14,752 

9,43a 

8,506 

6.041 

48 

188,940 


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AUSTBAXIA 


03 


AUSTBAXIA 


In    1011,   the   enrollment    in    private   scliooU  Kingdom  in  1913  were  £47,615,561  and  £34,756,- 

was   160,794,  and  the  average  attendance   132,-  548  respectively;   New  Zealand,  £2,513,934  and 

588.  £2,356,990;    India,    £2,964,246    and    £1,355,383; 

Production.  The  estimated  value  of  the  Belgium,  £2,258,839  and  £7,465,742;  France, 
products  of  the  Commonwealth  in  1912  were  as  £625,397  and  £9,684,362;  Germany,  £4,956,834 
follows:  agricultural,  £45,754,000;  pastoral,  and  £6,873,441;  United  States,  £9,522,704  and 
£51,615,000;  dairying,  etc.,  £20,280,000;  forests  £2,631,058;  Japan,  £918,681  and  £1,429,310. 
and  fisheries,  £6,432,000;  mining,  £25,629,000;  By  proclamation  dated  Sept.  7  and  8,  1914,  the 
manufactures,  £57,022,Q00.  The  estimated  area  export  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  to  all  countries 
under  cultivation  in  1912-13  was  17,368,000  except  the  United  Kingdom  was  prohibited, 
acres,  as  compared  with  16,642,000  acres  in  Exceptions  may  be  authorized.  By  prodama- 
1911-12.  For  some  of  the  principal  crops,  the  tion  of  Nov.  12,  1914,  the  export  of  foodstuffs 
area  harvested,  in  thousands  of  hectares,  and  and  fodder  destined  to  foreign  ports  in  Europe, 
the  yield,  in  metric  tons,  are  reported  as  fol-  on  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  Black  Sea, 
lows:  other  than  those  of  France,  Russia  (excluding 
Baltic   ports),    Spain,   and   Portugal    was    pro- 

1,000  Hectares  Metric  Tons  ^^^}^^    ?«,.**"?.  ^^""^    ?**?'     ^^    *^.    °''?^'    ""^ 

1919-18  1918-14    1912-18    191814    1914-15    July  7,  1915,  the  export  of  com  and  oats  was 

Wheat    . .  2,970    8,758  2.508,357  2,812,614  678,278    prohibited,  except  imder  authorization  from  the 

Oats   354       348     285,105     269,455    minister  of  commerce  and  customs. 

Poutoei  ".•.     ^§2       ^It     lllfoll     438;oJo    W::::        communications.    Government     railway     in 

S.   cane...        34       *65  1,153,857  2,308.010    Operation  June  30,  1914,  is  shown  in  the  table 

Raw  sugar      131,338     245,871    below;  the  first  column  shows  mileage,  the  sec- 

*  Productive  and  unproductive.  ond  cost  of  construction  and  equipment  (to  the 
end  of  June,  1912),  the  third  gross  receipts,  and 

The  number  of  live  stock  Dec.  31,  1911,  and  ^^^  ^orth  working  expenses  for  the  year  ended 
Dec.   31,    1913,   is  reported  as   follows:    horses,    J«ne  30,  1914: 

2,279,027  and  2,521,983;   cattle,   11,828,954  and 

11,483,882;  sheep,  93,003,521  and  85,057,402; 
goats,  280,086  and  262,272;  swine,  1,110,721  and 
800,505;  camels,  8403  and  10,822;  ostriches, 
1939  and  1908.  The  wool  production  of  the 
Commonwealth,  stated  as  in  the  grease,  was 
648,852,000  poimds  in  1913,  as  compared  with 
726,409,000  pounds  in  1912. 

The  value  of  the  gold  production  in  1913  was 
£9,376,573.  In  1912,  the  total  mineral  produc- 
tion was  valued  at  £25,629,238,  the  shares  of 
the  states  being:  New  South  Wales,  £11,226,- 
602;  Victoria,  £2,331,294;  Queensland,  £4,175,- 
355;  South  Australia,  £584,458;  Western  Aus- 
tralia, £5,760,207;  Tasmania,  £1,493,502;  North- 
ern Territory,  £57,820.  Gold  production  in 
1912  was  valued  at  £9,879,928;  coal,  £4,418,025; 
silver-lead  bullion  and  ore,  £3,539,532;  copper, 
£3,244,550;  zinc,  £1,766,459;  tin,  £1,348,992; 
lead,  £342,762;  silver,  £336,719. 

CoMMEBGE.  Imports,  domestic  exports,  and 
total  exports  have  been  valued  as  follows: 


Expenses 

£5.409,820 
8.885,964 
2,898,895 
1.546,700 
1,572,008 
222.718 
16,666 

ToUl  18,226  £160.557,160  £21,976,072  £14.996,266 
*To  June  80,  1912.  t  To  June  80,  1918. 


MUes 

COTWt.t 

ReeeipU 

N.  S.  W, 

8,967 

£55,514,908 

£7,742,241 

Vic.     ... 

8,747 

45,886,573 

5,560,958 

n.:: 

4,718 

27,751,227 

8,680,561 

*2,168 

14,927,649 

2,889,200 

W.    A.    . 

2,967 

18,283,099 

2,257,011 

Tns.     . . . 

519 

4,258,013 

880,168 

N.    Ter.. 

*145 

1,040,702 

*15,983 

Imports 

1910      £60,014,851 

1911      66,967.488 

1912      78,158.600 

1913      79,749,653 

1914     78,945,664 


Exports 
Domestic  Total 
£71,836,195  £74,491.150 
76,205,210  79,482,258 
76,961,563  79,096,090 
75,138,147  78,571,769 
67,575,682 


Leading  imports  in  1913,  in  thousands  of 
pounds  sterling:  metal  manufactures,  11,782; 
cotton  and  linen  goods,  4574;  woolen  goods, 
2146;  silk  goods,  1884;  hats  and  caps,  etc., 
644;  boots  and  shoes,  665;  other  apparel,  4477; 
timber,  2942;  drugs,  chemicals,  etc.,  2493; 
paper,  1997;  spirits,  1375;  arms  and  explosives, 
953.  Principal  exports  in  1913,  in  thousands  of 
pounds  sterling:  wool,  26,277;  hides  and  skins, 
5546;  wheat,  7987;  butter,  3565:  beef,  2652: 
gold  specie,  2093;  gold  bullion,  972;  gold  in 
matte,  404;  copper  matte,  ingots,  ore,  and  bars, 
2972;  tallow,  2163;  lead,  1848;  timber,  1002; 
zinc  concentrates,  2243;  tinned  meat,  1085; 
mutton,  1993;  flour,  1864;  tin  ingots,  690. 

Imports    from    and    exports    to    the    United 


Private  railways  in  the  Commonwealth  in 
1913  aggregated  1812  miles,  of  which  only  960 
miles  were  open  to  general  traffic. 

In  a  debate  on  the  Kalgoorlie  to  Port  Augusta 
Railway  Loan  Bill,  the  minister  for  home  af- 
fairs stated  that  the  Kast  to  West  transcon- 
tinental line  would  be  open  for  traffic  by  the 
end  of  1916.  Up  to  July  17th,  between  700  and 
800  miles  of  track  had  been  laid  out  of  a  total 
of  1053  miles,  and  it  was  expected  that  the  line 
would  be  finished  by  the  end  of  1916.  Rails 
weighing  80  pounds  per  yard  were  used,  and 
the  scheme  allowed  for  a  speed  of  30  miles  per 
hour.  In  addition  to  the  East  to  West  and  the 
North  to  South  transcontinental  railways  there 
was  also  discussion  during  the  year  of  a  pro- 
posal to  build  a  long  line  of  railway  from  a 
point  in  South  Australia  through  a  portion  of 
New  South  Wales  and  on  to  Queensland,  chiefly 
for  strategic  and  developmental  purposes.  This 
was  discussed  in  a  conference  of  premiers  of  the 
Australian  states,  and  it  was  decided  to  hold  a 
conference  between  the  military  advisers  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  the  railway  commissioners 
of  the  states. 

From  the  standpoint  of  defense  as  well  as 
from  considerations  of  railway  development  the 
question  of  the  unification  of  the  railway  gauges 
of  Australia  was  an  important  consideration  in 
1915.  At  a  conference  of  state  premiers,  held 
to  consider  this  subject,  it  was  decided  that  a 
commission  of  two  railway  experts  of  high  repu- 
tation, preferably  from  outside  Australia, 
should   be   appointed    to    consider    this    matter 


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from  all  points  of  view.  These  commissioners 
would  be  asked  to  advise  upon  the  need  of  a 
uniform  gauge,  the  most  suitable  gauge  in  view 
of  the  present  circumstances  and  future  pros- 
pects, the  best  method  of  carrying  out  unifica- 
tion, the  benefits  that  will  accrue  to  the  states, 
and  the  probable  cost.  An  interesting  feature 
of  the  proposal  was  that  one  expert  2iould  be 
brought  from  the  United  States  and  one  from 
Great  Britain. 

Finance.  Commonwealth  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure, respectively,  have  been  as  follows: 
in  1911-12,  £20,548,520  and  £20,548,520  (includ- 
ing payments  to  the  states  amounting  to 
£6,824,423);  in  1912-13,  £21,907,084  and  £21,- 
907,084  (£6,119,930);  in  1913-14,  £21,740,423 
and  £21,740,423  (£6,282,999)  ;  in  1914-15  (es- 
timate), £23,273,000  and  £36,361,314  (£6,418,- 
750).  Estimated  customs  revenue  in  1914-15, 
£11,702,000;  estimated  expenditure  for  defaise 
and  the  fleet,  £16,069,005.  On  June  30,  1913, 
the  aggregate  public  debts  of  the  states 
amounted  to  about  £277,100,000,  against  which 
there  were  sinking  funds  of  £5,700,^0. 

AsMT.  The  Commonwealth  of  Australia  nor- 
mally maintains  a  citizen  army  providing  for 
universal  training.  This  involves  a  certain  num- 
ber of  men  permanently  employed,  and  land 
forces,  which  include  senior  cadets  and  rifle 
clubs,  the  whole  bein^  embraced  in  a  comprehen- 
sive scheme  for  universal  service.  For  some 
time  after  the  federation  in  1901,  the  military 
forces  of  Australia  had  been  brought  under  a  sin- 
gle control  and  reorganized,  but  it  was  found 
difllcult  to  maintain  interest  in  recruiting,  and 
after  a  visit  of  inspection  by  Lord  Kitchener  in 
1910  a  scheme  of  compulsory  training  for  the 
military  or  naval  service,  specifically  for  home 
defense,  was  adopted.  No  man  was  to  be  sub- 
ject to  foreign  service  unless  he  voluntarily 
enlisted  therefor,  and  the  various  expeditions 
that  left  Australia  in  1914  and  1915  were  com- 
posed entirely  of  volunteers.  The  basis  of  mili- 
tary organization  of  the  Commonwealth  is  that 
the  troops  of  each  of  the  six  States  shall  be 
under  the  control  and  direction  of  a  district 
commandant  who  is  responsible  to  the  minister 
of  defense,  and  the  Military  Board  at  military 
headquarters.  Each  State  is  divided  into  train- 
ing areas,  in  each  of  which  is  an  area  oflicer,  who 
is  assisted  by  one  or  two  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers of  the  permanent  and  instructional  staff. 
This  system  of  universal  service  gradually  be- 
came popular,  and  in  but  few  cases  were  legal 
penalties  required  for  shirkers,  as  public  senti- 
ment made  evasion  of  military  duty  very  unpop- 
ular. 

In  1914  and  1915,  however,  the  great  Euro- 
pean war  required  that  Australia,  like  the  other 
British  colonies,  should  furnish  its  share  of  men, 
and  an  expeditionary  force  of  20,000  was  raised 
in  1014,  at  the  expense  entirely  of  Australia,  and 
a  further  force  of  10,000  additional  volunteers 
was  sent  soon  after.  The  first  convoy  consisted 
of  a  division  including  a  staff,  three  brigades, 
divisional  troops,  and  one  light  horse  brigade; 
and  the  second  convoy  consisted  of  line  and  com- 
munication troops,  as  refinforcement,  two  addi- 
tional light  horse  brigades,  one  additional  in- 
fantry brigade,  and  certain  volunteer  units. 
These  forces,  together  with  an  expeditionary 
force  from  New  Zealand,  left  Australia  in  No- 
vember, 1914,  and  were  disembarked  at  Cairo  for 
the    defense    of    Egypt.    There    a    large    camp, 


with  all  conveniences,  was  established  near 
the  Pyramids,  and  the  troops  went  into  an 
elaborate  course  of  training  which  included  ma- 
neuvers by  the  various  units.  At  the  end  of 
February  it  was  reported  that  39,000  troops  had 
been  sent  out,  as  follows:  Infantry,  600  officers, 
19,000  men;  cavalry,  320  officers,  70,000  men; 
artillery,  120  officers,  3400  men;  engineers,  21 
officers,  600  men;  signal  troops,  7  officers,  2100 
men;  line  of  conununication,  etc.,  1800  officers, 
4900  men.  An  offer  of  10,000  additional  troops 
to  be  sent  in  April  was  presented  to  the  British 
war  office,  and  further  reinforcements  were  con- 
templated during  the  year.  The  cost  of  Aus- 
tralia's participation  in  the  war  up  to  June  30 
was  estimated  at  $65,000,000.  Up  to  Sept.  29, 
1915,  the  Australian  defense  department  re- 
ported that  63,357  men  had  been  sent  over  seas, 
and  that  there  were  in  addition  a  like  number  in 
training. 

Government.  Australia  is  a  Federal  Com- 
monwealth within  the  British  Empire.  The  ex- 
ecutive authority  rests  in  the  sovereign  acting 
through  a  Governor-General  whom  the  sov- 
ereign appoints.  The  Governor-General  is  aided 
by  a  Federal  executive  council  of  seven  minis- 
ters and  certain  honorary  ministers.  The  legis- 
lative power  is  exercised  by  a  Federal  Parlia- 
ment of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Senators  are  36  in  number 
(six  from  each  state)  elected  for  six  years  by 
universal  suffrage.  Representatives  are  elected 
by  universal  suffrage  for  three  years.  For  the 
period  1913-16  the  House  is  composed  of  27 
members  for  New  South  Wales,  21  for  Vic- 
toria, 10  for  Queensland,  7  for  South  Australia, 
5  for  Western  Australia,  and  5  for  Tasmania. 
Governor-General  in  1915  (from  May,  1914) 
Ronald  Cranfurd  Munro-Ferguson. 

The  new  cabinet  which  was  formed  Oct. 
27,  1915,  was  constituted  as  follows:  Pre- 
mier and  attorney-general,  William  M.  Hughes; 
defense,  Pearce;  trade  and  customs,  Tudor; 
external  affairs,  Mahon;  navy,  Joisen;  home 
affairs,  O'Mallcy;  treasury,  Higgs;  postmas- 
ter-general, W^ebster;  vice-president  of  the  ex- 
ecutive council,  Gardiner;  honorary  minister, 
Russell. 

History 
Internal  Conditions.  The  most  noticeable 
fact  in  the  history  of  Australia  during  the  year 
was  the  increase  in  the  enthusiasm  with  which 
the  people  supported  the  cause  of  the  British 
Empire  in  the  war.  Ko  more  convincing  evi- 
dence of  loyalty  could  have  been  given  than  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  recruits  enlisting  for 
active  service  in  the  army  and  navy.  Further- 
more, Australia  began  to  furni^  munitions  to 
Great  Britain,  to  take  measures^  injure  Ger- 
man trade  in  the  East,  and  to  meiTQtain  an  ac- 
tive interest  and  enthusiasm  in  tVe  conflict. 
The  different  sections  of  the  cou»ry  were 
brought  closer  together  in  policy;  everywhere 
the  people  manifested  a  desire  in  onA  way  or 
another  to  be  of  service  to  the  Allies.  *i^he  de- 
pletion of  the  number  of  men  in  the  ^untry, 
caused  by  the  recruiting  for  the  war,  bought 
about  a  serious  economic  crisis.  The  Srheat 
crop,  one  of  the  mainstays  of  the  Coifmon- 
wealth,  fell  off  until  by  July  Australia  hat'  been 
compelled  to  import  1,800,000  bushels  froM  the 
rest  of  the  world  and  was  badly  in  need  o!  10,- 
000,000  additional  bushels  instead  of  the  \«ual 


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exportation  of  30,000,000  to  60,000,000  bushels. 
This  state  of  affairs  led  the  Australian  govern- 
ment to  take  every  effort  to  increase  the  wheat 
yield  per  acre  in  order  to  supply  the  mills  of 
the  country  and  the  demand  from  the  rest  of 
the  world.  The  exportation  of  great  numbers 
of  cattle  to  the  United  States  and  other  coun- 
tries also  threatened  a  serious  handicap  to  Aus- 
tralians. The  increased  demands  from  the  Al- 
lies for  food  supplies  and  the  smaller  numbers 
of  animals  than  usual  in  the  country  made  it 
imperative  that  some  action  be  taken  in  the 
matter.  The  suggestion  that  the  exportation 
of  cattle  to  any  country  other  than  England, 
France,  Russia,  or  Italy  be  prohibited  brought 
about  a  storm  of  protest  and  was  not  enacted 
into  law.  Early  in  January  the  Commonwealth 
withdrew  its  order  prohibiting  the  exportation 
of  wool  to  the  United  States.  All  exporters 
were  compelled  to  guarantee,  however,  that  this 
wool  would  not  be  reexported  after  it  reached 
America.  The  prohibition  order  was  passed 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  war  in  1914 
when  it  was  found  that  Germany  was  pur- 
chasing from  America  some  of  the  wool  which 
originally  had  been  sold  out  of  Australia.  In 
February  the  Federal  Grovernment  of  Australia, 
in  accordance  with  a  request  from  Great  Brit- 
ain, passed  a  bill  authorizing  such  measures  as 
might  be  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  all  the 
meat  obtainable  for  exportation  to  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  allied  countries  during  the  war. 
Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  government 
discouraged  the  export  of  meat  products  to 
neutral  countries.  In  September  the  Board  of 
Trade  of  London  announced  that  the  British 
government  with  the  hearty  cooperation  of  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand  had  purchased  the  en- 
tire control  of  frozen  meat  products  in  Aus- 
tralasia at  a  cost  of  $250,000,000  a  year.  Food 
prices  rose  so  high  during  the  early  part  of 
the  year  and  without  apparent  cause  that  the 
government  in  April  b^an  to  take  means  to 
prevent  a  further  increase.  It  also  went  into 
the  business  of  exporting  sheep,  hogs,  and  cat- 
tle to  the  Allies,  leaving  the  middleman  out  of 
the  transaction.  Late  in  April  reports  were 
current  that  Australia  had  expressed  its  will- 
ingness to  relieve  the  Imperial  government  of 
the  administration  of  Fiji. 

Anti-Geeman  Sentiment.  The  enthusiasm 
which  Australia  developed  for  the  cause  of  the 
Allies  brought  about  a  counter  feeling  against 
the  Germans  and  German  trade  in  the  East. 
This  anti-German  feeling  in  January  compelled 
Herman  Homberg,  for  six  years  attorney-gen- 
eral of  South  Australia,  to  resign.  In  August 
Atty.-Gen.  William  H.  Hughes  made  sensa- 
tional charges  that  German  companies  with 
ramifications  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  were  controlling  the  metal  trade  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  that  this  control  hampered 
the  output  of  munitions  and  the  prosecution  of 
the  war.  Attorney-General  Hughes  also  alleged 
that  the  Australian  metal  companies  by  not  an- 
nulling their  contracts  with  these  German  firms 
passively  assisted  the  enemies  of  Great  Britain. 
His  charges  created  a  great  sensation  in  Parlia- 
ment and  in  the  country  at  large  and  resulted 
in  the  suggestion  that  an  Australian  metal  ex- 
change be  created,  and  that  no  one  be  permit- 
ted to  purchase  Australian  metals  or  metallic 
products  unless  he  was  pro-British.  Further 
charges  were  made  that  the  American  companies 

T,  B.— » 


buying  Australian  zinc  and  copper  were  financed 
by  German  capitalists. 

Financial  Affairs.  At  the  reassembling  of 
Parliament  in  April  Prime  Minister  Arthur 
Fisher  stated  that  £3,500,000  would  be  needed 
for  extra  expenses  of  the  troops,  but  that 
tlie  Imperial  government  had  agreed  to  lend 
£6,500,000  in  addition  to  the  £18,000,000  for 
which  the  Commonwealth  was  already  indebted. 
This  made  a  debt  of  £24,500,000  and  it  was  un- 
derstood that  this  soon  would  be  increased  to 
£33,000,000.  On  July  7th  Prime  Minister 
Fisher  announced  that  a  loan  would  be  nego- 
tiated sliortly  by  the  government,  and  one  week 
later  a  bill  was .  introduced  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  calling  for  a  local  loan  of  £20,- 
000,000  at  4^  per  cent  interest.  Both  Houses 
of  Parliament  passed  the  bill  on  July  23rd. 
Prime  Minister  Fisher  stated  at  the  same  time 
that  the  war  to  the  last  of  June  had  cost  the 
Commonwealth  £3,000,000  sterling,  that  the  Im- 
perial government  had  furnished  £15,500,000  and 
would  soon  lend  an  additional  £9,000,000.  In 
August  the  premier  estimated  a  deficit  of  £50,- 
500,000  in  the  revenues  of  the  country,  of  which 
£34,000,000  would  be  met  by  various  loans.  The 
government  decided  to  impose  a  heavy  income 
tax  on  all  incomes  exceeding  $760,  and  expected 
by  means  of  this  additional  tax  to  raise  at  least 
£4,000,000. 

Australia  and  the  War.  Late  in  December, 
1914,  Australia  sent  her  second  expeditionary 
force  of  25,000  men  to  Europe  to  aid  the  cause 
of  the  Allies.  The  third  f^ce  of  20,000  men 
was  being  recruited  at  the  time  in  readiness  for 
a  call  to  the  front.  Popular  sentiment  re- 
sponded enthusiastically  to  the  demands  made 
early  in  February  by  Senator  Pearce,  minister 
for  defense,  that  all  able-bodied  men  should  en- 
list for  the  firing  line  and  that  all  others  should 
train  at  rifie  clubs  in  order  to  be  prepared  when 
called  upon.  Speakers  everywhere  advocated 
enlistment,  and  promised  that  the  government 
would  take  charge  of  the  enlistment,  training, 
and  dispatching  of  forces  to  the  front.  At  the 
opening  of  Parliament  in  April,  Prime  Minister 
Fisher  accepted  this  responsibility  on  the  part  of 
the  government  and  pleaded  for  more  recruits. 
Late  in  April  the  Australian  troops  exhibited 
especial  gallantry  and  bravery  in  attempting  the 
passage  of  the  Dardiinelles,  and  received  praise 
from  Gen.  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  and  other  generals 
leading  the  British  forces.  This  praise  had  the 
desired  effect  and  immediately  recruiting  began 
in  earnest  in  the  Commonwealth.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  Australia  would  soon  be  able  to  offer 
another  100,000  men  to  the  Allies.  Up  till  July 
the  Commonwealth  had  furnished  approximately 
100,000  troops.  Of  this  number  some  2000 
were  killed  in  the  fighting  around  the  Darda- 
nelles. In  proportion  to  its  population  Aus- 
tralia led  all  the  other  countries  in  furnishing 
relief  and  benefits  to  the  Belgians.  Late  in 
April  a  Belgian  Flag  Day  was  held  in  Mel- 
bourne, and  this  was  followed  in  May  by  a  Bel- 
gian Rose  Day  at  which  King  Albert's  birth- 
day was  celebrated.  The  proceeds  of  these  two 
entertainments  amounted  to  $80,000.  New 
South  Wales,  not  to  be  outdone,  appointed  May 
14th  as  a  Belgian  Day,  and  turned  the  state, 
particularly  the  city  of  Sydney,  into  a  great 
fair.  Almost  $500,000  was  raised  for  the  relief 
of  Belgium,  of  which  sum  Sydney  alone  con- 
tributed $100,000. 


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Munitions  fob  thb  Aixies.  In  June  the 
Australian  government  announced  that  it  would 
soon  begin  U)  turn  out  munitions  for  the  Allies. 
Senator  Pearce,  minister  for  defense,  appointed 
a  Special  Munitions  Committee  consisting  of 
Gapt.  J.  Smith  of  the  Naval  Board,  Captain 
Thring,  director  of  naval  ordnance.  Colonel 
Dangar,  chief  of  ordnance,  M.  Bell,  chemical 
adviser  of  the  Department  of  Ordnance,  and  S. 
McKay,  a  partner  in  the  Sunshine  Qarvester 
Works.  The  object  of  this  committee  was  to 
bring  about  cooperation  between  the  committees 
appointed  by  the  large  commercial  corporations 
throughout  the  country.  The  committee  also 
was  formed  to  consider  the  supply  of  munitions 
material  to  the  Commonwealth  by  the  Austra- 
lian manufacturers,  government  manufacture  of 
war  materials,  and  contracts  between  the  War 
Office  and  Australian  manufacturers.  Much  crit- 
icism had  been  directed  at  Minister  Pearce  for 
his  failure  up  till  this  time  to  aid  the  Allies  by 
the  manufacture  of  war  mimitions,  but  the  min- 
ister produced  evidence  to  show  tiiat  the  delay 
had  been  caused  by  a  misunderstanding  as  to  the 
quality  of  the  steel  and  the  size  of  the  munitions 
to  be  manufactured.  As  early  as  September, 
1914,  Australia  had  offered  to  supply  ammimi- 
tion  for  eighteen-pounders,  but  Great  Britain 
had  not  at  that  time  accepted  the  Common- 
,  wealth's  offer.  In  the  month  of  September  the 
entire  membership  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  lower  legislative  body  of  the  Federal 
Parliament,  pledged  itself  never  again  during 
the  war  to  buy  German  products. 

Cabinet  Change.  Late  in  October  the  Com- 
monwealth prime  minister,  Mr.  Andrew  Fisher, 
resigned  his  position  at  the  head  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Cabinet  in  order  to  become  Australian 
High  Commissioner  in  London.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  William  M.  Hughes,  who  con- 
tinued at  the  same  time  to  hold  his  former  posi- 
tion of  Attorney-General  in  addition  to  his  new 
position  as  Premier.  The  membership  of  the 
new  cabinet,  October  27th,  will  be  found  above, 

g'ven  under  the  section  Oovemment,  Mr. 
ughes  announced  that  his  government  would 
continue  to  support  the  mother-country  with  all 
possible  vigor. 

AXTSTBIA-HUNGABY,  or  The  Austbo- 
HuNGASiAN  MoNARGHT.  A  central  European 
monarchy,  consisting  of  the  Austrian  empire, 
the  Himgarian  kin^om,  and  the  territory  of 
Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina.  Vienna  is  the 
capital  of  Austria  and  the  permanent  residence 
of  the  sovereign;  Budapest  is  the  capital  of 
Hungarv.  In  these  cities  the  common  legisla- 
ture (the  delegations)  convenes  alternately. 

Abea  and  Population.  In  the  table  below 
are  shown  the  area  and  the  population  of  Aus- 
tria by  crown-lands,  of  Hungary  proper,  of 
Croatia  and  Slavonia,  of  Bosnia,  and  of  the 
Herzegovina.  The  population  figures  are  those 
returned  bv  the  most  recent  censuses — for  Aus- 
tria and  the  Hungarian  kingdom,  the  censuses 
of  Dec.  31,  1900,  and  Dec.  31,  1910;  for  Bosnia 
and  the  Herzegovina,  the  censuses  of  April  22, 
1895,  and  Oct.  10,  1910.  As  the  censuses  for 
Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina  did  not  coincide 
with  those  for  the  main  part  of  the  monarchy, 
the  totals  shown  below  can  be  regarded  as  only 
approximate.  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina  were 
not  annexed  until  Oct.  5,  1908;  hence,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  monarchy  as  constituted  in  1900 
was  45,405,267. 


{6  AUSTBIA-HUNaABY 

Square  Population    Population 

mUes  1900  1910 

Bohemia     20,067  6,818.697  6,769,648 

Bakowina    4,081  780,195  800.098 

CarinthU    8,987  867.824  896.200 

Garniola    8.842  508,150  525.995 

Dalmatia    4,954  598,784  645,666 

Oalicia    80,808  7,815,989  8.025.675 

05rs    and   Oradisca..      1,127  222,897  260,721 

iBtria    1,914  845.050  408,566 

Lower   Anatria 7,654  8,100,498  8.581,814 

Moravia    8.580  2,487.706  2,622,271 

Salsburg     2,762  192,768  214,737 

Sileaia    1.987  680.422  756,949 

Styria     8,658  1,856.494  1.444,157 

Tirol     10,802  852.712  946.618 

Trieat 87  178,599  229.510 

Upper  Austria 4,626  810,246  858,006 

Vorarlberg     1,006  129,287  146,408 

Anatrian   Empire    .115,882  26,150.706  28,671,984 

Hungary    109,216  16,888,255  18.264,588 

Croatia   and   SlaTonia  16.426  2,416,304  2,621.954 

Hungarian    King... 126,641  19,254.559  20,886,487 

Austria  and 

Hungary    241,478  45,405,267  49,458.421 

Bosnia     16.289  1.848.581  1,631.006 

HerxegoTina     8,529  219,511  267,088 

Civil   population 1,568.092  1,896,044 

Military 22,944  88,758 

Bos.    and   Hent..    19,768  *1.591,086  tl.981,802 

Monarehy     261,241  46.996,808  51.890,228 

*  Census  of  April   22,    1905.     f  Census  of  Oct.    10, 
1910. 


Transylvania,  with  an  area  of  22,318  square 
miles,  is  sometimes  not  regarded  as  a  part  of 
Hungary  proper,  as  so  much  of  its  population 
is  non-Magyar — ^in  1910,  the  vernacular  of  55.0 
per  cent  of  the  people  was  Rumanian  and  of  8.7 
per  cent  German;  the  total  population  of 
Transylvania  in  1900  was  2,476,998  and  in  1910, 
2,678,367.  The  1910  census  returned  the  popu- 
lation, according  to  vernacular,  of  Austria  and 
of  Hungary  proper  (including  Transylvania)  as 
follows : 


Auttria 

Hungary 

P§r 

Per 

No. 

eont 

No. 

cent 

German     9,950,266 

35.58 

1.90».857 

10.40 

Magyar    10,974 

Bohemian.  Mora- 

.04 

9.944.627 

54.60 

vian,  <Slovak    .   6,485.988 

28.02 

Slovak 

1,946.867 

10.70 

Polish    4,967,984 

17.77 

.... 

Ruthenian     8,516,854 

12.58 

464.270 

2.60 

Serbian  and 

Croatian    ....       788,834 

2.80 

656.824 

8.60 

Rumanian     276,150 

0.98 

2,948.186 

16.10 

Slovene   1,252,940 

4.48 

Italian  and 

Ladin    768,422 

2.76 

Other*     608,062 

401,412 

2.20 

Total    28,671,934 

.... 

18.264,588 

.... 

*  Including,   in  Austria,   ] 

foreigners,    of   whom 

about 

800.000  Magyars. 

The  1910  returns  for  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
not  included  above,  are:  Croatian,  1,638,854 
(62.5  per  cent);  Serbian,  644,955  (24.6);  Ger- 
man, 134,078  (5.1);  Magyar,  105,948  (4.1); 
Slovak,  21,613  (0.8);  Ruthenian,  8307  (0.3); 
Rumanian,  846;  other,  67,843  (2.6).  The  popu- 
lation of  the  monarchy  in  1910,  exclusive  of  the 
military  in  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina,  was 
51,356,465;  of  this  number,  persons  whose  ver- 
nacular was  German  were  returned  at  12,010,- 
669;  Magyar,  10,007,992;   Bohemian,  Moravian, 


Digitized  by 


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Google 


Digitized  by 


Google 


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CooqIc 


Digitized  by 


Google 


AXTSTftlA-RUKGA&Y 


or  Slovak,  8,475,292;  Croatian  or  Serbian, 
5,545,531;  Polish,  5,019,496;  Rumanian,  3,224,- 
755;  Italian  and  Ladin,  804,271;  other,  860,365 
(including  foreigners  in  Austria  to  the  number 
of  608,062)  ;  total,  51,356,465. 

The  population  according  to  religion  in  1910 
is  shown  in  the  table  below  (exclusive  of  the 
military  in  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina) :  Ro- 
man Catholics,  R.C.;  Greek  and  Armenia  Cath- 
olics, O.A.;  Orthodox  (adherents  of  the  East- 
em  Church),  Orth.;  Evangelicals  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  Auga.;  Evangelicals  of  the 
Helvetian  Confession,  Helv,;  Mohammedans, 
Moh.: 


67  ATTSTBlA-fitTirGA&Y 

Szombathely  ( Steinamanger ) ,  30,947;  Zombor, 
30,503.  The  capital  and  chief  town  of  Bosnia, 
Sarajevo,  had  in  1910  51,919  inhabitants;  Mos- 
tar,  in  the  Herzegovina,  16,392. 

Marriages,  births,  and  deaths  are  reported  as 
follows : 


B.    0.    ...22,580,169 
O.    A.    ...   8.419,458 

Orth.     667,065 

HelT 144,879 

Auga 444,807 

Jews    1,818,687 

Moh 1,446 

Other     . . .         61,428 


Hung. 
10.888,188 
2,025,425 
2,987,168 
2.621,329 
1.840,148 
982,458 

91,748 


Bot.-Hert. 

Jfonorehv 

484.061 

88.852,868 

8,186 

5,458,102 

625.418 

4,479,646 

488 

2,766,196 

5,854 

1.790,804 

11,868 

2,258.018 

612,187 

618.588 

62 

148.258 

Miurtiaof 

Austria     ...1909  218.088 

1910  214,970 

1911  217.378 

1912  212.187 

Hungary   ..1909  178.885 

1910  179,587 

1911  193,482 

1912  182.878 

BoB.Hen.     1910  20.651 

1911  20.768 

1912  16.828 
*  EzclufliTe  of  BUU-births. 


BirthM 

lAving  StiU 

941,239  28,857 

928,545  28,275 

898,702  22,243 

903,407  22,275 

776,895  16,959 

742,899  15,667 

732,767  15.149 

765,891  16,810 

77.167  176 

76,698  213 

81.994  178 


*DealK9 
646,122 
602,046 
628,806 
592.426 

626,798 
490.689 
524.496 
491.722 

61,884 
49,622 
48,416 


TdUI     .28.571,984  20,886,487   1,898.044  51.856.465 

In  Austria  in  1910,  males  numbered  14,034,- 
022,  and  females  14,537,912;  Hungary  proper, 
9,062,935  and  9,201,598;  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
1,282,398  and  1,339,556  (Hungarian  kingdom, 
10,345,333  and  10,541,154);  Bosnia  and  the 
Herzegovina  (exclusive  of  the  military,  33,758), 
994,852  and  903,192;  total,  25,374,207  and  25,- 
982,258. 

In  Austria  in  1910,  there  were  151  towns  and 
cities  with  over  10,000  inhabitants,  and  seven 
cities  with  over  100,000;  in  Hungary  proper,  85 
and  two;  in  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  seven  with 
over  10,000.  Population  of  the  larger  cities  and 
towns  of  Austria,  Dec.  31,  1910:  Vienna, 
2,031,498;  Prague,  223,741;  Lemberg,  206,113; 
Triest,  160,993  (with  district,  229,510);  Cra- 
cow, 154,141  (including  2255  inhabitants  of 
Plasz6w,  annexed  in  1912);  Graz,  151,781; 
Brfinn,  125,737;  Czernowitz,  87,113;  Pilsen,  80,- 
445;  K5nigliche  Weinberge  (Vinohrady  Kr&- 
lovskfi),  77,120;  2izkow,  72,173;  Pola,  58,562; 
Przemysl,  54,078;  Innsbruck,  53,194;  Smichow, 
51,791;  Budweis,  44,538;  Kolomea,  42,676; 
Laibach,  41,727;  Aussig  (Ustf  nad  Labem), 
39,301;  M&hrisch  Ostrau,  36,754;  Tarn6w,  36,- 
731;  Reichenberg,  36,350;  Salzburg,  36,188; 
Drohobycz,  34,665;  Tarnopol,  33,871;  Stanislau, 
33,328;  Wiener-Neustadt,  32,874;  Prossnitz, 
31,462;  G6rz,  30,995;  Stryj,  30,895;  Troppau, 
30,762;  Trient,  30,049.  Population  of  the 
larger  cities  and  towns  of  Hungary  (including 
Croatia  and  Slavonia),  Dec.  31,  1910:  Buda- 
pest, 880,371;  Szeged,  118,328;  Szabadka 
(Maria-Theresiopel),  94,610;  Debreczen,  92,- 
729;  Zftgrftb  (Agram),  79,083;  Pozsony  (Press- 
burg),  78,223;  TemesvAr,  72,555;  Kecskemet, 
66,834;  Nagy-V&rad  (Grosswardein),  64,169; 
Arad,  63,166;  H6dmez5-Vfts&rhely,  62,445; 
Kolozsvftr  (Klausenburg),  60,808;  Ujpest  (Neu- 
pest),  56,197;  Miskolcz,  51,459;  P6cs  (Fttnf- 
kirchen),  49,822;  Fiume,  99,806;  Gy(Jr  (Raab), 
44,300;  Kassa  (Kaschau),  44,211;  Brassd 
(Kroustadt),  41,056;  Nylregyhftza,  38,198; 
Sz^kesf  ehfirvftr  ( Stuhlweissenburg) ,  36,625 ; 
Kiskunf^legyhAza,  34,924;  Mak6,  34,918;  Szat- 
mar-N6meti,  34,892;  Czegl^,  33,942;  Sopron 
(Oedenburg),  33,932;  Ujvid^k  (Neusatz),  33,- 
590;  Nagyszeben  (Hermannstadt),  33,489; 
Szentes,  31,593;  Esz^k    (Esseg,  Osjek),  31,388; 


The  table  below  shows  the  emigration  from 
the  monarchy,  the  share  therein  of  Austria,  and 
the  number  bound  for  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 


Afu.-Htm.  Auatria 

1909    250.580  129,808 

1910  .....270,060  188.915 

1911    168,962  91,868 

1912    247.466  131.227 

1913    309,950  194,462 


To  V.  8, 
170,191 
258,737 
159,057 
178,882 


To  Can. 

10.916 

9.769 

12,105 

24,894 


Immigration  is  reported  as  follows:  in  1909, 
49,413;  in  1910,  47,290;  in  1911,  86,342;  in 
1912,  88,560. 

Education.  In  both  Austria  and  Hungary 
elementary  education  is  free  and  compulsory. 
In  Austria,  children  of  school  age  numbered 
4,885,504  in  1911,  and  4,947,724  in  1912.  The 
table  below  shows,  for  Austria,  comparative  edu- 
cational statistics  in  1911  and  1912:  A,  insti- 
tutions for  higher  instruction,  including  the 
universities,  technical  high  schools,  theological 
seminaries,  etc.;  B,  middle  schools,  including 
the  gymnasia,  realschulen,  etc.;  C,  special  pub- 
lic and  private  schools,  including  commercial 
and  industrial  schools,  etc.;  D,  public  and 
private  elementary  and  grammar  schools.  The 
more  important  details,  included  in  the  fore- 
going classifications,  are:  E,  universities;  F, 
technical  high  schools;  G,  theological  seminar- 
ies; H,  gymnasia  and  realgymnasia  for  boys; 
I,  gymnasia  for  girls;  J,  realschulen  and 
lyceums  for  girls;  K,  commercial  schools;  L, 
industrial  schools;  M,  agricultural  and  forestry 
schools;  N,  private  elementary  and  grammar 
schools. 


SehooU 

Teachers 

SehoUvrt 

1911 

1919 

1911 

1919 

1911 

1919 

A  . 

75 

74 

8,732 

8.844 

41.226 

42.198 

B  , 

. .   680 

708 

14,506 

15,311 

180.203 

184.818 

C  . 

,  .  5,848 

5,873 

27,886 

28,065 

404.958 

412.379 

D  , 

,  .23,226  24,582  110.607  118.353  4.633.784  4.615.508 

K  . 

8 

8 

2,069 

2.136 

25.281 

26,363 

P  . 

7 

7 

895 

952 

9,889 

9.845 

G  . 

48 

48 

829 

327 

1,928 

2,018 

H  . 

. .   292 

807 

6,704 

7.088 

96.933 

99.675 

I   , 

24 

32 

244 

375 

8.254 

4,048 

J 

146 

149 

3.480 

8.651 

47.562 

47.909 

K  . 

853 

358 

2,998 

8,264 

44.803 

48,709 

L  . 

.  .  1.757 

1,820 

12,476 

13.241 

186.516 

191.294 

M 

..   216 

217 

1.818 

1.892 

8,638 

9,069 

N  , 

.  .  1,261 

1,285 

6.921 

5.974 

148.886 

144,115 

The  teachers  and  students  respectively  at 
each  of  the  seven  government  technical  high 
schools,  in  Austria,  were  as  follows  in  the  win- 


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AUSTBIA-HUNGABY 


G8 


AUSTBIA-HUITGA&Y 


ter  Bemester  of  1913-14:  Vienna,  183  and  3177; 
Prague  (German),  86  and  900;  Prague  (Bo- 
hemian), 151  and  2817;  Graz,  54  and  817; 
Brttnn  (German),  102  and  924;  Brttnn  (Bo- 
hemian), 73  and  569;  Lemberg,  98  and  1791; 
in  addition,  the  Vienna  agricultural  high  school 
had  86  teachers  and  1135  students.  The  Aus- 
trian government  maintains  8  universities; 
teachers  and  students  in  the  winter  semester 
of  1913-14:  Vienna  (German),  666  and  10,310; 
Prague  (German),  225  and  2282;  Prague  (Bo- 
hemian), 249  and  4713;  Graz  (German),  199 
and  2203;  Innsbruck  (German),  139  and  1480; 
Czernowitz  (German),  61  and  1194;  Lemberg 
(Polish),  186  and  5871;  Cracow  (Polish),  195 
and  3344.  Of  the  total  university  students, 
about  8.5  per  cent  were  women. 

In  Hungary,  children  of  school  age  in  1912 
numbered  3,548,365.  There  were  19,521  public 
primary  schools,  with  49,150  teachers  and  2,- 
969,444  pupils.  Students  at  public  middle 
schools  numbered  86,378,  and  at  higher  city 
schools  98,125.  Training  colleges  numbered  96, 
with  1229  teachers  and  10,340  students;  gym- 
nasia, 192,  with  371  teachers  and  66,863  stu- 
dents; realschulen,  43,  with  1044  teachers  and 
14,938  students.  There  are  many  special  and 
professional  schools.  The  technical  high  school 
at  Budapest  had  169  teachers  and  1868  stu- 
dents. Ihc  Hungarian  government  maintains 
5  universities:  Budapest,  with  412  teachers 
and  6962  students  in  1912;  Z&gr&b  (Agram), 
97  and  1096;  Kolozsvftr  (Klausenburg),  137 
and  2157;  Debreczen  and  Pozsonv  (Pressburg), 
the  last  two  founded  in  1912.  Theological  sem- 
inaries numbered  47  (of  which  29  Roman  Cath- 
olic), with  a  total  of  296  professors  and  2007 
students. 

Agricultube.  The  crops  include  all  the  com- 
mon European  products,  while  among  those  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  monarchy  are  vari- 
ous sub-tropical  fruits  and  plants.  Of  the  total 
area,  arable  land  constitutes  about  35.37  per 
cent  in  Austria  and  42.82  per  cent  in  Hungary; 
gardens,  1.26  and  1.32;  vineyards,  0.74  and 
0.95;  meadows,  pastures,  etc.,  23.90  and  12.24; 
woodland,  32.63  and  27.41 ;  lakes,  marsh,  etc., 
0.35  and  0.20;  unproductive  (untaxed),  5.63 
and  5.24.  Among  the  leading  agricultural 
products  are  cereals,  potatoes,  and  other  vege- 
tables, sugar  beets,  fruits,  flax,  hops  (in  Bo- 
liemia),  tobacco  (especially  in  Hungary),  and 
hay.  Tlie  average  yield  of  wheat  during  the 
years  1905  to  1914  is  stated  at  about  16,072,- 
000  metric  quintals  in  Austria  and  46,072,000 
in  Hungary;  rye,  26,763,000  and  12,759,000; 
barley,  16,322,000  and  15,070,000;  oats,  22,828,- 
000  and  12,733,000;  corn,  3,988,000  and  45,- 
330,000;  potatoes,  132,848,000  and  52,864,000; 
sugar  beets,  63,871,000  and  30,353,000;  wine, 
4,776,000  and  4,481,000  hectolitres;  hops,  135,- 
560  and  9530  metric  quintals;  tobacco,  66,950 
and  676,350;  linseed,  236,700  and  58,000;  flax 
fibre,  349,300  and  130,600;  hemp  seed,  134,500 
and  230,900;  hemp  fibre,  176,600  and  590,000; 
rape  seed,  246,800  and  216,000;  silk  cocoons, 
2,214,000  and  1,767,000  kilograms.  Area  (in 
hectares)  and  yield  (in  metric  quintals)  as 
estimated   for  some  of  the  important  crops: 

Hectares  Quintals 

1913  1914  1918  1914 

AuHtria: 

Wheat     ....1,212.892    16,227.547    

Rj  e     4,935,425    93,451,550    


Quintals 

1914 


Hectares 

1913  1914             1913 

Barley     ...1,092.131    17,501,568    

Gate     1,904,718    26,773,770    

Corn     285,631    3,379,655    

8.  BeeU    .  .     254,689    68,629,877    

Hungary  proper: 

Wheat     ...3,115,962  8,489,724  41,190,237   34,139.144 

Rye     1,079,904  1,117,205  13,273,594  12,117.271 

barley    ....1,168,446  1,128,789  17,380.022   14,619.447 

Gate     1.166,957  1,074,729  14.487,030   13,146,071 

Corn    2,918,767    46,248,082    

S.   Beets    .  .     182,088    47,758,877    

Croatia-Slavonia : 

Wheat    800,000  ., 

Rye 66,000  . 

Barley    52,800  ., 


2.100,000 
528.000 
422.400 


Live  stock  statistics  are  shown  below,  for 
Austria  (Dee.  31,  1900,  and  Dec.  31,  1910),  for 
Hungary  proper  (Nov.  20,  1895,  and  Feb.  28, 
1911),  for  Croatia  and  Slavonia  (Dec.  31,  1895, 
and  March  24,  1911),  and  for  Bosnia  and  the 
Herzegovina  (April-May,  1895,  and  October- 
November,  1910). 


Austria 

Hungary 

1900 

1910 

1895 

1911 

Horses 

.1.716,488 

1.802.848 

2,282,028 

2,006.611 

Asses     .  . 

46.324 

52,801 

23,852 

17,830 

Mules     . 

18.499 

10,731 

1,911 

935 

Cattle    .. 

.9,511,170 

9.160,009 

5.696,905 

6.028,282 

Buffaloes 

769 

132,578 

155.192 

Sheep    .. 

.2,621.026 

2,428,101 

8,122.681 

7,696,881 

tioaU     . . 

.1.019,664 

1,256.778 

308,810 

331.383 

Swine    .. 

.4.682,654 

6,482,080 

7,330.091 

6,415,197 

Cro. 

dtSlav. 

Bos.  dt  Her*. 

1895 

1911 

1895 

1910 

Horses    . 

.    811.359 

350.036 

231.189 

221.981 

Asses    .. 

2,459 

2,254 

5,378 

6,377 

Mules     .. 

1,026 

919 

609 

393 

Cattle     . 

.    908,780 

1,184,664 

1,416,894 

1,308,930 

Buffaloes 



947 

992 

Sheep    . . 

.    595,902 

850,161 

8,280.720 

2,499,422 

Goats    .  . 

.      22,418 

95,592 

1,447,049 

1,398,068 

Swine     . 

.    882,973 

1.163,493 

662,242 

627.271 

In  Hungary  proper,  the  number  of  horses  at 
the  end  of  April,  1913,  is  stated  at  2,005,019; 
asses,  16,157;  mules,  905;  cattle,  6,045,184; 
buffaloes,  161,683;  goats,  268,752;  swine,  6,- 
824,657. 

Mining  and  Metals.  In  Austria,  the  total 
reported  value  of  mining  products  increased 
from  233,145,531  kronen  in  1905  to  315,486,476 
in  1910,  352,545,531  in  1912,  and  371,442,426 
in  1913.  Mining  products  (in  metric  quintals) 
in  1912  and  1913,  and  their  value  (in  kronen) 
in   1913,  were  as  follows: 


Metric  QuintaU 

Kronen 

1912 

1913 

1913 

Coal     

.157,978,895 

164,598,889 

172.334.415 

Lignite    

.262,836,895 

273.783,324 

149,472,143 

Iron    ore    .  . . 

.    29,266,857 

30,893,241 

28.886,641 

Lead   ore    .  . . 

279.515 

257,511 

6.133.751 

Silver  ore  ... 

217.935 

199.368 

3.865.466 

Mercury     ore . 

1,177,797 

1.306,083 

3,175.455 

Zinc  ore    .... 

346,747 

342.247 

2.072.820 

Graphite    

453,748 

494.562 

1.988,807 

Copper  ore   .  . 
Gold  ore   .... 

173,537 

163.538 

1.542,296 

301.920 

859,940 

719,880 

Total,  includ 

l- 

ing  others  453,392.880 

472,222,676 

371,442,426 

The  output  of  refined  or  prepared  salt  in 
1912  was  3,657,888  metric  quintals,  valued  at 
47,314,803  kronen;  in  1913,  3,375,629  quintals, 
valued  at  46,313,806  kronen.  The  output  of 
petroleum  (and  ozocerite)  in  Galicia  increased 
from  7,973,484  metric  quintals  in   1905  to  20,- 


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ATTSTBIA-HUNGABY  61 

884,569  in  1909,  and  then  declined  to  14,897,824 
in  1911,  and  11,458,163  in  1912  (11,441,332 
quintals  petroleum,  16,831  quintals  ozocerite) ; 
the  1911  output  was  valued  at  49,608,865 
kronen,  while  the  1912  production,  thoug^h  of 
less  quantity,  at  59,695,236  kronen  (57,234,546 
for    petroleum,    2,460,690   for   ozocerite). 

The  value  of  furnace  products  increased  from 
103,205,734  kronen  in  1905  to  143,951,194  in 
1910,  179,212,612  in  1912,  and  181,607,752  in 
1913.  These  products  in  1913  included:  raw 
iron,  17,578,642  metric  quintals,  valued  at  143,- 
457,727  kronen;  lead,  223,116  quintals,  10,706,- 
814  kronen;  zinc,  195,084  quintals,  10,366,981 
kronen;  copper,  36,845  quintals,  5,986,409 
kronen;  silver,  54,433.5  kilos,  5,264,916  kronen; 
gold,  283.587  kilos,  919,773  kronen;  blue  vitriol, 
8966  quintals,  514,970  kronen. 

In  Hungary,  the  value  of  mining  and  furnace 
products  increased  from  79,487,936  kronen  in 
1895  t6  106,743,742  in  1900,  106,173,334  in 
1905,  152,837,807  in  1910,  and  160,276,593  in 
1911;  these  figures  do  not  include  the  original 
value  of  raw  products  which  have  been  turned 
into  manufactures  whose  values  are  included. 
The  more  important  mining  and  metal  prod- 
ucts (in  metric  (juintals)  in  1910  and  1911, 
and  their  value  (m  kronen)  in  1911,  were  as 
follows  (the  original  value  of  raw  products 
which  have  been  turned  into  manufactures  is 
included)  : 

Metric  QwfUah  Kronfn 

1910  1911  1911 

Lignite     77,341,659  81,545,596  77,200,431 

Raw    iron     5.020,558  5,184,503  43.847.926 

Coal     18.021,028  12.901,822  15.480.648 

Iron  ore 19,057,488  19,502,309  13,334.330 

Gold     *3,041  *3.194  10.469.168 

Coke     1,560,480  1.451,043  4,064,000 

Iron    pyrites     924,643  967,545  987.000 

Silver     *12,547  *10.806  907,295 

Lead    20.766  15,831  502.000 

Bitamen    49,935  38.609  530,000 

Antimony    7,815  8,921  487,000 

Mercnry    900  797  819.000 

Copper     2,135  2,080  286,000 

*  Kilograma. 

The  following  values  are  reported  for  Hun- 
garian mining  and  furnace  products  in  1912: 
lignite,  80,697,000  kronen;  raw  iron,  46,447,- 
000;  coal,  16,904,000;  iron  ore,  15,379,000;  gold, 
9,354,000;   silver,   1,023,000. 

CoMMEBCE.  The  tables  below  show  the  trade 
of  the  common  customs  territory.  Imports  of 
merchandise  for  domestic  consumption,  of  total 
merchandise,  of  coin  and  bullion,  and  the  total 
imports,  in   thousands  of  kronen: 

Mdse.  Home         Total  Coin  and       Total 

Conmmp.         Mdae.  Btdlion  Imports 

1900     1,696.358  1.748,968  44,898  1,793.866 

1905     2,146,133  2.213.145  55,982  2,269.127 

1910     2,852,852  2,929,734  43.101  2,972,835 

1911     8,191,711  8,275,208  41.414  3.316,622 

1912     3.556,797  3,669,882  19.827  3,689,709 

1913     3,406.592  8,508,700  35,619  3.544.319 

Exports  of  domestic  merchandise,  of  total 
merchandise,  of  coin  and  bullion,  and  the  total 
exports,  in  thousands  of  kronen: 

Domestic  Total  Coin  and       Total 

Mdse.  Mdse.  BiUlion  Exports 

1900     1.942,003  2,061,705        66.546  2.128.251 

1905     2,243,780  2.390.722        59.533  2,450.255 

1910     2,418,606  2,587.640        80,930  2.668.570 

1911      2,404.304  2,582,560  132.915  2.715.475 

1912     2,783,855  2,926,665  178,420  3.105  085 

1913     2,769,688  2.987.534  107.278  8,094,812 


d  ATTSTBIA-HUNGABY 

In  the  special  trade,  classified  imports  and 
exports  were  valued  as  follows  in  1912  and 
1913,  in  thousands  of  kronen: 

Imports  Exports 

1912           1913  1919            1913 

Raw    mate'U.  2,006,214  1,996.629  961,820      918.875 

Partially   mfd.     574.776      498,831  511,180      527.728 

Manufactures      975,808      911.132  1.261,405   1.323.090 


Total    8,566,797  8,406.592  2,788,855  2,769,688 

In  1912  and  1913  respectively,  the  more  im- 
portant imports  of  merchandise  for  consump- 
tion were  valued  as  follows,  in  thousands  of 
kronen:  raw  cotton,  329,785  and  330,057:  coal, 
coke,  etc.,  220,905  and  262,827;  wool,  161,971 
and  141,478;  hides  and  skins,  102,254  and  115,- 
571;  silk  and  its  manufactures,  123,144  and 
114,408;  coffee,  102,020  and  93,390;  flax,  hemp, 
and  jute,  89,935  and  85,910;  corn  (maize),  105,- 
682  and  83,806;  machinery,  100,399  and  80,837; 
eggs,  66,574  and  68,518;  copper,  83,172  and  63,- 
660;  tobacco,  61,987  and  46,560;  rice,  28,351 
and  36,242.  Leading  exports  of  domestic  prod- 
uce in  1912  and  1913  respectively,  in  thousands 
of  kronen:  sugar,  254,076  and  292,880:  sawn 
timber,  164,036  and  157,094;  eggs,  144,152  and 
137,372;  rough  timber,  92,073  and  90,399;  glass 
and  glassware,  77,715  and  88,264;  lignite,  78,- 
508  and  76,425;  woolen  goods,  70,001  and  64,- 
809;  leather  gloves  and  shoes,  54,050  and  60,- 
623;  malt,  66,143  and  55,697;  cattle,  36,457  and 
44,122;  hops,  49,597  and  38,826;  barley,  45,819 
and  33,706;  metal  manufactures,  47,508  and  33,- 
593;  bed  feathers,  19,138  and  19,093;  beer  (in 
casks),  16,252  and  18,817;  fowl,  16,177  and 
15,960;  horses,  32,206  and  15,489;  coal,  12,800 
and   14,527;  beans,  19,655  and   10,868. 

The  special  trade  in  merchandise  by  principal 
countries,  in  thousands  of  kronen: 

Imports  Exports 

1912  1918  1912  1913 

Germany     ...1,405.594  1,366,781  1,212,907  1,500.640 

United  SUtes.  848,575  823.883  63,887  70.286 

British  India.  199,814  238,195  68,434  94.676 

U.    Kingdom..  245,962  217,468  257,373  269.822 

Russia    228,811  202,857  91,828  108,299 

Italy      161.662  169.047  239,899  215.591 

France     119,800  113,465  84,270  80,239 

Rumania    102,144  95.883  134.418  114.711 

Switaerland     .  91.120  78.260  117,287  111,526 

Braul     80.010  68,535  13.812  12.010 

Turkey    78.198  67,690  131,642  149.342 

Argentina     ...  47,110  48,495  21.974  22.667 

Belgium     56,456  42,068  26,186  27.362 

Egypt     86,876  34,796  31,938  88.256 

Sweden     19,540  30.299  8.994  10.295 

Netherlands     .  25.701  28,268  29,191  34,452 

Du.    E.   Indies  87,718  25,765  8,438  8.032 

Chile     22.859  28.314  2.328  1.956 

Serbia     40,771  22.736  43.029  53  284 

Greece     22,269  21.870  23,404  29.787 

Total,  includ- 
ing other  8.666,797  3.406,592  2.738,856  2,769.688 

Shipping.  There  were  entered  at  Austrian 
seaports  in  1912  167,111  vessels,  of  25.556,314 
tons;  in  1913,  173,511  vessels,  of  27,877,722 
tons  (of  which  161,088  vessels,  of  25,445,061 
tons,  Austro-Hungarian ) .  Vessels  cleared  at 
Austrian  seaports  in  1912,  167,122;  of  25,569,- 
882  tons;  in  1913,  173,377,  of  27,857,112  tons 
(of  which  161,282  vessels,  of  25,417,590  tons, 
Austro-Hungarian).  At  Hungarian  (including 
Croatian)  seaports,  there  were  entered  in  1911 
37,250  vessels,  of  4,664,645  tons;  in  1912,  33,771 
vessels,  of  4,713,886  tons.  Cleared  in  1911, 
37,210  vessels,  of  4,651,998  tons;   in   1912,  33,- 


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779,  of  4,728,424  tons.  The  principal  ports  are 
Triest  and  Fiume. 

Communications.  As  reported  for  the  be- 
ginning of  1913,  the  length  of  railway  in  op- 
eration was  46,962  kilometers  (29,181  miles), 
of  which  23,200  kilometers  were  in  Austria, 
21,806  kilometers  in  Hungary,  and  1956  kilo- 
meters in  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina.  Most  of 
the  railway  is  under  government  operation. 
In  1912,  there  were  in  Austria  47,192  kilo- 
meters of  telegraph  lines,  with  238,917  miles 
of  wire  and  7088  offices;  in  Hungary,  in  1913, 
26,388  kilometers  of  lines,  with  160,712  kilo- 
meters of  wire  and  5171  offices;  in  Bosnia  and 
the  Herzegovina,  in  1912,  3501  kilometers  of 
line,  with  10,444  kilometers  of  wire  and  382 
offices.  Post  offices  in  Austria  in  1912,  10,450; 
in  Hungary,  6610;  in  Bosnia  and  the  Herze- 
govina, 240;  in  addition  there  were  36  Austro- 
Hungarian  post  offices  in  foreign  territory. 

Finance.  The  standard  of  value  is  gold. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  krone  (crown),  whose 
par  value  is  20.263  cents.  The  cost  of  admin- 
istering the  common  affairs  of  the  monarchy 
is  borne  by  Austria  and  by  Hungary  in  a  pro- 
portion agreed  to  by  their  parliaments  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Emperor-King.  The  agree- 
ment renewed  for  10  years  in  1907  provides  that 
the  net  proceeds  of  the  common  customs  be 
applied  to  the  common  expenditure,  and  that 
the  remaining  expenditure  be  satisfied  in  the 
proportion  of  63.6  per  cent  by  Austria  and  36.4 
per  cent  by  Hungary.  The  following  table 
shows,  for  the  common  government,  net  expen- 
diture (ordinary  and  extraordinary),  net  cus- 
toms revenue,  and  the  contributions  of  Austria 
and  Hungary,  in  thousands  of  kronen: 


Expen-  Ctutoms         OontribuHon» 

dititre  Revenue  Austria   Hunffary 

1900    848,164  131,048  142.428       74,688 

1005    438.070  148,630  193,748        95,692 

1910    573,750  228.452  219.610      125,688 

1911    658.572  222,717  210.424      120.481 

1912    683,272  288.645  282.788      161.844 

1913    934.989  227.669  449.856     257.464 

1914*    782.819        97,252  486.021     249  546 

1914-15t    778.244  216.455  857,298     204.491 

*  Sanctioned  eBtimates   for  Jan.-June.    1914. 

t  Budget  estimateB  for  the  year  July,  19 14- June. 
1915. 

Below  are  shown,  for  the  common  govern- 
ment, the  avenues  of  net  expenditure,  in  thou- 
sands of  kronen  (F.  A.,  ministry  for  foreign 
affairs;  A.,  army;  N.,  navy;  F.,  ministry  of 
finance;   C,  high  court  of  accounts)  : 

F.A.  A.  N,  F.  O. 

1900    10,396  289,205  44.079  4.186  298 

1905    11,770  335.613  86,055  4,816  816 

1910    14,619  453,420  100,664  4,710  837 

1911    15.996  411.840  120,666  4,735  885 

1912    18,044  489,763  170.197  4,926  842 

1913    19,690  699.832  ?i0:i55  4,953  859 

1914*    12.413  634,221  133.525  2.478  182 

191415t     19.629  575.940  177,267  5,048  860 

* -Sanctioned  estimates  for  Jan.-June.  1914. 

t  Budget    estimates    for    the    year    July,    1914-June. 

The  revenue  and  the  expenditure  of  the  Aus- 
trian government  and  of  the  Hungarian  gov- 
ernment have  been  as  follows,  in  thousands  of 
kronen : 


Austria 
Rev.  Expend. 

1906  ...2.008,495      1,862,292 

1907  ...2,258,052     2,209,098 


Hungary 
Rev.  Expend. 

1,357.180      1,245.469 
1,395.710     1,899,478 


AuHria 

Hunffary 

Rev, 

Expend. 
2,878,894 

Rev.           Expend. 

1908 

..2,888,884 

1.581.368      1,616.245 

1909 

..2,795,708 

2.888,648 

1,750,788      1.721.564 

1910 

..2.805.492 

2,901.864 

2,074,548     1.901.666 

1911 

..8,082,782 

8,004,085 

1.880.779     1.768.849 

1912 

..8,178,809 

8,184,861 

1,964,877     2,018.261 

In  Austria,  the  budget  for  the  fiscal  year 
1914-15  showed  estimated  revenue  of  3,460,- 
987,902  kronen  (3,194,355,951  kronen  ordinary, 
266,631,951  kronen  extraordinary),  and  esti- 
mated expenditure  of  3,460,726,156  kronen  (3,- 
064,672,060  kronen  ordinary,  396,054,096  kronen 
extraordinary).  The  larger  departmental  ave- 
nues of  total  revenue  and  expenditure  were  es- 
timated as  follows: 

.   Reventu  Expend, 

Finance     2,174,422.176  1.025,551.828 

Railways     910,091.210  855.788.720 

Contributions  to  common 

gov't 587,212.870 

Commerce     256,585,460  244,268.878 

Public    Works    50.778,506  128,465.052 

Interior     2,469,187  68.279.510 

Defense     1.148.557  181,810,603 

Worship    and    Instruction      18,627,710  125.759.100 

Agriculture     27.186.786  64.659,731 

Domains,  new  buildings, 

etc 900.992  88.681,884 

Pensions     10,000.528  140.018.871 

Imperial  household 11.800,000 

Total,    including   other. 8,460,987,902     8,460,726,166 

In  Hungary,  the  budget  for  the  fiscal  year 
1914-16  showed  estimated  revenue  of  2,264,157,- 
883  kronen  (1,953,605.613  kronen  ordinary), 
and  estimated  expenditure  of  2,264,096,830 
kronen  (1,878,270,912  kronen  ordinary).  The 
larger  sources  of  estimated  ordinary  revenue 
were:  indirect  taxes,  768,214,781  kronen;  rail- 
ways, 496,000,000;  direct  taxes,  326,077,000; 
state  properties,  etc,  170,609,046;  posts  and 
telegraphs,  111,280,000.  The  larger  branches  of 
estimated  expenditure  were:  ministry  of  com- 
merce, 619,433,580  kronen;  national  debt,  262,- 
191,456;  ministry  of  finance,  285,627,567;  wor- 
ship and  public  instruction,  132,620,783. 

In  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina,  the  budget 
for  1913  showed  estimated  revenue  and  expen- 
diture of  92,997,594  kronen  and  92,987,887 
kronen,  respectively. 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  under  which 
the  union  of  Austria  and  Hungary  was  effected 
in  1867,  no  debts  are  contracted  by  the  mon- 
archy. The  total  general  debt,  contracted  be- 
fore that  date,  amounted  on  Jan.  1,  1914,  to 
5,141,254,657  kronen,  of  which  5,113,291,961 
kronen  formed  the  consolidated  debt.  On  the 
same  date,  the  Austrian  debt  was  7,467,346,388 
kronen,  of  which  7,120,210,658  kronen  formed 
the  consolidated  debt.  The  Hungarian  debt  in 
1912  amounted  to  6,592,846,069  kronen. 

Armt.     See  Military  Progress,  passim. 

Navt.  On  account  of  the  great  war,  naval 
statistics  cannot  be  given  beyond  1914.  On 
July  1  of  that  year,  about  one  month  before 
the  war  b^gan,  the  number  and  displacement 
of  warships  of  1500  or  more  tons,  and  of  tor- 
pedo craft  of  50  or  more  tons,  built  and  build- 
ing, were  as  follows:  dreadnoughts  (battleships 
having  a  main  battery  of  all  big  guns,  that  is, 
11  or  more  inches  in  caliber)  :  built,  three,  of 
60,030  tons;  building,  four,  of  93,510  tons. 
Predreadnoughts  (battleships  of  about  10,000 
or  more  tons  displacement  whose  main  batter- 
ies are  of  more  than  one  caliber) :   built,  six, 


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ATTSTRIA-HUNaABY  71 

of  74,013  tons;  building,  none.  CJoast  defense 
Teasels  (including  smaller  battle8hii>8  and  mon- 
itors) :  built,  six,  of  41,700  tons;  building,  none. 
Battle  cruisers,  none  built  or  building.  Ar- 
mored cruisers:  built,  two,  of  13,380  tons; 
building,  none.  Cruisers  (unarmored  warships 
of  1500  or  more  tons) :  built,  five,  of  13,816 
tons;  building,  five,  of  21,216  tons.  Torpedo- 
boat  destroyers:  built,  18,  of  0450  tons;  build- 
ing, none.  Torpedo  boats:  built,  30,  of  6852 
tons;  building,  24,  of  5886  tons.  Submarines: 
built,  six,  of  1686  tons;  building,  six,  of  5370 
tons.*  Total  tonnage:  built,  221,626;  building, 
125,982.  On  the  date  above  mentioned,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary held  eighth  place  among  the  na- 
tions in  amount  of  warship  tonnage  completed 
and  also  in  the  aggregate  of  tonnage  built  and 
building.  In  the  foregoing  figures,  certain  ves- 
sels are  not  included,  viz.:  ships  over  20  years 
old  from  date  of  launch  unless  reconstructed 
and  rearmed  within  five  years;  torpedo  craft 
over  16  years  old;  transports,  colliers,  repair 
ships,  torpedo-depot  ships,  and  other  auxiliar- 
ies; vessels  not  actually  begun  or  ordered,  al- 
though authorized.    See  also  Naval  Pbogbess. 

GovERNHEiTT.  The  .  administration  of  the 
monarchy  is  directed  by  the  Emperor-King,  act- 
ing through  three  ministries,  for  foreign  affairs, 
finance,  and  war.  The  admiralty  is  a  depart- 
ment of  the  war  ministry.  The  common  gov- 
ernment deals  with  finance  relating  to  the  mon- 
archy as  a  whole,  foreign  affairs,  the  diplo- 
matic, consular,  postal,  and  telegraphic  serv- 
ices, and  certain  state  monopolies.  The  minis- 
ters are  responsible  to  the  two  delegations. 
These  bodies,  consisting  of  60  members  each, 
are  elected  by  the  Austrian  and  Hungarian 
parliaments  respectively;  they  convene  each 
year,  alternately  at  Vienna  and  Budapest.  The 
delegations  examine  the  requirements  of  the 
common  services  of  the  monarchy  and  advise 
the  parliaments  as  to  necessary  appropriations. 
Austria  and  Hungary  have  each  a  representa- 
tive parliament  of  two  houses  and  a  responsible 
ministry.  Each  of  the  Austrian  crownlands 
has  a  diet,  and  there  is  also  a  diet  for  Croatia 
and  Slavonia.  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina 
are  administered  under  the  (common)  ministry 
of  finance. 

The  sovereign  in  1916  was  Franz  Joseph  I, 
who  was  bom  Aug.  18,  1830.    He  became  Em- 

gsror  of  Austria  Dec.  2,  1848,  and  King  of 
ungary  Jime  8,  1867.  The  heir  presumptive 
was  the  Archduke  Karl  Franz  Joseph,  born 
Aug.  17,  1887,  son  of  the  late  Archduke  Otho 
Franz  Joseph  and  nephew  of  the  Emperor.  The 
former  heir  presumptive  was  the  Archduke 
Franz  Ferdinand,  son  of  the  late  Archduke 
Karl  Ludwig  and  nephew  of  the  Emperor; 
Franz  Ferdinand  and  his  wife,  the  Duchess 
of  Hohenburg  (Countess  Chotek),  were  as- 
sassinated at  Sarajevo,  Bosnia,  Jime  28, 
1914. 

The  common  ministry  in  1916:  Premier  and 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  Stephan  (Baron) 
Burifln  von  Rajescz  (appointed  Jan.  14,  1915) ; 
finance.  Dr.  Leon  von  Bilinski  (later  Dr.  von 
Koerber) ;  war.  Gen.  Alexander  (Ritter)  von 
Krobatin  (appointed  Dec.  10,  1912).  Comman- 
dant of  the  navy,  Admiral  Anton  Haas  (ap- 
pointed February,  1913).  Premier  of  the  Aus- 
trian ministry,  Karl  (Count)  StUrghk  (Nov.  3, 
1911) ;  premier  of  the  Hungarian  ministry, 
Stephan    (Count)    Tisza    (June   10,   1913). 


ATTST&IA-HUNaABY 

HiSTOBT 


Cabinet  Changes.  An  official  communique, 
issued  January  13,  announced  the  resignation 
of  Count  Leopold  von  Berchtold  from  the  min- 
istry of  foreign  affairs  and  the  appointment  of 
Baron  Stephan  Buriftn  von  Rajescz  to  succeed 
him.  As  Count  Berchtold's  resignation  oc- 
curred just  at  the  time  when  the  Triple  En- 
tente appeared  to  be  on  the  eve  of  winning  the 
active  cooperation  of  Greece  and  Rumania,  the 
dismissal  of  Count  Berchtold  was  in  some  quar- 
ters, particularly  in  the  press  of  France  and 
Great  Britain,  interpreted  as  a  sign  that  Aus- 
tro-Himgarian  diplomacy  in  the  Balkans  had 
failed  and  that  Count  Berchtold  was  blamed  by 
the  Emperor  for  the  failure.  In  accordance 
with  this  view,  the  selection  of  Baron  Buriftn 
as  the  new  foreign  minister  was  attributed  to 
the  fact  that  Baron  Buri&n  had  gained  valuable 
experience  in  dealing  with  Balkan  races  during 
his  service  as  chief  of  the  administration  in 
Bosnia-Herzegovina,  the  Serb  province  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, and  was  considered  to  be  espe- 
cially conversant  with  Balkan  affairs.  In  other 
quarters  the  supersession  of  Count  Berchtold 
was  ascribed  to  a  lack  of  harmony  between 
Count  Berchtold  and  Count  Tisza,  the  Hun- 
garian premier;  the  new  foreign  minister,  it 
was  pointed  out,  was  the  son  of  a  former  Hun- 
garian premier,  and  was  himself  Hungarian 
minister  to  the  Royal  Court;  hence  the  appoint- 
ment of  Baron  Burifin  would  be  extraordinarily 
gratifying  to  the  Hungarian  element  in  the 
Dual  Monarchy.  In  passing,  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  immediately  after  Count  Berch- 
told's  resignation,  the  Emperor  paid  high  tri- 
bute to  Count  Berchtold's  work  and  conferred 
upon  him  the  brilliants  of  the  Grand  Cross  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Stephen.  The  new  foreign  min- 
ister announced  that  he  would  continue  the  pol- 
icy of  his  predecessor,  and  as  far  as  the  public 
could  discern,  fulfilled  the  promise.  The  soli- 
darity of  Austria-Hungry  and  Germany  was 
affirmed  by  a  visit  which  Baron  Buriftn  made 
to  Berlin,  shortly  after  his  appointment,  and 
the  conference  he  there  held  with  the  German 
government.  As  far  as  the  Balkan  policy  of 
Austria-Hungary  was  concerned,  it  soon  ap- 
peared that  the  success  of  the  Entente  in  the 
Balkans  had  been  exaggerated;  Rumania  and 
Greece  remained  neutral,  and  presently  Bul- 
garia joined  the  Central  Powers  (see  separate 
articles  on  Balkan  States) ;  there  is  no  reason, 
however,  to  ascribe  the  credit  for  the  altered 
situation  to  the  personal  work  of  Baron  BuriAn, 
when  other  circumstances,  such  as  the  Anglo- 
French  failure  at  the  Dardanelles,  may  be  ad- 
duced in  explanation  of  the  Entente's  diplo- 
matic failure.  Early  in  February  another  cab- 
inet change  occurred,  when  the  finance  minis- 
ter in  the  common  ministry  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Dr.  Leon  (Ritter)  von  Bilinski,  was  re- 
placed by  Dr.  Ernest  von  Koerber.  The  ap- 
pointment received  favorable  comment  in  the 
Austrian  press,  as  Dr.  von  Koerber  was  regarded 
as  an  exceedingly  able  financier,  who  would  suc- 
cessfully pilot  uie  Dual  Monarchy  through  the 
financiiu  troubles  of  war-time.  In  the  Austrian 
cabinet  an  important  change  was  made  at  the 
beginning  of  December.  Three  ministers — Dr. 
Karl  (Baron)  Heinhold  von  Udynski,  Dr.  Ru- 
dolf Schuster  (Edler)  von  Bonnot,  and  Baron 
August  Engel  von  Mainfelden — ^resigned  their 
portfolios,  and  were  succeeded  respectively  by 


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AUSTRIA-HUNaABY  72 

Prince  Hohenlohe  Schillingfuerst  (minister  of 
the  interior),  Hitter  von  Leth  (finance),  and 
Herr  von  Snitzmttller  (commerce).  The  change 
was  regarded  as  highly  significant,  because  it 
proved  that  Austria's  internal  condition,  and 
above  all  her  economic  situation,  was  sufficiently 
unsatisfactory  to  warrant  a  remodeling  of  the 
cabinet. 

Economic  Conditions  and  Rumors  of  Dis- 
content. As  a  result  of  the  war's  interfer- 
ence with  industry  and  commerce,  a  grave  eco- 
nomic situation  arose  within  the  Dual  Monar- 
chy. The  shortage  of  grain  in  Austria,  the 
scarcity  of  meat,  and  the  enormous  rise  in  food- 
prices  caused  severe  hardship  among  the  work- 
ing classes.  The  gravity  of  the  situation  was 
grossly  exaggerated  by  mendacious  news  items, 
emanating  chiefly  from  Rome,  Venice,  and  Ge- 
neva, which  described  bread  riots  in  Vienna, 
conflicts  between  angry  mobs  and  the  mounted 
police,  and  other  manifestations  of  popular  un- 
rest, with  a  wealth  of  picturesque  detail. 
While  most  of  such  reports  were  absolutely 
without  foundation,  it  could  not  be  denied  that 
the  food  question  was  serious.  In  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Austrian  cabinet,  and  in  the  col- 
umns of  Vienna  newspapers,  the  supply  and 
price  of  food  were  continually  discussed.  A 
full  explanation  of  the  measures  which  had 
been  taken  to  control  the  situation  was  vouch- 
safed by  the  ministry  on  January  27th  in  reply 
to  the  questions  put  by  a  delegation  of  the 
Austrian  Herrenhaus.  Dr.  von  Schuster,  the 
minister  of  commerce,  explained  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  taking  steps  toward  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  official  grain-purchasing  society, 
which  would  amount  to  the  same  thing  as  a 
government  monopoly  of  grain;  measures  were 
also  being  taken  to  restrict  the  consumption  of 
grain;  in  the  near  future  the  government  in- 
tended to  forbid  the  use  of  fine  wheat  flour 
without  the  admixture  of  coarser  meal;  the  use 
of  flour  for  pastry  would  be  curtailed;  and  the 
employment  of  foodstuffs  for  the  manufacture 
of  alcoholic  beverages  would  be  strictly  regu- 
lated. In  the  course  of  the  same  conference. 
Dr.  von  Zenker,  the  minister  of  agriculture, 
categorically  denied  that  the  supply  of  flour 
would  be  exhausted.  The  army  had  supplies  to 
last  at  least  to  August  31,  1915,  and  the  bounti- 
ful crop  of  maize  would  reassure  the  most  timid 
patriot  that  Austria's  food  supply  would  be 
amply  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  her  popula- 
tion. The  cliief  question  was  one  of  distribu- 
tion. Tlie  only  real  shortage  of  provisions 
would  fall  upon  horses  and  cattle,  rather  than 
upon  the  people.  "The  fact  must  not  be  over- 
looked," said  Dr.  von  Zenker,  "that  a  very  ap- 
preciable scarcity  of  fodder  materials  might 
arise,  since  considerable  quantities  of  barW 
and  maize  are  now  demanded  for  human  con- 
sumption which  formerly  were  employed  for 
fodder.  ...  In  this  connection  special  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  possibility  of  using  raw 
sugar  for  feeding  cattle  and  the  measures  which 
have  been  introduced  for  the  augmentation  of 
the  molasses  supply."  In  spite  of  the  govern- 
ment's energetic  action  in  the  question  of  the 
food  supply,  many  complaints  were  heard  be- 
cause the  more  drastic  measures  which  the  Ger- 
man government  had  adopted  were  not  imi- 
tated in  Austria.  The  Austrian  government 
had,  to  be  sure,  suspended  the  duties  on  grain, 
fixed  maximum  prices,  and  attempted  in  some 


AUSTBIA-HUNaABY 

slight  measure  to  restrict  the  consumption  of 
grain;  but  these  measures  were  not  enough. 
The  cost  of  living  continued  to  soar.  At  last, 
on  February  24th,  the  government  replied  to  its 
critics  by  publishing  a  decree  for  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  grain  and  flour  supply,  ordering  an 
official  inventory  of  the  supply  of  grain  and 
flour  on  hand,  and  contemplating  complete 
government  regulation  of  the  distribution  of 
grain.  Shortly  afterwards  the  amount  of  flour 
which  each  individual  might  consume  was  defi- 
nitely limited,  and  each  person  was  give/i  a 
card  which  must  be  punched  for  every  oiuice 
of  fiour  consumed  by  him.  These  measures,  to- 
gether with  the  harvesting  of  a  bountiful  crop 
and  the  arrangements  which  were  effected  for 
the  purchase  of  Rumanian  grain,  materially  re- 
lieved the  situation.  Another  aspect  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary's economic  condition  was  the  dif- 
ficulty with  which  the  war  loans  were  raised. 
In  January  it  was  announced  that  the  sub- 
scriptions to  the  war  loan  amounted  to  $670,- 
000,000,  of  which  amount  $433,000,000  had  been 
contributed  by  Austrian  investors,  and  $237,- 
000,000  by  Hungarian.  Six  months  later  the 
total  subscriptions  to  the  second  Austrian  war 
loan  were  reported  as  amounting  to  $530,000,- 
000.  According  to  oft-repeated  assertions  from 
Italian  and  Swiss  sources,  these  subscriptions 
were  secured  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty. 
Powerful  pressure  had  to  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  investors.  Such  reports  were  by  their 
very  nature  impossible  to  verify,  but  at  least 
it  is  certain  that  in  order  to  bring  the  sub- 
scriptions up  to  the  above-mentioned  totals,  the 
most  strenuous  and  unflagging  efforts  were 
made  by  the  Austrian  newspapers  to  impress 
the  investing  public  with  a  proper  realization 
of  its  patriotic  duty. 

The  reported  lack  of  enthusiasm  in  the  re- 
ception of  the  Austrian  war  loans,  combined 
with  the  rumors  of  bread  riots,  convinced  many 
observers  and  a  very  large  section  of  the  press 
outside  of  Austria-Hungary  that  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy was  suffering  from  internal  exhaustion 
and  would  speedily  collapse.  Premature  reports 
that  Austria-Hungary  was  being  compelled  to 
send  middle-aged  men  and  mere  striplings  to 
the  front,  to  take  the  place  of  the  millions  of 
soldiers  killed  or  captured  by  the  Russians,  lent 
added  certainty  to  this  conviction.  A  con- 
tagion of  cholera  was  reported  to  be  raging  in 
the  military  camps.  Dispatches  from  Rome  de- 
scribed lurid  scenes  of  mob  violence,  the  erec- 
tion of  barricades  by  the  rebellious  populace  of 
Vienna,  and  crowds  shouting  "Down  with  War!" 
From  Rome  also  came  the  statement  that  300 
peace  meetings  had  been  arranged  for  Janu- 
ary 24  and  prohibited  by  the  Austro-Hungarian 
government.  From  correspondents  in  Geneva, 
Paris  learned  that  rioting  was  frequent  in  the 
Slavic  provinces  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  order  for  the  mobilization  of  the 
last  line  reserves.  A  Zurich  dispatch  an- 
nounced that  Joseph  Kotek,  a  leading  Czech 
journalist,  had  been  executed  for  treason 
against  the  Austro-Hungarian  government.  An 
eminent  English  historian,  Mr.  George  Macau- 
lay  Trevelyan,  informed  the  British  public  that 
the  Austro-Hungarian  authorities  were  employ- 
ing the  most  cruel  and  despotic  methods  to 
prevent  rebellion  among  the  Slavic  peoples  of 
the  monarchy.  Young  men,  incorporated  in  the 
army   against   their    will,    were   deterred   from 


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AUSTBIA-HUNaABY 

deserting  or  rebelling  by  the  fear  that  their  fam- 
ilies would  be  visited  with  cruel  and  unjust 
punishment.  Hundreds  of  leading  citizens,  in- 
cluding many  Roman  Catholic  priests,  had  been 
cast  into  prison,  said  Mr.  Trevelyan,  lest  they 
should  stir  up  the  people  to  revolt. 

The  Loyalty  of  Hungaby.  One  of  the  most 
frequently  repeated  rumors  of  discontent  in  the 
Dual  Monarchy  concerned  public  sentiment  in 
Hungary.  The  Magyars,  it  was  suggested,  were 
anxious  for  peace  and  bitterly  hostile  to  Aus- 
tria. The  subordinate  Slavic  races  of  Hungary 
were  in  a  ferment  of  nationalist  agitation. 
Quite  a  different  impression  is  gained  from  the 
public  declarations  of  the  Hungarian  premier. 
Count  Tisza,  and  from  the  records  of  the 
speeches  in  the  Hungarian  Parliament  during 
the  year.  In  a  speech  at  Budapest,  January 
31,  Count  Tisza  declared  that  the  war  had 
strikingly  demonstrated  the  fundamental  soli- 
darity of  the  races  within  the  Dual  Monarchy. 
'^Antagonism  and  divergence  of  opinions,"  he 
believ^,  "among  the  peoples  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy  have  disappeared.''  When 
the  Hungarian  Parliament  met  for  its  second 
war  session,  April  19,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives enthusiastically  applauded  the  opening  ad- 
dress of  its  president,  Herr  von  Beothy,  in 
which  the  confident  determination  to  win  the 
war  was  expressed.  Tlie  following  day,  April 
20,  Herr  von  Beothy  again  evoked  ringing  ap- 
plause by  reading  a  telegram  from  the  com- 
mander-in-chief. Field  Marshal  Archduke  Fred- 
erick, praising  the  gallantry  of  the  troops,  and 
declaring  that  the  army  was  determined  to 
fight  '^until  our  enemies  are  completely  de- 
feated and  happy  peace  is  achieved."  When 
a  bill  to  extend  the  age-limits  during  which 
citizens  might  be  called  upon  for  emergency 
service  in  the  Landsturm — the  new  limits  pro- 
posed included  men  from  18  to  50  years  of  age 
— was  introduced,  one  after  another  the  vari- 
ous parties  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
signified  their  approval.  Bakonyi,  in  behalf  of 
the  Hungarian  Independence  Party,  suggested  a 
few  minor  amendments,  which  were  subse- 
quently adopted  by  the  government,  and  de- 
manded that  citizens  who  served  in  the  army 
should  be  entitled  to  vote,  but  he  upheld  the 
bill  as  necessary  to  ensure  the  freedom  of  his 
country.  Count  Julius  Andrassy,  of  the  Con- 
stitutionalist Party,  promised  that  the  Opposi- 
tion would  vote  for  the  bill  in  order  to  prove 
that  "as  long  as  Hungary  is  in  peril,  every 
Hungarian  without  exception  has  but  one  de- 
sire: victory."  Stephan  von  Rakovsky,  of  the 
people's  party,  approved  the  bill  and  demanded 
that  the  military  authorities  should  be  less 
lenient  in  exempting  men  from  military  serv- 
ice. Guido  Hreljanovic,  in  behalf  of  the  Croa- 
tians,  declared  that  "the  Croat  nation  has  for 
centuries  loyally  fulfilled  its  duty  to  the  King 
whenever  called  upon  to  do  so";  he  likewise 
would  vote  for  the  bill.  Johann  Juriga,  a 
Slovak,  referred  with  pride  to  the  unswerving 
loyalty  which  the  Slovak  soldiers  had  mani- 
fested, and  asserted  that  the  Slovaks  were  will- 
ing to  die  in  defense  of  Hungary;  in  return, 
he  hoped  that  Hungary  would  generously  rec- 
ognize some  of  the  hitherto  unsatisfied  nation- 
alist aims  of  the  Slovaks.  Stephan  Szabo,  of 
the  Farmers'  party,  approved  the  bill  without 
reserve.  The  bill  was  then  adopted,  with  only 
one  negative  vote,  cast  by  Geza  Polony i.     After 


7.3      ATTTHOBS'  LEAGUE  OF  AMEBICA 

the  Landsturm  Bill  had  been  passed,  a  bill  to 
extend  the  mandate  of  the  present  Parliament 
was  taken  imder  consideration.  The  debate  led 
to  some  interesting  demands  for  electoral  re- 
form, but  no  serious  opposition  was  encoim- 
tered,  and  the  term  was  extended  from  June  20, 
1015,  until  six  months  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace.  Both  bills  were  ratified  without  dif- 
ficulty by  the  House  of  Magnates.  Interpella- 
tions regarding  rumored  peculation  and  corrup- 
tion in  the  business  of  buying  supplies  for  the 
army  led  to  a  warmer  debate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  session  was  the  bill  submitted, 
April  29,  by  Stephan  Rakovsky,  in  behalf  of 
the  People's  Party,  for  the  extension  of  the 
parliamentary  franchise  to  include  all  who 
served  in  the  army  during  the  war,  as  a  recog- 
nition of  "the  unparalleled  bravery  and  self- 
sacrifice  which  our  soldiers  show  on  the  field 
of  battle."  Count  Tisza  replied  that  the  gov- 
ernment could  not  accept  the  bill,  inasmuch  as 
it  would  lead  logically  to  imiversal  suffrage, 
and  ''on  groimds  that  it  would  take  too  long 
to  explain  now,  I  believe  that  introduction  of 
universal  suffrage  in  Hungary  would  be  a  na- 
tional misfortune."  Accordingly  the  govern- 
ment majority  in  the  House  defeated  the  bill, 
although  the  Opposition  voted  solidly  in  favor 
of  it.  The  winter  session  of  the  Hungarian 
Parliament  was  notable  for  the  debate  on  for- 
eign policy  which  occurred  early  in  December. 
Count  Karolyi  at  that  time  made  a  remark- 
able plea  for  peace,  urging  that  the  Central 
Powers  were  in  so  strong  a  military  position 
that  no  hesitation  need  be  felt  about  the  pro- 
priety of  discussing  proposals  to  end  the  war. 
Count  Andrassy,  on  the  other  hand,  held  that 
peace  was  still  unattainable,  inasmuch  as  Aus- 
tria's enemies  were  not  yet  willing  to  admit 
defeat.  Count  Tisza,  the  Hungarian  premier, 
made  a  significant  reference  to  Rumania's  ap- 
parent indecision,  and  expressed  the  belief  that 
Rumania  would  best  accomplish  her  national 
aims  by  siding  with  the  Central  Powers. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  break  between  Aus- 
tria-Hungary and  Italy  is  treated  in  the  arti- 
cle on  the  War  of  the  Nations  (q.v.).  The 
diplomatic  correspondence  between  Austria- 
Hungary  and  the  United  States  will  be  found  un- 
der United  States  and  the  War. 

Other  Events.  Veljko  Cubrilovic,  Misko 
Joyanovic,  and  Danilo  Hie,  three  of  the  con- 
spiritors  convicted  of  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  the  Archduke  at  Sarajevo,  were  executed  on 
February  3rd.  Two  other  conspirators,  Jakob 
Milovic  and  Nedjo  Kerovic,  were  fortunate 
enough  to  have  their  sentence  of  execution  com- 
muted to  imprisonment  respectively  for  life  and 
for  20  years.  A  son  was  born  to  the  heir  ap- 
parent. Archduke  Charles  Francis,  February  9. 
A  sensation  was  caused  by  the  reported  dis- 
missal and  imprisonment  of  Field  Marshal 
Moritz  von  Auffenberg,  former  chief  of  staff 
and  war  minister,  who  won  the  brilliant  vic- 
tory of  Kamarow;  von  Auffenberg  was  accused 
of  plotting  to  sell  Austro-German  military  se- 
crets to  the  Russians. 

AUSTRIAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  UNITED 
STATES.     See  United  States  and  the  War. 

AUTHORS'  LEAGUE  OF  AUCEBICA.  The 
league  is  a  business  association  of  authors  for 
mutual  service,  benefit,  and  protection.  All  pro- 
ducers of  books  subject  to  copyright  protection, 


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ATTTHOBS'  LEAGUB  OV  AlCBBICA       74 


A0TOXOBILBS 


writers  of  noyels,  poems,  stories,  essays,  text- 
books, etc.,  dramatic  and  photoplay  authors, 
painters,  illustrators,  composers,  sculptors,  pho- 
tographers, etc.,  can  be  admitted  as  regular  mem- 
bers; publishers,  theatrical  managers,  literary 
and  dramatic  agents,  and  others,  can  be  admitted 
as  associate  members.  The  more  important  serv- 
ices which  the  league  is  able  to  do  for  its  mem- 
bers are  those  of  the  Icgil,  collection,  mailing, 
and  copyright  bureaus.  The  legal  bureau,  with- 
out extra  cost  to  a  member,  t^lvises  as  to  the 
signing  of  a  contract  or  agreement  with  a  pub- 
li^er,  theatrical  manager,  editor,  or  agent,  etc.; 
receives  and  preserves  the  agreements  of  mem- 
bers in  safe  deposits,  advises  the  producers  of 
books  as  to  proper  conditions  of  sale;  fives  in- 
structions and  warnings  to  authors,  publishers, 
motion-picture  manufacturers,  magazine  con- 
tributors, etc.  The  league,  through  its  collec- 
tion bureau,  helps  its  members  to  collect  moneys 
and  check  accoimts  due  under  contracts.  The 
mailing  bureau  gives  information  upon  applica- 
tion ;  and  the  copyright  bureau  aids  the  members 
without  cost  except  for  the  payment  of  regis- 
tration fees  plus  the  cost  of  money  orders  and 
postage.  The  officers  for  1015-16  are:  Presi- 
dent, Winston  Churchill;  vice-president,  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt;  secretary  and  treasurer,  Eric 
Schuler;  general  coimsel,  Arthur  C.  Nain;  at- 
torney, B.  H.  Stem;  English  agent,  Curtis 
Brown. 

AXXTOLYSIN.  The  past  year  has  brought 
forth  the  usual  crop  of  alleged  cancer  cures, 
of  which  autolysin  is  perhaps  the  most  notable. 
The  remedy,  known  also  as  the  Horowitz  serum 
and  the  Horowitz-Beebe  serum,  is  composed  of 
a  congeries  of  vegetable  extracts,  but  the  exact 
formula  has  not  yet  been  divulged.  The  rem- 
edy has  not  been  found  of  any  value  except  by 
its  exploiters  who  brought  further  condemna- 
tion upon  it  by  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
put  before  the  public.    See  Canceb. 

AXTTOMOBIXiESy  Raciito  Events.  A  big 
boom  in  automobile  racing  marked  the  year 
1915.  This  was  in  large  measure  due  to  the 
construction  of  speedways  in  all  sections  of  the 
United  States.  During  the  year  there  were 
22  contests  held  on  roads  and  speedways  and 
59  on  dirt  tracks.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
$282,000  was  distributed  in  prizes.  Some  300 
drivers  competed  in  these  events,  10  of  them 
receiving  $220,000.  Twenty-five  others  divided 
$50,000.  Four  sanctioned  hill  climbs  also  fur- 
nished liberal  prizes  to  the  competitors. 

Earl  Cooper  in  a  Stutz  car  was  for  the  sec- 
ond successive  year  the  most  consistent  win- 
ning driver,  but  to  Dario  Resta  fell  the  honor 
of  establishing  the  largest  number  of  new  rec- 
ords. Resta  m  a  Peugeot  at  Indianapolis  on 
May  31  covered  100  miles  in  1  hour,  7  minutes, 
29.59  seconds,  and  150  miles  in  1  hour,  40  min- 
utes, 38.16  seconds.  At  Chicago  the  same 
driver  went  200  miles  in  2  hours,  2  minutes, 
17.67  seconds;  300  miles  in  3  hours,  3  minutes, 
19.17  seconds;  400  miles  in  4  hours,  4  minutes, 
49  seconds,  and  500  miles  in  6  hours,  7  min- 
utes, 26  seconds. 

The  winners  and  the  average  times  made  in 
the  principal  races  of  the  year  follow: 

Vanderbilt  Cup--300.78  miles — ^Resta  in  a 
Peugeot,  66.29  miles  per  hour;  Grand  Prize — 
402.75  miles — ^Resta  in  a  Peugeot,  56.78  miles 
per  hour;  Elgin  National — 301.44  miles — An- 
derson in  a  Stutz,  77.25  miles  per  hour;  Santa 


Monicar-^45.2  miles — Cooper  in  a  Stutz,  73.77 
miles  per  hour. 

Industrial,  etc.  The  American  automobile 
industry  during  1915  was  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition and  many  factors  contributed  to  its  prog- 
ress and  success.  There  was  an  extraordmary 
demand  from  Europe  for  motor  trucks  for  the 
armies  of  the  Allies  as  well  as  for  passenger 
cars,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  estimated 
value  of  exports  of  commercial  vehicles  was 
given  at  $63,000,000,  an  increase  of  600  per 
cent,  and  for  passenger  cars  $37,000,000,  an  in- 
crease of  90  per  cent.  In  the  United  States 
the  demand  for  cars  of  all  classes  continued, 
particularly  for  the  moderate  and  lower  priced 
cars,  and  the  number  sold  during  the  year  was 
given  at  842,249  passenger  cars,  of  a  value  of 
$565,856,450,  and  60,369  motor  trucks,  of  a 
value  of  $125,922,500,  making  a  total  number 
of  cars  and  trucks  sold  in  1915  of  892,618,  with 
a  retail  value  of  $691,778,950.  In  1914  the  ex- 
ports of  automobiles  amounted  to  $28,507,464, 
and  in  1915  shipments  to  80  different  countries 
increased  250  per  cent,  and  were  estimated  to 
exceed  $100,000,000,  England  alone  taking  some 
$21,000,000  worth  of  pleasure  cars  and  trucks. 
On  July  1,  1915,  2,070,000  vehicles  were  res- 
istered  in  the  United  States,  and  in  New  York 
State  on  Dec  1,  1915,  there  were  231,713,  while 
in  California  on  Oct.  1,  160,000  were  registered, 
and  in  the  10  leading  grain  States  677,000. 

In  1915  manufacturers  of  passenger  and  com- 
mercial cars  numbered  448,  while  257  manu- 
facturers devoted  their  attention  to  commercial 
vehicles.  Dealers,  garage  keepers,  retail  shops, 
and  supply  stores  amounted  in  number  to  27,- 
700.  The  proportion  of  motor  vehicles  to  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States  had  steadily  de- 
creased, so  that  by  1915  there  was  one  motor 
vehicle  to  each  48  inhabitants,  and  one  to  each 
mile  of  road.  Iowa,  with  a  total  registration 
of  117,407  cars,  had  one  car  to  every  19  per- 
sons. The  average  price  of  a  passenger  car 
had  been  reduced  to  $672,  whereas  in  1899  for 
the  steam  runabouts  then  in  use  the  average 
was  $1284,  and  in  1907,  when  the  gasolene  car 
was  well  developed,  $2123. 

Registration  taxes  in  1915  exceeded  $14,000,- 
000.  The  value  of  cars  in  1899  was  estimated 
at  $4,750,000,  and  the  production  in  1003  was 
valued  at  $12,650,000,  so  that  the  output  of 
cars  and  trucks  in  1915,  which  nearly  reached 
$700,000,000  in  value,  was  testimony  as  to  the 
growth  of  the  industry. 

In  the  development  of  the  automobile  in- 
dustry there  naturally  were  striking  improve- 
ments and  the  tendency  towards  efficient  or- 
ganization and  general  efficiency  and  economy 
of  manufacturing  exhibited  in  mechanical  en- 
gineering had  fiUl  play.  With  demand,  facili- 
ties for  manufacturing  increased  rapidly,  and 
in  many  cases  plants  were  extended  so  as  to 
double  and  triple  the  output  in  successive  years, 
and,  with  cars  manufactured  at  a  lower  cost, 
there  has  been  no  sacrifice  of  strength  or  re- 
liability. Indeed,  the  lower  priced  cars  have 
shown  relatively  more  improvement  and  better 
quality  than  some  that  have  for  years  shown 
such  special  and  careful  workmanship  as  to 
sell  at  the  top  figures. 

The  engine  developments  in  cars  during  1915 
were  mainly  in  the  direction  of  using  an  in- 
creased number  of  cylinders.  The  twin  four 
and  twin  six,  making  8  cylinder  and  12  cylind^ 


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engines  set  in  pairs  at  a  V  angle,  became  popu- 
lar and  showed  many  advantages,  especially  a 
constant  and  even  torque  on  the  driving  shaft 
and  absence  of  vibration,  and  an  ease  and  flexi- 
bility of  control,  as  well  as  ability  to  accel- 
erate rapidly.  This  innovation  extended  to 
moderate  priced  cars  as  well  as  those  of  high 
cost.  Naturally  the  increased  number  of  cyl- 
inders was  accompanied  by  a  reduction  in  size, 
a  lessened  weight  of  moving  parts,  and  a  much 
higher  speed  of  revolution,  so  that  there  was  a 
gain  in  horse  power  with  but  a  relatively  slight 
increase  in  the  weight  of  the  engine.  The  motor 
vehicle  with  the  greater  number  of  cylinders 
showed  an  advantage  over  the  6  cylinder  car, 
which  did  not  meet  in  many  instances  all  the 
requirements  for  touring,  where  the  coimtry 
was  rough  and  hilly.  Naturally  on  all  the 
higher  and  medium  priced  cars  self-starting  de- 
vices were  furnished,  and  even  with  a  number 
of  the  cheaper  cars  they  were  either  supplied 
or  could  be  fitted.  The  usual  practice  was  to 
provide  a  small  generator  for  starting  and 
lighting,  and  a  number  of  efficient  systems  were 
on  the  market  and  installed  on  well  known  cars. 

One  of  the  novelties  of  the  year  was  a  gas- 
electric  drive,  where  a  6  cylinder  engine  was 
directly  connected  to  a  generator.  This  gen- 
erator supplies  current  to  a  motor  connected 
through  tne  transmission  system  with  the 
wheels.  The  engine  is  controlled  by  a  throttle 
pedal  of  the  usual  type,  and  at  the  steering 
wheel  there  is  a  speed  controller  somewhat  sim- 
ilar to  the  controller  on  an  ordinary  trolley 
car.  The  Entz  system,  as  this  new  method  of 
electro-magnetic  transmission  was  known  from 
its  inventor,  seemed  to  have  great  hill-climbing 
possibilities,  and  the  engine  could  be  readily 
accelerated  as  well  as  retarded  and  the  car 
braked  when  necessary.  The  new  method  was 
the  most  radical  invention  that  had  been  intro- 
duced in  motor  car  practice  in  recent  years, 
and  the  performance  of  the  cars  turned  out  on 
a  commercial  basis  was  attracting  much  at- 
tention. 

The  automobile  industry  was  in  such  con- 
dition at  the  end  of  the  year  that  it  was  esti- 
mated that  in  1916  the  motor  car  output  would 
exceed  1,200,000  cars,  and  that  there  would  be 
in  the  future  a  market  for  automobiles  in  the 
United  States  to  the  number  of  5,000,000,  as  it 
was  claimed  that  anv  person  with  an  income  of 
$1200  could  own  and  keep  a  car.  A  competent 
critic  at  the  end  of  the  year  pronounced  that 
the  standard  car  of  the  future  would  have  a 
small  bore  engine  running  at  high  speed  of 
revolution,  would  weigh  midway  between  the 
heavy  and  expensive  car  and  the  light  and 
cheap  runabouts,  and  that  it  would  cost  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $1200.  When  it  was  realized 
that  the  tendency  was  to  decrease  the  price  of 
the  higher  cost  cars,  and  to  improve,  with  cor- 
responding increase  of  price,  the  cheaper  cars, 
such  a  prophecy  seemed  justified. 

AUTOSEBOTHEBAFY.     See   Peixagba. 

AVIATION.  See  AfiBONAuncs ;  Military 
Pboobess-  and  Naval  Pbogbess. 

BACILjLXXS.     See  Bactebiology. 

BACTEBIOLOGY.  The  studies  that  led  up 
to  the  final  demonstration  of  the  elective  af- 
finity that  certain  bacteria  and  certain  strains 
of  bacteria  have  for  particular  tissues,  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in 
bacteriology.    Forssner  recognized  this  possibil- 


ity as  early  as  1902.  He  discovered  that  strep- 
tcicocci  obtained  from  a  variety  of  sources  when 
^own  artificially  on  kidney  tissue  would,  when 
injected  intravenously,  localize  in  the  kidneys 
of  animals;  but  the  full  importance  of  this  elec- 
tive tissue  affinity  was  not  realized  until  many 
years  later.  Rosenow  succeeded  in  isolating 
streptococci  from  the  lesions  of  acute  rheuma- 
tism, gall-bladder  infection,  appendicitis,  gas- 
tric and  duodenal  ulcer,  and  even  erythema  and 
herpes  zoster.  These  streptococci,  though  not 
virulent,  resembled  each  other  closely  in  their 
cultural  and  morphological  features.  When  in- 
jected into  animals  each  strain  showed  a  ten- 
dency to  localize  in  the  organ  corresponding  to 
that  from  which  it  had  been  obtained.  Going 
further,  streptococci  with  simple  tissue  predi- 
lection were  isolated  from  recognized  sources  of 
infection,  such  as  diseased  tonsils  and  teeth. 
These  or^nisms  when  first  isolatc^i  were  usu- 
ally specific  for  certain  tissues  or  organs,  but 
this  specificity  was  lost,  however,  by  frequent 
passage  through  animals  or  artificial  cultiva- 
tion, and  other  tissue  predilections  were  ac- 
quired. The  appendix  strains,  for  example, 
soon  lost  their  specific  quality  and  acquired 
affinity  for  the  tissue  of  the  stomach  and  gall- 
bladder. These  experiences  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  destroying  possible  foci  of  infec- 
tion, such  as  diseased  tonsils,  or  diseased  teeth 
with  pus  pockets  about  their  roots;  since  bac- 
teria lodging  there  may  be  carried  by  the  blood 
stream  to  oistant  organs  or  joints  where  they 
find  a  favorable  habitat  and  where  they  may 
produce  serious  pathological  conditions,  and 
they  also  offer  a  possible  explanation  of  the 
frequent  association  of  appendicitis  and  gall- 
bladder disease.  Rosenow's  experiments  further 
showed  that  virulence  seemed  to  be  one  of  the 
factors  in  determining  the  location  of  bacteria 
injected  into  the  blood  stream,  and  he  argues 
that  if  this  be  true  then  the  occurrence  of  ulcer 
and  cholecystitis  should  become  greater  as  the 
strains  from  the  appendix  are  passed  through 
animals;  while  on  the  other  hand,  appendicitis 
should  occur  oftener  after  inoculation  with 
strains  of  bacteria  from  ulcers  and  cholecystitis 
which  have  lost  their  virulence  by  cultivation 
upon  artificial  mediums;  and  this  was  found 
actually  to  be  the  case.  Other  observations 
were  that  none  of  the  strains  from  appendicitis 
attacked  the  pancreas,  while  the  strains  from 
ulcers  and  cholecystitis  produced  pancreatitis  in 
from  3  to  6  per  cent  of  animals  injected.  Le- 
sions in  the  kidney  were  especially  common  after 
the  injection  of  streptococci  isolated  from  cases 
of  rheumatic  fever  (39  per  cent)  and  from  en- 
docarditis ^(  20  per  cent). 

Bacillus  Buloaricus.  The  use  of  sour  milk 
in  various  diseases  received  a  setback  by  the 
results  of  several  investigations  carried  on  dur- 
ing the  past  year.  The  object  of  sour  milk 
therapy  had  been  to  implant  organisms  of  the 
bacillus  bulgaricus  type  in  those  parts  of  the 
bowel  which  were  already  the  seat  of  unde- 
sirable putrefaction.  The  expectation  was  that 
the  bacilli  would  displace  or  drive  out  the  harm- 
ful bacteria,  since  it  had  been  experimentally 
determined  that  the  Bulgarian  bacillus  could 
flourish  in  an  acid  medium.  Herter  and  Ken- 
dall were  able  to  obtain  an  acid  reaction 
throughout  the  intestinal  tract  of  a  monkey 
fed  for  two  weeks  on  fermented  milk,  the  acid 
reaction  being  more  pronounced  in  the  small 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING 


intestine  than  in  the  large.  The  reaction  grew 
very  faint  toward  the  end  of  the  intestine. 
The  regions  which  are  mostly  the  seat  of  fer- 
mentative processes  failed  to  receive  any  bene- 
fit from  the  lactic  acid  bacilli.  The  latest  con- 
tribution, that  of  A.  H.  Raehe,  added  evidence 
that  the  Bulgarian  bacillus  cannot  adapt  itself 
to  the  lower  intestine  of  the  human  being. 
Tliese  investigations  are  important  from  the 
fact  that  not  only  sour  milk  of  all  kinds,  but 
bacterial  cultures'  are  used  extensively  hj  the 
American  public  with  or  without  the  advice  of 
physicians.  It  seemed  probable  that  the  mar- 
velous results  attributed  to  sour  milk  in  a  wide 
variety  of  intestinal  ailments  might  be  due  more 
to  a  chan^  of  diet  and  a  partial  deprivation 
from  injurious  foods,  than  to  any  specific  action 
on  the  part  of  the  bacillus  itself.  See  also 
Appendicitis;  Hygiene;  Subgery;  and  Typhoid 
Feveb. 

BAHAMAS.  The  most  northerly  of  the 
British  West  Indian  colonies;  a  chain  of  about 
20  inhabited  islands  and  numerous  islets  and 
rocks.  Total  area,  4403 1^  square  miles;  popu- 
lation (1011),  55,944  (of  whom  13,554  in  the 
island  of  New  Providence).  Nassau,  or  New 
Providence,  is  the  capital.  Sponges  are  the 
principal  export  (£110,740  in  1910,  £148,319  in 
1913).  The  other  products  for  export  include 
preserved  fruits  (£9219  in  1910,  £6208  in 
1913),  pineapples,  oranges,  and  grapefruit. 
Area  planted  to  sisal  in  1913,  over  20,000  acres; 
export,   7,249,496  pounds,   valued  at  £69,950. 


1909  1910               191B  1918 

Imports     £343,489  £329,014    £358.111  £403.529 

Exports*     ...     165,116  188.286       276.115  268  954 

Revenue    77.578  84,886         97.574  100,753 

Expenditure.  .       92,858  85.315         88,077  96.496 

Shipping  t     ..1,304.660  1.722,340   1,247.844  1.747.779 

*  Of      colonial      produce,     t  Tonnage     entered      and 
cleared. 


Revenue  and  expenditure  are  for  fiscal  years. 
Customs  revenue  1913-14,  £83,928.  Public  debt 
(March  31,  1914),  £43,829.  There  are  48  un- 
sectarian  government  schools,  with  6386  pupils. 
The  population  is  mainly  negro.  W.  L.  Allar- 
dyce  was  appointed  Governor  in  1914. 

BALFOuB,  Abthub  James.  See  Great 
Britain,  History^  passim. 

BALKAN  STATES.  See  Albania;  Bul- 
garia; Greece;  Montenegro;  Rumania;  Ser- 
bia; and  Turkey. 

BAIiLOONS.    See  Aeronautics. 

BANCBOFT,  William  H.  American  rail- 
road official,  died  April  22,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  1840  at  Newberg,  Ohio;  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  there;  entered  the  railroad  serv- 
ice as  a  telegraph  operator  on  the  Michigan 
Southern;  and  was  afterwards  employed  in 
other  capacities  on  other  roads.  Rising  rap- 
ily,  in  1862  he  was  appointed  assistant  super- 
intendent of  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
F^  Road;  served  as  superintendent  of  other 
roads;  and  in  1800  was  appointed  general  sup- 
erintendent of  the  Mountain  Division  of  the 
Union  Pacific.  From  1897  until  his  death  he 
was  vice-president  and  general  manager  of  the 
Oregon  Short  Line.  At  different  periods  he 
served  as  general  manager  of  the  Union  Pa- 
cific and  the  Southern  Pacific  railroads. 

BANDBOX  THEATBE.  See  Drama,  Amer- 
ican and  Engubh. 


BANK  CLEABING.  See  Financial  Re- 
view. 

BANKS  AND  BANKING.  Tlie  most  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  banking  history  of  1915  was 
the  marvelous  strength  shown  by  the  banks 
of  the  United  States.  The  fall  of  1914  had  been 
one  of  great  uncertainty  with  possibilities  of 
a  banking  panic  The  obligations  of  America 
to  various  European  countries  for  trade  bal- 
ances aggregated  several  hundred  million  dol- 
lars and  envoys  were  sent  to  America  to  en- 
force collection.  During  the  last  seven  months 
of  the  year  gold  exports  exceeded  $175,000,000; 
but  American  banks,  mainly  those  at  New  York, 
formed  a  gold  pool  of  $100,000,000  to  meet  im- 
mediately maturing  obligations  abroad  and  a 
cotton  pool  of  $100,000,000  to  assist  southern 
farmers  in  carrying  an  enormous  cotton  crop. 
By  combining  resources  a  basis  for  $215,000,000 
of  clearing  house  certificates  was  secured,  and 
before  the  completed  organization  of  the  Fed- 
eral reserve  system  $384,000,000  of  emergency 
currency  was  put  out.  The  banks  thus  entered 
1915  with  the  most  critical  demands  already 
met.  Early  in  the  year  clearing  house  certifi- 
cates were  retired  and  emergency  circulation 
was  withdrawn.  Gradually  the  improvement 
of  trade  resulted  in  an  expansion  of  deposits 
and  loans;  confidence  returned  and  banks  in 
general  experienced  a  profitable  year.  See 
Agricultural  Credit;  Agricultural  Legisla- 
tion; Blue  Sky  Laws;  Financial  Review; 
National  Banks;  State  Banks;  Savings 
Banks. 

According  to  reports  of  the  Comptroller  of 
the  Currency  there  were  on  June  23,  1915,  27,- 
064  banks  in  the  United  States  of  which  7605 
were  national,  14,598  State  banks,  630  mutual 
savings  banks,  1529  stock  savings  banks,  1664 
loan  and  trust  companies,  and  1036  private 
banks.  The  aggregate  resources  of  all  of  these 
institutions  were  $28,275,000,000,  an  increase  of 
over  $1,100,000,000  over  June  30,  1914.  Ag- 
gregate loans  were  $15,850,000,000. 

Leolslation.  Numerous  laws  regulating 
banking  were  enacted  in  the  various  States. 
State  banks  were  authorized  to  join  the  Fed- 
eral reserve  system  by  various  States.  Idaho, 
Kansas,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  and 
other  States  raised  the  requirements  and  in- 
creased the  regulation  of  trust  companic*s. 
Kansas  enacted  a  law  preventing  a  bank  en- 
gaged in  trade  or  commerce  from  investing  in 
the  stock  of  other  banks  or  corporations,  or 
dealing  in  their  own  shares  unless  to  prevent 
loss  on  debts  previously  contracted.  The  guar- 
antee of  bank  deposits  was  provided  for  in  In- 
diana and  South  Dakota,  thus  evidencing  the 
gradual  growth  of  favor  for  this  principle  in 
Middle  Western  States.  A  general  codification 
of  banking  laws  was  carried  through  in  South 
Dakota;  and  general  laws  for  the  regulation 
of  banks  and  the  creation  of  a  State  Banking 
Department  were  enacted  in  Montana.  In  In- 
diana, New  Hampshire,  New  Mexico,  and 
Washington  general  laws  regarding  the  incor- 
poration of  various  kinds  of  banks  and  their 
regulation   were  enacted. 

Federal  Reserve  Svstem.  The  first  year  of 
the  Federal  reserve  system  was  completed  Nov. 
16,  1915.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  the 
opening  of  reserve  banks  had  been  expedited  on 
account  of  a  temporary  money  stringency  due  to 
the  war.     The  result  was  that  the  final  details 


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BANKS  AND  BANKINa  77 

of  regulation  for  the  conduct  of  the  reserve  banks 
were    not    issued    until    several    months    later. 
Moreover,  so  effective  were  the  measures  taken  to 
prevent  a  collapse  of  credit  and  so  phenomenal 
was  the  growth  of  business  during   1915  that 
throughout  nearly  all   of  the  year  the  money 
market  was  easy  and  there  was  a  gradual  re- 
tirement  of   emergency    currency   and    clearing 
house  certificates.     Nevertheless  the  first  year's 
operations    produced    numerous    significant    re- 
sults and  brought  forward  various  plans  for  the 
extension  of  the  services  of  the  system.     Among 
the  accomplishments  may  be  mentioned  the  fol- 
lowing:  there  was  considerable  progress  in  the 
standardization  of  commercial  paper,  and  along 
with  that  a  standardization  of  discount  rates  by 
city  banks  owing  to  the  rediscount  rates  pub- 
lished weekly  by  the  reserve  banks;  new  regula- 
tions regarding  exercise  of  trustee  and  executor 
powers  by  banks  placed  a  premium  upon  sound 
banking;   a  system  of  bankers  acceptance  busi- 
ness was  begun;  the  first  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  national  system  of  clearances  and  check 
collection  was  inaugurated ;  and  there  was  a  con- 
siderable education  of  bankers  and  business  men 
in    essential   principles   of    sound   banking   and 
credit.    There  was  discussion,  too,  of  the  pro- 
posal to  establish  foreign  branches,  but  at  a  ses- 
sion of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  on  October 
12th  it  was  decided  that  the  best  policy  was  not 
to  compete  with  member  banks  in  the  establish- 
ment of  foreign  branches,  but  to  merely  cooperate 
with   and   encourage  member   banks   in  such   a 
policy.     The  National  City  Bank  of  New  York 
had  undertaken  in  1914  and  1915  the  establish- 
ment of  branches  in  Latin  America,  and  it  was 
deemed  unwise  for  the  Federal  reserve  system  to 
enter  into  competition  in  the  same  field.     It  was, 
however,  deemed  desirable  to  ask  Congress  for 
an  amendment  to  the  Federal  Reserve  Act  which 
would   enable   American   member   banks   to   co- 
operate in   establishing  joint   foreign   agencies. 
This  position  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  would 
not    prevent    them    from    establishing    a    joint 
agency  for  member  banks  in   any  foreign   city 
where  member  banks  had  not  themselves  already 
established  branches.     In  the  fall  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  McAdoo  announced  that  the  gov- 
ernment would   deposit  $30,000,000  in   gold  in 
the   Federal  reserve  banks  of   Atlanta,   Dallas, 
and  Richmond  for  the  relief  of  cotton  growers. 
The  plan  permitted  Southern  banks  to  draw  upon 
this  fund  without  interest  for  whatever  amount 
planters  would  borrow  on  their  cotton  warehouse 
receipts,  it  being  understood  that  the  planters 
would  be  charged  not  more  than  2  per  cent  in- 
terest.    This  action  was  due  in  part  to  the  plac- 
ing of  cotton  on  the  contraband  list  by  Great 
Britain.     On    November    24th    Attorney-General 
Gregory  rendered  an  opinion  at  the  request  of 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board  that  under  the  Re- 
serve Act  the  Board  was  given  no  authority  to 
remove  a  reserve  bank  from  the  city  in  which  it 
was  ordinarily  placed  by  the  Organization  Com- 
mittee to  another  city  of  the  district.     Thus,  for 
example,  the  Board  could  not  remove  the  reserve 
bank  of  the  Fifth  Reserve  District  from  Rich- 
mond to  Baltimore. 

Federai.  Reserve  Clearing  System.  The 
Federal  Reserve  Act  gave  the  Board  authority 
to  develop  a  system  of  clearances  among  member 
institutions.  The  first  step  in  this  direction  was 
the  inauguration  of  a  plan  of  intra-district 
clearing.    By  this  plan  each  reserve  bank  under- 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


took  to  serve  as  a  clearing  house  for  all  member 
institutions,  thus  greatly  facilitating  settlements 
between  banks  within  each  district.  The  second 
step  was  the  establishment  of  the  Gold  Settle- 
ment Fund,  the  completion  of  preliminary  ar- 
rangements for  which  was  announced  on  April 
7th.  This  fund  was  to  be  created  by  deposits 
in  gold  by  the  12  reserve  banks  to  be  held  at 
Washington  and  used  in  liquidating  balances 
among  themselves.  The  deposit  of  each  bank 
would  be  counted  as  part  of  its  reserve.  Thus 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board  at  Washington  would 
serve  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  12  reserve 
banks.  Two  other  steps  in  the  development  of 
a  completed  system  of  national  clearances  were; 
contemplated.  If  the  plan  for  intra-district  set- 
tlements should  prove  successful  there  would  be 
developed  a  plan  for  inter-district  settlements 
whereby  the  member  banks  of  one  district  could 
settle  claims  against  those  of  other  districts. 
The  final  step  taken  was  the  creation  of  a  "par 
list,"  or  a  list  of  banks,  checks  upon  which  would 
be  collectible  without  exchange.  While  enroll- 
ment on  such  a  list  would  be  voluntary,  it  was 
believed  that  the  competitive  advantage  of  such 
enrollment  would  induce  banks  to  join  in  the 
plan.  It  was  believed,  too,  by  many  that  these 
steps  in  the  development  of  a  clearance  system 
would  virtually  introduce  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  a  central  bank. 

Reserve  System  and  the  Trust  Companies. 
The  Federal  Reserve  Act  gave  the  Reserve 
Board  authority  to  grant  national  banks  the 
privilege  of  transacting  a  trust  business  or  exer- 
cising the  functions  of  trustee,  executor,  ad- 
ministrator, and  registrar  of  stocks  and  bonds, 
when  such  action  was  not  in  violation  of  State 
law.  The  object  of  this  provision  was  to  main- 
tain an  equality  of  banking  privileges  between 
national  and  State  banks,  the  latter  being  ad- 
mitted to  the  reserve  system  on  the  same  con- 
ditions as  national  banks.  On  February  15th 
the  Board  issued  a  statement  of  conditions  under 
which  national  banks  would  be  given  trust  com- 
pany privileges,  and  numerous  applications  were 
soon  filed.  In  some  States  the  State  banks  and 
trust  companies  fearing  the  competition  of  na- 
tional banks  at  once  sought  to  induce  State 
authorities  to  prevent  the  exercise  of  the  new 
privileges.  Several  State  Legislatures  were  per- 
suaded to  prohibit  trust  functions  to  national 
banks;  while  several  others  in  the  West  and 
Middle  West  expressly  authorized  national  banks 
to  exercise  the  new  functions.  The  trust  com- 
panies further  sought  judicial  opinion  to  sustain 
their  view  and  arranged  to  bring  to  test  the 
constitutionality  of  this  provision  of  the  Reserve 
Act. 

State  Banks  and  the  Reserve  System. 
Early  in  the  summer  the  Reserve  Board  issued  a 
statement  of  the  regulations  under  which  State 
banks  might  enter  the  system.  These  permitted 
the  withdrawal  of  State  banks  that  had  become 
members;  and  permitted  State  banks  becoming 
members  to  continue  to  exercise  their  statutory 
and  charter  rights.  Thus  they  could  continue 
to  make  loans  on  real  estate,  a  privilege  not  per- 
mitted national  banks.  Admission  is  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Reserve  Board,  and  only  strong 
institutions  are  to  be  taken  in.  Reliance  as  to 
their  condition  will  be  very  largely  placed  in 
State  examinations  so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary 
expense  and  duplicate  examiners. 

Statistics.    The  resources  of  the  12  Federal 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING 


78 


BABD 


Reserve  Banks  on  Dee.  24,  1915,  a^^egated 
$490,808,000.  In  this  were  included  gold  reserves 
of  $347,381,000,  and  bills  discounted  and  bought 
$54,421,000.  The  liabilities  included  capital 
paid  in  amounting  to  $54,901,000,  reserve  de- 
posits of  $398,603,000;  government  deposits  of 
$15,000,000;  and  reserve  notes  in  circulation  of 
$14,670,000. 

BAPTISTS.  Statistics  of  the  Baptists  in  the 
United  States  in  1915,  according  to  the  American 
Baptist  Year  Book  for  that  year,  give  the  total 
number  of  5,932,364,  as  compared  with  5,799,253 
for  1914.  The  total  number  in  the  world,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  authority,  was  7,003,737  in 
1915,  as  compared  with  6.846,286  in  1914. 
There  were  in  the  United  States  in  1915,  2000 
Baptist  associations,  52,410  churches,  and  37,371 
ordained  ministers.  The  Baptists  in  the  United 
States  are  divided  into  two  main,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  branches.  The  two  main  branches  are 
known  as  the  regular  Baptists,  and  include  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Baptists.  The  Northern 
Baptists  had  in  1914,  1,291,668  communicants, 
9534  churches,  and  8250  ministers.  The  South- 
ern Baptists  had  in  1914,  2,522,623  communi- 
cants, 24,288  churches,  and  14,909  ministers. 
The  larger  of  the  smaller  subdivisions  are  the 
Primitive  Baptists,  with  about  100,000  commu- 
nicants; the  Free  Baptists  (see  below) ;  the 
Free  Will  Baptists,  with  about  60,000  communi- 
cants; and  the  General  Baptists,  with  about  34,- 
000  communicants.  The  denomination  has  a 
large  colored  membership  in  the  South.  There 
were,  in  1015,  about  2,000,000  communicants  in 
the  regular  colored  Baptist  denomination. 
There  are  in  addition  several  smaller  divisions 
of  the  colored  Baptists.  The  general  work  of 
the  larger  denominations  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Northern  Baptists'  Convention,  and  the  South- 
ern Baptists'  Convention.  The  meeting  of  the 
Northern  Baptists'  Convention  was  held  at  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  in  May.  The  Southern  Baptists' 
Convention  was  also  held  in  May.  The  mission- 
ary work  of  the  denomination  is  conducted  by 
the  American  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  So- 
ciety and  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission- 
ary Society.  Missions  are  maintained  in  prac- 
tically all  quarters  of  the  globe.  For  foreign 
missions  there  were  contributed  in  1915,  $1,231,- 
664,  as  compared  with  $1,206,202  in  1914;  for 
home  missions,  $965,698,  as  compared  with 
$959,557  in  1914;  and  for  State  missions,  $1,- 
059,914,  as  compared  with  $993,893  in  1914. 
The  total  contributions  for  all  purposes  in  1915 
amounted  to  $29,043,181,  as  compared  with  $27,- 
549,711  in  1914.  The  Baptists  maintain  14  theo- 
logical seminaries  and  have  under  their  control 
100  academies,  colleges,  and  universities.  There 
were,  in  1915,  42,769  Sunday  schools,  with  325,- 
475  officers  and  teachers,  and  3,288,992  scholars. 
The  Sunday  school  work  and  the  publication 
work  is  done  through  the  Sunday  school  board. 
For  an  account  of  the  movement  to  unite  the 
Baptists  and  Free  Baptists,  see  Bafhsts,  Fbee. 

BAPTISTS,  Fbee.  The  union  between  this 
denomination  and  the  regular  Baptist  denomina- 
tion is  for  practical  purposes  completed.  The 
imion  of  State  organizations  has  been  almost 
entirely  accomplished  in  most  of  the  States.  lu 
some  cases  the  designation  United  Baptist  is 
made.  The  union  between  the  denominations 
was  inaugurated  in  October,  1911,  by  the  trans- 
ference on  the  part  of  the  Free  Baptists  of  their 
missionary  ana  denominational  activities  to  the 


three  national  mission  organizations  of  the  Bap- 
tists, the  American  Baptist  Foreign  Mission 
Society,  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission 
Society,  and  the  American  Baptist  Publishing 
Society.  No  statistics  of  the  present  member- 
ship of  the  denomination  are  available. 

BAB  ASSOCIATION,  American.  The  an- 
nual meeting  of  the  association  in  1915  was  held 
in  Salt  Lake  City,  August  17th-19th.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  meeting  was  held  a  conference  of 
the  commissioners  on  State  laws.  The  American 
Institute  of  Criminal  Law  and  Criminology  held 
its  seventh  annual  meeting  in  coimcction  with 
the  association.  Several  distinguished  South 
American  jurists  were  present,  and  delivered 
addresses.  The  various  committees  of  the  asso- 
ciation made  reports,  and  the  President,  W.  Mel- 
drim,  delivered  the  annual  address,  including 
with  it  a  summary  of  the  most  important  legis- 
lative enactments  made  in  the  State  Legislature 
in  1915.  Addresses  were  also  made  by  Hon. 
Joseph  W.  Bailey,  Hon.  Simeon  E.  Baldwin, 
Felix  Frankfurter,  and  other  well  known  authori- 
ties. The  following  officers  were  elected:  Presi- 
dent, Elihu  Root;  Secretary,  George  Whitelock; 
Treasurer,  Frederick  Wadhams.  The  member- 
ship of  the  association  in  1915  was  about  10,000. 

BABBADOS.  The  most  easterly  of  the 
Caribbean  Islands;  a  British  colony.  Its  area 
is  166  square  miles,  and  its  population  (1911), 
171,892.  The  withdrawal  of  many  laborers  from 
the  colony  to  the  Canal  Zone,  together  with  emi- 
gration to  ParA  (Brazil)  and  the  United  States, 
accounts  for  the  decrease  in  population  since 
1891,  when  it  was  182,306.  Bridgetown  is  the 
capital,  with  16,648  inhabitants  in  1911.  The 
area  under  sugar-cane,  the  island's  most  import- 
ant product,  is  estimated  at  64,000  acres.  There 
were  in  operation  320  sugar  works  in  1913,  pro- 
ducing 9939  tons  of  sugar  and  82,600  puncheons 
of  molasses.  The  export  of  cotton  to  Great 
Britain  in  1913  was  433,099  pounds,  valued  at 
£28,460.  In  the  following  table,  imports,  ex- 
ports, and  shipping  are  for  the  calendar  years 
named;  revenue  and  expenditure  for  the  fiscal 
years. 

1909-10  1910-11       1911-19  1919-18 

£  £                   £  £ 

Imports 1,119,848  1,845,194  1,465.431  1,858,069 

ExporU     888,086  1,088,830  1,085.569  856.618 

Revenue    195,803  213.297      234,126  214,865 

Expenditure.  .     199.624  211,949       230.339  222,177 

Shipping*     ..2.437,086  8,395,085  8,846,982  3.771,698 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

Customs  revenue  (1913-14),  £125,478.  Public 
debt  (March  31,  1913),  £436,900  (sinking  fund, 
£113,340).  Acting  Governor  in  1914,  W.  L.  C. 
Phillips. 

BABD,  Thomas  Robebt.  American  public  of- 
ficial, former  United  States  Senator  to  Cali- 
fornia, died  March  5,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
Chambersburg,  Pa.,  in  1848;  received  an  aca- 
demic education;  studied  law,  but  did  not 
practice.  He  was  engaged  as  transportation 
agent  for  the  Cumberland  Valley  Railroad  at 
Hagcrstown,  Md.,  in  1861.  While  in  Maryland, 
he  took  an  active  part  in  a  political  campaign  to 
prevent  the  secession  of  that  State.  On  several 
occasions  he  acted  as  a  Union  scout.  In  1865 
Thomas  A.  Scott,  then  Assistant  Secretary  of 
War,  and  later  president  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  sent  Bard  to  Southern  California  to 


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BABB  79 

take  care  of  his  lands  there.  In  California,  Bard 
settled  permanently  in  Hueneme,  Ventura 
County,  and  in  1867  was  elected  to  the  Board 
of  Superrisors.  He  filled  other  offices,  and  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1900, 
serring  until  1905. 

BABKEBy  GsANViLLB.  See  Dbama,  Amebi- 
CAN  AND  English. 

BABLEY.  Weather  conditions  of  1915  were 
generally  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  barley 
crop,  especially  in  the  principal  producing  coun- 
tries, and  while  the  area  devoted  to  the  crop  as 
indicated  by  the  data  available  was  about  the 
same  as  in  the  previous  year  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  was  consider- 
ably higher  than  in  1914.  According  to  an  esti- 
mate by  the  International  Institute  of  Agricul- 
ture the  total  production  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, where,  as  shown  by  the  average  yield  of 
the  last  five  years,  over  99  per  cent  of  the  world's 
barley  is  produced,  amounted  to  1,580,000,000 
bushels.  This  yield  was  13.2  per  cent  superior 
to  the  preceding  year's  production  and  9  per  cent 
above  the  average  production  for  the  last  five 
years.  This  estimate  was  based  on  official  data 
to  the  extent  of  69  per  cent,  while  the  production 
of  non-reporting  countries  was  assumed  to  be 
the  same  as  the  average  for  the  last  four  or  five 
years.  Taking  the  average  of  the  quantities 
available  during  the  last  five  years  as  a  basis, 
the  supply  of  barley  produced  in  1915  was  re- 
garded as  ample  to  meet  the  requirements  for 
consumption  in  1915-16.  The  average  annual 
value  of  barley  and  malt  carried  in  international 
trade  is  estimated  at  $220,000,000. 

North  America  produced  in  1915  about  one 
quarter  of  the  world's  barley  crop.  Canada  pro- 
duced 50,868,000  bushels  on  1,509,350  acres,  an 
average  per  acre  of  33.70  bushels.  The  United 
States  produced  237,009,000  bushels,  as  estimated 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
on  7,395,000  acres,  the  average  yield  being  32 
bushels  per  acre.  Neither  the  total  production 
nor  the  average  yield  per  acre  had  ever  been 
exceeded.  The  production  was  over  40,000,000 
bushels  greater  than  in  1914  and  over  55,000,000 
bushels  in  excess  of  the  average  for  the  five 
years  1909-13,  and  the  average  acre  yield  was 
over  nine  bushels  greater  than  the  average  acre 
yield  for  this  same  period.  The  total  farm  value 
based  on  the  average  price  per  bushel,  December 
Ist,  and  estimated  at  $122,499,000,  was  exceeded 
by  the  value  of  the  crop  of  1911,  when  the  price 
per  bushel  was  86.9  cents  as  compared  with  51.7 
cents  on  December  1st  of  the  past  year.  Accord- 
ing to  an  inquiry  made  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  about  7,432,000  tons 
of  barley  straw  are  produced  in  the  United  States 
annually,  and  of  this  quantity  about  60  per  cent 
is  fed  to  stock,  13.3  per  cent  is  burned,  3.6  per 
cent  sold  off  the  farm,  and  11.5  per  cent  plowed 
under. 

BABOTSELANP.     See  Rhodesia. 

BABBEL,  Standard.  See  Aqbicultural 
Legislation. 

BABB^,  Maituce.  See  Fbznch  Litbra- 
TUBB,  Drama, 

BABTONEIJJL.     See  Oboya  Fever. 

BASEBALTi.  The  year  1915  saw  the  end  of 
the  baseball  war  which  was  started  the  year 
previous  and  which  threatened  to  deal  a  severe 
blow  to  the  popularity  of  the  national  game. 
Talk  of  peace  began  inunediately  after  the  close 
of  the  season,  which  had  been  a  most  disastrous 


BASEBALL 


one  for  the  owners  in  practically  every  league. 
Players  were  drawing  exorbitant  salaries,  the 
fans  were  growing  luke-warm,  and  gate  receipts 
all  over  the  country  were  rapidly  decreasing. 

The  baseball  magnates  realized  that  something 
must  be  done  and  done  quicklv  or  financial  ruin 
would  be  their  portion.  Informal  conferences 
were  held  in  various  cities  between  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  Federal  League,  the  trouble-maker, 
and  the  officials  of  so-called  ''organized  ball,"  or 
the  National  and  American  leagues.  The  "peace 
treaty"  was  signed  in  Cincinnati,  in  December, 
although  a  few  minor  details  were  left  for  future 
discussion  and  settlement.  By  the  terms  of  the 
agreement  the  Federal  League  passed  out  of 
existence,  but  some  of  the  ciub  owners  in  that 
organization  were  permitted  to  buy  franchises 
in  the  older  leagues. 

The  sensational  feature  of  the  year  as  far  as 
the  sport  itself  was  concerned  was  furnished  by 
the  Philadelphia  National  League  team  led  by 
Pat  Moran.  This  club  had  been  disrupted  by 
the  desertion  of  several  of  its  stars  to  the  Fed- 
eral League,  the  year  before,  and  in  the  opinion 
of  the  experts  at  the  opening  of  the  season  could 
only  be  regarded  as  a  tail-end  team. 

To  the  surprise  of  the  fans  and  critics,  how- 
ever, the  Phillies  got  off  to  a  good  start  and 
soon  built  up  a  lead  which  the  other  clubs 
found  it  impossible  to  overcome.  The  Brooklyn 
Superbas  ifiade  a  game  fight  for  first  honors,  but 
one  disappointing  Western  trip  in  which  they 
lost  two-thirds  of  their  games  put  them  out  of 
the  running  and  the  Phillies  breezed  through  to 
their  first  pennant. 

The  excellent  showing  of  the  Philadelphia 
team  was  chiefly  due  to  the  consistent  pitching 
of  Alexander,  the  heavy  hitting  of  Cravath  and 
Luderus,  and  the  sensational  playing  of  young 
Bancroft  at  shortstop. 

The  American  League  race  was  the  poorest  in 
the  history  of  that  organization.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  season  it  was  generally  conceded 
that  only  three  teams  had  a  chance  for  the  pen- 
nant— ^Boston,  Detroit,  and  Chicago — and  it  was 
in  this  order  that  these  clubs  finished  at  the  top. 
The  White  Sox  led  the  way  for  two  months  only 
to  be  overhauled  by  the  Tigers  and  Red  Sox  in 
the  stretch. 

The  battle  between  the  Tigers  and  Red  Sox 
for  first  place  furnished  little  excitement.  De- 
troit had  the  heavier  "artillery,"  but  Boston 
more  than  offset  this  with  the  strength  of  its 
pitching  staff. 

The  contest  for  the  laurels  in  the  Federal 
League  was  much  closer  than  in  either  of  the 
two  older  bodies.  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Pitts- 
burgh came  down  to  the  last  two  weeks  of  play 
neck  and  neck,  the  Whales  finally  capturing  the 
flag  by  a  one-point  margin.  The  Federal  League 
challenged  the  American  and  National  league 
pennant  winners  to  play  games  for  the  world's 
championship,  but  organized  ball  turned  down 
the  defi. 

The  World's  Series  therefore  was  contested  by 
Philadelphia  for  the  National  League  and  Bos- 
ton for  the  American  League.  The  Red  Sox 
were  the  natural  favorites,  the  only  hope  of  the 
Phillies  resting  in  the  batting  of  Cravath  and 
Luderus  and  the  pitching  of  the  great  Alexan- 
der. These  men,  save  for  Luderus,  failed  to 
come  up  to  expectations  and  the  well-balanced 
Boston  team  had  a  walkover,  winning  four  of  the 
five  games  played. 


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BASEBALL 


The  scores  of  these  contests  follow: 

Boston,  1,  Philadelphia,  3;  Boston,  2,  Phila- 
delphia, 1;  Boston,  2,  Philadelphia,  1;  Bos- 
ton, 2,  Philadelphia,  1;  Boston,  5,  Philadel- 
phia, 4. 

The  composite  score  of  the  five  games  gave 
Boston  a  batting  average  of  .264  and  a  fielding 
average  of  .980  as  against  a  batting  average  of 
.182  for  Philadelphia  and  a  fielding  average  of 
.081.  The  paid  attendance  was  143,361  and  the 
receipts,  $320,361.50.  Each  winning  player's 
share  was  $3780.25  and  each  losing  player  re- 
ceived $2520.17. 

The  leading  batter  in  the  National  League  was 
Larry  Doyle  of  the  Giants,  who  had  an  average 
of  .320.  Ty  Cobb  of  the  Detroit  Tigers  once 
again  showed  the  way  in  the  American  League 
with  an  average  of  '370.  Benny  Kauff  of  the 
Brooklyn  Tip  Tops  excelled  with  the  stick  in 
the  Federal  Lea^e. 

Walter  Johnson  was  the  best  pitcher  in  the 
American  League,  while  in  the  National  League 
Alexander  of  the  Phillies  gained  the  honors. 

The  final  standing  of  the  clubs  in  the  National 
League  was:  Philadelphia  won  90,  lost  62;  Bos- 
ton won  83,  lost  69;  Brooklyn  won  80,  lost  72; 
Chicago  won  73,  lost  80;  Pittsburgh  won  73, 
lost  81;  St.  Louis  won  72,  lost  81;  Cincinnati 
won  71,  lost  83;  New  York  won  69,  lost  83. 

The  American  Leacrue  standing  was:  Boston 
won  101,  lost  60;  Detroit  won  100,  lost  54;  Chi- 
cago won  93,  lost  61;  Washington  won  85,  lost 
68;  New  York  won  69,  lost  83;  St.  Louis  won 
63,  lost  91;  Cleveland  won  57,  lost  95;  Phila- 
delphia won  43,  lost  100. 

The  Federal  League  standing  was:  Chicago 
won  86,  lost  66;  St.  Louis  won  87,  lost  67; 
Pittsburgh  won  86,  lost  67;  Kansas  City  won 
81,  lost  72;  Newark  won  80,  lost  72;  Buffalo 
won  74,  lost  78;  Brooklyn  won  70,  lost  82; 
Baltimore  won  47,  lost  107. 

The  pennant  winners  in  the  more  important 
minor  leagues  were:  International,  Buffalo; 
American  Association,  Minneapolis;  Southern 
Association,  New  Orleans;  New  England,  Port- 
land; Western,  Des  Moines;  New  York  State, 
Binghamton;  Amateur,  Englewood. 

In  collie  baseball  Harvard,  West  Point, 
Tufts,  and  Brown  made  the  best  showing.  Har- 
vard won  its  two  important  series  with  Yale 
and  Princeton  and  broke  even  with  Brown.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  season  Harvard  won  19  games  and 
lost  only  4.  The  record  of  other  leading  college 
nines  follows:  Tufts  won  18,  lost  2;  West 
Point  won  18,  lost  3;  Syracuse  won  18,  lost  4; 
Brown  won  17,  lost  4;  Lehigh  won  13,  lost  5; 
Annapolis  won  16,  lost  7;  Columbia  won  13,  lost 
6;  Yale  won  16,  lost  8;  Princeton  won  18,  lost 
11;  Amherst  won  10,  lost  9;  Cornell  won  12, 
lost  12. 

BASKETBALL.  The  American  intercollegi- 
ate basketball  championship  was  won  by  Yale 
with  nine  victories  and  two  defeats.  The  stand- 
ing of  the  other  teams  in  the  league  was:  Cor- 
nell won  7,  lost  3;  Princeton  won  6,  lost  4; 
Columbia  won  6,  lost  4;  Pennsylvania  won  3, 
lost  7;  Dartmouth  won  0,  lost  10.  The  Illinois 
five  captured  the  title  in  the  Middle  Western 
Conference  League  with  11  victories  and  no  de- 
feats. Chicago  finished  second  with  8  games 
won  and  3  games  lost. 

The  championship  of  the  Amateur  Athletic 
Union  went  to  the  Olympic  Club  team  of  San 
Francisco  which   defeated  Whittier   College  of 


80  BATTLESHIPS 

California  in  the  final  game  by  a  score  of  29 
to  16. 

BATES,  LiNDON,  Jb.  American  engineer, 
died  May  8,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Portland, 
Oreg.,  in  1883,  the  son  of  Lindon  Wallace  Bates, 
an  engineer  of  wide  reputation.  Lindon  Bates, 
Jr.,  was  educated  at  Harrow,  England,  and  at 
Yale  University.  He  graduated  from  the  latter 
in  1902,  at  once  entering  engineering  work  as 
vice-president  to  the  Bates  Engineering  Company. 
He  was  consulting  engineer  for  many  important 
companies  in  the  United  States  and  foreign  coun- 
tries. In  1896  he  traveled  extensively  in  Eu- 
rope, and  in  1900  made  an  exploring  expedition 
to  the  islands  north  of  Hudson  Bay.  Panama, 
Siberia,  Mongolia,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil  were 
also  known  to  him  as  a  traveler.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  political  and  economic  mat- 
ters; was  responsible  for  reforms  in  the  civil 
service;  and  interested  himself  in  direct  nomina- 
tions and  employers'  liability  bills.  Of  the  four 
engineers  appointed  by  Mayor  McCIellan  to  re- 
port on  a  Catskill  Aqueduct  tunnel  he  was  one. 
Two  of  the  engineering  works  with  which  he  was 
connected  were  the  Galveston  Sea  Wall  and  the 
New  York  Barge  Canal.  His  published  writ- 
ings include:  The  Loss  of  Water  in  New  York's 
Distribution  System  (1909),  The  Russian  Road 
to  China  (1910),  The  Path  of  the  Conguistadores 
(1912).  He  also  contributed  on  technical  and 
economic  subjects  to  many  magazines. 

BATTLESHIPS.  The  operations  of  the 
great  war  in  progress  in  1915  indicated  during 
the  year  very  little  as  to  the  requirements  of 
battleships,  for  there  had  been  no  battleship 
actions.  The  battle  cruiser  had  been  definitely 
accepted  and  the  armored  cruiser  as  definitely 
rejected.  In  1914  Rear- Admiral  Sir  Percy  Scott 
of  the  British  navy  declared  that  "Submarines 
have  done  away  with  the  utility  of  surface 
ships"  (see  Yeab  Book  for  1914,  p.  92).  This 
statement  was  still  far  from  being  proved.  The 
defense  against  the  submarine  was  improving 
rapidly — apparently  much  faster  than  the  sub- 
marine itself.  One  point  seemed  quite  definitely 
established:  if  a  large  vessel  is  accompanied  by 
an  adequate  screen  of  destroyers,  she  is  com- 
paratively safe  against  the  German  short-range 
torpedo.  At  longer  range,  the  submarine  may 
have  a  chance,  but  her  torpedo  must  be  larger 
or  carry  a  smaller  explosive  charge. 

Except  in  the  United  States  there  was  cer- 
tainly a  tendency  to  higher  speed  in  battleships, 
though  France  and  Austria  were  in  doubt.  Else- 
where the  speed  of  the  slowest  battleship  under 
consideration  is  22.5  knots.  The  size  of  the 
heavy  gun  for  the  new  ships  remained  as  before 
— 15  inches  in  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  14 
inches  in  the  United  States,  Austria,  and  Japan, 
13.4  inches  in  France,  and  12  inches  in  Russia. 
As  Russia  had  laid  down  no  capital  ships  for 
some  years,  there  was  no  proof  that  her  ideas  had 
not  changed.  Italy,  France,  Great  Britain,  Aus- 
tria, and  the  United  States  laid  down  new  bat- 
tleships during  1915,  the  displacement  tonnage 
being  given  in  the  Year  Book  for  1914.  The 
exact  details  of  these  vessels  (except  the  Ameri- 
can ships)  will  not  be  officially  known  until 
after  the  close  of  the  war  as  such  information 
is  guarded  carefully  by  the  belligerents.  In 
Russia,  BO  far  as  known,  no  new  battleships  had 
been  commenced.  Since  it  was  unlikely  that  they 
could  be  finished  before  the  end  of  the  war,  no 
battleships  not  well  advanced  at  the  end  of  the 


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Digitized  by 


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BATTLESHIPS  81 

year  were  likely  to  have  much  money  spent  on 
their  construction  by  the  Teutonic'  allies,  as 
all  the  funds  they  had  at  disposal  could  be 
better  devoted  to  army  equipment  and  the  com- 
pletion of  vessels  nearly  ready.  This  does  not 
apply  to  destroyers  or  submarines,  but  neither 
of  these  could  have  a  very  great  effect  upon  the 
outcome  of  the  war. 

Battle  cbuisebs  were  under  construction  for 
England,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Japan,  and  there 
was  reason  to  believe  that  the  naval  appropria- 
tion bill  for  1916  would  contain  a  provision  for 
several  for  the  United  States  navy.  If  built, 
these  vessels  were  likely  to  be  superior  to  any 
so  far  planned.  The  tonnage  would  be  well  over 
30,000 — possibly  nearer  40,000 — and  the  maxi- 
mum sea  speed  about  35  knots.  Apart  from  the 
line-of-battle,  such  vessels  would  have  an  ex- 
tended use  in  warfare.  They  could  sweep  aside 
the  cruisers,  scouts,  and  destroyers  of  the  enemy. 
Their  speed  makes  submarine  attack  impossible 
except  under  most  favorable  circumstances.  And 
they  should  be  able  to  bring  any  fleeing  enemy  to 
terms  by  heading  him  off  or  driving  in  his  flank. 
The  amount  of  armor  proposed  was  not  stated. 
No  battle  cruisers  are  heavily  armored;  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  every  decisive 
battle  of  recent  times  the  ships  of  the  winning 
side  have  received  few  injuries;  nor  must  we 
overlook  Admiral  Farragut's  maxim  that  "a 
ship's  best  defense  is  a  rapid  and  well-directed 
fire  from  her  own  guns." 

BAXTEBy  Fbancis  S.  An  Austrian  Cardinal 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  died  Nov.  26, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  1841;  became  a  priest  in 
1863;  was  created  Archbishop  of  Olmutz  in  1904; 
and  became  a  cardinal  on  Dec.  2,  1912. 

BAUXITE.    See  Aluminum  and  Bauxite. 

BEAUX-ABTS  ABCHITECTS,  Society  of. 
An  association  formed  in  New  York  for  the  edu- 
cation of  students  in  architecture.  The  system 
includes  the  establishment  in  different  cities 
of  the  United  States  of  schools  in  which  in- 
struction in  architecture  may  be  obtained.  This 
instruction  is  based  upon  the  courses  given  in 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris,  The  pro- 
gramme of  the  society  is  used  in  many  univer- 
sities and  colleges  throughout  the  country.  The 
schools  are  formed  by  groups  of  students  who 
wish  to  carry  on  the  study  of  architecture,  and 
instruction  is  given  by  a  master  or  patron,  whose 
work  is  given  free.  The  school  is  supported  by 
contributions  of  the  students.  The  committee 
on  education  issues  each  year  a  certain  number 
of  programmes  which  include  problems  to  be 
worked  out  by  the  different  schools.  These  con- 
stitute competitions  designated  as  Class  A  and 
Class  B.  During  the  season  1914-15  there  were 
978  registered  students  from  110  different  ate- 
liers, located  in  over  80  different  cities  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  During  the  year 
88  medals  were  awarded,  of  which  6  were  first 
medals,  41  second  medals,  and  41  third  medals. 
The  society  awards  regular  prizes — the  Warren 
Prize  for  general  excellence  in  planning  a  group 
of  buildings;  the  Pupin  Prize  for  decorative 
treatment;  the  Goelet  Prize  for  excellence  in 
planning  a  city  block;  the  Bacon  Prize  for  the 
greatest  number  of  honors  obtained  in  Class  A; 
the  Municipal  Arts  Society  Prize  for  the  best 
solution  of  a  city-planning  problem;  and  the 
Diplome  Prize  for  added  honors  in  Class  A  work. 

BEEHLEB,  William  Henbt.  American  naval 
officer  and  scientist,  died  June  23,  1915.    He  was 


BELGHTH 


born  in  Baltimore  in  1848;  served  in  the  Union 
League  Company  for  three  weeks  in  defense  of 
the  city  of  Baltimore  in  1863;  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1868; 
joined  the  navy  as  an  ensign  in  1869,  and  was 
subsequently  promoted  through  various  ranks 
until  ne  became  commodore  in  1907.  ^e  served 
with  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  fleets  on  various 
tours  until  1879  when  he  was  at  the  Torpedo 
Station.  From  1885-89  he  was  at  the  office 
of  Naval  Intelligence;  was  appointed  Chief  of 
Ocean  Meteorology-  of  the  Navy  Department 
in  1892,  serving  until  1895;  from  1899  to  1902 
was  naval  attache  successively  at  Berlin,  Rome, 
and  Vienna;  commandant  of  the  Naval  Station 
at  Key  West  from  1005-10;  chairman  of  the 
World's  Congress  of  Meteorology  at  the  Chicago 
Exposition  in  1893;  and  took  part  in  the  Span- 
ish-American War,  winning  two  medals  for  ser- 
vice. The  year  1910  saw  his  retirement.  He 
invented  many  scientific  appliances,  including  the 
solarometer  (1892),  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining position  and  compass  error  at  sea ;  and  he 
was  the  author  of  The  Cruise  of  the  Brooklyn 
(1884),  and  of  The  History  of  the  Italian-Turk- 
ish War  (1912).  He  also  contributed  to  maga- 
zines, chiefiy  on  naval  subjects. 

BEEB.     See  Liquors. 

BEET  SUGAB.     See  Sugar. 
»  BEIiASCO,    David.    See    Drama,    American 
AND  English. 

BELGIAN  CONGO.    See  Congo,  Belgian. 

BELGIAN  BELIEF.  See  Relief  for  War 
Victims. 

BELGIXTIMC.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of 
western  Europe,  lying  between  France  and  the 
Netherlands  and  bordering  on  the  North  Sea. 
Capital,  Brussels.  During  the  German  inva- 
sion the  government  was  removed  first  to  Os- 
tend,  later  to  Le  Havre,  France. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  and  popula- 
tion by  provinces,  according  to  the  census  taken 
Dec.  31,  1910,  and  compared  with  the  figures 
for  1831,  with  the  number  of  inhabitants  (den- 
sity) per  square  kilometer  in  1910,  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Sq.  km.          1831  1910  D. 

Antwerp     :  .  .  .  2,832  349,942  968,677  348 

Brabant    8,283  561,828  1,469.677  455 

West    Flanders 8,234  608.226  874.185  272 

East    Flanders 3,000  742,973  1.120.335  875 

Hainaut    3.7:i2  613,179  1,232.867  333 

U6ge    2,895  375,030  888.341  808 

Limburg 2,408  160.090  275,691  116 

Luxemburg     4,418  160,762  281,215  52 

Namur    8.660  213,784  362,846  99 

Total  Belg 29,451*  3,785,814     7,423.784t  254 

*  11,871  square  miles.  ^  De  jure  population;  d« 
facto   population,    7,416,454. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1910,  3,680,790  were 
males  and  3,742,994  were  females.  The  census 
of  1900  returned  6,693,548  (3,324,834  males  and 
3,368,714  females)  ;  1880,  5,520,009;  1850,  4,426,- 
205.  Since  1856  the  population  shows  an  aug- 
mentation of  63.90  per  cent,  a  development  by 
no  means  equal  throughout  the  provinces,  as 
shown  by  the  following  details:  Antwerp,  122.95 
per  cent;  Brabant,  96.26;  West  Flanders,  39.88; 
East  Flanders,  44.19;  Hainaut,  60.31;  Li^ge, 
76.38;  Limburg,  43.81;  Luxemburg,  19.33; 
Namur,  26.79.  In  the  table  below  will  be  seen 
the  population  of  1900,  the  population  of  1910, 
the  augmentation  during  the  decade  due  to  ex- 
Digitized  by  VnOOSiC 


BELGnrM 

cess  of  birtha  over  deaths,  and  that  due  to  ezeess 
of  immip-ation  over  emigration  for  the  kingdom, 
by  provinces  (-4-  =  excess  of  immigration,  —  = 
excess  of  emigration) : 

Ex.     Ex.  Jmmi- 

1900  1910  Births       aration 

Antwerp    819.159  968.677  187.121  +  12.R97 

Brabant     1.263.585  1,469,677  122,857  -f  88.785 

W.    Flanders.     805,286  874,185  105.206  —  86,807 

E.     Flanders. .  1,029.971  1.120,385  180.091  —  89.727 

Hainant     1.142,964  1,232.867  78.161  +  11.752 

Li6f?e    826.175  888.841  60,587+    1.629 

Limbnrg    240.796  275,691  48,027 —    8,182 

Luxemburg  ..     219,210  281,215  19,596 —    7.591 

Namur     846,512  862,846  21,467 —    5,183 

Belgium     ..6.698,548     7,428,784     717,568  +  12,678 

The  population  of  Antwerp  as  calculated  Dec. 
31,  1911,  was  308,618  (with  suburbs,  407,773) ; 
Brussels,  176,947  (737,432);  Li^ge,  167,676 
(243,865);  Ghent,  166,716  (211,081);  Schaer- 
beek,*  85,399;  Ixelles,*  76,405;  Molenbeek-St.- 
Jean,*  74,857;  St-Gilles,*  66,592;  Anderlecht,* 
64,426;  Malines,  59,191;  Bruges,  53,484;  Bor- 
gerhout,  50,583;  Verviers,  46,485;  Ostend,  42,- 
638:  Louvain,  42,307;  Seraing,  41,389;  Toumai, 
37,198;  Courtrai,  35,872;  Laeken,  35,714;  Alost, 
35,272;  St.-Nicolas,  34,881;  Etterbeek,  33,779; 
Namur,  32,444;  St.-Josse-ten-Noode,  32,282; 
Berchem,  30,996;  Gharleroi,  28,891;  Uccle,  28,- 
127;  Jumet,  28,020;  Mons,  27,904;  Lierre,  25,- 
985;  Forest,  25,671;  Roulers,  25,488.  The  as- 
terisks mark  faubourgs  of  Brussels.  The  four 
cities  of  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Ghent,  and  Li^ge, 
with  their  environs,  contain  21.16  per  cent  of 
the  population  of  the  kincrdom;  but  the  appear- 
ance of  urbanization  induced  by  these  figures 
is  offset  by  the  fact  that  the  dependent  communes 
cover  areas  with  boundaries  widely  separated 
from  the  urban  centres;  within  these  confines 
are  areas  devoted  to  agriculture. 

Of  the  total  poulation  in  1910,  2,833,334  spoke 
French  only,  3,220,662  Flemish  only,  31,413  Ger- 
man only,  871,288  French  and  Flemish,  74,993 
French  and  German,  8652  Flemish  and  German, 
and  52,547  all  three  languages.  In  addition 
there  were  330,893  inhabitants,  including  chil- 
dren over  two  years,  speaking  no  one  of  the  three 
languages.  The  number  of  marriages  in  1912 
was  61,278;  births,  171,187;  deaths,  112,378; 
still  births,  7789;  immigrants,  42,980;  emi- 
grants, 35,775. 

Education.  In  1910  there  were  7525  public 
primary  schools  (21,313  teachers  and  929,347 
pupils),  54  primary  normal  schools  (4725  stu- 
dents), 4722  schools  for  adults  (240,019  schol- 
ars), 3112  infant  schools  (271,237  children). 
There  were  7590  public  primary  schools  in  1911, 
with  934,830  pupils;  3186  infant  schools  with 
275,911;  4940  adult  primary  schools,  with  246,- 
292;  57  primary  normal  schools,  with  4967. 
There  are  both  state  and  private  secondary 
schools,  and  special,  technical,  and  fine  arts 
institutions.  University  population:  Ghent, 
1178;  Li4ge,  2790;  Brussels,  1318;  Louvain,  2600 
—total,  7880. 

AoBiouLTURE.  Under  cultivation  in  the  king- 
dom are  2,607,514  hectares  (including  721,938 
fallow,  under  brush,  and  otherwise  irregularly 
productive),  of  which  1,818,156  under  sown 
crops  and  grasses,  and  67,419  under  orchards, 
gardens,  vineyards,  etc.  The  following  table 
gives  areas  planted  to  main  crops  in  hectares, 
the  production  in  metric  quintals,  and  the  aver- 
age yield  per  hectare  in  1913-14: 


82 


BBLOIUJC 


Hectares  QvintaU  per 

1918-14  191»-18  1918-14      1918-18  ha. 

Wheat    ..159,494  161.817  4,019.505  8,802.699  25.2 

Rye    66.000     528,000  . . . 

Barley    ..    84.088  84,128  918.088      921,821  27.0 

Oats     ....271.694  277.694  6,960.945  7.220.044  25.6 

Flax    28.188     98.286t      4.2 

Beets*    ..    52.419  52,588  18,919.175        265.5 

Tobacco    .      4,028  4,172          89,869        22.2 

*  Sugar  beeto.  t  Seed ;  fibre  production,  178.884, 
quintals. 

Estimated  number  of  cattle  Dec.  31,  1909, 
1,856,833;  horses,  255,229;  swine,  1,116,500.  In 
1913  there  were  267,160  horses,  1,894,484  cattle, 
1,412,293  swine. 

Mining  and  Metals,  etc.  Number  of  quar- 
ries in  operation  in  1910,  1522,  with  35,711  em- 
ployees; value  of  products,  66,418,720  francs, 
in  1912,  1550,  with  35,532  employees;  value  of 
products,  69,758,300  francs.  Coal  mines,  1910, 
133  (143,701  employees)  ;  23,916,560  metric  tons, 
valued  at  348,877,000  francs  (14.59  francs  per 
ton).  In  1911,  216  mines,  of  which  127  in  opera- 
tion; output,  23,053,540  tons,  valued  at  340,- 
279,000  francs.  Value  of  iron  ore  1910,  566,950 
francs;  blende,  139,600  francs;  galena,  26,450 
francs.  Furnace  products,  1,852,090  metric 
tons,  valued  at  120,161,000  francs:  manufac- 
tured iron,  299,500  tons,  39,494,000  francs;  cast 
steel  ingots,  1,892,160  tons,  161,606,000  francs; 
worked  steel  ingots,  blooms,  and  billets,  1.074,- 
210  tons,  98,634,000  francs;  finished  steel,  1,534,- 
550  tons,  192,220,000  francs;  zinc  ingots,  181,- 
745  tons,  103,541,000  francs;  pig  lead,  40,715 
tons,  13,464,0()0  francs;  silver  from  lead,  264,- 
655  kilos,  27,754,000  francs.  Value  of  iron  ore 
1911,  766,400  francs;  blende,  14,250  francs;  pig 
iron,  1912,  160,000,000  francs;  manufactured 
iron,  40,025,000  francs;  steel  ingots,  242,377,000 
francs;  steel  rails,  etc.,  257,819,000  francs. 

Other  Indxtbtbies.  Manufacturing  industries 
according  to  the  industrial  census  of  1896  num- 
bered 337,395  enterprises  and  branches.  Of 
these,  236,000  were  permanent  establishments, 
distributed  as  follows:  165,000  (70.08  per  cent) 
home  industries  employing  no  work  people;  54,- 
500  (24.09)  small  enterprises  employing  one  to 
four  workers;  14,800  (5.12)  establishments  em- 
ploying 5  to  49  workers;  1500  (0.63)  estab- 
lishments employing  50  to  449  workers;  200 
(0.08)  great  industries  employing  500  or  more 
workers.  The  census  returned  169,778  persons 
engaged  in  the  textile  industry,  137,966  in  cloth- 
ing factories,  134,333  in  metal  works,  128,313 
in  mines,  93,577  in  construction  work,  90,443  in 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of  foodstuffs, 
88,467  in  timber  and  allied  industries,  and  57,702 
in  leather  factories.  There  were  in  operation 
in  1911,  89  sugar  works,  output  234,764  tons  of 
raw  sugar;  21  sugar  refineries,  output  121,226 
tons;  125  distilleries,  output  73,864  kilolitres 
of  alcohol  at  50®  G.L.;  output  of  the  breweries 
was  1,703,159  kilolitres;  of  the  tobacco  manu- 
factories, 10,141  tons.  The  fisheries  products 
for  1911  were  valued  at  6,381,939  francs.  The 
output  of  the  glass  factories  (1900)  was  valued 
at  65,912,000  francs.  The  number  of  strikes  in 
1911  was  156,  involving  54,947  strikers;  1906-10, 
756,  involving  121,416;  1901-05,  474,  involving 
149,987. 

OoiCMEBCE.  The  table  below  gives  a  r6sum4 
(in  millions  of  francs)  of  the  trade  during  the 
last  years  of  four  decades: 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BEIiOIUK 


83 


BELGIUM 


Imports,  general. 

Imports,  special. . 

Exports,  general . 

Exports,  special. . 


1880 
.2,710.4 
.1.680.9 
.2,225.2 
.1,216.7 


1890 
8,189.2 
1,672.1 
2.948.1 
1,487.0 


1900 
3.594.4 
2,215.8 
8,297.6 
1.922.9 


1910 
6,551.7 
4.265.0 
5,694.6 
8,407.4 


Imports  for  consumption  and  exports  of  do- 
mestic produce  are  shown  in  the  table  below,  to- 
gether with  transit  trade,  for  successiye  years, 
m  thousands  of  francs. 

1906  1910  1911  191% 

Imports 8,454,000  4,265,000  4.508,500  4.958.000 

Exports     2.798,800  8,407,400  8,580.300  8.951.500 

Transit    2,268,800  2.287.200  2.298,000  2,487.800 

Imports  and  exports  in  the  special  trade  are 
given  in  part  in  the  table  below  for  1913: 


Imports  1918 

Wool    410,198 

Wheat    898.186 

Cotton    210.420 

Lead    29.067 

Raw  hides 189.156 

Coal     161.957 

Com 110,425 

Bnhber 145,235 

Flax    100.678 

Beer    18,078 

Barley,  etc 78,018 

Coffee     92,880 

Seeds    172.725 

Wood    124.505 

Jute 14,673 

Pig  iron    48.828 

Machinery    107,036 

Oil   cake    56.809 

Copper 42.032 

Ghem.    prod. 141,696 

Petroleum    42,108 

Dyes 65,289 

Wine    40,842 


BxporU  1918 

Wool    850,497 

Flax     182,828 

Flax  yams    114.402 

Zinc 98.499 

Raw  hides    112,884 

Vehicles   94,884 

Rubber 109,249 

Iron  and  steel 251.815 

Wheat    78,126 

Coal    90.220 

Cotton    84,848 

Vegetable  oil 81.206 

Copper   82.771 

Machinery    77.112 

Oil  cloth    2.854 

Window  glass 45,741 

Dyes  and  colors  . .   68,127 

Com 24,880 

Lead 84,712 

Horses    40,894 

Wool  yarns 65,092 

Chemical   products.   93,601 
Paper   87,288 


A  few  of  the  important  imports,  with  values 
in  thousands  of  francs  in  1910,  follow:  cereals, 
etc.  (582,666);  wool  and  woolens  (442,130); 
minerals  ( 1 97,462 ) ;  seeds  (171,178);  timber 
(150,494);  cotton,  etc.  (148,489);  flax,  etc. 
(143,034) ;  raw  hides  (139,296)  ;  coal  (107,478) ; 
rough  diamonds  (98,447) ;  resins,  etc.  (96,301) ; 
iron  ore,  etc  (92,620);  machinery  (80,468); 
dyes,  etc.  (68,213);  coffee  (63,699);  live  ani- 
mals (63,334).  Exports:  wool,  yard,  and  manu- 
factures (436,460);  iron  and  steel  (224,287); 
machinery,  etc.  (180,762);  cereals  (163,170); 
raw  flax  (121,136);  vegetable  fibre,  yam,  and 
manufactures  (113,439);  seeds  (111,609);  cut 
diamonds  (99,057) ;  zinc  (91,960) ;  raw  hides 
(91,441);  coal   (88,636);  paints,  etc.   (86,087); 

?:lass  and  ^assware  (84,496) ;  cotton  manufac- 
ures  (78,478) ;  resins,  etc.  (63,010) ;  manures 
(60,277);  sugar  (46,161);  live  animals  (42,- 
647). 

Some  of  the  principal  coimtries  of  origin  and 
destination  are  given  below,  with  value  of  their 
trade  in  thousands  of  francs  for  two  years: 


1912 

1911 

1919 

1911 

Imports 

Exports 

France     

.788,761 

908,048 

695,105 

752,814 

United    Stotes 

..841,428 

418,829 

113,982 

145,128 

United    King.. 

.486,220 

505,646 

498,187 

594,625 

Netherlands   .. 

.298,217 

356,578 

852,846 

367,599 

Germany    

.602,898 

703,120 

959,881 

1,007,469 

British    India. 

.267.614 

249,551 

84,967 

40.389 

Russia    

.818,136 

272,827 

66,904 

83.496 

Rumania    

.245.289 

200,962 

24.288 

17,771 

In  1910,  France  furnished  imports  to  the  value 
of  747.2  millions  of  francs  and  received  exports 


valued  at  669.1  millions;  Germany,  6761  and 
881.4;  Great  Britain,  616.8  and  467.6;  Russia, 
364.1  and  67.0;  Netherlands,  293.1  and  327.9; 
Argentina,  278.1  and  128.6;  United  States,  231.2 
and  117.1. 

Communications.  Railway  in  operation,  Dec. 
31,  1910,  by  the  state,  4330  kilometers  (of  which 
4072  state  owned) ;  by  companies,  349— a  total 
length  of  4679  kilometers  throughout  the  king- 
dom. At  the  end  of  1912  there  were  4719  kilo- 
meters of  railway  in  operation,  of  which  4369 
were  operated  by  the  state.  Local  lines,  3866 
kilometers.  The  Belgian  railway  lines,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  German  invasion,  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  German  authorities  and  were  oper- 
ated by  them  regularly  after  November,   1914. 

Soon  after  the  military  occupation  of  Belgium 
by  the  Germans  the  permanent  way  over  a  large 
amount  of  Belgian  railway  was  removed,  and- 
this  led  to  a  protest  to  the  neutral  states  by  the 
Belgian  government,  which  claimed  that  the 
proceeding  would  hamper  the  trade  business  of 
the  kingdom  and  was  a  violation  of  the  laws 
and  customs  of  war.  Furthermore,  as  an  inci- 
dent of  the  military  operations,  a  comprehensive 
network  of  light  railways  was  constructed  in 
Belgium,  as  well  as  in  the  occupied  district  of 
France,  so  as  to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  high- 
ways and  release  cars  for  service  in  the  Eastern 
campaigns.  A  uniform  method  of  construction 
was  employed,  involving  light  rails  of  high  grade 
steel,  laid  on  steel  ties,  and  built  up  in  serious 
so  they  could  be  laid  very  rapidly,  four  railway 
battalions  being  able  to  lay  70  miles  of  track  in 
two  weeks.  Track  laying  on  level  ground  was 
in  some  cases  carried  forward  at  the  rate  of  10 
miles  a  day,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  daily  aver- 
age advance  of  an  army.  These  railways  were 
narrow  gauge,  but  the  passenger  cars  seated  five 
people  on  a  side. 

In  the  summer  the  construction  of  a  new  rail- 
way line  between  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Brussels, 
via  Vise,  was  begun  by  the  Germans  and  work- 
men were  busy  day  and  night.  This  involved 
the  building  of  a  new  bridge  near  Lische.  The 
new  railway  through  Belgium  was  to  be  an  al- 
most straight  line,  without  regard  to  private 
property  or  natural  obstacles,  as  the  German 
authorities  considered  such  a  railway  of  the 
greatest  importance,  not  only  for  immediate  serv- 
ice but  for  the  future.  It  was  also  proposed  to 
double  track  the  line  from  Selzaete  to  Moer- 
beke  and  probably  also  the  Selzaete-Eecloo- 
Bruges  line. 

There  were  7976  kilometers  of  telegraph  lines 
and  43,647  of  wires;  in  addition,  there  were  620 
kilometers  of  wires  installed  at  the  expense  of 
private  railway  companies.  There  were  1659 
telegraph  stations.  Urban  telephone  wires,  233,- 
086  kilometers;  interurban  wires,  29,434.  Post 
offices,  1708.  The  merchant  marine  included  at 
the  end  of  1912,  97  steamers  of  174,021  tons  and 
eight  sailing  vessels,  of  7616  tons.  Vessels  en- 
tered in  the  1912  trade,  11,230,  of  16,363,933 
tons;  cleared,  11,214,  of  16,319,066  tons. 

Finance.  The  franc  (worth  19.295  cents)  is 
the  unit  of  value.  The  table  of  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure  below  is  in  thousands  of  francs  and 
includes  loans  (1912  budget): 

1885        1900  1909         1919 

Rev.   ordinary    89,171  494,106  645,107  703,883* 

Rev.    extraordinary. .    1,904     48,672   150,109     


Total    91,076  542,778  795,216 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BELGIXTM 

1835        1900  1909         1912 

Exp.   ordinarv    85,614  470,056  634.450  708,081t 

Exp.    extraordinary.  .    1,400     05,102   151,747     


Total    87.104  574,158  786.107 


♦Direct  taxes,  73,166.000  francs;  customs,  57.803,- 
650;  excise,  81,138,300;  registration.  77,253,000;  rev- 
enue-earning administrations,  871,025.730;  domains, 
dividends,  interest,  etc.,  31,635,000;  repayments,  etc., 
8.458.324. 

t  Service  of  the  debt.  108,711,030:  civil  list.  5,470,- 
000;  justice.  30.636,400;  foreigrn  affairs.  4.000.846;  in- 
terior, 7,702.015;  sciences  and  arts,  40,670,402;  col- 
onies, 1,262,700;  industry  and  labor.  26,764.217;  rail- 
ways, posts,  telegraphs.  255,728,468;  war,  67,076.440; 
gendarmerie.  10.370,460:  finance,  24,385,000;  agricul- 
ture and  public  works,  30,446,746;  repayments,  etc.,  2,- 
826,000. 

The  1914  budget  is  detailed  as  follows,  in  thou- 
sands of  franes:  Revenue — property  taxes,  30,- 
362 ;  personal  taxes,  27,257 ;  trade  licenses,  0500 ; 
tax  on  incomes,  18,000;  motor  cars,  1500; 
cinemas,  500;  mines,  29;  customs,  72,031;  ex- 
cise, 94,703;  various,  1652;  rej^istration,  etc., 
49,100;  succession,  32,100;  stamps,  14,500;  fines, 
etc.,  3013;  rivers,  etc.,  3690;  railways,  362,300; 
tele^aph  and  telephone,  23,535;  post  offices, 
27,950;  steamboats,  2210;  domains,  etc.,  5590; 
various,  28,179;  repavments,  9609; — ^total,  807,- 
313.  Expenditure— public  debt,  217,503;  civil 
list,  dotations,  5614;  justice,  32,248;  foreign  af- 
fairs, 5127;  interior,  7979;  sciences  and  arts, 
43,179;  industry,  26,873;  railways,  246,484; 
marine,  posts,  telegraphs,  54,693;  war  and  gen- 
darmerie, 101,096;  finance,  26,544;  public  works 
and  agriculture,  35,139;  colonies,  1443;  repay- 
ments, etc.,  2826;  total,  806,754. 

The  total  consolidated  debt  in  1835  was  96,- 
841,080  francs;  in  1870,  682,880,914;  in  1900, 
2,650,898,161;  in  1910,  3,703,403,693;  on  Jan.  1, 
1912,  the  total  consolidated  debt  was  3,734,354,- 
038;  on  Jan.  1,  1913,  3,739,133,738  francs— 219,- 
959,632  francs  share  of  the  Netherlands  debt  at 
2%  per  cent,  and  3,519,174,106  francs  loans  at 
3  per  cent.  The  greater  part  of  the  debt  was 
raised  for  public  works,  and  the  interest  is  more 
than  covered  by  the  revenue  from  railways  alone. 

Army.  With  the  defeat  of  the  Belgian  army 
and  the  retreat  from  Antwerp  the  forces  became 
disorganized  temporarily,  yet  they  gradually 
came  together  and  the  army  was  increased  and 
reorganized  so  that  it  was  able  to  take  up  a  posi- 
tion of  defense  on  the  banks  of  the  Yser  and 
became  a  formidable  part  of  the  allied  troops. 
This  army  was  fully  armed  and  equipped  and  so 
augmented  by  volunteers  not  only  from  the  con- 
quered Belgian  provinces,  but  also  by  refugees 
who  had  gone  to  England  and  France  at  the  out- 
break of  the  war.  Special  training  camps  were 
formed  in  different  parts  of  France  where  these 
men  were  fully  trained  before  they  were  sent  to 
the  front.  It  was  reported  that  the  Belgian 
army  was  really  increased  and  with  the  large 
number  of  volunteers  enlisted  at  the  training 
camps  it  was  stated  that  at  the  end  of  the  year 
1915  this  army  was  greater  than  ever  previously. 
At  the  temporary  capital  of  the  kingdom  at 
Havre,  France,  a  law  was  passed  providing  for 
compulsory  general  service  which  exempted  mar- 
ried men  and  included  single  men  up  to  the  age 
of  25.  No  such  measure  apparently  was  needed 
for  enlistment  was  general  among  the  available 
Belgians.  AdcHjuate  arms  and  equipment  were 
provided  for  tliis  Belgian  army,  especially  for 
those  in  the  trenches,  so  that  as  a  fighting  force 
it  was  in  far  better  shape  than  it  had  been  to 
resist  the  invasion. 


84  BELGIXTM 

GovEBiSTMENT.  The  King  is  the  executive,  as- 
sisted by  a  ministry  of  eight  members,  responsi- 
ble to  a  chamber  of  representatives  and  appointed 
by  the  King.  The  legislative  power  is  exercised 
conjointly  by  the  King  and  a  Parliament  made 
up  of  two  houses — ^a  Senate  and  an  elective 
Cnamber  of  Representatives.  The  reigning  sov- 
ereign during  the  German  invasion  was  Albert, 
son  of  the  late  Prince  Philippe  of  Saxe-Coburg 
and  Goth  a,  born  1875.  Prince  Leopold  (bom 
1901)   is  heir-apparent. 

History 

Restoration  and  Relief  Work.  The  War 
Relief  Commission  sent  to  Belgium  in  November, 
1914,  by  the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  issued  a 
notable  report,  Feb.  15,  1915,  describing  the  con- 
dition of  Belgium,  and  emphasizing  the  fact  that 
the  chief  cause  of  misery  was  the  sudden  sus- 
pension of  the  nation's  economic  activities.  "Es- 
sentially the  problem  is  not  one  of  repair,  but  of 
liberation.  If  the  paralyzing  restrictions  im- 
posed by  the  war  were  removes!  to-day,  the  coun- 
try would  rebound  from  its  helpless  inertia  to- 
morrow, resume  most  of  its  normal  occupations, 
and  soon  be  able  to  feed,  shelter,  and  clothe  its 
own  sufferers."  One  of  the  most  serious  prob- 
lems, the  report  explained,  was  the  destruction 
of  live  stock  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
unwillingness  of  the  peasants  to  keep  horses  and 
cattle  because  of  the  fear  that  the  animals  would 
be  requisitioned  by  the  German  military  authori- 
ties. In  February  an  organized  effort  was  begun 
by  the  Central  Committee  for  the  Agricultural 
Restoration  of  Belgium  and  Northern  France  to 
collect  seed,  stock,  etc.,  to  repair  the  ravages  of 
war.  According  to  the  Committee's  statement 
the  loss  sustained  by  the  rural  districts  of  Bel- 
gium aggregated  $280,000,000;  of  the  total  loss, 
the  destruction  of  crops  and  stock  represented 
more  than  half.  The  Belgian  and  French  Minis- 
ters of  Agriculture  accepted  proposals  made  by 
the  Committee  to  undertake  the  distribution  of 
gifts  to  the  agricultural  laborers  of  Belgium  and 
France.  The  International  Garden  Cities  and 
Town  Planning  Association  in  its  world-wide 
conference  at  ]x>ndon,  about  the  middle  of  Febru- 
ary, suggested  a  comprehensive  scheme,  which 
received  the  official  approval  of  the  French  and 
Belgian  governments,  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
country  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  A 
unique  proposal  for  the  restoration  of  Belgium 
was  that  made  by  Mr.  John  Wanamaker,  the 
wealthy  American  merchant;  Mr.  Wanamaker 
proposed  that  the  United  States  should  pur- 
chase Belgium  from  the  German  government, 
paying  as  high  a  price  as  $100,000,000,000  if 
necessary,  in  order  that  American  philanthropy 
might  conduct  the  work  of  restoring  peace  and 
prosperity  to  the  desolate  nation.  Meanwhile 
an  immense  amount  of  practical  relief  work  was 
actually  bein?  accomplished  in  Belgium,  partly 
upon  the  initiative  of  the  German  administra- 
tive authorities,  as  will  presently  appear,  and 
partly  by  the  Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium, 
which  was  generously  supported  by  contributions 
from  Belgium  and  from  abroad.  The  Commis- 
sion's report,  published  early  in  September,  re- 
corded the  collection  and  disbursement  of  fifty 
million  dollars.  More  than  half  of  the  money 
contributions  were  made  by  the  Belgians  them- 
selves. About  six  million  dollars  had  been  con- 
tributed by  the  United  States,  in  the  form  of 


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BELGIXTM 


money,  clothes,  and  food.  The  German  govern- 
ment, it  may  be  noted  in  this  connection,  had 
promised  safe  conduct  to  American  vessels  laden 
with  supplies  for  the  relief  of  Belgium.  The 
report  of  the  Commission  furthermore  revealed 
the  fact  that  in  June,  1915,  about  2,750,000  Bel- 
gians were  destitute,  and  were  being  supplied 
with  food  and  clothing  in  so  far  as  the  Com- 
mission's resources  would  permit.  Unemploy- 
ment and  destitution  were  steadily  increasing, 
and  the  prospects  for  the  future  were  indeed 
gloomy.  A  report  of  the  Rockefeller  Founda- 
tion, published  about  the  same  time  as  the  Re- 
lief Commission's  report,  showed  that  the  expen- 
diture of  the  Foundation  for  relief  purposes  in 
Belgium  had  amoimted  to  $986,000,  and  that  a 
number  of  Belgian  scientists,  formerly  profes- 
sors at  Louvain,  were  receiving  moderate  sti- 
pends to  allow  them  to  continue  their  scientific 
work  in  England  or  America. 

The  Gebman  Administration  in  Belgium. 
Three  features  of  the  German  administration  in 
Belgium  were  specially  worthy  of  note.  In 
the  first  place,  the  German  Governor-General, 
General  von  Bissing,  was  chiefly  anxious  to 
maintain  order  and  discipline — ^no  easy  task 
with  a  people  whose  hearts  had  recently  been 
inflamed  by  their  heroic  struggle  against  the 
German  invader,  and  whose  detestation  of 
"Prussian  militarism"  and  bureaucracy  had 
been  raised  to  the  pitch  of  passion.  In  conse- 
quence. General  von  Bissing  deemed  it  necessary 
to  employ  harsh  measures.  Each  community 
was  held  collectively  responsible  for  any  dis- 
turbance which  might  occur  within  its  midst, 
and  the  fearful  punishment  which  had  been 
meted  out  to  Belgian  towns  during  the  German 
invasion  made  "collective  responsibility"  no 
empty  phrase.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  submissiveness  shown  by  the  conquered  Bel- 
gian population  in  1915  was  ascribed  in  Ger- 
man circles  to  the  salutary  effect  of  the  stern 
measures  of  the  preceding  autumn,  which  had 
struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  people.  In 
three  separate  paragraphs  under  this  article 
will  be  found  a  discussion  of  the  Treatment  of 
Cardinal  Mercier,  the  Case  of  Miss  Cavell,  and 
The  Bryce  Report,  all  of  which  have  some  bear- 
ing upon  the  disciplinary  measures  employed 
by  the  Germans  in  Belgium.  A  second  note- 
worthy feature  of  the  German  administration 
was  the  endeavor  of  the  German  officials  gen- 
erally to  cooperate  with  the  various  philan- 
thropic organizations  for  the  relief  of  the  dis- 
tressed population.  In  March  General  von  Bis- 
sing announced  that  he  was  doing  all  in  his 
power  to  strengthen  local  self-government  and 
social  welfare  institutions  in  Belgium,  that  the 
return  of  immigrants  was  being  encouraged,  and 
that  the  German  Red  Cross  had  been  asked  to 
take  preventive  action  against  prostitution,  in- 
fant mortality,  and  contagious  diseases  within 
the  country.  In  April  a  credit  bank  was  in- 
stituted to  make  cash  advances  on  the  requisi- 
tions which  were  being  given  by  the  Germans  in 
payment  for  large  quantities  of  goods  then  be- 
ing seized.  The  refusal  of  the  Belgian  Red 
Cross  in  the  middle  of  April  to  enter  into  a 
systematic  plan  for  relieving  the  distress  in 
Belgium  brought  about  tlie  dissolution  of  the 
society  by  decree  of  the  Governor-General,  and 
the  appointment  of  a  German  officer  to  super- 
vise the  work.  In  July  announcement  was  made 
that   the    American   Commission    for    Relief    in 


85  BELGIUM 

Belgium  had  concluded  an  agreement  with  Gen- 
eral von  Bissing,  whereby  all  of  the  wheat  and 
rye  crops  in  the  zone  occupied  by  the  Germans 
should  be  reserved  for  the  needs  of  the  civilian 
population.  Only  West  Flanders  and  a  part 
of  East  Flanders,  for  obvious  reasons,  were  ex- 
cluded from  this  agreement.  Ordinarily  the 
crops  would  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  country 
for  two  months,  but  with  economical  use,  and 
with  the  bountiful  supply  of  seed  by  the  Amer- 
ican Commission,  Belgium's  stock  of  cereals  was 
expected  to  last  much  longer.  In  the  middle 
of  October  the  Chief  of  the  German  Army  Staff 
announced  that  arrangements  had  been  made 
to  provision  2,000,000  civilians  in  East  and 
West  Flanders.  The  authorities  requisitioned  a 
portion  of  the  cereal  and  root  crops  in  those 
provinces,  leaving  the  remainder  to  be  dis- 
tributed by  the  American  Commission.  The 
Commission  undertook  to  import  wheat  to  sup- 
ply the  deficit,  and  also  to  supply  bacon,  rice, 
lard,  and  fodder,  for  the  use  of  the  Belgian 
civilian  population.  The  third  feature  of  the 
German  administration  in  Belgium  was  the  at- 
tempt to  put  the  occupation  of  Belgium  upon 
a  self-supporting  if  not  a  profitable  basis.  The 
levy  of  a  heavy  tax  on  absentee  (emigrant) 
landlords,  announced  in  January,  and  the  im- 
position of  a  monthly  war  contribution  of  40,- 
000,000  francs,  announced  November  13,  to  be- 
come effective  in  December,  were  calculated  to 
help  defray  the  actual  cost  of  administration. 
Even  more  important  were  the  measures  taken 
to  make  Belgium's  industrial  resources  valu- 
able to  Germany.  From  the  formal  statement 
issued  March  5,  by  the  Belgian  legation  at  Lon- 
don, the  fact  appears  that  more  than  $3,000,000 
worth  of  Belgian  machinery  had  been  seized  by 
the  Germans.  In  order  that  there  might  be  a 
plentiful  supply  of  labor  for  the  construction  of 
arsenals,  the  operation  of  mines,  and  the  repair 
of  railroads,  General  von  Bissing  issued  a  de- 
cree imposing  penalties  on  Belgians  who  re- 
fused without  good  reason  to  resume  work  in 
consonance  with  their  former  professional  train- 
ing. Any  attempt,  whether  by  means  of  threats, 
persuasion,  or  coercion,  to  hinder  persons  work- 
ing for  the  German  authorities,  would  be  se- 
verely punished.  Destitution  itself,  if  due  to 
stubborn  refusal  to  work,  would  be  treated  as 
a  misdemeanor.  Furthermore,  in  order  to  pro- 
mote the  sale  of  German  manufactures  in  Bel- 
gium, penalties  were  promulgated  against  any 
Belgian  who  should  conspire  with  others  to 
boycott  German  goods,  or  to  threaten,  black- 
list, boycott,  or  insult  users  of  German  goods. 
For  such  offenses  the  penalties  might  be,  at  the 
maximum,  two  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine 
of  10,000  marks. 

The  German  Chancellor's  Statement.  The 
result  of  more  than  a  year  of  German  admin- 
istration in  Belgium  was  strikingly  summar- 
ized, from  the  German  point  of  view,  by  Im- 
perial Chancellor  von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  in  his 
historic  Reichstag  speech  of  Dec.  9,  1915: 

''In  Belgium  the  economic  situation  is  almost 
normal.  Industry  and  commerce  have  been  re- 
invigorated,  monetary  matters  have  been  regu- 
lated, the  post  office,  railways,  shipping,  and 
roads  are  working,  the  production  of  coal  is 
rapidly  increasing,  and  last  quarter  reached 
nearly  three  and  a  half  millions  of  tons.  Un- 
employment is  being  checked,  but  it  is  impos- 
sible to  bring  the  labor  market  to  a  normal  state 


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BELGIUM  86 

because  Great  Britain  is  strangling  Belgian  in- 
dustry by   closing  its  oversea  export.     A  gen- 
eral obligation  to  visit  schools  for  instruction 
in  the  Flemish  language  has  been  introduced." 
The  Treatment  of  Cardinal  Mercieb.    Of 
the   several   instances   of   arbitrary   conduct   on 
the    part   of   German    ofiScials    in    Belgium,    in 
conscKjuence  of  which  bitter  reproaches  were  di- 
rected against  the  German  government  by  the 
press  of  allied  and  neutral  countries,  the  case 
of  Cardinal  Mercier  attracted  the  most  general 
attention,  partly  because  of  his  conspicuous  po- 
sition, as  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Malines,  and 
Roman  Catholic  PHmate  of  Belgium,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held 
by  the  Belgian  people.    A  trip  through  Belgium 
late   in    the   preceding  year   so   deeply   touched 
the  heart  of  the  prelate  that,  in  January,  1915, 
he  was  moved  to  write  a  pastoral  letter  on  the 
condition  of  Belgium.    The  letter  was  appointed 
to  be  read  in  all  the  churches  of  his  diocese  on 
Sunday,  January  3.    Having  learned  of  the  car- 
dinal's action,  and  being  informed  that  the  let- 
ter was  anti-German  in  tone,  the  German  au- 
thorities attempted  by  force  to  seize  as  many 
as  possible  of  the  copies  which  had  been  sent 
to  the  parish  priests.     At  the  same  time  Car- 
dinal Mercier  was  made  practically  a  prisoner 
within  the  confines  of  Malines  by  the  authori- 
ties, who  kept  several  officers  near  him  at  all 
times.     Early  reports  stated  that  the  cardinal 
was  in  actual  confinement,  but  this  the  German 
authorities  denied,  stating  at  the  time  that  he 
had  merely  been  request^  by  the  Governor  of 
Malines  not  to  take  an  attitude  which  might 
incite  the  people  to  disturb  public  order.    On 
January    12    King   Albert   of    Belgiimi    sent    a 
personal  protestation  to  Rome  asking  that  the 
Vatican  take  action  asainst   the   incarceration 
of  the  cardinal.     In  a  letter  which  anpeared  in 
the    newspapers    on    January    19,    the   cardinal 
protested  against  the  action  of  the  authorities, 
and  stated  that  he  was  being  prevented  from 
traveling    freely,    notwithstanding   the   German 
communication   "that  the  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  Malines  has  been  in  no  wise  hindered  in  the 
exercise  of  his  episcopal  duties."    In  answer  to 
a  remonstrance  from  the  Holy  See  the  German 
authorities    in    the    middle    of    February    an- 
nounced   the    withdrawal    of    restrictions    upon 
the  cardinal's  freedom  of  communication  with 
the  bishops  and  other  clergy  of  Belgium.    The 
pastoral  letter  of  January  3,  which  had  caused 
all  the  trouble,  contained  the  following  state- 
ment  which   the   Germans   considered    provoca- 
tive: . 

"I  have  gone  through  most  of  the  places  in 
my  diocese  which  have  been  wasted.  .  .  . 
What  I  have  seen  of  the  ruins  and  the  ashes 
passes  anything  that,  in  spite  of  my  most  acute 
fears,  I  could  ever  have  imagined.  .  .  . 
Churches,  schools,  charitable  institutions,  hos- 
pitals, convents,  to  a  considerable  number,  are 
unfit  for  use  or  are  in  ruins.  Whole  villages 
have  almost  disappeared.  .  .  .  God  will  save 
Belgium,  my  brothers,  we  cannot  doubt  it.  Let 
us  say,  rather,  He  is  saving  her.  ...  Is  there 
a  single  patriot  who  does  not  feel  that  glory 
has  come  to  Belgium  T  Which  of  us  would  have 
the  courage  to  tear  out  the  last  page  of  our 
history?  Which  of  us  can  look  without  pride 
on  the  splendor  of  the  glory  that  our  mur- 
dered country  has  won?" 

The    Bbtce    Report.    Full    details    of    the 


BELGIXrU 


shocking  outrages  alleged  to  have  been  perpe- 
trated by  the  German  army  during  the  invasion 
of  Belgium  were  published  in  the  Bryce  Re- 
port, May  12,  1915,  as  the  result  of  a  careful 
investigation  conducted  by  a  commission  of  emi- 
nent British  jurists  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Viscount  Bryce.  From  the  evidence  accumu- 
lated the  commission  reached  the  conclusion 
that  (1)  the  German  troops  in  many  parts  of 
Belgium  deliberately  organized  systematic  mas- 
sacres of  the  civilian  population,  and  in  other 
places  committed  isolated  murders  and  outrages; 
(2)  that  outrages  upon  women,  the  killing  of 
children,  and  the  butchery  of  innocent  civilians 
attended  the  progress  of  the  German  invasion 
quite  generally;  (3)  that  the  destruction  of 
private  property  and  the  burning  of  private 
houses  was  not  only  permitted  by  the  German 
officers,  but  in  some  cases  actually  ordered  by 
them,  careful  provision  having  been  made  in  ad- 
vance for  the  incendiarism  which  the  German 
troops  practiced  as  part  of  their  campaign  of 
terrorism;  (4)  that  the  German  troops  by  in- 
terposing civilians  between  themselves  and  the 
enemy's  fire,  by  killing  wounded  and  prisoners, 
and  by  abusing  the  Red  Cross,  had  flagrantly 
violated  the  rules  and  usages  of  civiliz^  war- 
fare. As  a  counterblast  to  the  Bryce  Report, 
the  German  government  publiE^ed  a  memoran- 
dum specifying  in  detail,  with  the  names  of  wit- 
nesses, the  acts  of  the  civilian  population — such 
as  throwing  boiling  water,  "sniping  off"  sol- 
diers, maiming  woimded  Germans,  and  mur- 
dering officers — ^which  led  to  the  punishment  of 
Belgian  towns,  including  Louvain.  Further- 
more, the  German  apologists  were  supplied  with 
additional  material  for  the  justification  of  Ger- 
many  by  the  discovery  of  secret  Belgian  diplo- 
matic documents,  which,  it  was  claimed,  proved 
that  Belgium's  fate  was  deserved,  inasmuch  as 
her  neutrality  had  already  been  surrendered  to 
England. 

The  Case  of  Edith  Cavell.  In  October, 
1915,  a  new  "German  atrocity"  in  Belgium 
aroused  the  British  public  to  furious  indigna- 
tion and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  the  public  of  neu- 
tral countries.  According  to  the  account  of  the 
affair  sent  by  the  American  minister.  Brand 
Whitlock,  to  London,  and  published  by  the  Brit- 
ish government,  Miss  Edith  Cavell,  an  English- 
woman who  had  been  in  charge  of  a  training 
school  in  Brussels,  was  accused  of  utilizing  her 
position  as  a  nurse  to  assist  in  the  escape  of 
British,  Belgian,  and  French  soldiers  from  Bel- 
gium. She  had  been  arrested  August  5th;  Oc- 
tober 11th  she  was  condemned  to  he  executed  by 
a  firing  squad  of  German  soldiers.  Disliking  to 
kill  a  woman  in  cold  blood,  the  firing  squad  had 
aimed  so  inaccurately  that  Miss  Cavell  was  not 
killed,  but  only  wounded  by  a  single  bullet. 
Thereupon — and  this  was  the  circumstance 
which  particularly  infuriated  the  British  press 
— the  German  officer  in  charge  of  the  firing 
squad  drew  his  revolver,  put  it  up  to  the  wom- 
an's ear,  and  deliberately  pulled  the  trigger. 
In  England  Miss  Cavell  was  hencefortli  re- 
garded as  a  martyr,  a  sort  of  British  Joan  of 
Arc.  A  memorial  service  at  Westminster  Abbey, 
attended  by  Mr.  Asquith  as  well  as  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  royal  family,  was  thronged  by 
a  vast  multitude  anxious  to  do  her  honor. 
Plans  were  made  to  erect  a  statue  to  her  mem- 
ory. 
Belgian    Rotal    Family.    Early    in    April, 


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BELGIXTM 

Prince  Leopold,  thirteen  and  a  half  years  of 
age,  the  youngest  son  of  the  King  and  Queen, 
enlisted  in  the  war.  He  joined  a  famous  regi- 
ment of  the  line  noted  for  its  heroic  defense  of 
Dizmude.  On  April  8th  King  Albert  celebrated 
his  fortieth  birthday  among  the  ruined  towns 
of  Flanders,  all  that  remained  of  his  kingdom. 
Among  others.  President  Woodrow  Wilson  sent 
His  Majesty  greetings  on  the  occasion.  Late  in 
May  the  King  conferred  the  Grand  Gordon 
of  the  Order  of  Leopold  on  Field  Marshal 
Lord  Kitchener,  British  Secretary  of  State  for 
War. 

Relations  with  the  Vatican.  On  March 
17th  Baron  van  den  Heuvel,  the  Belgian  Minis- 
ter to  the  Vatican,  presented  his  compliments  to 
the  Pope.  Pope  Benedict,  in  answering  the 
Baron,  referred  to  the  protests  which  the  fate 
of  Belgiiun  already  had  drawn  from  him  in  his 
Consistorial  Allocution  of  January  22nd,  and 
continued : 

"We  wish  that  our  dear  Belgian  children  may 
soon  salute  the  beautiful  sim  of  peace  on  the 
horizon  of  their  country.  We  even  desire  not 
to  limit  ourselves  to  mere  wishes,  but  for  the 
moment  we  ask  the  Belgians  not  to  doubt  the 
benevolence  with  which  we  love  to  surround 
them." 

MnjTABY  Operations  in  Belgium,  see  article 
Wab  of  the  Nations,  piiasim. 

BELOIXTMy  Commission  fob  Relief  in.  See 
Belgium;  and  Relief  fob  Wab  Victims. 

BENEPACnONS.    See  Chabities. 

BENNETT,  Abnold.  See  Litebatube,  Eng- 
lish AND  Amebican,  Fiction. 

BENSONy  Richabd  Meux.  A  Church  of  Eng- 
land clergyman,  died  Jan.  14,  1915.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ's  Church  College,  Oxford,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1849.  In  1850-70  he  was 
vicar  of  Cowley,  and  from  1870-76  vicar  at 
Cowley-St.  John.  The  founder  of  the  Society  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist,  commonly  called  the 
Cowley  Fathers,  he  became  its  first  Superior. 
His  published  writings  include:  The  Wiedom  of 
the  Son  of  David;  The  Final  Passover;  The  Life 
Beyond  the  Grave;  War  Bongs  of  the  Prince  of 
Peace;  and  8t,  Columhay  a  poem. 

BEBCHTOLD,  Count.  See  Austbia-Hun- 
GABT,  History, 

BEBEA  college.  An  institution  for 
higher  education,  foimded  in  1845,  at  Berea, 
Ky.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments  in 
the  autumn  of  1915  was  1262.  The  faculty 
numbered  96.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during  the 
year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  re- 
ceived. The  college  has  an  endowment  of  about 
$1,000,000,  and  a  total  income  of  about  $118,000 
per  year.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes. 
The  president  is  William  G.  Frost,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

BEBIBEBI.  No  new  theories  concerning 
this  disease  have  been  put  forward  during  the 
past  year.  An  interesting  incident  which  sup- 
ports the  dietary  theory  was  the  arrival  of  a 
German  war  vessel,  Kronprinz  Wilhelm,  which 
put  into  an  American  port  after  a  cruise  of  255 
days.  A  large  number  of  the  crew  were  found 
by  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service  to 
be  sufferinff  from  beriberi,  and  inquiry  into  their 
diet  revealed  the  fact  that  foods  having  the 
bases  of  lime  were  markedly  deficient,  fresh 
meat,  white  flour,  bread  and  crackers,  boiled  po- 
tatoes, butter,  lard,  and  sugar  being  the  chief 
articles  of   food.    It  is   notable  that  47   cases 


87  BETBEBEB 

were  cured  in  eight  days  after  a  change  was 
made  to  a  diet  rich  in  alkaline  asli. 

BEBMTJBA.  A  group  of  islands  (about  300) 
lying  about  500  miles  to  the  east  of  Cape  Hat- 
teras;  a  British  colony.  Area,  about  19  square 
miles;  population  (1911  census),  18,994  (12,303 
colored).  Hamilton  (the  capital)  had  2627  in- 
habitants; St.  George's,  1079.  During  the  year 
ended  May,  1912,  about  20,000  tourists  entered 
the  colony.  The  mild,  equable  climate  has  long 
made  the  islands  a  favorite  winter  resort. 
Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  area  is  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. The  remainder  is  utilized  for  the  pro- 
duction of  early  spring  table  crops,  for  export 
to  the  United  States.  There  are  no  railways. 
There  is  a  private  telephone  company,  with 
about  1560  miles  of  wires.  Commerce  and 
finance  statistics  from  1910-13  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 

1910          1911            1919  1918 

Imports     £517,074  £545,540    £687,178  £570,576 

Expenditure    ..     68,892       90,100        78,210  87.779 

ExporU    106,508     184,088      116,586  90,695 

Revenue    78,598        79,248        88,629  80.576 

Shipping* 688,815     700.869   1,278.666  1,255,866 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

Customs  revenue  (1913),  £64,711.  The  Gov- 
ernor, Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  George  Mackworth  Bul- 
lock, was  appointed  April  4,  1912. 

BEBNSTOBFFy  Count  von.  See  United 
States  and  the  Wab. 

BESSEY,  Charles  Edwin.  American  bota- 
nist and  educator,  died  Feb.  26,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Milton,  Wayne  County,  Ohio,  in  1845, 
and  graduated  from  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College  in  1869.  In  1872  and  1873,  and  in  1875 
and  1876  he  studied  at  Harvard  University 
under  Dr.  Asa  Gray.  Afterwards  taking  a  post 
graduate  course  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa, 
he  received  thence  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  From 
1879-84,  professor  of  botany  at  the  Iowa  Agri- 
cultural College,  he  was  acting  president  of  that 
institution  in  1882,  whence  he  went  as  professor 
of  botany  to  the  University  of  Nebraska  in 
1884,  and  there,  from  1888-91,  he  acted  as 
chancellor  of  the  university,  as  he  did  again 
from  1899-1900,  and  in  1907.  In  1909  he  was 
appointed  dean  of  that  institution  and  con- 
tinued in  this  capacity  until  his  death.  From 
1880  to  1897  he  was  botanical  editor  of  the 
American  Naturalist,  and  acted  in  the  same  ca- 
pacity for  Science  from  1897  through  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  From  1910-11  he  was  pres- 
ident of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science;  and  he  was  an  official  or 
member  in  many  other  scientific  societies.  He 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Iowa  College 
in  1898.  His  published  writings  include:  Ge- 
ography of  Iowa  (1876);  Botany  for  High 
Schools  and  Colleges  (1880);  The  Examination 
of  Botany  (1884);  Elementary  Botany  (1904); 
Outlines  of  Plant  Phyla  (1909,  1911,  1912, 
1913).  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  bota- 
nists in  the  United  States. 

BETBEDEB,  Onofbe.  An  Argentine  vice  ad- 
miral, died  Jan.  24,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
1862,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  the  naval  serv- 
ice, after  graduation  from  the  naval  academy 
at  Buenos  Aires  in  1880.  For  two  presidential 
terms,  beginning  in  1898,  he  was  Secretary  of 
the  Navy.  He  was  made  a  rear  admiral  in  1904. 
Of  the  Argentine  commission,  which  since  May, 


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8d 


BLTTE  SKY  LAWS 


1911,  has  been  in  New  York  City  supervising  the 
construction  of  two  dreadnoughts  for  the  Argen- 
tine navy,  he  was  president.  In  1912  he  was 
made  vice  admiral.  

BETHMANN-HOLLWEQ,  Theobald  von. 
See  Gebmant,  History,  passim, 

BIBLE  SOCIETY,  American.  The  society 
issued  during  the  year  ending  March  31,  1915, 
6,406,323  volumes.  Of  this  number,  2,426,418 
were  issued  from  the  Bible  House  in  New  York, 
and  3,979,905  from  foreign  agencies  of  the  so- 
ciety. The  work  of  the  society  is  carried  on  in 
over  fifty  countries,  on  five  continents,  and 
among  the  islands  of  seven  seas.  It  maintains 
nearly  2000  distributors.  An  important  part  of 
its  work  is  the  revising  and  improving  the  ver- 
sions of  the  Scripture,  already  published,  and 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  new  languages 
and  dialects.  Its  home  agency  work  is  among 
the  colored  people  of  the  South,  and  among  im- 
migrants in  the  Northwest,  in  the  South  Atlan- 
tic States,  and  in  other  sections.  It  also  prose- 
cutes'work  among  the  foreign  population  of  New 
York.  The  distribution  of  the  Bible  in  the 
United  States  in  the  year  ending  March  31,  1915, 
was  2,183,783  volumes.  In  addition,  35,000  vol- 
umes were  sent  to  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the 
Philippines.  The  total  appropriations  for  for- 
eign agencies  for  1914-15  amounted  to  $249,400, 
and  for  home  agencies  $94,300.  The  ninety- 
ninth  annual  meeting  of  the  society  was  held  on 
May  13,  1915.  The  officers  of  the  society  are: 
James  Wood,  president;  Rev.  John  Cox  and 
Rev.  William  I.  Haven,  secretaries;  Rev.  Henry 
O.  Dwight,  recording  secretary;  and  William 
Folk,  treasurer. 

BICYCLING.    See  Cycling. 

BILLIABDS  AND  POOL.  William  F. 
Hoppe,  champion  of  the  world  at  all  forms  of 
balk-line  billiards,  showed  in  1915  that  he  had 
lost  none  of  his  amazing  skill  in  making  the 
ivories  obey  his  slightest  whim.  In  the  first 
professional  handicap  tournament  at  18.2  balk- 
line  ever  held  in  New  York  City,  Hoppe  allowed 
some  of  the  most  prominent  players  in  the 
United  States  200  points  and  yet  went  through 
the  severe  test  without  losing  a  match.  Fur- 
thermore, he  established  a  new  world's  record 
high  run  of  308  points  in  one  game.  Welker 
Cochran,  of  Wisconsin,  finished  second  in  this 
tourney,  Hoppe  being  the  only  player  to  defeat 
him. 

Alfredo  de  Oro,  who  regained  the  three-cush- 
ion title  by  the  withdraw^al  of  William  Huey, 
the  champion,  proved  himself  king  of  this  type  of 
billiards,  setting  up  a  new  world's  record  by 
running  50  points  in  35  innings. 

J.  Mayer,  of  Philadelphia,  won  the  amateur 
class  A  championship  in  a  tournament  held  at 
Philadelphia,  scoring  6  victories  in  6  games. 
J.  Poggenburg  finished  S€H;ond  with  4  games  won 
and  2  lost. 

In  English  billiards,  Melbourne  Inman,  Kng- 
lish  champion,  defeated  John  Montgomery  by  a 
score  of  3000  to  605,  Inman  agreeing  to  play 
3000  points  against  Montgomery's  1000. 

J.  H.  Shoemaker  won  the  amateur  pool  cham- 
pionship tournament  held  in  New  York  City, 
making  a  clean  sweep  of  the  six  games.  E.  F. 
RaynoTds  was  second  with  5  victories  and  1  de- 
feat.   

BINDEB  TWINE.     See  Agbiculture. 

BINQHAM,  Pbofessob.  His  explorations. 
See  Exploration,  Houth  America. 


BIOGBAPHIES.     See  Litebatube. 

BIOLOGY.     See  Botany;  and  Zoology. 

BIPLANES.     See  Aebonautics. 

BIBDS.     See  Obnitholooy. 

BIBTH  BATE.    See  Vitai.  Statistics. 

BJOBNSON'S  When  the  Young  Vine  Blooms. 
See  DBA  MA,  Amebic  an  and  Enqlisii. 

BLACK,  John  Chables.  American  soldier 
and  public  officer,  died  Aug.  17,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Lexington,  Miss.,  in  1839,  and  educated 
at  Wabash  College.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  enlisting  as  a  private,  on  the  expira- 
tion of  his  three  months'  service,  he  joined  the 
thirty -seventh  volimteers  as  a  major;  was  pro- 
moted to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  and  to  be  colonel 
in  18C2,  for  bravery  in  the  battle  of  Prairie 
Cross,  Ark.,  in  which  he  was  severely  wounded. 
In  April,  1868,  at  the  age  of  twenty -six,  he  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  for 
gallantry  in  Blakley,  Ala.  Although  his  health 
liad  been  undermined  by  severe  wounds,  at  the 
close  of  the  war  he  settled  in  Danville,  111.,  to 
finish  the  study  of  law,  and  soon  thereafter  be- 
gan to  practice  in  that  city,  entering  actively, 
also,  into  politics.  In  1866,  1880,  and  1884  he 
was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Congress. 
Nominated  for  lieutenant-governor  in  1872,  and 
for  United  States  Senator  in  1879,  he  was  in 
both  cases  defeated.  In  1884  he  declined  the 
nomination  for  Governor  of  Illinois.  The  office 
of  commissioner  of  pensions,  to  which  President 
Cleveland  appointed  him,  he  held  for  four  years. 
From  1893-95  he  was  representative  at  large 
for  Illinois,  and  from  1895-99  he  was  United 
States  district  attorney  of  the  northern  district 
of  that  State.  Appointed  civil  service  commis- 
sioner in  1903,  he  became  in  the  following  year 
president  of  the  Civil  Service  Board,  holding 
that  office  until  June  10,  1913.  In  1903-04  he 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army  of 
the  Republic. 

BLINDNESS.     See  Charities;  Tbachoma. 

BLOCKADE  GONTBOVEBSY.  See  United 
States  and  the  War. 

BLUE  SKY  LAWS.  Following  extensive 
speculation  in  oil  and  gas  stocks  in  1905-10, 
the  State  of  Kansas  enacted  a  law  in  1011  re- 
quiring dealers  in  investment  securities  to  be 
licens^  by  the  State  and  to  file  w^ith  the  State 
Banking  Department  information  regarding 
stocks  and  bonds  sold  by  them.  This  led  some 
20  States  to  enact  laws  all  designed  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  fraudulent  securities  to  an  unsus- 
pecting public.  These  laws  are  known  as  "blue 
sky"  laws,  owing  to  a  remark  of  the  Kansas 
bank  commissioner  that  certain  companies  were 
capitalizing  the  blue  sky.  Owing  to  the  ex- 
tremity to  which  the  proposed  regulation  was 
carried,  the  Investment  Bankers'  Association 
began  a  systematic  effort  to  bring  about  such 
legislation  as  would  not  impede  the  operations 
of  dealers  liandling  legitimate  stocks  but  would 
secure  the  punishment  of  fraudulent  operations. 
This  effort  was  seconded  by  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Supervisors  of  Stat^  Banks,  which 
appointed  a  ''Blue  Sky  Committee"  in  1914, 
which  cooperated  in  carrying  through  a  less 
restrictive  type  of  law.  This  committee  drew 
up  a  model  law  based  upon  Federal  postal  laws 
and  designed  to  make  fraud  punishable  without 
introducing  close  supervision  by  an  executive  or 
commission.  By  the  close  of  1914  various  of 
these  laws  had  been  brought  before  the  courts 
to  test  their  constitutionality.     The  most  impor- 


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BLUE  SKY  LAWS 


tant  of  these  decisions  in  1914  declared  the 
Michigan  Blue  Sky  Law  unconstitutional,  be- 
cause of  interference  with  interstate  commerce 
and  with  the  individual's  right  of  free  contract, 
and  also  because  of  an  undue  extension  of  the 
police  power.  Subsequent  decisions  in  the  case 
of  the  Iowa  and  West  Virginia  statutes  and  the 
1915  law  of  South  Dakota,  as  also  in  the  case 
of  the  laws  of  Arkansas  and  Kansas,  showed 
unanimity  of  opinion  among  11  Federal  judges. 
In  a  few  cases  the  laws  have  been  sustained 
either  because  their  scope  was  narrow,  or  because 
the  plaintiff  was  disqualified  to  bring  suit. 
Thus  the  laws  of  Arkansas,  Florida,  and  Mon- 
tana were  upheld  since  they  applied  solely  to 
promotion  and  get-rich-quick  concerns,  and  did 
not  affect  the  ordinary  dealer  in  securities.  The 
South  Dakota  statute  was  enjoined  on  Novem- 
ber 18th  by  the  Federal  Court;  the  constitu- 
tionality of  the  revised  Michigan  law  was 
argued  on  November  13th ;  and  at  the  close  of 
the  year  the  Ohio  law  was  also  before  the  court. 
It  was  expected  that  the  South  Dakota  case 
would  be  appealed  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court. 

During  1915  bills  for  the  enactment  of  some 
sort  of  Blue  Sky  Law  were  introduced  into 
nearly  every  State  Legislature,  but  no  State 
which  had  not  previously  passed  a  law  on  this 
subject  enacted  legislation  in  1915.  In  the  fol- 
lowing States,  however,  laws  were  re^nacted  or 
revis^  on  account  of  previous  judicial  decisions: 
Arkansas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Michigan,  North  Da- 
kota, South  Dakota,  and  West  Virginia.  The 
new  Michigan  law  differed  immaterially  from 
the  one  declared  unconstitutional,  and  appar- 
ently is  to  be  carried  through  the  courts  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  for  the  final  ad- 
judication of  the  principles  involved. 

BOABDMAN,  George  Nye.  American  theo- 
logian and  educator,  died  Nov.  9,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Pittsford,  Vt.,  in  1826;  graduated  from 
Middlebury  College  in  1847,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1852.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  Congregational  ministry  in  1854.  From 
1853-59  he  was  professor  of  rhetoric,  English 
literature,  and  sociology  at  Middlebury  College. 
From  1859-71  he  was  pastor  of  the  First  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Binghamton,  N.  Y.  A  year 
later  he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of 
systematic  theology  at  the  Chicago  Theological 
Seminary,  holding  this  position  until  1893,  when 
he  became  professor  emeritus.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  Lectures  on  Natural  Theology;  The  Will 
and  Virtue;  Congregationalism,  A  History  of 
New  England  Theology.  He  received  honorary 
degrees  from  the  University  of  Vermont,  I^afa- 
yette  College,  and  Middlebury  College. 

BOHEMIA.     See  Austria-Hungabt. 

BOIIjEBS.  The  construction  of  boilers  dur- 
ing the  year  1915  involved  the  use  of  larger 
units,  higher  steam  pressure,  and  a  greater  out- 
put per  square  foot  of  heating  surface,  without 
undue  loss  of  efliciency.  In  fact  in  many  plants 
it  was  realized  that  by  improving  operating 
conditions,  better  stoking,  both  automatic  and 
manual,  with  proper  records  and  indicators,  in- 
creased economy  could  be  secured.  Larger  boil- 
ers, such  as  units  of  1200  boiler  horse  power 
capacity,  were  coming  into  service  rather  gen- 
erally for  large  electric  central  stations.  The 
Commonwealth  Edison  Company  of  Chicago  had 
several  with  a  heating  surface  of  12,200  square 
feet  each,  and  the  Connors  CreeK  Edison  station 


89  BOILEBS 

had  one  with  23,650  square  feet.  The  latter 
boiler  was  regarded  as  of  unusual  size  and  not 
likely  to  be  duplicated  soon. 

With  boilers  designed  for  such  service  as  350 
pounds  pressure  and  200  degrees  superheat,  as 
in  the  case  of  new  units  for  the  Public  Service 
Company  of  Northern  Illinois,  mechanical  en- 
gineers were  considering  the  possibility  of  em- 
ploying from  600  to  700  pounds,  or  even  1000 
pounds  per  square  inch  pressure,  and  there  was 
a  general  tendency  to  consider  that  the  time 
had  arrived  for  using  high  pressure  in  excess 
of  the  200  pounds  or  so  previously  employed. 
Furthermore,  there  was  a  development  in  the 
output  of  steam  per  square  foot  of  heating 
surface,  evaporations  of  5,  6,  and  7  pounds 
per  square  foot  were  by  no  means  uncommon 
during  the  year,  and  there  were  instances  where 
this  had  been  raised  to  10,  12,  14,  and  even  16 
poimds,  with  maintenance  of  excellent  efficiency. 
As  a  result  of  such  work  and  the  use  of  econ- 
omizers in  connection  with  boilers,  engineers 
looked  for  developments  of  noteworthy  charac- 
ter in  the  near  future. 

Boiler  explosions  to  the  number  of  1300  or 
1400  occur  annually  in  the  United  States,  with 
a  death  roll  of  from  400  to  500  persons,  and  a 
list  of  injured  of  from  700  to  800,  with  a  loss 
of  property  of  over  $500,000. 

The  Council  of  the  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers,  at  a  meeting  held  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1915,  approved  the  report  of  the  Boiler 
Code  Committer,  which  was  established  on  Sept. 
15,  1911,  "to  form  standard  specifications  for 
the  construction  of  steam  boilers  and  other  pres- 
sure vessels  and  for  the  care  of  the  same  in 
service."  This  committee  included  seven  mem- 
bers— a  consulting  engineer,  a  former  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Boiler  Rules,  two 
professors  in  engineering,  two  boiler  manufac- 
turers, and  one  insurance  engineer.  The  Massa- 
chusetts and  Ohio  rules  which  were  considered 
the  best  in  use  were  taken  as  a  basis,  and  from 
these  a  preliminary  draft  was  prepared  and 
widely  circulated  for  criticism  among  those  di- 
rectly interested.  This  draft  received  repeated 
revision,  and  practically  all  interests  concerned, 
especially  the  boiler  manufacturers,  desired  more 
stringent  rules  than  those  arranged  for  Massa- 
chusetts and  those  prepared  originally  by  the 
committee. 

This  report  and  the  accompanying  code  deals 
in  detail  with  specifications  for  boiler  steam 
and  boiler  tubes,  uniform  rules  for  safety  valves, 
fire  tube  and  water  tube  boilers,  steam  and  hot 
water  heating  boilers.  It  combines  practice 
with  theory  so  that  all  interests  from  the  man- 
ufacturer to  the  user  are  protected. 

It  was  the  design  of  the  society  that  this  code 
should  form  the  basis  for  uniform  State  and 
municipal  legislation,  and  it  was  adopted  by  the 
officials  in  charge  of  steam  boiler  inspection  in 
the  States  *of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  the  cities  of 
Detroit  and  Chicago.  In  Pennsylvania,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  California,  the  State  authorities  ex- 
pressed their  satisfaction  with  the  code  and 
their  intention  to  put  it  in  force  later.  The 
American  Uniform  Boiler  Law  Society,  formed 
of  representatives  of  the  principal  trade  and 
technical  organizations  that  cooperated  in  the 
drafting  of  the  code,  was  actively  at  work  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  bills  for  the  adoption  of  the 
code  were  to  be  introduced  in  the  1915-16  ses- 
sions of  the  Legislatures  of  Georgia,  Kentucky, 


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BOILEBS 


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BOLIVIA 


Louisiana,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 
In  fact  it  was  proposed  to  secure  legal  adoption 
for  the  code  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  as  it 
would  result  in  great  benefits  to  boiler  makers 
and  users,  tending  toward  greater  safety  and 
engineering  efficiency.  The  committee  advocat- 
ing the  adoption  of  the  code  contained  repre- 
sentatives of  the  boiler  manufacturers,  the  water 
tube  manufacturers,  locomotive  manufacturers, 
steam  shovel  manufacturers,  and  hoisting  engine 
manufacturers. 

One  of  the  notable  publications  of  the  year 
was  a  new  edition  of  Steam  Bailer  Economy,  by 
William  Kent.  This  deals  with  the  most  mod- 
ern practice  and  is  considered  a  valuable  contri- 
bution to  the  literature  on  this  subject. 

The  number  of  boiler  failures  in  the  United 
States  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  was 
371.  In  these,  127  persons  were  killed  and  317 
injured.  In  107  reports  of  property  losses  the 
damage  was  estimated  at  $155,325,  or  an  average 
of  about  $1450.  In  the  strictly  power-plant 
failures,  51  were  due  to  defective  tubes,  12  to 
cast  iron  headers,  23  to  blow-off  pipes,  and  10 
caused  by  over  pressure. 

BOKHARA.  A  Russian  vassal  state  in  cen- 
tral Asia.  Estimated  area,  83,000  square  miles; 
estimated  population,  1,500,000.  Capital,  Bok- 
hara, with  about  75,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  are:  Karshi  (25,000),  Hissar,  Khuzar, 
and  Shahr-i-Zabz  (about  10,000  each).  Moham- 
medanism prevails.  Russians  in  the  country 
number  upwards  of  10,000.  The  town  of  Bok- 
hara is  only  a  few  miles  from  the  line  of  the 
Trans-Caspian  Railway,  which  traverses  the 
coimtry;  the  length  of  the  railway  within  Bok- 
hara is  186  miles.  The  ameer  in  1915  (from 
Jan.  6,  1911)  was  Sayid-Mir-Alim  Khan. 

BOLIVIA  An  interior  South  American  re- 
public. The  seat  of  government,  executive  and 
legislative,-  is  La  Paz,  where  also  the  members 
of  the  diplomatic  corps  are  resident;  the  Su- 
preme Court  sits  at  Sucre. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  area  has  been  of- 
ficially estimated  at  1,379,014  square  kilometers 
(532,437  square  miles)  or,  including  disputed 
territory,  1,458,034  square  kilometers  (562,047 
square  miles).  There  has  long  been  a  boundary 
dispute  with  Paraguay;  in  1915  a  protocol  re- 
lating thereto  was  signed  extending  for  one  year 
the  protocol  of  1913.  The  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  1900  census,  was  1,744,568,  of  whom 
50.9  per  cent  were  Indian,  26.7  mestizo,  12.7 
white,  0.21  negro,  and  9.4  unclassified.  An  es- 
timate of  Ihe  population  in  1914  was  2,520,540. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  this  figure  is  somewhat 
too  large;  a  calculation  published  in  1915  was 
2,492,377.  The  great  elevated  plateau  of  West- 
ern and  Central  Bolivia  contains  the  larger  part 
of  the  population,  both  urban  and  rural.  Esti- 
mated population  of  the  larger  towns:  La  Paz, 
about  95,000;  Cochabamba,  30,000;  Sucre,  Oruro, 
and  Potosf,  each  about  25,000;  Santa  Cruz,  21,- 
500;  Tarija,  8000. 

Education.  There  are  universities  at  La  Paz 
and  Sucre,  and  secondary  schools  (public,  pri- 
vate, clerical)  in  the  larger  towns;  primary  in- 
struction is  free  and  nominally  compulsory,  but 
a  large  part  of  the  people  are  illiterate.  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  established  religion.  By  a 
law  of  1912  marriages  must  be  celebrated  by 
civil  authorities. 

Pboduction   and   Commerce.    Agriculture   is 


important  only  to  meet  local  needs  and  not  aa  a 
factor  in  the  foreign  trade.  The  estimated  area 
under  cultivation  is  about  4,940,000  acres,  pro- 
ducing corn,  barley,  rice,  potatoes,  beans,  etc.; 
other  products  are  coffee,  cacao,  coca,  and  quina. 
Live  stock,  as  reported  for  1912,  included  98,846 
horses,  44,584  mules,  172,959  asses,  734,266  cat- 
tle, 1,499,114  sheep,  467,950  goats,  414,047 
llamas,  112,033  alpacas,  and  114,146  swine. 
Large  quantities  of  rubber  are  gathered  in  the 
nor&em  forests;  rubber  stands  next  after  tin 
in  value  among  the  exports,  and  in  the  exporta- 
tion of  rubber  Bolivia  ranks  next  to  Brazil 
among  South  American  countries.  Bolivia  de- 
rives its  prosperity  chiefly  from  the  production 
of  tin;  it  ranks  second  only  to  the  Federated 
Malay  States  among  the  tin-producing  countries 
of  the  world.  Other  metals  produced  in  consid- 
erable quantity  are  silver,  copper,  bismuth,  and 
gold. 

Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as  fol- 
lows, in  thousands  of  bolivianos: 

1909      1910      1911       1919      1918      1914 

Imports     .86,987  48,802  58,871  49,509  54,768     

Exports  ..63,764  74,567  82.681  90,128  98,722     

The  principal  imports  are  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  provisions,  machinery  and  hardware, 
wines  and  spirits,  and  apparel.  The  chief  ex- 
ports, valued  in  thousands  of  bolivianos,  were 
as  follows  in  1911  and  1912,  respectively:  tin, 
52,640  and  60,238;  rubber,  18,921  and  15,509; 
silver,  4588  and  4308;  copper,  1427  and  3389; 
bismuth,  2218  and  2150;  gold  coin,  1297  in 
1912;  coca,  511  and  736;  wolfram,  231  and  520; 
silver  coin,  791  and  432.  Imports  from  and 
exports  to  Germany  in  1912  were  valued  at  16,- 
514  and  11,201  thousands  of  bolivianos;  the 
United  Kingdom,  9070  and  66,954;  the  United 
States,  4595  and  392;  Chile,  3982  and  850;  Peru, 
3781  and  954;  Argentina,  3029  and  698;  Bel- 
gium, 2571  and  3639;  France,  2436  and  5472. 
The  tin  export  amounted  in  1912  to  38,378 
metric  tons;  rubber,  4079;  silver,  124;  bismuth, 
387;  wolfram,  472. 

Communications.  In  the  latter  part  of  1913, 
railways  in  operation  aggregated  1292  kilome- 
ters (803  miles),  distributed  as  follows:  Anto- 
fagasta-Oruro  (without  branches),  922  kilome- 
ters, the  Bolivian  section  being  482  kilometers; 
the  branch  line  Uyuni-Huanchaca,  38  kilome- 
ters; Viacha-Oruro,  202  kilometers;  Guaqui-La 
Paz,  98  kilometers;  the  tramways,  Cochabamba- 
VintoCliza,  57  kilometers;  Rfo  Mulatos-Potosi, 
174  kilometers;  Arica-Alto  de  La  Paz,  439  kilo- 
meters, the  Bolivian  section  being  233  kilome- 
ters; branch  from  this  last  line  to  C!k>rocoro,  8 
kilometers.  Lines  under  construction  aggre- 
gated 605  kilometers  (376  miles).  Surveys  had 
been  made  for  a  line  from  Santa  Cruz  to  the 
eastern  frontier  at  Puerto  Su&rez  (683  kilome- 
ters), and  for  one  from  Tupiza  to  the  Argentine 
frontier  town  of  La  Quiaca  (93  kilometers). 
The  construction  of  the  latter  line  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  line  from  Uyuni  to  Tupiza  was  to 
provide  a  new  through  rtiil  route  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  to  the  Pacific.  It  was  announced 
that  the  line  from  Uyuni,  a  station  on  the  Anto- 
fagasta  and  Bolivia  Railroad,  which  had  been 
under  construction  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
towards  Tupiza,  was  to  be  extended  to  the  pres- 
ent northern  terminus  to  the  Argentine  railways 
at  La  Quiaca,  on  the  frontier  directly  south  of 


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BOLIVIA 


Tupiza.  Work  on  the  proposed  railway  was 
begun  during  the  year. 

The  principal  line  is  the  one  extending  from 
the  Chilean  port  of  Antofagasta  to  the  frontier 
town  OUague  (440  kilometers),  and  thence 
through  Uyuni,  Rio  Mulatos,  Challapata,  Poop6, 
and  Machacamarca  to  Oruro  (482  kilometers). 
There  is  connection  at  Oruro  for  Viacha  (202 
kilometers),  which  is  also  on  the  Quaqui-La  Paz 
line  and  the  line  from  Arica;  the  distance  from 
Viacha  to  Alto  de  La  Paz  is  23  kilometers,  and 
thence  by  electric  to  La  Paz,  8  kilometers.  The 
distance  from  Viacha  to  Guaqui,  on  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  is  65  kilometers.  Guaqui  has  steamer  con- 
nection with  Puno,  on  the  Peruvian  shore, 
whence  there  is  rail  communication  with  the 
Peruvian  port  of  Mollendo.  The  distance  from 
La  Paz  to  Mollendo  is  861  kilometers,  from 
La  Paz  to  Arica  447  kilometers,  and  from  La 
Paz  to  Antofagasta  1155  kilometers.  These 
lines  reach  very  great  altitudes;  for  example: 
La  Paz,  3636  meters;  Alto  de  La  Paz,  4089; 
Viacha,  3919;  Corocoro,  4056;  Oruro,  3703; 
Challapata,  3708;  Rfo  Mulatos,  3806;  Uyuni, 
3660;  OUague,  3696;  Tiahuanaco,  3825;  Guaqui, 
3813;  and  in  Peru,  Puno,  3814;  Santa  Lucia, 
4038;  and  Crucero  Alto,  4470. 

There  is  telegraph  communication  with  for- 
eign countries  and  between  the  principal  towns, 
including  all  the  departmental  capitals.  The 
length  of  line  in  1912  was  6133  kilometers;  wire, 
8951;  offices,  194.  The  wireless  telegraphy  sys- 
tem includes  stations  at  La  Paz,  Villa  Beni, 
Trinidad,  Cobija,  Santa  Cruz,  Yacuiba,  and 
Puerto  Su&rez.    Post  offices  number  about  200. 

Finance^  The  standard  of  value  is  gold. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  boliviano,  par  value 
38.932  cents,  or  12.5  bolivianos  to  the  pound 
sterling.  A  statement  of  Bolivian  revenue  pub- 
lished in  1915  showed  that  the  revenue  increased 
from  3,624,200  bolivianos  in  1890,  to  4,115,700 
in  1895,  6,462,931  in  1900,  7,854,698  in  1905, 
12,583,232  in  1910,  20,164,602  in  1912,  and  22,- 
018,874  in  1913.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year 
1915  showed  estimated  revenue  and  expenditure 
of  25,263,500  and  24,630,702  bolivianos,  respec- 
tively. The  estimated  revenue  comprised:  im- 
port duties,  9,975,850  bolivianos;  export  duties, 
4,825,000;  taxes,  6,753,000;  other  receipts,  3,- 
709,650.  The  larger  estimated  disbursements 
were:  for  the  ministry  of  finance,  9,369,820  boliv- 
ianos; war  and  colonization,  5,714,675;  interior 
and  fomento,  3,771,326;  public  instruction  and 
agriculture,  2,562,468.  Bolivia  had  no  foreign 
debt  until  1908.  The  foreign  debt,  as  stated  for 
June  30,  1913,  was:  1908,  5,663,006  bolivianos; 
1910,  18,218,250;  1913,  12,500,000.  Internal 
debt,  5,298,846  bolivianos;  floating,  8,100,694. 

Government.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  President  who,  with  two  Vice-Presidents,  is 
elected  by  direct  vote  for  four  years,  and  in- 
eligible for  the  next  term.  There  is  a  Cabinet  of 
six  ministers.  The  legislative  power  rests  with 
a  Congress  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the 
Chaml^r  of  Deputies.  Senators  (16  in  number) 
are  elected  for  six  years,  and  deputies  (75)  for 
four  years,  all  by  direct  vote.  The  President  in 
1915  was  Ismael  Montes,  who  succeeded  Eliodoro 
Villaz6n  on  Aug.  14,  1913.  First  Vice-President, 
Juan  M.  Saracho;  second  Vice-President,  Jos6 
Carrasco. 

HiSTOBY.  Internal  Conditions,  Bolivia,  on 
Dec.  31,  1914,  declared  a  90  day  moratorium, 
made  necessary  by  the  scarcity  of  money  in  the 


91  BOOTS  AND  SHOES 

country.  In  March  the  moratorium  was  ex- 
tended till  the  end  of  December,  1915.  The  Eu- 
ropean war  proved  very  disastrous  for  Bolivia, 
causing  great  reductions  in  her  exports  and 
revenues.  The  estimated  revenues  for  1915  were 
16,985,000  bolivianos,  *  or  in  American  money, 
$6,607,165,  while  the  expenditures  were  esti- 
mated at  21,453,938.32  bolivianos,  or  $8,345,582. 
This  meant  a  deficit  of  more  than  $1,600,000, 
which  would  have  to  be  made  up  by  a  30  per 
cent  reduction  of  a  majority  of  items  in  the 
budget.  The  announcement  was  made  in  July 
that  Bolivia  would  begin  to  work  the  famous 
copper  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  Corocoro  in 
order  to  supply  Europe  with  copper  bullion. 
These  mines  had  been  lying  idle  for  years  owing 
to  the  low-grade  copper  which  they  produced. 
In  July  the  Bolivian  government  announced  that 
the  exports  for  1914  had  totaled  63,000,000  bo- 
livianos, of  which  Great  Britain  had  secured 
commodities  worth  51,000,000  bolivianos,  Ger- 
many 3,000,000,  France  and  the  United  States 
1,000,000  each.  Early  in  August  the  permanent 
construction  work  on  the  railway  between 
Quiaca  and  Tupiza  was  begun  by  the  French 
company  which  held  the  contract.  This  railway 
had  long  been  needed  to  facilitate  international 
trade  between  Bolivia  and  Argentina  and  to 
give  an  outlet  by  rail  from  La  Paz  and  other 
connecting  points  to  Buenos  Aires. 

Relations  with  the  United  States,  On  May 
14th,  Bolivia  negotiated  a  loan  of  $1,000,000 
through  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York. 
This  loan  was  expected  to  prove  of  valuable  as- 
sistance in  overcoming  financial  difficulties 
caused  by  the  European  war.  The  country  also 
took  part  in  the  Pan-American  Financial  Confer- 
ence in  May,  and  was  one  of  the  nations  which 
recognized  Carranza  as  provisional  president  of 
Mexico  in  October.    See  Intebnational  Peace 

AND  ABBITBATION. 

BOLL  WEEVIL.    See  Entomology. 

BONE  BLACK.     See  Chemistbt,  Industbial. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES.  During  1915  the  boot 
and  shoe  industry,  as  well  as  the  leather  busi- 
ness generally,  felt  the  efiTects  of  the  European 
war.  The  United  States  exported  leather  to  na- 
tions from  whom  once  it  had  imported,  while 
there  was  a  great  increase  of  export  business  to 
British  colonies,  South  America,  South  Africa, 
East  Indies,  and  the  Dutch  Indies,  not  to  men- 
tion military  shoes  for  the  fighting  armies.  It 
was  estimated  at  the  end  of  the  year  that  the 
United  States  had  shipped  some  15,000,000  pairs 
to  Europe  for  the  armies  from  the  outbreak  of 
the  war.  The  boot  and  shoe  business  was  some- 
what dull  and  depressed  until  the  last  quarter  of 
the  year;  nevertheless,  prices  for  everything, 
from  raw  materials  to  finished  products,  in- 
creased. Foreign  competition  was  largely  elimi- 
nated, so  that  the  American  manufacturer  was 
protected  by  a  wall  more  effective  than  any  tar- 
iff. One  feature  of  the  year's  domestic  business 
was  the  large  number  of  styles  in  footwear,  and 
these  styles  changed  very  rapidly.  Considerable 
use  was  made  of  various  kinds  of  cloth  and  of 
colored  leathers  ranging  from  white  to  bronze, 
blue,  and  other  shades,  for  the  entire  shoe  as 
well  as  for  ornamental  tops,  with  white  being 
in  strong  demand  for  uppers  as  well  as  inde- 
pendent gaiters.  The  change  of  fashion  in  wom- 
en's clothing,  whereby  short  and  wide  skirts 
were  adopted  in  the  autumn  of  1915,  put  in- 
creased emphasis  on  ornamental  footwear,  and 


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BOOTS  AND  SHOES 


also  had  its  effect  on  the  manufacturing  indus- 
try. 

An  important  event  of  the  year  was  the  in- 
junction which  was  issued  in  the  United  States 
District  Court  by  Judge  Dyer  against  the 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Company,  which  pre- 
vented leasing  of  new  machines,  and  made  in- 
valid leases  of  all  machinery  of  the  company 
at  work  in  shoe  factories.  This  injunction, 
however,  was  suspended  by  the  United  States 
Circuit  Court  somewhat  later,  and  the  issue  was 
to  be  tried  as  an  equity  proceeding  to  determine 
what  might  be  legally  done  under  the  terms  of 
the  Clayton  Law. 

An  examination  of  labor  conditions  in  the 
shoe  factories  of  Massachusetts,  made  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  and  published 
during  the  year,  revealed  the  fact  that  in  this 
State  some  80,000  workers  were  employed  in  the 
industry,  or  nearly  half  of  the  shoe  workers  in 
the  United  States.  About  28,000,  or  about  35 
per  cent  of  this  number  were  women,  and  in 
active  periods  of  the  industry  over  40  per  cent 
earned  more  than  $10  per  week,  being  as  a  group 
the  highest  paid  female  help  in  industrial  life. 
That  60  per  cent  earned  less  than  $500  a  year 
was  another  finding  in  this  investigation. 

Shoe  manufacturing  conditions  in  Europe  also 
were  naturally  greatly  disturbed  by  the  war. 
In  Great  Britain  the  tanneries  were  being  op- 
erated by  the  War  Office,  and  large  numbers  of 
boots  were  being  turned  out  by  the  various  man- 
ufacturers. Towards  the  close  of  the  year  the 
British  War  Office  was  securing  bids  for  the 
Italian  army.  In  Germany  the  War  Leather 
Company  regulated  almost  the  entire  hide, 
leather,  and  shoe  business  of  Germany,  and  the 
maximum  prices  for  these  products  were  fixed 
by  German  authorities.  In  Austria  government 
regulation  was  also  in  force,  while  shoe  manu- 
facturers in  Hungary  labored  under  hard  con- 
ditions, as  they  were  required  to  turn  out 
monthly  80,000  pairs  of  military  shoes  to  the 
government  at  prices  fixed  by  contract,  which 
with  the  prices  of  raw  materials  permitted  little 
if  any  profit. 

BOSNIA  AND  THE  HEB2EG0VINA. 
Provinces,  formerly  Turkish,  annexed  to  the  Aus- 
tro- Hungarian  monarchy,  Oct.  6,  1908.  The 
provinces  are  administered  by  a  bureau  of  the 
common  Austro-Hungarian  ministry  of  finance. 
There  is  a  diet,  directly  elected,  whose  legisla- 
tion is  subject  to  Austro-Hungarian  veto.  The 
seat  of  local  government  is  Sarajevo,  in  Bosnia. 
Area:  Bosnia,  16,239.4  square  miles;  the  Herze- 
govina, 3528.5;  total,  19,767.9  (somewhat  more 
than  the  combined  area  of  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont).  Population,  according  to  the  census 
of  Oct.  10,  1910:  Bosnia,  1,631,006;  the  Herze- 
govina, 267,038;  total  civil  population,  1,898,- 
044;  in  addition,  military  population,  33,785; 
total,  1,931,802,  as  compared  with  1,591,036  in 
1905.  Estimated  population  at  the  end  of  1912, 
1,962,411,  of  whom  626,649  Mohammedan,  856,- 
158  Serbian  Orthodox,  451,686  Roman  Catholic, 
8606  Greek  Catholic,  6734  Protestant,  and  12,- 
798  Jewish.  The  larger  towns,  with  1910  popu- 
lation: Sarajevo,  51,919;  Mostar  (in  the  Herze- 
govina), 16,392;  Banjaluka,  14,800;  Tuzla,  11,- 
333;  Bjelina,  10,061;  Srebrenica,  7215;  Br&ka, 
6647;  Travnik,  10,061.  In  1912,  marriages 
numbered  16,363;  births,  81,994  living  and  178 
still;  deaths,  48,416. 

In  1912  there  were  544  elementary  schools,  6 


92  BOTANY 

g\nnnasia,  2  realschulen,  3  training  colleges  for 
teachers,  11  advanced  schools  for  girls,  and  9 
commercial  schools,  besides  a  number  of  other 
technical  and  professional  institutions.  In  ad- 
dition, there  are  numerous  Mohammedan  schools. 

The  soil  is  fertile  and  of  the  population  in 
1910  nearly  88  per  cent  were  returned  as  agri- 
cultural, but  nevertheless  agriculture  is  not 
highly  developed.  Of  the  total  area,  nearly  50 
per  cent  is  imder  forest.  The  more  important 
crops  are  corn,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  pota- 
toes, tobacco  (a  government  monopoly),  fiax, 
hemp,  and  fruits,  especially  plums.  Sugar  beets 
are  cultivated,  and  there  is  a  sugar  factory  at 
Usora,  near  Doboj.  The  timber  industry  and 
cattle  and  sheep  raising  are  important.  Ac- 
cording to  the  1910  census^  there  were  221,981 
horses,  393  mules,  6377  asses,  992  buffaloes, 
1.308,930  cattle  (cows,  400,986),  1,393,068  goats, 
2,499,422  sheep,  627,271  swine,  2,230,510  fowls, 
and  195,204  beehives.  Minerals  are  abundant, 
including  lignite,  iron,  manganese,  copper,  and 
chrome  ore.  At  the  end  of  1912,  the  length  of 
railway  in  operation  was  1912  miles;  telegraph 
line,  1972  miles,  with  4193  miles  of  wire.  Post 
offices  numbered  240.  The  budget  for  1913 
showed  estimated  revenue  and  expenditure  of 
92,997,594  and  92,987,887  kronen,  respectivelv. 

BOSTON  X7NIVEBSITY.  An  institution 'for 
higher  education,  founded  in  Boston  in  1869. 
Numl)er  of  students  in  all  departments  in  the 
autumn  of  1915  was  2450.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 176.  Prof.  Kmil  Carl  Wilm  succeeded 
Benjamin  W.  Van  Riper  in  the  department  of 
philosophy.  The  total  benefactions  received  by 
the  university  during  the  year  amounted  to 
$17,000.  The  productive  funds  amounted  to 
about  $1,000,000,  and  the  total  income  to  $263,- 
350.     The  library  contained  63,000  volumes. 

BOTANY.  Aside  from  the  usual  meetings  of 
botanical  organizations  during  the  year,  a  West- 
ern Branch  of  the  American  Phytopathological 
Society  was  organized  at  Corvallis,  Ore.,  Dec.  29, 
1914.  Preliminary  plans  were  also  made  for  the 
formation  of  the  American  Ecological  Society  to 
be  affiliated  with  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Among  botanists  of  note  who  died  in  1915 
were:  Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey,  of  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska; J.  M.  Bailey,  colonial  botanist  to  the 
Queensland  government;  W^illiara  Barbey,  Swiss 
botanist  associated  with  Boissier;  Dr.  E.  L. 
Greene,  for  many  years  associated  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  and  later  with  the  Ignited 
States  National  Herbarium;  J.  Medley  W^ood, 
director  Natal  Botanic  Garden ;  R.  II.  Lock,  of 
the  Ceylon  Botanic  Gardens.  kno\^Ti  for  his  con- 
tributions to  Mendelism;  and  Edouard  Prillieux, 
the  well-known  French  phytopathologist.  Dr. 
C.  H.  Peck,  State  botanist  of  New  York  since 
1883,  has  retired  from  official  life,  as  has  also 
George  Massee,  who  for  many  years  was  at  the 
head  of  the  department  of  cryptogamic  botany 
at  Kew.  Dr.  J.  C.  Arthur,  botanist  of  the  In- 
diana Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  retired 
after  27  years'  service  at  that  institution. 

The  quarantine  against  certain  counties  in 
Maine  and  New  York  on  account  of  the  presence 
of  the  potato  powdery  scab  (^pongoapora  suh- 
terranea)  was  withdrawn  Sept.  1,  1915,  and  the 
foreign  quarantine  on  Dec.  8,  1915,  it  having 
been  determined  that  soil  conditions  elsewhere 
in  the  Ignited  States  make  it  unlikely  that  the 
disease    will    spread    and    become    troublesome. 


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BOTANY 


The  regulations  concerning  black  scab  or  wart 
are  continued.  The  citrus  canker  situation  con- 
tinues threatening  in  Florida  and  elsewhere. 
The  importation  of  all  kinds  of  citrus  trees  into 
the  United  States  is  now  prohibited.  Largely 
on  account  of  the  citrus  canker,  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  of  Florida  has  provided  for  a  Plant 
Board  which  is  charged  with  the  control  of  all 
plant  diseases  and  insect  pests. 

Botanical  workers  along  taxonomic  lines  have 
been  unusually  active,  many  floras,  monographic 
studies,  and  lists  of  new  species  having  been  is- 
sued. Mez  and  his  students  have  applied  the 
methods  of  serum  diagnosis  to  plants  and  found 
some  interesting  results  which  they  claim  can 
be  utilized  in  the  determination  of  the  phylo- 
geny  of  the  higher  plants.  In  ecology  and  plant 
geography,  a  number  of  contributions  have  ap- 
peared in  this  country,  among  which  Harsh- 
berger  has  given  the  results  of  an  ecological 
study  of  Southern  Florida  and  of  Nantucket  Is- 
land; Harper,  of  Northern  Florida;  Nichols,  of 
Connecticut;  Crouch,  of  sand  dunes  on  the  coast 
of  Southern  California;  and  Rigg,  of  sphagnum 
bogs  in  Alaska. 

Plant  Breeding.  Scientific  Investigations  of 
various  phases  of  plant  breeding  are  receiving 
the  attention  of  many  workers.  The  question  of 
mutation  in  CEnothera  is  still  vigorously  dis- 
cussed. De  Vries  claims  an  examination  of  the 
original  specimens  of  CEnothera  lamarckiana 
shows  they  are  identical  with  the  forms  now 
common  on  dimes  near  Liverpool  and  elsewhere. 
Bartlett  has  offered  additional  evidence  of  muta- 
tion in  CEnothera,  and  has  described  what  he 
terms  mutation  in  mass  in  CEnothera  reynoldsii. 
Davis,  from  a  study  of  a  large  number  of  hy- 
brids, found  in  the  second  generation  forms 
agreeing  with  CEnothera  lamarckiana.  On  the 
other  hand,  Jeffry  has  called  attention  to  mor- 
phological objections  to  the  mutation  theory. 
Gates  claims  previous  crossings  are  responsible 
for  the  germinal  conditions  which  have  resulted 
in  the  mutations  of  CEnothera  lamarckiana.  He 
also  claims  that  mutations  furnish  the  material 
for  true  evolution.  Shull  has  reported  negative 
correlations  in  CEnothera  hybrids.  Two  types  of 
changes,  or  mutations,  are  described  by  Stout  as 
having  appeared  in  Coleus  grown  vegetatively 
for  six  generations.  Kearney  has  reported  on 
the  behavior  of  Egyptian  cotton,  which  is  said  to 
exhibit  tendencies  to  mutation.  Mayer  has  con- 
tinued the  studies  begun  by  Emerson  on  albin- 
ism in  maize,  and  has  found  two  types  of  albin- 
ism which  are  recessive  to  normal  green  color. 
Hayes  has  described  additional  mutations  in 
tobacco,  and  East  has  reported  on  self-sterility 
in  some  Nicotiana  hybrids.  Belling  has  de- 
scribed the  mode  of  inheritance  of  semisterility 
in  certain  hybrids  of  Stizolobium.  Tammes  sug- 
gests that  the  failure  of  fiax  hybrids  to  segregate 
according  to  the  usual  Mendelian  expectancy  is 
due  to  the  low  germinating  power  of  seed  of 
white-flowered  plants.  Roemer  claims  there  is 
no  essential  difference  between  inheritance  of 
morphological  and  biological  characters,  and 
that  the  capacity  for  production  can  be  utilized 
in  plant  breeding  experiments.  MacDougal  has 
continued  his  experiments  which  show  the  germ 
plasma  of  plants  can  be  profoundly  modified  by 
various  treatments. 

Plant  Physiology,  etc.  The  attention  of 
many  histologists  has  been  recently  given  to  the 
presence  and  function  of  chondriosomes.    Guil- 


93  BOTANY 

liermond  claims  they  are  the  precursors  of  leu- 
cocytes, confirming  the  conclusions  of  Pensa  and 
others,  while  Cavers  says  it  yet  remains  to  be 
shown  that  they  are  really  cell  organs.  Studies 
in  antagonisms  between  various  salts  in  solu- 
tions continue  to  receive  the  attention  of  plant 
physiologists,  and  Stiles,  Osterhout,  Plate,  and 
others  have  given  the  results  of  their  investiga- 
tions. Czapek  claims  that  living  protoplasm 
must  be  considered  as  a  colloidal  emulsion  in 
hydrocolloidal  media  which  contain  proteins  and 
mineral  salts.  Osterhout,  from  experiments 
with  methyl  ffreen  and  other  colors  acted  upon 
by  sunlight,  found  formaldehyde  was  liberated, 
and  hence  he  concludes  that  artificial  photosyn- 
thesis has  not  been  proven.  Fincke  has  been  un- 
able to  detect  the  presence  of  formaldehyde  in 
plants  as  claimed  by  others.  Moore  believes  iron 
in  a  crystalloidal  or  colloidal  form  is  present  in 
the  chloroplasts  of  green  plants.  In  its  absence 
no  chlorophyll  is  formed,  although  iron  is  not 
present  in  the  coloring  matter.  Keegan,  from 
an  extensive  review  of  literature,  concludes  that 
Grafe^s  claim  that  there  is  no  specific  chromogen 
for  anthocyanin  is  incorrect.  Moreau  claims 
anthocyanin  is  of  mitochondrial  origin,  LOws- 
chin,  that  it  is  synthesized  by  the  nucleus  from 
organic  materials  furnished  by  the  plant,  and 
Czartowski,  that  its  development  may  be  favored 
by  lowering  the  nitrogen  content.  Everest 
claims  anthocyanins  always  occur  as  glucosids, 
and  that  they  exhibit  different  colors  according 
to  the  media.  Kisselew  confirms  Fischer's  claim 
of  accelerated  growth  in  atmospheres  containing 
increased  carbon  dioxide  content.  West  has 
given  a  review  of  the  literature  of  the  chemistry 
of  plant  pigments  other  than  chlorophyll.  Iwan- 
owski  claims  the  yellow  coloring  matter  asso- 
ciated with  chlorophyll  acts  as  a  screen,  protect- 
ing chlorophyll  against  the  injurious  violet  rays 
of  light.  Hall,  Armstrong,  and  others  claim  the 
soluble  sap  pigments  in  plants  are  formed  by 
the  oxidation  of  colorless  chromogens  through 
the  agency  of  oxidases.  Loeb  and  Wasteneys 
have  shown  that  light  response  is  the  same  in 
plants  and  animals,  and  Bose  claims  the  trans- 
mission of  excitation  is  essentially  the  same  in 
both.  Schmidt,  from  a  study  of  the  effect  of 
light  of  different  wave-lengths  on  plants,  con- 
cludes that  the  blue  rays  are  more  active  than 
usually  reported.  Ultraviolet  rays  were  found 
by  Stoklasa  to  exert  a  marked  infiuence  on  the 
development  and  activity  of  chlorophyll-bearing 
organs.  Dangeard  found  that  different  plants 
varied  in  respect  to  the  penetration  of  violet  and 
ultraviolet  rays.  The  stimulating  effect  of  high 
frequency  electric  currents  is  due  to  the  oscil- 
lating field  and  not  to  the  heat  produced,  accord- 
ing to  Homberger.  Carl  found  the  injury  to 
plants  by  the  mercury  vapor  lamp  was  due 
wholly  to  the  chemical  activity  of  the  ultraviolet 
rays.  Bovie  described  the  effect  of  Schumann 
rays  on  the  activity  of  protoplasm.  Midge  and 
Coup4  found  the  morphology  and  structure  of 
plants  were  infiuenced  by  X-rays,  the  growth  of 
some  being  increased  with  the  strength  and  fre- 
quency of  the  applications.  Sutton  reported 
gains  in  the  growth  of  rape  stimulated  with 
radio-active  ores  in  1914,  but  in  1916,  experi- 
ments with  radium  bromide  gave  injurious  ef- 
fects. Rusby  claims  radio-active  earths  increased 
the  growth  of  many  species  of  plants,  and  Bas- 
tian  found  similar  results.  Molisch,  however, 
reports  the  stimulating  effect  of  radium  emana- 


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tions  not  equal  to  that  induced  by  means  of 
warm  water. 

MiscEXLANBOUS.  The  effect  of  smoke  and  va- 
pors on  vegetation  continues  to  occupy  the  at- 
tention of  many  investigators.  Crowther  and 
Steuart  found  leaves  at  all  stages  of  growth  sub- 
ject to  injury  by  town  smoke,  conifers  more 
than  others.  Wisliczenus  and  others  claim  the 
injury  is  due  not  to  the  carbon  and  insoluble 
salts  present  in  smoke,  but  rather  to  the  sul- 
phur compounds,  especially  the  sulphites  and 
sulphides.  Ewart  believes  the  injury  to  plants 
by  coal  gas  and  tar  vapor  is  increased  by  heat 
and  insolation.  Harvey  and  Rose  have  found 
the  odorous  constituents  of  coal  gas  are  only 
slightly  toxic  to  plants,  while  the  inodorous, 
as  ethylene,  are  highly  injurious.  Lieske  re- 
ports a  group  of  aSrobic  bacteria  which  are  able 
to  assimilate  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and 
utilize  its  energy.  Otis,  from  a  study  of  the 
transpiration  of  submerged  plants,  has  accumu- 
lated data  showing  what  plants  may  be  allowed 
to  grow  in  storage  reservoirs  and  what  ones 
should  be  excluded.  Dorsey  has  found  that  ster- 
ility in  grapes  is  due  to  fimctionless  pollen 
rather  than  to  the  pistils.  Crocker  and  Graves 
claim  there  is  a  close  relation  between  the  time 
and  temperature  required  to  coagulate  the  pro- 
teins in  seeds  and  the  duration  of  their  vitality. 
Howard  has  published  the  results  of  an  ex- 
tended investigation  on  the  rest  period  of  plants. 
Withers  and  Carruth  have  concluded  that  the 
poisonous  principle  in  cotton  seed  is  gossypol, 
first  isolated  by  Marschlewski.  Brenchley  takes 
exception  to  the  claim  that  organic  plant  poisons 
are  stimulating  when  present  in  very  small  quan- 
tities, and  she  has  shown  many  exceptions  to  this 
hypothesis.  Skinner  has  found  salicylic  alde- 
hyde, a  reputed  soil  constituent,  is  injurious  to 
plants.  Ruprecht  claims  iron  and  aluminum 
sulphate  are  injurious  to  clover  seedlings,  while 
Hart  and  Tottingham  found  leguminous  and 
cruciferous  plants  were  stimulated  by  calcium 
and  sodium  sulphates.  Elemental  sulphur 
proved  injurious,  probably  through  its  conver- 
sion to  sulphites.  Tottingham  claims  that  chlo- 
rine has  a  specific  function  for  some  kinds  of 
plants.  Kratzmann  found  some  plants  had  a 
selective  affinity  for  aluminum.  It  is  accumu- 
lated in  the  sporophylls  of  cryptogams  and  in 
the  flowers  of  angiosperms.  Maz6  claims  that 
aluminum,  boron,  fluorine,  and  iodine  are  neces- 
sary to  the  proper  development  of  the  maize 
plant,  and  that  chlorosis  follows  the  absence  of 
iron,  sulphur,  and  magnesium.  Gautier  found 
fluorine  has  a  stimulating  effect  on  many  kinds 
of  plants. 

Plant  Diseases.  Tranzchel,  Klebahn,  Fraser, 
Arthur,  and  others  have  given  additional  data 
regarding  the  biological  relationships  of  rusts. 
Fischer  has  reported  studies  on  rust  specializa- 
tion, and  Stakman  found  biological  races  in 
some  of  the  grass  and  cereal  rusts.  Reed  claims 
there  is  a  marked  correlation  between  attacks  of 
powdery  mildews  and  the  physiological  condition 
of  their  host  plants.  Wester dijk  claims  plant 
diseases  are  less  common  in  the  tropics  than  in 
temperate  climates  and  attributes  it  to  the  trop- 
ical temperatures  being  too  high  for  the  develop- 
ment of  many  fungi.  R.  £.  Smith  has  expressed 
a  doubt  regarding  the  existence  of  physiological 
diseases  of  plants.  He  believes  they  will  ulti- 
mately be  found  to  be  due  to  some  specific  organ- 
ism.   McAlpine  considers  bitter  pit  of  apples  in 


94  BOTAmr 

Australia  a  result  of  faulty  transpiration  and 
other  physiological  activities.  Clinton  continues 
to  advance  the  theory  that  the  mosaic  disease 
of  tobacco  is  not  due  to  fungi  or  bacteria,  while 
Allard  believes  it  is  caused  by  some  organism  not 
recognized  by  reason  of  its  extreme  smallness. 
Two  physiological  troubles  of  cotton  in  the  West 
Indies  are  considered  due  to  unfavorable  weather 
conditions.  Eriksson  claims  additional  proof  for 
his  mycoplasma  theory  of  rust  transmission, 
while  Beauverie,  Buchet,  and  others  claim  the 
presence  of  spores  within  the  seed  coats  as  a 
means  of  original  infection.  Montemartini  says 
cereal  rusts  are  over-wintered  in  Italy  in  the 
uredo  stage.  A  study  of  the  stalk  disease  of 
cereals  by  Voges  has  shown  about  a  dozen  species 
of  fimgi  capable  of  producing  the  same  general 
symptoms. 

Investigations  on  the  chestnut  blight  fungus, 
Endoihia  parasiiicaf  are  still  in  progress,  al- 
though active  measures  for  its  control  have  been 
abandoned.  The  fungus  has  recently  been  re- 
ported in  Vermont,  North  Carolina,  and  Ne- 
braska, the  last  case  being  a  nursery  infection. 
The  spores  have  been  found  carried  by  winds  to  a 
distance  of  400  feet  or  more  and  the  nuts  and 
burs  are  also  infected.  The  chinquapin  has  re- 
cently been  found  infected  by  the  blight  fungus. 
The  white  pine  blister  rust  has  appeared  in  new 
localities.  Hedgecock  and  Long  have  described 
several  diseases  of  coniferous  trees.  A  disease 
of  maple  trees  characterized  by  sudden  wilting 
and  dying  has  been  reported  in  Virginia.  Birch 
trees  in  many  parts  of  Europe  are  attacked  by 
Ploiorightia  virguliorum,  according  to  Massee. 
A  destructive  disease  of  mulberry  trees,  the  cause 
of  which  is  unknown,  is  reported  in  France  and 
Italy.  The  citrus  canker,  which  is  proving  so 
destructive  in  Florida  and  elsewhere,  is  due  to 
bacteria,  according  to  the  investigations  of 
Hasse.  An  appropriation  of  $35,000  was  made 
by  Congress  for  combating  it,  and  the  States 
where  it  prevails  have  also  contributed  for  its 
eradication.  A  disease  of  walnut  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia, due  to  a  species  of  Dothiorella,  has  been 
described  by  Fawcett.  Recent  reports  suggest 
the  occurrence  of  fire  blight  of  pear  trees  in 
Switzerland.  A  form  of  Si  is  disease  in  which 
trunks  of  apple  trees  are  attacked  near  the 
groimd  is  reported  in  Pennsylvania  by  Orton. 
Studies  of  rots  of  fruits  and  vegetables  by  Miss 
Ames  show  they  should  be  held  as  near  zero  tem- 
perature as  possible  in  storage.  A  large  num- 
ber of  diseases  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  other 
economic  plants  have  been  described  during  the 
past  year. 

Experiments  in  the  control  of  plant  diseases 
are  in  progress  in  many  coimtries,  the  efficiency 
of  the  applications  being  especially  investigated. 
Scott  has  called  attention  to  barium  polysul- 
phide  as  a  promising  new  fungicide. 

Bibliography.  Among  botanical  books  of  re- 
cent publication  are  the  following:  M.  Arm- 
strong, Field  Book  of  Western  Wild  Flowers 
(New  York,  1916) ;  L.  H.  Bailey  and  A.  W.  Gil- 
bert, Plant  Breeding  (New  York,  1916) ;  T.  Fer- 
raris, /  parasaiti  vegetali  delle  piante  coltivate 
od  utili  (Milan,  1916);  T.  Milburn,  Fungoid 
Diseases  of  Farm  and  Garden  Crops  (London, 
1915);  R.  K.  Beattie,  Flora  of  the  Northwest 
Coast  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1915);  N.  Taylor,  Flora 
of  the  Vicinity  of  New  York  (New  York,  1916) ; 
A.  Wagner,  Repetitorium  der  Allgemeinen  Bot- 
amk  (Leipsic,  1916) ;  and  E.  O.  Wooton  and  P. 


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BOTANY  95 

C.  Standley,  Flora  of  New  Mexico  (Washington, 
1915). 

BOXTBOBTy  Paul.  See  French  Litebatube, 
Fiction. 

BOVERIy  Thbodob.  A  German  zoologist  and 
educator,  died  Oct.  16,  1915.  Born  at  Bamberg 
on  Sept.  12,  1862,  he  was  educated  at  the  Real- 
gymnasium  of  Ntlrnberg  and  at  the  University  of 
Munich,  where  he  received  his  Ph.D.  degree  in 
1885.  He  was  in  1887  a  privat-docent  at  Mu- 
nich, and  since  1893  was  professor  of  zoology 
at  tiie  University  of  Wttrzburg.  For  the  year 
1905-06  he  was  rector  of  the  imiversity.  Bo- 
veri  did  important  work  on  the  excretory  organs 
of  Amphioxus;  Die  NierencancUchen  dee  Amphi- 
oxus  (1892),  but  his  most  important  researches 
were  in  the  line  of  cytology  where  he  did  pio- 
neer and  epoch-making  work.  In  his  Zellen 
Studien  (I-IV,  1887-1900)  he  gave  in  detail 
the  maturation,  fertilization,  and  cleavage  of 
the  egg  of  AecariSf  with  especial  reference  to  the 
behavior  and  fate  of  the  chromatic  material. 
Two  later  studies  (1905,  1907)  were  devoted  to 
the  record  of  experiments  on  the  egg  of  the  sea 
urchin,  especially  as  relating  to  normal  and 
abnormal  fertilization.  In  1904  in  his  Koneti- 
tuiion  der  chromatiechen  Suhatanz  dee  ZeWceme, 
he  took  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  the  theory 
of  the  individuality  of  the  chromosomes.  Many 
of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  now  widely 
held  chromosome  theorv  of  heredity  are  based  on 
tiiese  papers  of  Boveri  s.  Boveri  was  prominent 
as  an  educator,  and  in  recent  years  many  Amer- 
ican students  worked  in  his  laboratory.  He  was 
an  honorary  M.D.  of  the  University  of  Marburg, 
and  a  member  of  several  learned  societies. 

BOWDOIN  COLLEQE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  founded  in 
1794.  The  >total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  457,  and  there  were 
89  members  of  the  faculty.  There  were  no  not- 
able changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  productive  funds  at  the  close 
of  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $2,264,034,  and 
the  income  for  the  fiscal  year  was  $148,181.  The 
library  contained  about  110,000  volumes. 

BOWIiESy  Samuel.  American  editor,  died 
March  14,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1861,  and  was 
educated  at  public  and  private  schools,  taking 
also  a  special  course  at  Yale.  He  began  work  as 
reporter  on  the  Springfield  Republican,  which 
had  been  established  by  his  grandfather  in  1826, 
soon  becoming  an  editorial  writer,  and  later 
(1865)  manager.  In  1858,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  took  charge  of  the  Republican  as 
editor  and  publisher.  During  this  time  he  held 
the  paper  in  the  front  rank  of  American  dailies. 
He  received  the  degree  of  A.M.  from  Amherst, 
and  L.H.D.  from  Olivet  College. 

BOWLINQ.  The  Americal  Bowling  Congress 
in  1916  passed  legislation  barring  all  teams  east 
of  Buffalo  and  Pittsburgh  from  competing  in  its 
tournament.  As  an  offset  to  this  action  some 
of  the  Western  bowlers  took  part  in  the  annual 
tournament  of  the  National  Bowling  Association 
held  in  New  York  City. 

The  winners  of  the  various  events  in  the  Amer- 
ican Bowling  Congress  tournament  which  took 
place  in  Peoria,  111.,  follow:  Individual — W.  H. 
Pierce,  Pueblo,  Col.,  711;  two-men  teams — Allen 
and  Allen,  Detroit,  Mich.,  1297 ;  five-men  teams 
— ^the  Barry  Kettlers,  Chicago,  111.,  2907. 

George  Newman  of  New  York  City  won  the 


BOXING 


individual  title  in  the  National  Bowling  Asso- 
ciation tournament  with  a  score  of  675.  The 
two-men  team  championship  went  to  Walter  and 
Smith  of  Rutherford,  N.  J.,  with  1232  points. 
The  Aurania  bowlers  of  New  York  City  captured 
the  five-men  team  honors  with  a  total  score  of 
2993. 

BOXING.  The  great  event  of  the  year  1915 
in  the  boxing  world  was  the  defeat  of  Jack  John- 
son by  Jess  Willard  in  a  battle  for  the  heavy- 
weight championship  of  the  world.  The  bout 
was  held  near  Havana,  Cuba,  on  April  5th  after 
a  series  of  delays  and  postponements  that  bade 
fair  at  one  time  to  result  in  the  abandonment  of 
the  project.  About  15,000  persons  witnessed  the 
fight  which  was  waged  in  a  ring  on  the  Oriental 
Race  Track,  a  few  miles  from  the  heart  of  Ha- 
vana.   The  receipts  were  estimated  at  $65,000. 

Johnson  entered  the  ring  a  pronounced  fa- 
vorite, as  the  record  of  Willard  was  not  im- 
pressive and  it  was  figured  that  the  big  Kan- 
san  would  be  utterly  at  sea  when  confronted  by 
the  speed  and  skill  of  the  negro.  For  16  rounds 
the  predictions  of  the  experts  held  true.  John- 
son landedTlow  after  blow  and  at  one  time  drove 
Willard  to  the  ropes  by  the  ferocity  of  his  at- 
tack. 

But  the  fact  remained  that  Willard  was  still 
on  his  feet  at  the  banning  of  the  17th  round 
and  furthermore  did  not  appear  to  have  been 
bothered  in  the  least  by  the  shower  of  blows  that 
had  been  rained  on  him.  Johnson  in  truth  was 
the  tired  man.  He  had  realized  that  if  he  were 
to  come  out  victorious  he  must  use  rushing  tac- 
tics, for  he  was  facing  one  who  had  two  big  ad- 
vantages— youth  and  unusual  stamina. 

So  the  tide  of  battle  turned  and  by  the  end 
of  the  18th  round  the  frenzied  spectators  were 
shouting  for  the  knockout  blow  which  they  knew 
must  come  soon.  It  came  after  one  minute  and 
26  seconds  of  fighting  in  the  26th  round,  when  a 
left  to  the  body  was  followed  by  a  right  to  the 
jaw.  The  white  race  had  regained  its  lost 
laurels. 

No  other  boxing  titles  changed  hands  during 
the  year,  although  Johnny  Ertle  claimed  the 
bantamweight  championship  through  his  defeat 
of  Kid  Williams  on  a  foul.  A  new  boxer  to 
spring  into  prominence  was  Les  Darcy  of  Aus- 
tralia, a  middleweight  who  knocked  out  Eddie 
McGoorty  and  outpointed  Jimmy  Clabby.  Darcy 
arranged  to  visit  the  United  States  during  1916 
and  make  a  bid  for  the  middleweight  title  of 
which  Al  McCoy  is  the  claimant. 

The  bout  of  the  year  which  attracted  the  most 
interest  in  New  York  City  was  that  between 
Mike  Gibbons  and  Packey  McFarland  at  Brigh- 
ton Beach.  The  men  battled  to  a  draw  before 
a  $58,000  "gate." 

The  championships  of  the  Amateur  Athletic 
Union  were  decided  at  Boston  on  April  7th.  The 
results  of  the  final  bouts  were:  108-poimd  class 
— Howard  Root  of  the  Cleveland  A.  C.  defeated 
Ben  Bailey  of  the  Adams  A.  A.,  Maiden,  Mass.; 
115-pound  class — ^Tony  Vatlan,  Brighton,  Mass., 
defeated  Julius  Walters,  Cleveland  A.  Q.\  125- 
pound  class — Arthur  Strawhacker,  Cleveland  A. 
C,  defeated  John  J.  Emery,  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
135-pound  class — Mike  Crowley,  Maiden,  Mass., 
defeated  C.  Simonson,  Union  Settlement  A.  C, 
New  York;  158-pound  class — A.  Kaufman,  Trin- 
ity Club,  Brooklyn,  defeated  Walter  Wyss,  Cleve- 
land A.  C;  175-pound  class — Edward  C.  Carr, 
Boston,    defeated    Charles    W.    Olsen,    Boston; 


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BOXING 


heavyweight  class — Arthur  Sheridan,  Trinity 
Club,  New  York,  defeated  James  McDonald,  Mil- 
ton, Mass. 

BOYCOTT.  Danbury  Hatters'  Case.  This 
famous  case  which  grew  out  of  a  strike  in  1902 
of  the  United  Hatters  of  North  America  against 
Loewe  and  Company  of  Danbury,  Conn.,  was  ad- 
vanced to  its  final  stage  by  a  decision  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  handed  down  Jan. 
5,  1915.  The  case  had  been  before  numerous 
courts;  in  1908  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
declared  the  boycott  illegal  and  authorized  a  suit 
for  damages  under  the  Sherman  Act ;  and  as  long 
ago  as  October,  1909,  damages  under  the  Anti- 
Trust  Law  were  assessed  at  $232,240.  Later  ap- 
peals and  judgments  in  1912  and  1913  fixed  the 
damages  against  the  union  at  $252,130,  and  au- 
thorized the  assessment  of  these  damages  upon 
the  individual  members  of  the  union,  whether 
they  had  expressly  assented  to  the  boycott  or 
not.  It  was  this  judgment  which  was  affirmed 
by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  on  Janu- 
ary 5th,  thus  making  the  total  damages  to  be  paid 
by  the  union  members,  including  interest,  nearly 
$300,000.  Probably  no  labor  case  of  recent  years 
has  been  of  greater  interest  to  lawyers,  employ- 
ers, labor  leaders,  publicists,  and  the  general  pub- 
lic. Since  the  union  was  not  deemed  sufficiently 
responsible  financially,  the  suit  for  damages  had 
been  brought  against  individual  members.  Of 
the  243  original  defendants  only  186  survived 
when  the  final  decision  was  rendered.  Their 
bank  accounts  and  real  estate  had  been  under 
attachment  since  the  beginning  of  the  suit.  The 
union  indemnified  these  mem&rs  for  their  bank 
accounts,  but  refused  to  assume  responsibility 
for  the  homes  owned  by  120  of  them.  The  union 
did,  how^ever,  at  a  meeting  in  May,  1915,  vote  to 
levy  an  assessment  of  1  per  cent  per  year  on  the 
earnings  of  all  members  to  meet  the  expenses 
and  damages  of  the  suit.  This  was  expected  to 
realize  between  $30,000  and  $40,000  a  year. 
Meanwhile  the  officers  of  the  Hatters'  Union 
sought  aid  from  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  but  the  Executive  Council  of  the  Federa- 
tion on  January  13th  decided  that  the  legal  aid 
already  given  and  the  activities  in  behalf  of  the 
Clayton  Act  discharged  all  their  obligations. 
However,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Federa- 
tion in  November,  it  was  voted  to  request  each 
member  to  set  aside  one  hour's  pay  on  Jan. 
27,  1916,  for  the  relief  of  the  Danbury  hatters. 
Finally  the  Danbury  hatters  petitioned  Congress 
through  Connecticut  representatives  in  February 
to  relieve  them  from  the  award  of  the  court. 
This  petition  was  based  on  the  fact  that  the  in- 
tent of  the  Sherman  Law  to  exempt  labor  unions 
had  not  been  made  clear  by  the  framers,  and  that 
in  consequence  the  hatters  had  suffered  an  unjust 
hardship. 

The  decision  of  the  court  left  the  exact  legal 
status  of  the  trade  unions  somewhat  indefinite. 
It  was  made  clear  that  under  the  Sherman  Law 
the  members  of  trade  unions  could  be  held  finan- 
cially responsible  for  boycotts  of  the  compound 
sort,  when  the  trade  boycotted  is  interstate,  and 
this  fixing  of  financial  responsibility  upon  the 
union  and  its  individual  members  was  believed  to 
be  a  serious  blow  to  organized  labor.  But  it  was 
believed  that  section  20  of  the  Clayton  Act  of 
1914,  which  prevents  the  issuance  of  injunctions 
against  primary  and  secondary  boycotts,  would, 
until  judicial  interpretation  of  such  section,  per- 
mit unions  to  carry  on  peaceful  persuading  of 


96  BRAZIL 

third  parties  to  cease  relations  with  a  party  to 
a  trade  dispute,  such  persuasion  being  unaccom- 
panied by  threats  or  coercion.  Nevertheless, 
there  were  those  who  held  that  this  provision  of 
the  Clayton  Act  would  prove  an  insecure  basis 
for  boycotts  when  tested  in  the  courts.  See 
also  Strikes  and  Lockouts. 

BOY-ED,  Captain.  See  United  States  and 
THE  War. 

BOY  SCOUTS  OP  AMERICA.  An  organiza- 
tion founded  in  1908  for  the  purpose  of  drilling 
boys  between  the  ages  of  12  and  18  in  self-reli- 
ance, manhood,  and  citizenship.  It  was  the  out- 
growth of  a  similar  movement  in  England, 
started  by  Gen.  F.  Baden-Powell.  In  the  United 
States  its  founders  were  Ernest  Thompson  Seton 
and  Daniel  C.  Beard,  who  combined  two  organiza- 
tions of  boys  into  one  association.  There  were 
in  1910  over  10,000  scout  masters  in  the  United 
States,  and_over  300,000  members  in  the  organi- 
zation. During  the  latter  part  of  1915  a  move- 
ment for  an  endowment  of  $2,000,000  to  carry  on 
the  expenses  of  the  organization  was  begun. 
The  honorary  president  is  President  Woodrow 
Wilson;  honorary  vice-presidents — William  H. 
Taft  and  Theodore  Roosevelt.  The  president  is 
James  E.  West. 

BBACKETT,  Cyrus.  American  physicist  and 
educator,  died  Jan.  29,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Parson  field,  Me.,  in  1833,  and  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1859.  In  1863  he  was  in- 
structor in  chemistry  at  Bowdoin  College,  and 
became  professor  there  in  1864.  Appointed  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Princeton  University  in 
1873,  he  held  that  position  until  1908,  when  he 
was  made  professor  emeritus.  Honorary  de- 
grees came  to  him  from  Lafayette  and  Bowdoin 
colleges,  and  from  Princeton  University. 

BBADDONy  Mary  Elizabeth.  English  nov- 
elist, died  Feb.  4,  1915.  She  was  born  in  London 
in  1837.  Her  father,  who  was  a  solicitor  and  a 
man  of  literarv  tastes,  encouraged  his  daughter 
to  develop  a  talent  for  writing  poetry  and  fiction. 
At  an  early  age  she  wrote  serious  and  sentimen- 
tal poems  and  sketches,  and  when  she  was  23 
years  old  (1860)  a  publisher  who  had  been  at- 
tracted by  her  work  offered  her  50  dollars  for  a 
story  which  would  combine  the  human  interest  of 
Dickens  and  the  plot  development  of  Wilkie  Col- 
lins. To  meet  this  offer  she  wrote  Three  Times 
Dead,  It  was  not  very  successful,  but  two  years 
later  she  published  Lady  Audley*8  Secret,  which 
was  one  of  the  most  widely  read  books  of  the 
day.  The  success  of  this  novel  established  her 
fame  and  she  was  thenceforth  greatly  sought 
after  by  publishers.  In  quick  succession  fol- 
lowed Aurora  Floyd  (1862),  The  Doctor's  Wife 
(1864),  and  from  that  time  on  for  many  years 
she  was  one  of  the  most  popular  writers  of  Eng- 
land. Her  later  books,  however,  never  reached 
the  success  of  Lady  Audley's  Secret.  Her  novels 
dealt  chiefly  with  English  life.  Her  last  book 
was  Miranda  (1913).  She  married  John  Max- 
well, and  her  son,  William  Babbington  Maxwell, 
was  a  well  known  writer  of  novels  and  stories. 

BBATJNy  Lily.  See  German  Literature, 
Fiction. 

BBAZILy  United  States  of.  A  federal  re- 
public of  South  America.  The  capital  is  Rio  de 
Janeiro. 

Area  and  Population.  Neither  the  area  nor 
the  population  is  definitely  known.  Among  the 
varying  estimates  of  area,  the  one  which  for  the 
present  seems  best  to  represent  the  extension  of 


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BKAZTIi 


the  republic  is  8,497,540  square  kilometers  (3,- 
280,900  square  miles).  Tlie  1890  census  re- 
turned a  population  of  14,333,915,  and  the  1900 
census,  17,318,566.  Since  the  latter  date  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  population  has  rap- 
idly increased,  so  that  the  number  of  inhabitants 
in  1913  was  estimated  at  24,308,000.  This  fig- 
ure, however,  is  regarded  by  some  authorities  as 
excessive.  The  following  ^ble  shows  by  states 
the  estimated  area  and  population  (1913),  and 
names  the  state  capitals: 

Sq.  km.  Pop.                 OavHUOM 

AmuonM    ...1,894,724  600,000  ]£anAo8 

PbtA    1,149,612  760.000  Belfoi 

Maranhio    ...    460.884  600.000  SAo   Luis 

PUuhy     801,707  460,000  TlieresinA 

Ce»rA     104,360  1.000,000  Fortaleu 

Rio  Grande  do 

Norta     57.485  480,000  Natol 

Parahyba     ...       74,781  660,000  Parahyba 

Pemambuco    .     128,805  1,650,000  Recife 

Alagdaa    68,491  800.000  Maoei6 

Sergipe    89,090  500,000  Araeajd 

BaUa     426,427  2.660.000  Sio  Salvador 

Espirito    Santo      44.880  480,000  Victoria 

Rio  de  Janeiro        68,982  1.250.000  Niehtheroy 

Sio    Paulo ...     290.876  8,200.000  S&o   Paulo 

ParanA     251,904  670.000  Ourytiba 

Santa  Oatharina    48,586  610,000  Florlanopolia 
Rio  Grande  do 

Sill     286.658  1.760.000  Porto  Alegre 

Minas    Geraea.    547.856  4,860,000  Bello    Horisonto 

Goyas     747.811  808.000  Goyas 

Matto    Groaao.  1,878,788  800,000  CuyabA 

Fed.    District.         1.116  1,000,000  Rio  de  Janeiro 

Acre  Territory    191,000  196,000  Rio  Branoo 

Brasil    ..8.497,540  24.808,000    Rio  de  Janeiro 

The  population  of  cities  is  bo  variously  esti- 
mated that  until  a  census  is  taken  little  depend- 
ence can  be  placed  upon  published  estimates. 
Rio  de  Janeiro  (including  the  whole  federal  dis- 
trict) is  supposed  to  have  about  1,000,000  in- 
habitants; Sao  Paulo,  400,000  to  450,000;  Sio 
Salvador  (Bahia),  about  300,000. 

The  reported  number  of  immigrants  to  Brazil 
from  1820  to  the  end  of  1914  is  3,415,741.  Im- 
migrants in  1913  numbered  192,684;  in  1914, 
82,572.  In  1913  and  1914  respectively,  78,208 
and  33,918  arrived  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  110,- 
976  and  47,570  at  Santos.  Immigration  is 
chiefly  to  the  southern  states,  where  the  climate 
is  more  healthful.  In  the  period  1907-13,  immi- 
grants numbered  846,289;  of  these,  there  were 
324,431  Portuguese,  164,332  Spaniards,  146,016 
Italians,  46,195  Russians,  38,213  Syrians,  etc., 
30,431  Germans,  21,100  Austro-Hungarians,  11,- 
868  Japanese,  7899  French,  and  6033  British. 

Education.  As  in  most  of  Latin  America,  the 
greater  part  of  tiie  population  is  composed  of 
illiterates.  Considerable  effort,  however,  has 
been  made  in  recent  years  to  further  elementary 
education,  which  is  free,  secular,  and  in  some 
states,  nominally  compulsory.  Schools  of  all 
kinds  niunber  upwards  of  13,000,  with  an  esti- 
mated enrollment  of  nearly  750,000.  Some  pro- 
vision is  made  for  secondary  education;  in  1909 
the  reported  niunber  of  secondary  schools  was 
327,  with  30,258  students.  There  are  a  number 
of  normal,  special,  and  technical  schools.  Brazil 
has  no  university,  but  in  several  of  the  large 
cities  are  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and  engi- 
neering. 

Pbodugtion.  Agriculture  is  the  principal 
source  of  wealth,  out  vast  areas  of  the  country 
are  unsettled  and  even  unexplored.  The  crop  of 
first  commercial  importance  is  coffee,  grown 
chiefly  in  the  state  of  Sfto  Paulo,  but  also  in  Rio 

Y.  B.— 4 


07  BRAZIL 

de  Janeiro,  Espirito  Santo,  and  Minas  Qeraes. 
Ck>ffee  production  in  1909-10,  11,501,023  metric 
quintals;  in  1910-11,  7,610,131;  in  1911-12,  7,- 
473,600;  in  1912-13,  6,300,000.  The  crop  for 
1914-15  was  estimated  at  10,500,000  quintals. 
Next  to  coffee  in  commercial  importance  is  rub- 
ber, which  grows  wild  in  the  Amazon  region,  and 
the  cultivation  of  which  is  encouraged  by  the 
government.  Implements  and  material  for  use 
in  the  culture,  gathering,  and  refining  of  rubber 
are  admitted  to  the  coimtry  free  of  duty;  demon- 
stration farms  are  conducted  to  promote  the  cul- 
ture, and  bounties  are  granted  to  cultivators. 
Other  important  crops  are  sugar  cane,  produced 
chiefly  in  Pernambuco  and  other  parts  of  the 
northeast;  cotton,  also  largely  grown  in  the 
northeast;  nuit6  (herva  matt^),  chiefly  in  Par- 
an&;  cacao,  especially  in  Bahia;  tobacco,  in  Ba- 
hia and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul;  besides  these  are 
large  crops  of  com,  rice,  bananas,  and  manioc, 
the  last  forming  the  staple  food  of  the  people. 
According  to  a  1913  enumeration,  there  were  in 
Brazil,  7,289,690  horses,  30,705,400  cattle,  10,- 
649,000  sheep,  10,000,000  goats,  3,207,940  mules 
and  asses,  and  18,500,000  swine.  Parts  of  Brazil 
are  rich  in  minerals,  but  mining  is  not  greatly 
developed;  gold,  manganese,  monazite  sand,  and 
gems  are  produced.  Manufacturing  has  become 
of  much  importance  in  the  federal  district  and 
shows  a  considerable  development  in  the  states 
Sfio  Paulo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  ParanA,  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  Sergipe,  Pernambuco,  Cear&,  and  Bahia. 
The  leading  manufacture  is  cotton-piece  goods. 

GoMMEBCs.  Imports  and  exports  of  mer- 
chandise, special  trade,  have  been  as  follows,  in 
thousands  of  milreis  (paper) : 


1909  1907 

Importa — 
471,114        644.938 

Ezporta — 
786,040       860,801 


1910  1919  1918 

718,868  061,870       1,007.496 

080,418       1,110,787         072,781 


With  the  paper  milreis  considered  to  be  worth 
32.4  cents,  the  imports  and  exports  of  merchan- 
dise in  1912  were  equivalent  in  value  to  $308,- 
243,736  and  $362,794,846  respectively;  in  1913, 
$326,428,509  and  $315,164,687.  The  leading  im- 
ports include  machinery  and  other  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  railway  materials,  cotton  fabrics, 
coal,  flour,  codfish,  wine,  arms  and  ammunition, 
kerosene,  paper,  and  jerked  beef.  In  1913  and 
1914,  respectively,  the  coffee  export  was  13,267,- 
449  and  11,271,000  sacks  (of  60  kilos  each); 
rubber,  36,232  and  33,468  metric  tons;  tobacco, 
29,388  and  26,080;  mat4,  65,415  and  59,354; 
sugar,  5367  and  31,860;  cacao,  29,759  and.  40,- 
767;  cotton,  37,424  and  30,434;  hides,  35,075 
and  31,442. 

The  following  table  compares  the  trade  by 
countries  with  tiiat  of  1910,  in  thousands  of  dol- 
lars : 

Imports  ExporU 

1910  1918  1910  1918 

United    Kingdom 66.842,  70.881  72,106  41.702 

Germany     86,775  57,044  86,626  44,302 

United  Stotes 20,704  51,290  110,144  102.568 

Franee    21,868  81,940  25,642  88,686 

Argentina    10,767  24,204  11.400  14,848 

Belgium     10,461  16,670  5,510  8,008 

Portugal '. .  .  12,866  14.828  810  1,580 

Italy    7,867  12,866  2,064  4,067 

Uruguay    6.001  7,047  5,560  6,167 

Total,  including 

other    281,202  826,420  804,870  815.166 


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BRAZIL  98 

In  1913,  there  were  entered  at  the  ports,  27,- 
782  veBselfl,  of  29,170,179  tons,  of  which  sailing 
vessels  numbered  6295,  of  606,266  tons.  Brazil- 
ian vessels,  20,906,  of  10,343,968  tons,  of  which 
sail  5743,  of  251,195  tons.  British  tonnage  en- 
tered, 9,866,817;  German,  4,285,095;  French,  1,- 
306,102;  Italian,  1,124,068.  North  American 
tonnage  entered  was  only  24,240. 

Communications.  As  reported  for  Dec.  31, 
1914,  the  length  of  railway  in  operation  was 
26,062  kilometers  (16,194  miles).  The  re- 
ported length  in  operation  Dec.  31,  1913,  was 
24,580  kilometers  (15,273  miles);  of  this,  lines 
belonging  to  and  managed  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment comprised  3522  kilometers  (2188 
miles) ;  lines  belonging  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment and  leased  to  companies,  9218  kilometers 
(5727  miles) ;  lines  conceded  by  the  federal 
government,  some  with  and  some  without  in- 
terest guarantee,  5558  kilometers  (3454  miles) ; 
lines  operated  by  private  companies  under 
concessions  of  state  governments,  6282  kilo- 
meters (3903  miles). 

Telegraphs  in  1912:  offices,  2244,  with  58,- 
257  kilometers  of  line  and  117,682  kilometers 
of  wire.  Radiotelegraph  stations,  27;  on  board 
ships,  62.    Post  offices  (1914),  3587. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  gold 
milreis,  equivalent  to  about  54.6  cents.  The 
ordinary  medium  of  exchange  is  the  paper  mil- 
reis. Its  par  value  is  32.444  cents,  but  its  ac- 
tual value  fluctuates,  being  in  1915  about  25 
or  26  cents.  The  budget  for  1913  showed  esti- 
mated revenue  of  106,382,884  milreis  gold  and 
353,257,000  milreis  paper,  and  estimated  ex- 
penditure, 63,284,719  gold  and  469,463,810 
paper;  for  1914,  revenue,  130,219,000  gold  and 
367,511,000  paper;  expenditure,  95,469,000  gold 
and  435,773,000  paper;  estimated  expenditure 
for  1915,  70,999,236  gold  and  378,862,047  paper. 
Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1913:  foreign  debt,  £91,- 
609,100  and  299,032,000  francs;  floating  foreign 
debt,  £2,000,000;  internal  debt,  701,382,600  mil- 
reis; floating  internal  debt,  278,501,725  milreis. 
Paper  money  in  circulation,  601,488,303  milreis. 

Abmy.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1914,  the  new 
Brazil  infantry  regulations  were  published,  and 
embodied  the  result  of  modern  study,  being  prac- 
tically identical  to  the  Argentine  regulations, 
and  both  being  translated  bodily  from  the  Ger- 
man. 

Navt.  The  navy  in  1915  included  the  fol- 
lowing vessels:  Two  battleships  (Minos  Oer- 
aes,  1908;  8do  Paulo,  1909),  aggregating  38,- 
500  tons;  2  armored  coast  guards  (1898  and 
1899),  6320  tons;  2  monitors  (1905),  940  tons; 
1  protected  cruiser  (1896),  3450  tons;  2  scout 
cruisers  {Bahia  and  Rio  Grande,  1909),  6200 
tons;  3  torpedo  cruisers  (1896-98),  3090  tons; 
10  torpedo-boat  destroyers  (1908-10),  6500 
tons;  river  gunboats,  transports,  etc.  The 
dreadnought  Rio  de  Janeiro  (27,500  tons)  was 
completed  at  Elswick  in  1914.  Brazil  sold  the 
vessel  to  Turkey,  and  it  was  renamed  Sultan 
Oaman  /.  It  did  not  join  the  Turkish  fleet  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  war,  when  it  was  taken 
over  by  the  British  government  and  received 
the  name  Agincouri, 

Government.  The  chief  executive  is  the 
President,  who  is  elected  for  four  years  by  di- 
rect vote  and  is  not  eligible  for  the  succeeding 
term.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  seven 
members  appointed  by  and  responsible  to  him- 
self.   The  Congress  consists  of  two  houses,  the 


BRAZIL 

Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Sen- 
ators, 63  in  number,  are  elected  by  direct  vote 
for  nine  vears.  The  deputies,  numbering  212, 
are  elected  for  three  years.  For  the  term  ended 
Nov.  15,  1914,  the  President  was  Marshal 
Hermes  da  Fonseca.  The  NTice-President,  Wen- 
ceslfto  Braz  Pereira  Gomes,  was  elected  Presi- 
dent for  the  ensuing  term;  Vice-President,  Ur- 
bano  dos  Santos. 

The  states  have  elective  governors  and  legis- 
latures and  enjoy  a  large  degree  of  autonomy. 

HiSTOBT.  EeononUo  Condiiiong,  The  open- 
ing of  the  year  found  the  country  just  emerg- 
ing from  the  financial  and  business  crisis  into 
which  it  had  been  plunged  during  the  preced- 
ing year.  The  European  war  had  deprived 
Brazil  of  its  best  customers,  made  it  impossible 
to  secure  imports  or  money  abroad  (see  Inter- 
national Year  Book,  1914),  and  had  even  re- 
duced the  amount  of  credit  with  foreign  banks 
on  which  Brazilian  bankers  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  depend.  The  financial  administration 
of  the  country  was  paralyzed,  and,  as  a  result 
of  their  inability  to  dispose  of  their  products 
in  the  disorganized  state  of  the  market,  many 
of  the  people  suffered  severely.  Under  the  able 
administration,  however,  of  President  Wen- 
cesldo  Braz,  the  country  soon  began  to  emerge 
from  this  crisis,  which  had  seemed  so  threaten- 
ing at  the  close  of  the  previous  year.  In  the 
north,  particularly  in  the  city  of  Pernambuco, 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  district,  trade  be- 
gan to  revive,  and  by  March  was  in  a  fairly 
prosperous  condition.  In  the  south,  especially 
in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  business  had 
been  less  affected  by  the  abnormal  conditions, 
and  in  March  was  nearly  normal.  American 
merchants  were  more  encouraged  and  began  to 
offer  their  goods  with  better  results.  Early  in 
May  the  President  recommended  to  Congress 
the  amendment  of  the  electoral  law,  the  revi- 
sion of  the  customs  tariff,  the  acceptance  of  the 
remainder  of  the  Civil  Code,  the  voting  of  a 
budget,  and  the  adoption  of  financial  methods 
adequate  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  coun- 
try. In  the  following  month  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  approved  an  issue  of  30,000  contoa 
($191,100,000)  with  which  to  pay  treasury 
debts  contracted  prior  to  1915.  The  govern- 
ment likewise  authorized  the  Bank  of  Brazil  to 
act  as  a  discount  agency  in  the  sale  of  coffee 
and  other  national  products.  Protective  tariff 
measures  were  passed  to  aid  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  market  for  these  products. 

Relations  With  Other  South  American  Coun- 
tries. In  an  effort  to  brin?  about  better  diplo- 
matic as  well  as  industrial  and  economic  rela- 
tions with  the  other  leading  powers  of  South 
America,  Dr.  Lauro  MuUer,  Premier  of  Brazil, 
left  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  the  last  of  April  to  visit 
several  of  the  other  nations  of  Latin  America. 
In  the  last  of  May  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Buenos  Aires  by  Dr.  Muller  and  the  rep- 
resentatives of  Argentina  and  Chile.  A  Bra- 
zilian newspaper  in  writing  of  this  conference, 
said: 

"The  journeys  of  Lauro  Muller  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  Southern  Continent 
were  the  consecration  and  crowning  of  our  tra- 
ditional political  policy.  All  our  diplomatic 
future  will  be  developed  along  the  line  traced 
for  more  than  four  score  years.  All  our  inter- 
national policy  revolves  still  around  those  two 
great  principles  which  the  empire  established— 


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BBAZIL 


harmony  with  the  United  States  and  peace  with 
South  Ameriea. 

"The  ABC  alliance  before  its  actual  consecra- 
tion was  able  to  show  itself  a  diplomatic  force. 
It  shunned  conflicts  between  the  powers  of 
North  and  South  America,  and  now  this  in- 
strument of  peace  affirms  that  while  working 
for  the  harmony  of  others  it  assures  at  the 
same  time  the  imchangeableness  of  its  own 
spirit  of  cooperation." 

This  treaty  meant  an  actual  alliance  between 
these  strong  South  American  republics,  an  idea 
which  had  long  been  hoped  for  but  which  had 
never  been  consummated.  It  was  stated  unofii- 
cially  that  the  United  States  might  be  asked  to 
enter  this  alliance.  In  August,  Brazil  joined 
with  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Chile,  Guate- 
mala, Uruguay,  and  Bolivia  in  an  effort  to  bring 
about  law  and  order  in  Mexico,  and  in  October 
Brazil  recognized  Carranza  as  the  provisional 
president  of  Mexico  (see  Mexico). 

Relations  with  the  United  States,  The  trou- 
ble in  Europe  made  it  possible  for  the  United 
States  to  enter  into  closer  economic  relations 
with  Brazil  and  American  goods  were  in  greater 
demand  than  ever  before.  In  May  it  was  re- 
ported unofficially  that  the  Brazilian  govern- 
ment was  endeavoring  to  float  a  loan  of  $15,000,- 
000  in  this  country.  The  failure  of  London  to 
become  enthusiastic  over  the  Argentine  bonds 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  these  bonds  were 
bought  up  in  New  York  convinced  the  govern- 
ment that  the  United  States  was  the  best  place 
to  look  for  financial  assistance.  Brazil  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Pan-American  financial 
conference  held  in  Washington  in  May.  This 
conference  was  called  at  the  instance  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson  in  an  attempt  to  better  financial 
conditions  existing  in  North  and  South  America. 
The  Brazilian  del^ates  to  the  conference  rec- 
ommended among  other  things: 

"The  establishment  of  a  reliable  means 
whereby  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  each 
nation  can  determine  with  reasonable  accuracy 
the  financial  responsibility  of  the  purchaser  of 
the  other  nations;  it  strongly  recommends  that 
there  be  established  between  the  United  States 
and  Latin- American  countries  a  system  of  direct 
exchange  based  on  the  dollar  unit  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  order  to  facilitate  the  in- 
terchange of  products  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
American  countries." 

BBEEDINQ.  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat 
Pboduction. 

BSETHBEN,  Chubch  of  the.  A  religious 
denomination  known  also  as  the  Dunkers  or 
Dunkards.  There  are  three  branches,  the  Con- 
servative, the  Progressives,  and  Old  Order.  Of 
these  the  Conservative  is  the  largest.  It  in- 
cluded in  1915  about  97,000  communicants,  990 
churches,  and  3009  ministers.  The  next  in  im- 
portance is  the  Progressives,  which  has  2720 
communicants,  212  churches,  and  200  ministers. 
The  Old  Order  has  about  3500  communicants,  72 
churches,  and  218  ministers.  There  is  also  a 
small  branch  called  the  Seventh  Day  German 
Bretiiren.  This  has  only  about  275  communi- 
cants. The  Conservative  group  maintains  ten 
schools,  one  of  which  is  the  Bethany  Bible  School 
in  Chicago,  devoted  entirely  to  study  in  the 
Bible.  There  is  a  large  publishing  house  at  El- 
gin, 111.,  where  a  large  number  of  papers  and 
books  are  issued.  Mission  work  is  carried  on  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  India,  and  China.    The  an- 


99  BBIDGES 

nual  convention  was  held  at  Hershey,  Pa.,  in 
June,  1915.  The  Progressive  branch  maintains  a 
publishing  house  at  Ashland,  Ohio. 

BBEITB^G.    See  Liquors. 

BBXAMD,    Aristide.     See    France,    History, 

BBICK.    See  Clat-Wobkino  Industries. 

BBIDQES.  During  the  year  1915  there  was 
considerable  construction  of  large  bridges  under 
way  in  America,  but  few  new  projects  were  un- 
dertaken. In  Europe,  on  the  Continent,  demo- 
litions and  the  construction  or  replacement  of 
bridges  purely  for  military  purposes  were  far 
more  to  the  front  than  civil  engineering.  In 
India  the  Hardinge  Bridge  over  the  Lower 
Ganges  in  Bengal,  a  long  steel  truss  structure 
which  had  been  under  construction  for  nearly 
seven  years,  was  opened  on  March  4,  1915.  It  is 
over  a  mile  long,  with  15  trusses,  each  of  345 
feet  span.  The  most  important  work  of  the  year 
was  the  closing  of  the  Hell  Gate  arch  of  the 
New  York  Connecting  Railway,  from  Long  Is- 
land to  the  mainland,  while  the  Quebec  Bridge 
construction  maintained  satisfactory  progress 
and  was  substantially  advanced.  Progress  was 
also  to  be  noted  on  the  large  bridges  crossing 
the  Ohio  River  at  Metropolis,  111.,  Sciotoville, 
Ohio,  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  over  the  Missis- 
sippi River  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Keokuk,  Iowa, 
and  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  the  American  bridge 
construction  under  way  the  use  of  high  strength 
steels  was  notable,  and  five  of  the  most  impor- 
tant bridges  building  during  the  year  were  of 
special  material  in  at  least  some  of  the  parts. 
These  structures,  however,  were  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  tonnage  actually  fabricated  at  the 
great  bridge  shops,  so  that  the  use  of  high 
strength  steels  was  to  be  considered  special 
rather  than  general. 

Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a 
tendency  in  American  bridge  construction,  par- 
ticularly where  reinforced  concrete  and  masonry 
are  employed,  to  demand  more  ornamental  treat- 
ment and  lo  secure  the  cooperation  of  architects. 
This  was  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  city 
railway  bridges  as  well  as  for  parks  and  boule- 
vards. This  tendencv  has  been  shown  at  Phila- 
delphia and  in  the  decoration  of  the  Smithfield 
Bridge  in  Pittsburgh.  A  notable  example  was 
the  Q  Street  Bridge  across  Rock  Creek,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  which  is  a  five  arch  span  structure 
of  reinforced  concrete.  The  tone  of  this  bridge 
is  red,  the  main  part  of  the  spandrels  being  red- 
dish concrete,  bush-hammered  for  rough  sur- 
faces, and  the  quoins,  coping,  railing,  and  abut- 
ment faces  of  red  sandstone,  whose  color  is 
matched  in  the  concrete  by  mixing  with  the  ce- 
ment a  special  red  sand.  There  is  also  orna- 
mental carving  on  the  railing,  and  a  carved  head 
at  the  base  of  each  cantilever,  while  four  huge 
bronze  buffaloes  face  each  other  on  the  pedestals 
at  the  approaches. 

Important  progress  was  made  during  the 
year  on  movable  bridges,  the  vertical  lift  and 
bascule  types  were  favored  forms  of  construc- 
tion, and  some  notable  projects  were  carried  out. 
A  new  type  of  swing  bridge  was  designed  by 
J.  B.  Strauss,  to  whom  earlier  was  due  the  coun- 
terbalanced lever  lift  bridge  familiarly  known 
as  the  bascule  bridge,  which  is  now  so  widely 
used.  The  Strauss  Cantilever  Swing  Bridge,  as 
the  design  is  familiarly  known,  has  for  its  chief 
characteristics,  first,  the  use  of  direct  driven 
trucks  running  upon  ordinary  railroad  rails  to 
effect  rotation;  and  second,  the  construction  of 

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100 


BBIPOBS 


the  central  portion  of  the  draw  span  as  a  canti- 
lever projecting  beyond  the  centre  pier  with  the 
arms  pin -connected  at  their  ends  so  as  to  form 
simple  spans  from  the  ends  of  the  cantilever  to 
the  abutoients.  In  each  arm  the  top  chord  is 
connected  with  the  top  chord  of  the  central  draw 
portion  by  a  two-panel  link,  which  is  in  turn 
connected  to  a  pivoted  vertical,  while  the  pivot 
point  of  that  vertical  connects  with  an  operating 
strut  and  a  driving  motor  on  the  central  draw 
portion,  so  that  when  the  strut  is  drawn  back- 
ward the  four  linked  elements  on  each  side  of 
the  centre  act  as  a  double  toggle,  raising  the 
end  of  each  arm  off  its  bearings  on  the  abutment 
until  the  span  is  free  to  turn.  A  series  of 
trucks  under  the  central  draw  at  four  points, 
the  intersections  of  the  four  verticals  of  the  cen- 
tral span  with  the  chords,  comprise  the  turning 
mechanism,  the  number  of  wheels  on  each  truck 
varying  and  running  on  four  concentric  rails. 
When  the  bridge  is  in  its  closed  position  a  wedge 
is  automatically  operated  and  the  live  load  of 
the  bridge  is  taken  off  the  trucks  and  transmit- 
ted directly  to  the  piers.  With  the  lifting  of  the 
arms  the  wedges  are  automatically  wi&drawn 
and  the  bridge  then  moves  with  the  trucks.  The 
operating  mechanism  includes  a  driving  mecha- 
nism on  the  trucks,  consisting  of  electric  motors 
which  are  geared  to  the  driving  wheels.  The 
advantage  claimed  for  the  lonff  Strauss  bridge 
is  '^t^at  the  trucks  replace  the  drum,  roller,  and 
tre^d  of  one  type  of  swing  or  the  corresponding 
cei^e  trailer  wheels  of  uie  other,  producing  a 
flaying  both  in  steel  and  cost  of  fabrication,  and 
elffninate  the  costly  circular  rack  used  in  all 
types  of  swing  bridges,  while  it  makes  possible 
d[ie  use  of  cantilever  and  simple  span  construc- 
tion in  the  process  in  place  of  continuous  girders, 
thus  reducing  the  weight  per  foot  as  well  as  the 
total  loads,  By  eliminating  the  spider  and  end 
lifts  there  is  a  lesser  weight  to  move,  and  as  the 
bridge  is  more  simple  in  construction,  its  oper- 
ation and  maintenance  cost  less. 

The  most  important  bridge  proposed  during 
the  year  was  a  new  Thames  River  Bridge  to  be 
built  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
R.  R.,  at  New  London,  Conn.,  to  take  the 
place  of  the  five  span  structure  built  in  1888-80. 
Although  this  is  a  two-track  structure,  the  in- 
creased train  weights  made  necessary  in  1908 
the  limitation  of  its  use  to  single  track  oper- 
ation, and  as  the  bridge  is  on  the  nuiin  line  be- 
tween New  York,  Providence,  and  Boston,  the 
efficiency  of  transportation  on  the  system  was 
seriously  interfered  with.  The  new  bridge  is  to 
be  designed  so  as  to  carry  four  tracks  with  the 
heaviest  known  loading,  the  superstructure  be- 
ing arranged  on  this  basis,  but  at  first  the  su- 
perstructure will  be  built  for  two  tracks  only. 
There  are  to  be  three  spans  of  330  feet,  one  of 
185  feet,  and  one  of  212  feet.  It  also  will  be  a 
five-span  structure  with  an  electrically  operated 
bascule  lift  span.  The  bridge  is  to  be  185  feet 
upstream  from  the  old  bridge,  which  is  to  be 
presented  to  the  State  of  Connecticut  for  a  high- 
way bridge.  Foundations  for  the  four  piers  of 
the  new  bridge  will  range  from  75  to  142  feet  in 
depth,  and  the  piers  themselves  will  be  made  of 
concrete  with  masonry  facing  between  high  and 
low  water.  Three  piers  are  to  be  constructed 
by  open  well  dredging,  but  a  pneumatic  caisson 
will  be  used  for  the  fourth.  The  extreme  dimen- 
sions of  the  piers  are  42  x  98  feet.  About  48,000 
cubic  yards  of  concrete  will  be  required.    The 


superstructure  is  to  contain  5000  tons  of  steel, 
and  while  contracts  had  not  been,  let  towards  the 
end  of  1915,  it  was  assumed  that  the  work  would 
be  under  way  in  1917.  Two  bridge  approaches 
of  1300  and  1600  feet  will  be  required.  The 
estimated  cost  was  $2,500,000. 

The  year  1915  was  notable  for  the  fact  that 
two  long  steel  arch  bridges  in  process  of  erection 
were  closed,  one  of  which  was  tiie  977^-foot 
Hell  Gate  Bridge,  where  the  closure  of  the  arch 
was  made  on  Octobo-  1st,  four  months  after 
work  on  the  main  arch  had  begun.  This  is  the 
longest  steel  arch  span  in  the  world,  while  the 
third  longest  was  the  bridge  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
with  a  591-foot  arch  span  and  double  deck  floor, 
which  was  closed  on  October  8th.  In  the  con- 
struction of  these  arches  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  adjustment  of  the  Hell  Gate  arch  in- 
volved the  use  of  hydraulic  jacks  and  about  1^ 
hours'  work,  while  the  closure  of  the  Cleveland 
bridge  was  made  by  the  use  of  screw  toggles  in 
about  1  hour  and  50  minutes.  Up  to  Oct.  1, 
1915,  when  the  Hell  Gate  arch  was  closed,  13,000 
tons  of  steel  had  been  placed,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  year  practically  all  of  the  steel  in  the  floor 
was  in  position,  so  that  a  record  of  some  19,000 
tons  in  seven  months  was  made.  Progress  was 
also  made  with  the  bridge  spans,  and  one  day 
— ^March  8th — a  world's  record  of  1504  tons  of 
steel  placed  was  made.  It  was  expected  that 
the  entire  New  York  Connecting  Railroad,  of 
which  the  Hell  Gate  Bridge  is  the  principal  party 
with  its  viaducts  and  other  structures,  would 
be  completed  within  eighteen  months  after  the 
time  of  closure  of  the  main  arches. 

The  working  season  on  the  Quebec  Bridge, 
which  contains  the  record  length  span  of  1800 
feet,  closed  on  Nov.  9,  1915,  and  about  32,00Q 
tons  of  steel  were  placed  during  the  season  in 
somewhat  over  six  months.  False  work  was 
erected  on  the  south  shore,  the  south  515-foot 
cantilever  arm  and  main  posts,  part  of  the  north 
anchor  arm,  and  the  580-foot  north  cantilever 
arm,  forming  the  main  significant  work  of  the 
year,  involving  the  erection  of  44,000  tons  out 
of  a  total  of  63,000  tons  of  steel  going  into  the 
bridge.  In  a  single  day  670  tons  of  steel  were 
placed  by  one  traveler,  as  compared  with  the 
record  of  410  tons  under  similar  conditions  in 
1914.  llie  entire  erection  of  the  Quebec  Bridge 
demonstrated  the  accuracy  of  the  shop  work  and 
efficient  organization  in  the  assembly  yard  and 
in  the  field.  Flying  false  work  and  electrically 
operated  travelers  all  contributed  to  the  success- 
ful prosecution  of  the  work. 

At  Sciotoville,  Ohio,  the  piers  were  completed 
for  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Northern  Railway 
Bridge,  which  is  the  longest  long-span  riveted 
continuous  truss  bridge  in  the  United  States, 
having  two  750-foot  spans.  Progress  was  being 
made  on  the  material  and  the  erection  of  the  su- 
perstructure was  announced  for  the  following 
year.  The  longest  pin  connected  simple  truss 
span  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  namely  720  feet 
in  length,  was  a  feature  of  the  bridge  which  was 
being  built  jointly  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy  Railroad,  and  the  Paducah  and  Illi- 
nois Railroad,  at  Metropolis,  111.  The  piers  were 
practically  completed,  but  the  superstructure 
was  not  to  be  erected  until  the  spring  of  1916. 
Important  new  records  were  also  made  in  rail- 
road plate  girder  construction  in  the  track  ele- 
vation work  on  the  'Nickel  Plate"  at  Chicago, 
where  girders  were  used  for  the  130-foot,  6^- 


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inch  simple  span.  Plate  girders  239  feet  in 
length  and  13^  feet  deep  were  used  by  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  near  Montreal  for  the  double 
track  draw  span  across  the  Lachine  Canal  at 
Caughnawaga. 

In  the  construction  of  the  Harahan  Cantilever 
Bridge  over  the  Mississippi  River  at  Memphis, 
high  water  caused  a  delay  of  two  months,  and  it 
was  not  imtil  the  end  of  the  year  that  the  super- 
structure was  put  in  position.  The  fixed  span 
was  swung,  as  well  as  the  anchor  arm,  and  one 
cantilever  arm  and  one-half  of  the  suspended 
span  of  the  Memphis  end  were  erected.  Acci- 
dents occurred  on  December  23rd,  25th,  and  29th 
due  to  high  water  in  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
false  work  between  Piers  3  and  4  was  carried 
out,  taking  with  it  some  of  the  lower  chord  mem- 
bers and  floor  strinsers.  As  the  adjacent  621- 
foot  fixed  span  had  been  -  swung  two  days  previ- 
ously and  was  completed,  it  remained  intact,  as 
well  as  the  false  work  on  which  it  rested  at 
some  points.  The  entire  bridge  had  been  erected 
except  the  two  180-foot  cantilever  arms,  the  418- 
foot  semi-suspended  span,  and  one-half  of  the 
418-foot  suspended  span. 

A  million  dollar  structure  connecting  Port- 
land (Me.)  with  South  Portland,  across  an  arm 
of  the  harbor,  was  being  erected  during  the  year. 
It  was  distinguished  by  a  great  variety  of  de- 
sign, embracing  reinforced  concrete  girder  and 
cantilever  spans  and  steel  cantilever  girders  with 
rolling-lift  draw  span.  The  new  bridge  at  St. 
Louis,  to  which  reference  has  been  made  in 
earlier  issues  of  the  Yeab  Book  (1911  and 
1912),  was  having  its  $2,000,000  approach  com- 
pleted, an  undertaking  on  a  par  with  the  orig- 
inal construction. 

A  notable  modern  viaduct  of  granite  masonry 
with  architectural  effects  is  the  Fontpedrouse 
structure  over  the  Tet  River  in  France.  This  is 
a  two  level  structure  where  the  masonry  arches 
are  carried  on  high  piers,  one  of  which  is  sup- 
ported on  the  crown  of  a  pointed  arch  below. 
The  lower  narrow  ravine  is  spanned  by  a  98%- 
foot  pointed  arch  on  whose  keystone  a  high  in- 
termediate pier  of  the  main  arch  viaduct  is  sup- 
ported. The  upper  viaduct,  which  is  only  0  per 
cent  grade,  consists  of  four  56-foot  main  circu- 
lar arches,  with  twelve  approach  spans,  also  cir- 
cular arches,  about  29%  feet  clear  between  the 
piers,  two  on  one  side  and  ten  on  the  other. 
This  viaduct  carries  an  electric  railway  and  has 
walkways  on  either  side. 

The  world's  largest  reinforced  concrete  bridge 
was  the  Tunkhannock  viaduct,  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  and  Western,  240  feet  in  height, 
which  was  completed  and  put  into  service  Nov.  7, 
1915. 

A  notable  bridge  failure  of  the  year  was  the 
Division  Street  Bridge  in  Spokane,  which  on  De- 
cember 18th  collapsed,  dropping  a  street  car  into 
the  river,  killing  5  passengers  and  injuring  12. 
A  commission  of  engineers  appointed  by  the 
State  engineer  report  that  "the  failure  was 
due  to  the  simultaneous  breaking  of  the  bottom 
chord  bars  of  the  first  panel  of  the  north  end  of 
the  east  truss  because  of  granulation.  There 
was  no  excessive  load  on  the  bridge  at  the  time 
it  collapsed."  The  commission  also  stated  that 
the  steel  work  showed  every  evidence  of  good 
character  and  that  there  was  no  reason  to  sus- 
pect defects  of  any  kind  in  its  composition. 
The  bridge  was  built  in  1892,  and  was  a  through 
subdivide  Pratt  Truss  bridge,  180  feet  long,  of 


ten  18-foot  panels,  with  a  40-foot  roadway,  and 
two  sidewalks.  The  designer  believed  that  the 
failure  was  probably  caused  by  an  earlier  injury 
to  the  structure  when  it  had  been  repaired  with- 
out proper  heat  treatment  of  various  bars  that 
were  replaced. 

BBITISH  OOLTTMBIA.  A  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  between  Alberta  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Capital,  Victoria.  Area,  355,- 
855  square  miles.  The  population,  according  to 
the  census  of  1911,  was  392,480,  the  increase  over 
1901  being  119.7  per  cent.  Victoria  had  in  1911 
31,660  inhabitants;  Vancouver,  100,401;  New 
Westminster,  13,199.  The  provincial  govern- 
ment is  under  a  lieutenant-governor,  appointed 
by  the  governor-general  of  the  Dominion.  He 
acts  through  an  executive  council,  or  responsible 
ministry,  of  seven  members.  There  is  a  uni- 
cameral legislative  assembly  of  42  members 
elected  by  direct  vote  for  four  years.  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor in  1915,  Frank  S.  Barnard,  who 
was  appointed  to  succeed  Thomas  W.  Paterson, 
Dec.  5,  1914.  Premier  in  1914,  Sir  Richard  Mc- 
Bride.    See  Canada. 

BBITISH  EAST  AFRICA.  See  East 
Afbioa  Pbotectdrate;  Uganda;  Zanzibab. 

BBITISH  QUIANA.  A  British  colony  on 
the  northeast  coast  of  South  America.  The  area 
is  stated  at  90,277  square  miles.  The  interior  is 
almost  unbroken  forest.  Returns  of  the  1911 
census  were  as  follows:  6901  aborigines,  126,517 
East  Indians,  114,780  negroes,  2622  Chinese,  706 
Africans,  10,084  Portuguese,  and  3937  other  Eu- 
ropeans; total,  296,041  (153,717  males,  142,324 
females).  The  unenumerated  aborigines  in  the 
unfrequented  parts  of  the  coimtry  are  estimated 
at  about  10,000.  Population  (1911)  of  George- 
town, the  capital,  54,318.  The  production  of 
cotton  and  coffee,  once  important,  has  declined. 
Sugar  production  is  now  the  chief  industry. 
There  are  43  sugar  plantations,  with  a  combined 
area  of  162,139  acres  (72,527  under  sugar  cane, 
6448  under  plaintains,  etc.,  and  the  remainder 
pasture  or  uncultivated).  The  export  in  1913 
was  87,414  tons  of  sugar,  3,260,986  gallons  of 
nun,  and  6860  tons  of  molascuit.  Rice  is  grown 
in  die  lowlands  on  about  42,000  acres  (export 
in  1913,  17,269,504  pounds,  valued  at  £106,- 
155).  Balata,  timber,  and  charcoal  are  also  ex- 
ported. 

Oold  and  diamond  diggers  number  about  10,- 
000;  gold  export  (1913),  79,194  ounces,  valued 
at  £287,361;  diamond  export,  9078  carats,  valued 
at  £17,149.  About  half  the  trade  is  with  the 
United  Kingdom  and  a  third  with  the  United 
States.  Railways  are  as  follows:  Georgetown  to 
Rosignol,  60%  miles;  Vreeden  Hoop  to  Green- 
wich Park,  J5;  branch  to  gold  diggings,  18%. 
There  are  telegraph,  telephone,  and  cable  sys- 
tems. State-aided  schools  (1913-14),  277,  with 
36,820  pupils;  grant-in-aid,  £31,357.  In  the 
following  table  the  commerce  statistics  are  for 
calendar  years  1910  to  1913,  inclusive;  financial 
figures  are  for  fiscal  years. 


Imports  . . . 
Exports  . . . 
Revenue  . . 
Expend.  .  . 
Shipping  * 


1909-10     1910-11  1911-19       1919-18 

£                  £  &                  £ 

..1,774,457  1,749,766  1,703,855  1,694.155 

..1,985,387  1,820,198  1,798,507  2,198.120 

.  .  540.269   563.100  580,446   608,638 


546,711   642,757   690,745 
897,864  1,006,199   921.385 


592,532 


*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 


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CuBtoms  revenue  (1912-13),  £336,907.  Pub- 
lic debt,  March  31,  1914,  £883,415.  Governor  in 
1916,  Sir  Walter  Egerton,  appointed  July  5, 
1912. 

BBITISH  HONDTTBAS.  A  British  colony 
on  the  east  coast  of  Central  America.  Area, 
8598  square  miles;  population  (1911  census), 
40,510;  estimate  of  April  2,  1914,  41,543.  Be- 
lize, the  capital,  had  (1911)  10,478  inhabitants; 
Stann  Creek,  2640;  Corosal,  1789;  Orange  Walk, 
866.  Valuable  forests  are  alternate  with 
stretches  of  rich  arable  land  on  which  oil-bearing 
nuts,  vanilla,  etc.,  grow  wild  in  great  profusion. 
Wood-cutting  is  the  main  occupation  of  the  peo- 
ple; the  exports  in  1913  included  15,027,000  su- 
perficial feet  of  mahogany,  1,330,237  of  cedar, 
and  2812  tons  of  logwood.  The  fruit  export 
(1913)  included  617,637  bunches  of  bananas,  3,- 
300,450  plantains,  and  6,352,630  coconuts;  other 
products  are  sapodilla  gum  (3,163,129  pounds  in 
1913),  rubber  (12,496  pounds),  and  sponges  and 
tortoise-shell.  In  the  following  table  commer- 
cial fi{?ures  are  for  calendar  years  1910  to  1913, 
inclusive;   financial  figures  are  for  fiscal  years. 


191011 

191119 

1919-18 

191814 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

ImporU     2.819.217 

Exports     2,844.380 

Revenue    459,295 

Expenditure    .     542,810 
Bhippinff  *   .  .     979,427 

2,886,677 

2.685,849 

1,201,908 

532,128 

588,367 

8,496,908 

2,856.048 

575,248 

611.181 

680,064 

8,185.868 

8,126,225 

590,982 

609,441 

816,858 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

There  are  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  and 
25  miles  of  railway.  Sir  Wilfred  Collet  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  in  1913. 

BBITISH  INDIA.    See  India. 

BBITISH  NEW  QXriNEA.    See  Papua. 

BBITISH  NOBTH  BOBNEO.  The  northern 
part  of  the  island  of  Borneo,  forming  together 
with  adjacent  islands  a  British  protectorate,  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  the  British  North  Borneo 
Company.  Area,  31.000  square  miles.  The  1911 
census  returned  about  208,000  inhabitants, 
mainly  Bruneis,  Illanuns,  Bajaus,  and  Sulus  on 
the  coast,  engaging  in  fishing  and  trade;  Dusuns, 
who  are  agriculturists;  Muruts,  etc.,  in  the  inte- 
rior— peaceable  in  the  main,  but  occasionally  en- 
gaging in  head-hunting  expeditions.  The  Euro- 
peans number  about  400,  and  the  Chinese  30,000. 
The  exports  go  almost  entirely  to  Singapore  and 
China,  and  consist  of  timber  in  considerable 
quantities,  tobacco,  rubber,  coconuts,  sago,  coffee, 
pepper,  cattle,  cutch,  ete.  The  chartered  com- 
pany does  not  engage  in  trade.  Coal  is  worked 
and  iron  ore  and  petroleum  have  been  discovered. 
British,  Mexican,  and  other  dollars  having  ceased 
to  be  legal  tender,  the  Straits  Settlement  dollar 
(worth  $0.56776)  is  now  the  standard  coin. 
Completed  railway,  130  miles.  Imports  (1913), 
6,438,897  S.  S.  dollars;  exporte,  7,398,128;  ship- 
ping entered  and  cleared,  547,044  tons;  revenue 
proper,  including  land  sales,  1,810,259  dollars; 
expenditure,  990,388.  The  company  administers 
the  country  through  a  resident  Governor.  Sand- 
akan  (administration  headquarters),  Jesselton, 
Lahad  Datu,  Tawas,  and  Kudat  are  the  principal 
towns. 

BBITISH     SOMAULAND.    See     Somau- 

LAND  PHOTECTOBATE. 

BBITISH    SOUTH    APBICA.     See    South 
Africa,  Union  of. 
BBITISH    WEST    AFBICA.    A    collective 


name  for  the  following  British  colonies  and  pro- 
tectorates in  western  Africa:  Nigebia,  including 
colony  and  protectorate;  Gold  Coast,  including 
Ashanti  and  the  Northern  Territories;  Sierra 
Leone,  including  colony  and  protectorate;  and 
Gambia,  including  colony  and  protectorate.  See 
these  separate  titles. 

BBOOXE,  Rupert.  English  poet  and  writer, 
died  April  23,  1915.  He  was  bom  at  Rugby  in 
1877,  and  was  educated  at  Rugby  School  and 
at  Kings  College,  Cambridge.  He  lived  for  some 
years  in  Cambridge,  or  in  the  neighboring  vil- 
lage of  Grandchester,  and  there  wrote  a  volume 
of  poems  which  was  published  in  1911.  He  en- 
listed at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe,  and 
died  as  a  result  of  blood  poisoning  while  on 
board  a  French  hospital  ship.  A  number  of 
poems  inspired  by  the  war  show  remarkable 
power.  A  posthumous  volume,  Poemt  of  Rupert 
Brooke^  was  published  in  1915. 

BBOWNy  Thomas  Jefferson.  American  ju- 
rist, died  May  26,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Jas- 
per County,  Ga.,  in  1836,  and  was  educated  in 
the  common  schools  and  at  Baylor  University. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Texas  bar  in  1857,  and 
practiced  law  in  different  cities  in  that  State. 
In  1888  and  again  in  1890  he  was  elected  to  the 
Texas  Legislature.  In  1892  he  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  District  Court  of  Texas,  and  in  the 
year  following  was  made  associate  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  State.  He  became  chief 
justice  in  1911,  and  held  that  position  at  the 
time  of  his  death. 

BBOWN  TTNIVEBSITY.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1764  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autiunn  of  1915  was  765  under- 
graduates, 209  in  the  separate  Women's  Col- 
lege, and  140  graduate  studente.  The  faculty 
numbered  94,  including  instructors  and  assist- 
ante.  Prof.  F.  H.  Allinson  was  appointed  head 
of  the  department  of  Greek  literature  and  his- 
tory, in  the  place  of  Professor  Manatt,  deceased. 
Kenall  K.  Smith  was  appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  literature  and  history.  The 
university  received  no  special  gifts  during  the 
year.  The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  ending  Jime  30,  1915,  amounted  to 
$4,566,134.  The  library  contained  230,000  vol- 
umes. 

BBYAN,  George  James.  American  publisher 
and  writer,  died  Jan.  23,  1915.  He  was  born  at 
Fosterdale,  N.  Y.,  in  1852;  for  a  time  taught 
school  and  did  newspaper  work ;  then  entered  the 
book  business  in  New  York  City.  He  organized 
the  University  Society,  and  for  it  directed  the 
compilation  of  anthologies,  dictionaries,  and  ref- 
erence works.  He  also  made  sete  of  subscription 
books  which  were  sold  to  other  publishers,  under 
whose  imprinte  they  appeared.  Notable  among 
these  was  the  large  set,  Irish  Literature  (10 
vols.). 

BBYANy  William  J.  See  United  States, 
Cabinet. 

BBYCE  BEFOBT  on  Alleged  German  Out- 
rages.   See  Belgium,  History y  Bryce  Report. 

BBYN  MAWB  COLLEOE.  An  institution 
for  higher  education  of  women,  founded  at  Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa.,  in  1886.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departmente  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  453  stu- 
dents. The  faculty  numbered  61.  The  college 
received  during  the  year  from  the  estate  of  the 
late  Elizabeth  Swift  Shippen  of  Philadelphia, 
$10,000;   from  Alexander  Simpson  of  Philadel- 


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phia,  for  the  foundation  of  a  scholarship,  $5000; 
and  from  present  students,  alumne,  and  friends 
of  the  college,  for  a  new  athletic  field,  $4000. 
The  productive  funds  in  1916  amounted  to  $2,- 
002,300,  and  the  annual  income  $395,624.  The 
library  contained  about  75,000  volumes. 

BUCKNAM,  Ranbfdbd  B.  American  engi- 
neer, known  for  many  years  under  the  ti^e, 
"Bucknam  Pasha,"  admiral  of  the  Turkish  fleet, 
died  May  27,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Maine 
in  1860.  At  the  age  of  four  years  he  was  left 
an  orphan,  and  received  a  scanty  schooling  in 
his  native  town.  When  still  a  boy,  he  became  a 
sailor  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  afterwards  was 
in  the  employ  of  a  line  of  Australian  packets. 
After  many  years  of  service  at  sea,  he  became 
marine  superintendent  for  the  Cramps  of  Phila- 
delphia. In  1904,  when  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid 
bought  an  armored  cruiser  from  the  Cramps, 
Bu<&iam  was  selected  to  take  the  vessel  to  San 
Francisco.  At  the  time  the  Sultan  was  desirous 
of  forming  a  first-class  navy,  and  at  once  en- 
gaged Bucknam  to  superintend  its  upbuilding. 
He  soon  became  a  conspicuous  figure  among 
Turkish  officials.  His  ability  and  scrupulous 
honesty  made  him  unique,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
few  persons  trusted  by  Abdul  Hamid.  He  was 
successively  made  a  bey  and  a  pasha,  and  was 
given  the  title  of  Admiral  of  the  Fleet.  After 
the  deposition  of  Abdul  Hamid,  Bucknam  was 
not  able  to  agree  with  the  Young  Turks,  and  he 
retired  to  civil  life.  With  the  outbreak  of  the 
Italian  War,  he  assisted  the  Turkish  government 
by  successful  expeditions  in  blocking  the  line  to 
the  Tripolitan  coast. 

BUCKWHBAT.  Statistics  or  estimates  on 
the  world's  buckwheat  production  are  not  avail- 
able. In  1915  Canada  produced  8,101,000  bush- 
els on  343,800  acres,  the  average  yield  per  acre 
being  23.56  bushels.  The  United  States,  in 
1915,  as  reported  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  produced  15,769,000 
bushels  on  an  area  of  806,000  acres,  the  average 
yield  per  acre  being  19.6  bushels.  While  the 
area,  as  compared  with  the  acreage  the  preceding 
year,  was  greater  by  14,000  acres,  the  production 
was  1,112,000  bushels  less.  The  production  in 
1915  was  also  smaller  than  the  average  yield 
for  the  five  years  1909-13,  the  difference  being 
828,000  bushels.  Yields  were  reported  in  1915 
from  24  States,  the  range  being  from  Maine  to 
North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  in  the  South,  and 
to  Nebraska  and  Kansas  in  the  West.  As  shown 
by  figures  on  the  production  during  the  10-year 
peric^  1905-14,  the  highest  average  yields  per 
acre  are  secured  in  northern  New  England, 
Maine  leading  with  29.7  bushels,  being  followed 
by  New  Hampshire  with  25.6,  and  Vermont  with 
23.7  bushels  per  acre. 

BTTHiDIKG.  See  Abchitectube;  and  Finan- 
cial Review. 

BUILDING  OPEBATIONS.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  1915  the  new  Building  Code  for  the  city 
of  New  York  was  all  but  completed.  This  code 
was  being  prepared  by  Rudolph  P.  Miller,  for- 
merly superintendent  of  the  Building  Depart- 
ment of  Manhattan,  in  consultation  with  various 
engineering,  architectural,  and  real  estate  inter- 
ests. It  was  designed  to  provide  a  reasonable 
and  substantial  basis  for  future  building  con- 
struction and  inspection  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  which  proper  construction,  fire  pro- 
tection, sanitation,  and  the  general  interest  of 
citizens  of  all  classes  could  best  be  served.    The 


code  was  taken  up  in  detail  and  passed,  after 
hearings  of  those  interested,  section  by  section, 
through  the  year,  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen, 
and  contained  a  number  of  important  sections  as 
well  as  chan^.  It  was  provided  that  a  certifi- 
cate of  occupancy  should  be  issued  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Buildings  previous  to  the  occupa- 
tion of  any  new  building,  or  one  that  had  been 
altered,  so  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  a 
structure  for  other  purposes  than  those  for 
which  it  had  been  designed  and  constructed.  A 
new  scheme  of  classification  was  adopted,  a 
change  in  the  fireproof  limits  was  made,  new 
specifications  for  lighting  and  ventilation  not 
only  for  tenements  but  for  other  buildings  were 
adopted,  provision  was  made  for  increa^  exit 
facilities,  for  fire  protection  for  high  buildings, 
for  projections  beyond  the  building  line,  for  re- 
enforced  concrete  construction,  for  greater  use 
of  hollow  tile,  for  terra  cotta  construction,  for 
providing  fines  and  chimneys  for  a  lower  build- 
ine  where  the  owner  of  adjoining  property 
builds  above  the  height  of  an  existing  structure 
of  his  neighbor,  the  inspection  and  certification 
of  elevator  installation,  and  for  the  assessment 
of  penalties,  and  to  provide  for  immediate  com- 
pliance with  the  orders  of  the  Building  Depart- 
ment. 

In  Philadelphia  new  regulations  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  reSnforced  concrete  buildings 
were  formulated,  and  provided  that  plans  and 
specifications  filed  should  be  accompanied  by 
stress  computations  and  descriptions  in  detail, 
including  the  dimensions  and  nature  of  all  re- 
enforcements,  the  quality,  proportions,  and 
method  of  the  concrete,  and  the  dead  and  live 
loads  which  each  fioor  was  designed  to  carry. 
No  deviation  in  the  construction  was  to  be  per- 
mitted except  upon  the  written  consent  of  the 
Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Building  Inspection,  and 
the  construction  of  a  reSnforc^  concrete  build- 
ing was  to  be  imder  the  constant  supervision  of 
an  inspector_  furnished  by  tiie  owner  or  archi- 
tect and  acceptable  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau, 
who  was  empowered  to  stop  improper  inspection 
at  any  point.  It  was  further  provided  that  the 
plans  on  file  should  be  marked  to  indicate  the 
progress  of  the  work  and  give  the  times  and 
dates  when  the  concrete  was  deposited. 

During  the  year  there  was  published  the 
Fourth  Edition  of  the  Building  Code,  recom- 
mended by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, prepared  by  Ira  W.  Woolson,  the  con- 
sulting engineer  of  the  board,  and  incorporating 
the  most  advanced  requirements  in  fire  protec- 
tive building  construction.  This  code  goes  into 
building  problems  in  considerable  detail,  and  con- 
tains many  features  that  have  been  incorporated 
in  local  codes,  giving  requirements  for  materials 
and  permissible  metiiods  of  construction.  This 
code  provides  for  a  certificate  of  occupancy  for 
the  building  and  classification  of  buildings,  both 
for  construction  and  occupancy,  and  increased 
limitations  for  the  use  of  combustible  materials. 
Where  sprinklers  are  used  the  code  allows  an 
increase  of  allowable  floor  area  between  fire 
walls,  but  limits  the  area  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  frontages  on  streets.  There  is  also  a  limit 
to  heights,  provision  for  speedy  egress,  meth- 
ods of  elevator  construction,  outside  stairways, 
fire  or  smokeproof  doors,  and  other  details  of 
construction,  the  entire  code  representing  the 
latest  and  most  reasonable  requirements  in  this 
field.    The   code  also   takes   up   materials  and 


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BTTILDING  OPERATIONS 


working  BtresBes,  giving  the  latest  developments 
for  iron  and  steel,  timber,  and  other  materials, 
based  on  official  and  other  tests.  This  code, 
which  consists  of  326  pages,  illustrated,  is  pub- 
lished by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, New  York,  from  whom  it  may  be  pro- 
cured. 

An  important  step  was  taken  by  the  Secre- 
.  tary  of  the  Treasury  in  reference  to  the  construc- 
tion of  post  office  and  Federal  buildings,  by 
the  issuing  of  an  order  to  establish  uniformity 
and  business  economy  in  such  work.  Accord- 
ingly, four  different  classes  of  buildings  were 
formulated,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  busi- 
ness transacted,  and  a  policy  of  standardization 
was  determined  on,  as  well  as  the  use  of  plans 
for  buildings  hitherto  constructed.  The  four 
classes  were  as  follows: 

Class  A.— For  post  offices  of  the  first  class 
with  annual  receipts  of  $800,000  or  over:  Mar- 
ble or  granite  facing;  fireproof  throughout; 
metal  frames,  sash,  and  doors;  interior  finish  to 
include  the  finer  grades  of  marble,  ornamental 
bronze  work,  mahogany,  etc.  Public  spaces  to 
have  monumental  treatment,  mural  decorations; 
special  interior  lighting  fixtures. 

Class  B. — ^Post  offices  of  the  first  class  with 
receipts  from  $60,000  to  $800,000:  Limestone 
or  sandstone  facing;  fireproof  throughout;  exte- 
rior frames  and  sash  metal;  interior  frames, 
sash,  and  doors  wood;  interior  finish  to  exclude 
the  more  expensive  woods  and  marbles;  orna- 
mental metal  to  be  used  only  where  iron  is  suit- 
able;  restricted  ornament  in  public  places. 

Class  C, — For  post  offices  of  the  second  class 
with  receipts  of  $16,000  or  over,  and  of  the  first 
class  up  to  $60,000:  Brick  facing  with  stone  or 
terra  cotta  trimmings;  fireproof  fioors;  non- 
fireproof  roof;  frames,  sash,  and  doors  wood; 
interior  finish  to  exclude  the  more  expensive 
wood  and  marble;  the  latter  used  only  where 
sanitary  conditions  demand;  public  spaces  re- 
stricted to  very  simple  forms  of  ornament. 

Class  D. — For  post  offices  having  annual  re- 
ceipts of  less  than  $15,000:  Brick  facing,  little 
stone,  or  terra  cotta  used;  only  first  floor  fire- 
proof; stock  sash,  frames,  doors,  etc.,  where  ad- 
visable; ordinary  class  of  building  such  as  any 
business  man  would  consider  a  reasonable  in- 
vestment in  a  small  town. 

During  the  year  a  testing  machine  for  testing 
the  strength  of  fire  resistance  of  building  col- 
umns was  installed  in  the  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tory at  Chicago  by  a  joint  body  formed  of  the 
Associated  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Com- 
panies, National  Board  of  Fire  Insurance  Com- 
panies, and  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards. This  machine  was  designed  and  built  to 
test  to  destruction  full  sized  building  columns 
under  end  load  and  at  temperatures  equaling 
those  of  a  general  conflagration.  Provision  was 
made  for  a  series  of  tests,  and  a  preliminary  cir- 
cular was  published  in  which  criticism  of  the 
methods  to  be  followed  was  asked,  and  sugges- 
tions for  extension  of  the  work  requested.  See 
also  Agbicultubal  Education;  Abchitectxtbe; 
and  Fire  Pbotection. 

Returns  of  building  operations  from  71  of  the 
largest  cities  in  the  United  States,  compiled  by 
the  Engineering  News  (New  York),  indicated 
that  in  1915  there  was  an  increase  of  construc- 
tion of  about  6  per  cent  over  the  previous  year. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  year  conditions  re- 
mained about  the  same  as  in   1914  and  there 


was  ffeneral  inactivity,  but  an  improvement 
toward  the  end  of  the  year  denoted  increased 
prosperity.  The  accompanying  statistics  indi- 
cate the  trend  of  operations  during  the  year. 

In  the  Eastern  States  there  was  a  considerable 

increase,  namely,  from  $287,558,291  in  1914,  to 
$333,634,253  in  1915;  in  the  Southern  States  a 
decline  from  $48,518,674  in  1914,  to  $42,897,814 
in  1915;  in  the  Central  States  an  increase  from 
$257,628,670  in  1914,  to  $290,902,907  in  1915; 
and  in  the  Western  States  a  decline  from  $81,- 
957,225  in  1914,  to  $48,987,814. 

BUILDING  OPERATIONS  IN  THE  U.  S. 

1914  AND  1915 

StotiBtici  of  Plans  Filed.     Compiled  by  EngiMtring 

New. 

SA8TBBM    STATKS 

FopvXtUion 

CenauBof           (Hiy                       BuUding  Optrationa 

1910                                                 1915  1914 

100,258     Alb«n7»    N.    T. .      $4,771,980  $6,194,788 

658.485     Baltimore.  Md.  .      14,129,186  11,828.876 

670,585     Boston,  Mass.  .  .      24,455,268  20,620.555 

102,054     Bridgeport.  Conn.    12,671,414  8.678.756 

428.715     Buffalo.  N.T...      11,792.000  12.992.000 

73,409     Elisabeth,  N.  J..        1,280,909  1,846,988 

98,915     Hartford,   Conn.        5.608,695  4,044,481 

70,324     Hoboken,   N.  J..           694,829  768.842 

267.779     Jersey  City.  N.J.       5,064.986  8,501.505 

847.469     Newark.  N.  J. . .        8,815,559  9.472.409 

96.652     New  Bedford, 

Mass 8,280.078  2,921.894 

183,606     New  HaTen, 

Conn 7.104,977  8,879,842 

4.766,888     New  York,  N.  Y. 

Bronx    28.119,100  20,296,848 

Brooklyn 85,295.018  88.866,890 

Manhattan    64,648.669  45,470.965 

Queens     19,806.883  18,311,450 

54,778     Passaic,   N.  J...        1.074.882  887.289 

125,000     Paterson,    N.    J.        1,698,752  1,544,086 

1,549,008     Philadelphia,  Pa.      89,544.025  84.940,980 

533,905     Pittsburgh,     Pa.      18,887,010  18.194,682 

58,571     Portland,    Maine       1,594,559  1,176,795 

96,071     Reading,   Pa.    .  .        1,008.100  1.147.850 

218.149     Rochester.   N.  Y.       9.106.133  8,783.267 

129,867     Scranton.    Pa...        1,785,865  8,409,920 

88.926     Springfield,  Mass.        6.052,181  4,998,192 

187,249     Syracuse.    N.    Y.       4.661,216  2,888.978 

74.419     Utica,    N.    Y. . . ,        2,076,720  1.797.585 

145,986     Worcester,  Mass.         4,571,864  4,808,858 

Totals    $838,584,258  $287,568,291 

SOUTHEBir    STATES 

154.889     Atlante,  6a.   ...      $4,585,789  $4,678,852 

132.685     Birmingham.  Ala.       1,649,411  8,148,250 
44,604     ChatUnooga, 

Tenn 686,885  1,057,087 

92,104     Dallas,  Tex.    .  . .        8.420,512  5,248.610 

78,312     Ft.    Worth.    Tex.        1,156,907  2,061,908 

78,800     Houston,    Tex...        2.086,489  8.485,856 

223.928     Louisville,    Ky..        8,793,045  4,889.745 

131,105     Memphis,    Tenn.        2.696.138  2,946,764 

889,075     New  Orleans,  La.        2,825,596  2,969.751 

67,452     Norfolk.    Ya.    ..        1,865,968  2.114,680 

127,628     Richmond,    Ya..        8,244,752  8,283,845 

96,614     San  Antonio,  Tex.       1,712,275  2,859.480 

87,782     Tampa,  Fla.    .  . .        1.385,924  1,378,071 

831,069     Washington  D.  C.     11.788,184  8.962,780 

Totals    $42,897,814  $48,518,674 

OBMTBAL    STATKS 

69,067     Akron,  O $4,847,695  $8,788,600 

50,217     Canton,  0 1,919,690  1,409,849 

2,185,183     Chicago.     Ill 98,794,280  88,262,110 

863,591     Cincinnati,   O.    .      18,811,789  8.786,158 

570,668     Cleveland,  O.    .  .      82.576.524  27.808,960 

181,511     Columbus,  O.    .  .        4,973,035  6,895,061 

86,868     Des   Moines,    la.       1,878.606  1.987.144 

465,766     Detroit.     Mich..      32,235,460  26,845.225 

78.446     Duluth.   Minn...        2,718,884  2,677.808 

69.647     Evansville.     Ind.       1,880,367  1,228.288 

112,571     Grand  Rapids. 

Mich 2.674,987  8.621,919 

283,650     IndianapoliSjInd.       6,984,924  7,792,808 

82,881     Kan.   City.   Kan.          963.249  1,076,568 

246,881     Kan.   City,   Mo..      10,687,405  10,103.970 

378,857     Milwaukee.    Wis.      12,349,068  9,788.921 
301.408     Minneapolis, 

Minn 17.849,171  16.214.526 

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BXTILDING  OPERATIONS 


106 


BXTLGABIA 


Population 
Cenniaof 

1910 

19.444 
124.096 

66.950 
687.029 
214.744 
168.497 

76.066 


218.881 
819.198 
160.174 
207.214 
92.777 

416,912 

287.194 

104.402 

88.748 


Oak  Park,   HI . . 
Omaha.  Neb.    . . 

Peoria.  IlL 

St.  Louis,   Mo. . 
8t.  Paul,  Minn. 

Toledo.    O 

Toungstown,     O. 

TotaU 


BfOdhip 

1915 
8.646,588 
6.682.005 
1.948.974 
11,488.020 
11.688,665 
7.714.674 
2.799,867 


Op^rtAion* 

1914 
2,811.270 
4.610.466 
2,616.876 
12,568.584 
14,659.282 
6.085,188 
2,856,221 


.9290,902,907  $257,628,670 


Denver.  Ool.  . . 
Lob  Anjrelee,  Cal. 
Oakland.  Cal.  . . 
PortiandL,  Ore. . 
Salt  Lake  City, 

UUh    

San  Francisco, 

Cal 

Seattle,  Wash... 
Spokane,  Wash. 
Taeoma,    Wash. . 

T6tala    


8TATI8 

92.648,576 

11.080.087 

4.842,969 

4,895,845 


18,780,458 

17.282,881 

4.619.886 

9,884.075 


2.170,020         2.988.246 


14.898.726 

6.470.655 

1,181,097 

855.840 


28,177.572 

12.655.600 

984.047 

2.189.511 


948,987.814     $81,957,225 


BUKOWINA.    See  Austbia-Huwoabt. 

BTTIX^ABIA.  One  of  the  "Balkan  States"; 
a  constitutional  monarchy  of  Europe;  formerly 
a  principality  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey. 
Capital,  Sofia. 

Abea  and  Population.  Area  and  population 
(Dec.  31,  1010)  are  shown  below: 


JLrea 
S^.  Jcfit,      8^.  in. 

Bulgaria,    Northern 68.751.1 

Eastern  Bnmelia    82,594.4 


24,614 
12,585 


Pop, 

1910 

8.095.785 

1,241.778 

TV>tal  Bulgaria    96,845.5     87,199     4,887,518 

The  area  acquired  from  Turkey  in  1913  is 
stated  at  26,100  square  kilometers  (10,077 
square  miles),  with  an  estimated  population  of 
709,600;  area  ceded  to  Rumania,  8340  square 
kilometers  (3220  square  miles),  with  305,000  in- 
habitants. Thus  the  total  area  is  about  114,000 
square  kilometers  (44,000  square  miles),  with  a 
population  of  about  4,742,000. 

The  ancient  B.ulgars  were  of  Finnic  stock;  the 
modem  Bulgarians  are  made  up  of  Slavic,  Teu- 
tonic, and  Mongoloid  elements,  amalgamated 
with  Mussulman  and  Greek.  Their  language  be- 
longs to  the  southern  Slavic  group  and  the 
Cyrillic  alphabet  is  used. 

The  population  in  1900  numbered  3,744,283, 
of  whom  2,887,684  were  Bulgarians,  and  530,275 
Turks.  Of  the  total  poulation  in  1910,  3,497,794 
were  Bulgarians,  466,117  Turks,  121,435  Tzi- 
ganes, 79,787  Rumanians,  43,273  Greeks,  40,118 
Jews,  21,145  Pomacs,  18,050  Tartars,  12,914  Ar- 
menians, etc.  Sofia  had,  in  1910,  102,812  in- 
habitants; Varna,  47,081  inhabitants;  Ruschuk, 
36,255;  Slivno,  25,142;  Shumla,  22,225;  Plevna, 
23,049;  Philippopolis,  the  capital  of  Eastern 
Rumelia,  47,981.  There  were,  in  1911,  41,868 
marriages,  176,909  living  births,  and  74,860 
deaths.  Movement  of  population,  1909:  38,917 
marriages,  172,583  living  births,  1544  still- 
births, 113,304  deaths;  surplus  of  births  over 
deaths,  59,279. 

Rexigion  and  Education.  The  national  reli- 
gion is  the  Orthodox,  the  Bulgarian  Church  be- 
ing a  separate  communion  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
In  1909-10  there  were  reported  to  be  3786  ele- 
mentary schools  with  8697  teachers  and  430,011 
pupils  (262,394  boys  and  167,717  girls) ;  in 
1910-11,  4674  elementary  schools,  with  8686 
teachers  and  453,592  pupils. 


Pboduction.  The  following  table  shows  main 
crops,  area  in  hectares  devoted  to  each;  yields 
in  quintals,  and  average  yield  per  hectare  in 
1912-13: 

Boetarea  Quintala  Qo. 

1911-19  1912-18  1911-19  1919-18  hu. 
Wheat.  1.120,600  1,080,000  17,850.000  16.500.000  16.0 
Rye  ...  215.000  185.000  8,150,000  2,750,000  14.9 
Barley..  260.000  280,000  4,000.000  8,500.000  15.2 
Oata  ..  160.000  170,000  1.750.000  2.000,000  11.8 
Com  ..  650,000  650,000  14,000.000  11,500,000  17.7 
Rice     .  .         8,000  8.000  80,000  85.000  17.7 

Of  the  total  area  under  cultivation  (3,872,777 
hectares  in  1909),  2,394,252  hectares  were 
planted  to  cereals,  523,371  to  forage  plants,  85,- 
240  to  vines,  60,259  to  potatoes  and  other  roots, 
25,231  to  melons,  etc.,  13,215  to  industrial 
plants,  11,088  to  legimies,  8277  to  orchards  and 
gardens,  and  7621  to  rosefields. 

Commerce  and  Communications.  In  the 
table  below  will  be  found  imports  and  exports 
in  thousands  of  leva: 

1908         1909         1910         1911         1918 
Importe    ...180.160  160,480  177.857  199.845  218.110 
Export!    ...112,857  111,484  129,052  184,684  156,407 

In  thousands  of  leva  the  details  of  the  1910 
trade  are  as  follows:  Importe — ^textiles,  etc., 
49,383;  metals,  etc.,  23,299;  machinery,  etc., 
19,777;  colonial  products,  10,348;  skins,  etc., 
9188;  timber,  etc.,  6993;  chemical  products, 
5538;  resins  and  oils,  5109;  paper,  etc.,  3772. 
Exports — cereals,  80,811;  animal  products,  13,- 
002;  textiles,  etc.,  10,037;  animals,  7324;  per- 
fumes, 5555;  skins,  4238;  colonial  products, 
2056;  metals,  etc.,  1127;  wooden-wares,  656; 
etc.  In  the  order  of  their  import  importance  the 
coimtries  of  origin  and  destination  were  Austria- 
Hungary,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Turkey, 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  etc.  Leading  exports  in 
1912,  in  thousands  of  leva:  cereals,  108,549; 
animal  substances,  16,731;  perfumes,  11,639; 
animals,  3989. 

Total  railway  lines  constructed  and  in  oper- 
ation in  1913,  2233  kilometers  (1387  miles). 
Four  lines  of  railway  were  under  construction  in 
Bulgaria  previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Balkan 
War.  The  value  of  all  lines  is  given  (1909)  as 
225,530,645  leva;  of  rolling  stock,  24,942,487. 
Net  receipts  (1909),  19,187,200;  net  expendi- 
tures, 13,873,687.  For  negotiations  concerning 
the  Dedeagatch  Railway,  see  paragraph  so  en- 
titled imder  History. 

Finance.  A  table  showing  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure for  three  years  in  leva  (1  leva  =19.3 
cents)  is  given  below  (1912  budget) : 

1910  1911  1918 

ReTenue    178,889,498     198,795,814     190.278.440 

Expenditure   .    168,451,041     182.487,552     188,929,057 

In  1911  the  revenue  from  customs  amounted 
to  63,230,000  leva;  direct  taxes,  39,949,000; 
transport,  30,420,000;  domains,  etc.,  12,680,000; 
imports,  10,710,000;  licenses,  9,450,000;  fines, 
1,031,000.  Expenditure  for  public  works,  30,- 
382,000;  instruction,  23,598,000;  interior,  10,- 
460,000;  commerce  and  agriculture,  10,083,000; 
finance,  8,443,000;  foreign  affairs,  6,452,000;  jus- 
tice, 6,836,000.  The  budget  for  1914  placed  the 
revenue  at  256,995,070  leva,  and  the  expenditure 
at  254,787,677  leva,  exclusive  of  2,200,000  leva 


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extraordinary.  The  public  debt  at  the  end  of 
1914  amounted  to  914,786,983  leva,  including  a 
floating  debt  of  302,401,607  leva. 

Abmt.  With  the  declaration  of  war  by  Bul- 
garia against  Serbia^  Oct.  9,  1915,  and  the  previ- 
ous state  of  war  with  Russia  which  began  two 
days  earlier,  a  new  and  well  equipped  army  was 
put  into  the  field.  The  rifles  of  the  Bulgarian 
army  were  made  after  the  Mannlicher  and 
Mauser  systems,  the  patterns  of  the  latter  hav- 
ing been  captured  from  the  Turks,  so  that  both 
Austrian  and  Turkish  cartridges  could  be  used, 
and  thousands  of  rounds  for  each  type  of  rifle 
were  on  hand  at  the  outbre^  of  hostilities. 
The  victories  of  the  Bulgarians  over  the  Turks 
greatly  augmented  their  artillery  so  that  it  was 
stated  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  they  had  760 
light  field  guns,  300  76-millimeter  Schneider  can- 
non, and  150  rapid  flrers  of  the  same  calibre 
captured  from  the  Turks,  in  addition  to  260 
Krupp  guns,  87-millimeter;  150  Krupp  guns, 
75-millimeter;  40  Schneider  rapid  fire  howitzers, 
120-millimeter;  40  Krupp  howitzers,  of  the  same 
calibre;  25  160-millimeter  Krupp  guns;  30  rapid 
fire  75-millimeter  mountain  guns;  60  rapid  fire 
Krupp  guns  of  the  same  caliore. 

Navt.  The  navy  includes  6  first-class  torpedo 
boats  {Smely,  Hrabry,  Derzky,  Choumny,  Le- 
ticichty,  and  Stroghy),  of  100  tons  each;  1 
cruiser  (Nadejda),  of  736;  2  yachts,  6  trans- 
ports, 2  second-class  torpedo  boats  of  20  tons 
each,  and  some  other  small  craft. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  King  (since  CM;.  6,  1908).  Ferdi- 
nand 1,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  was  bom  at 
Vienna,  Feb.  26,  1861,  son  of  Prince  Augustus  of 
Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha.  Prince  Boris  (born 
Jan.  30,  1894)  is  the  eldest  son  by  the  Kin^s 
first  marriage,  in  1893,  to  Princess  Marie  Louise 
of  Parma.  His  second  wife  (Feb.  28,  1908)  is 
Eleonore  of  Reuss  K5stritz. 

By  the  constitution  of  1879  (amended  1893 
and  1911),  the  legislative  authority  was  vested 
in  a  single  chamW,  the  Sobranje,  whose  mem- 
bers are  elected  by  universal  manhood  suffrage 
(one  member  to  every  20,000  of  the  population). 
The  King  acts  through  a  council  of  ministers 
nominate  by  himself. 

On  Oct.  9th,  the  minister  of  war.  General 
Jekoff,  resigned  his  position  in  the  cabinet  and 
asBiuned  active  command  of  the  field  army;  he 
was  succeeded  as  war  minister  by  Major-General 
Naidenoff.  At  the  same  time  the  portfolio  of 
the  interior,  which  had  hitherto  been  held  by  the 
premier,  was  given  in  charge  of  M.  Christo 
Popoff: 

HiSTORT 

Neutbalitt  and  Negotiations.  Although 
the  Bulgarian  government  had  publicly  declared 
its  determination  to  maintain  a  neutral  posi- 
tion in  the  great  war,  and  had  reiterated  its 
declarations  of  neutrality  even  after  the  entry 
of  Turkey  into  the  war,  nevertheless  the  dip- 
lomats of  the  Triple  Entente  made  every  effort 
at  the  beginning  of  1916  to  bring  Bulgaria  into 
the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Entente;  and  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  most  opti- 
mistic interpretation  of  Bulgaria's  rather  am- 
biguous attitude  was  cherished  by  the  English 
press.  The  endeavor  of  English,  French,  and 
Russian  diplomacy  was  to  offer  Bulgaria  suffi- 
cient territorial  compensations  to  ensure  her 
friendship,  to  reconstruct  the  Balkan  alliance 


which  had  been  so  disastrously  disrupted  by 
jealousy  in  1913,  and  to  secure  the  intervention 
of  Bulgaria  in  the  war  together  with  Rumania 
and  Greece.  The  Servian  government,  however, 
displayed  the  utmost  reluctance,  even  when  urged 
by  the  Entente,  to  yield  to  Bulgaria  the  full  ex- 
tent of  her  demands  in  Macedonia ;  as  for  Greece, 
while  the  premier,  M.  Venizelos,  was  willing  to 
make  concessions  to  Bulgaria,  the  King  was  ob- 
viously unfriendly  to  the  project. 

The  Gebman  Ix)an.  The  probability  of  Bul- 
garia's joining  the  Allies  was  distinctly  lessened 
when,  at  the  beginning  of  February,  Bulgaria 
effected  a  loan  arrangement  with  a  syndicate  of 
German  bankers,  the  Ditconto  OeseUschafi, 
whereby  an  advance  of  $30,000,000  was  to  be 
made  upon  the  $100,000,000  loan  negotiated  by 
Bulgaria  in  the  siunmer  of  1914.  About  $7,000*- 
000  was  to  be  applied  to  the  service  of  the  Bul- 
garian national  debt,  and  of  various  other  for- 
eign obligations;  about  $8,000,000  was  to  be 
S laced  at  the  disposal  of  the  Bulgarian  National 
iank;  and  the  balance  of  $15,000,000  was  to  be 
paid  in  installments  and  applied  to  the  budget, 
llie  strengthening  of  this  financial  bond  be- 
tween Bulgaria  and  Germany  may  account  for 
the  apparent  distrust  and  diffidence  with  which 
Servia,  Greece,  and  Riunania  regarded  the  ne- 
gotiations for  a  reconstructed  Balkan  alliance 
affiliated  to  the  Triple  Entente.  Still  the  Bul- 
garian premier  emphatically  declared  that  the 
loan  had  not  involved  any  political  obligations 
on  the  part  of_  Bulgaria  towards  the  Central 
Powers.  "Bulgaria,"  said  M.  Radoslavoff,  in  a 
remarkable  speech  before  the  Sobranje,  March 
28th,  "is  not  bound  by  engagements  to  any  one, 
and,  according  to  the  view  of  the  government, 
Bulgaria  should  not  assume  premature  obliga- 
tions, because  in  so  doing,  solely  fjom  sentimen- 
tal reasons,  the  country  might  incur  great  dan- 
ger. No  one  is  looking  to  Bulgaria  purely  for 
Bulgaria's  own  sake.  %ach  seeks  Bulgarian  co- 
operation in  his  own  interests.  Every  Bulgarian 
government,  therefore,  must  be  on  its  guard 
against  temptations,  however  attractive,  whether 
they  come  from  the  West  or  from  the  East.  .  .  . 
When  the  moment  comes  that  our  own  interests 
are  endangered,  the  people  and  the  (government 
of  Bulgaria  will  make  the  necessary  decisions." 
In  the  light  of  subsequent  events  the  premier's 
statement  might  be  interpreted  as  evidence  that 
even  at  that  time  the  Bulgarian  government  had 
its  ultimate  alliance  with  the  Teutonic  Powers 
in  view,  and  was  prolonging  negotiations  Mrith 
the  Entente  without  the  slightest  intention  of 
accepting  the  Entente's  offers,  "however  attrac- 
tive" they  might  be.  At  the  time,  however,  the 
speech  was  regarded  as  an  encouraging  sign  of 
Bulgaria's  impartial  readiness  to  bargain. 

The  Valandova  Incident.  A  Serbo-Bulgar 
frontier  incident  on  April  2nd  threatened  so  to 
inflame  hostility  between  Serbia  and  Bulgaria 
as  completely  to  destroy  all  possibility  of  an 
alliance.  From  the  evidence  published  by  the 
Serbian  government  it  appeared  that  a  force  of 
Bulgarian  komitadjia,  some  of  them  wearing  the 
uniform  of  the  Bulgarian  army,  and  provided 
with  small-arms  and  bombs  of  official  Bulgarian 
and  Turkish  pattern,  had  crossed  the  frontier 
near  Strumitza  and  attacked  the  Serbian  fron- 
tier blockhouse  at  Valandova.  Thirty  Bulgars 
and  60  Serbs  had  been  killed  in  the  raid.  The 
Bulgarian  government  disclaimed  all  responsi- 
bility  for   tiie  affair,  and  furthermore  alleged 


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that  the  trouble  had  been  caused  not  by  a  Bui- 
gar  in vadins^  party,  but  by  insurgent  Serbian 
citizens,  probably  Mohanunedans,  who  had  been 
driven  to  revolt  by  the  notoriously  harsh  atti- 
tude of  the  Serbian  government  towards  those  of 
its  newly  acquired  subjects  in  Macedonia,  who 
were  unwilling  or  unable  to  pose  as  loyal  Serbs. 
The  "Valandova  Incident"  was  smoothed  over, 
thanks  to  Russian  diplomatic  intervention. 

The  Dedbaoatch  Railway.  Meanwhile  Bul- 
garia was  conducting  negotiations  with  Turkey 
for  the  acquisition  of  the  Dedeagatch  Railway. 
Bulgaria,  it  will  be  recalled  (see  Year  Book, 
1913),  had  been  given  one  seaport,  Dedeagatch, 
on  the  i£gean,  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest;  but 
the  only  railway  connecting  Dedeagatch  with 
the  interior  of  Bulgaria  pasi^  through  Turkish 
territory  by  way  of  Adrianople  and  &e  Maritsa 
valley.  Bulgaria  desired  to  obtain  from  Turkey 
the  strip  of  territory  lying  west  of  the  Maritsa 
and  Tunja  rivers,  and  including  the  railway  sta- 
tion in  a  southeastern  suburb  of  Adrianople 
(Karagatch)  but  not  Adrianople  itself;  Turkey 
was  decidedly  reluctant  to  accede  to  this  de- 
mand. N^otiations  dragged  on  throughout  the 
summer.  On  July  17&  M.  Panaretoff  an- 
nounced that  a  tentative  arrangement  had  been 
agreed  upon,  whereby  express  trains  might  be 
run  from  Bulgaria  to  Dedeagatch  without  stop- 
ping in  Turkish  territory.  A  more  extensive 
agreement  was  unofficially  reported,  July  23rd. 
But  as  late  as  the  third  week  in  August  riunors 
were  current  that  Bulgaria  was  on  the  point  of 
breaking  off  the  negotiations  in  disgust  and 
making  war  on  Turkey. 

Negotiations  with  the  Entente.  The  En- 
tente during  this  time  had  been  making  ear- 
nest efforts  to  outbid  the  Turks.  A  joint 
note  had  been  handed  to  the  Bulgarian  govern- 
ment by  the  representatives  of  the  Ent^te  at 
Sofia,  May  29th.  A  little  over  a  fortnight  later 
Bulgaria  replied,  asking  for  more  definite  as- 
surances of  what  she  might  expect  in  return  for 
her  support.  The  Entente,  as  it  appeared,  was 
unable  to  make  such  assurances  convincing,  for 
at  the  beginning  of  August,  M.  Radoslavoff  gave 
out  an  interview  avowing  that  he  was  conduct- 
ing parallel  negotiations  with  both  sides,  with 
the  sole  object  of  making  the  best  possible  bar- 
gain. In  another  interview,  on  August  9th,  the 
Bulgarian  premier  made  Uie  significant  state- 
ment that  ^VBulgaria  is  fully  prepared  and  wait- 
ing to  enter  the  war  the  moment  she  receives 
absolute  guarantees  that  by  so  doing  she  will  ob- 
tain that  for  which  other  nations  already  en- 
gaged are  striving,  namely,  the  realization  of 
her  national  ideals.  .  .  .  The  bulk  of  these  as- 
pirations lie  in  Serbian  Macedonia,  which  with 
its  1,500,000  of  Bulgar  inhabitants,  was  pledged 
and  assigned  to  us  at  the  close  of  the  first  Bal- 
kan War.  It  is  still  ours  by  right  and  principle 
of  nationality.  When  the 'Triple  Entente  can 
assure  us  that  this  territory  will  be  returned  to 
Bulgaria  and  our  minor  claims  in  Greek  Mace- 
donia and  elsewhere  realized,  the  Allies  will  find 
us  ready  to  fight  with  them.  But  these  guaran- 
tees must  be  real  and  absolute.  No  mere  paper 
ones  can  be  accepted."  At  the  time  when  this 
remarkable  statement  was  made,  Bulgaria  had 
just  concluded  arrangements  with  the  Disconto 
Oesellachaft  syndicate  of  German  bankers  for  an 
advance  of  150,000,000,  of  which  about  half  was 
to  be  paid  in  cash  and  the  remainder  applied  to 
outstanding  obligations,  and  had  given  the  Ger- 


man syndicate  a  two  years'  option  on  an  addi* 
tional  $50,000,000  of  Bulgarian  5  per  cent  gov- 
ernment securities.  Whether  out  of  the  sus- 
picion which  Bulgaria's  German  loan  inevitably 
generated,  or  out  of  pure  willingness  to  grant 
Bulgaria's  request  for  more  definite  offers,  the 
Entente  Powers  on  August  10th  delivered  a 
joint  communication  at  Sofia.  The  contents  of 
the  joint  note  were  stated  upon  not  altogether 
unimpeachable  authority  by  the  Oiomale  d*Italia 
to  include  the  immediate  cession  to  Bulgaria  of 
that  part  of  Serbian  Macedonia  which  had  been 
assigned  to  Bulgaria  by  the  Serbo-Bulgarian 
treaty  of  1912.  Bulgaria  was  to  renounce  all 
claims  to  Saloniki,  Vodina,  and  Uskub.  Serbia 
was  to  be  compensated  with  Seres  and  Kavala, 
which  would  be  taken  from  Greece.  In  explana- 
tion of  the  failure  of  the  Entente's  diplomacy  in 
Bulgaria,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  Bul- 
garian government  had  good  reason  to  believe 
that  the  offer  of  Macedonia,  if  made  by  the  En- 
tente, was  not  cordially  concurred  in  by  the  par- 
ties most  vitally  concerned,  Serbia  and  Greece; 
the  prestige  of  French  and  British  arms  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  Dardanelles  operations,  and  the 
prowess  of  Russia  had  just  proved  incapable  of 
defending  Warsaw;  Turkey,  moreover,  was  at 
last  ready  to  cede  the  Dedeagatch  Railway. 

Agbeement  with  Tubket.  Possibly  the  Bul- 
garian negotiations  with  the  Entente  were  used 
by  M.  Radoslavoff  to  hasten  Turkey's  decision. 
At  any  rate,  on  August  23rd  the  conclusion  of  a 
Turco- Bulgarian  treaty  was  announced,  and  the 
details  of  the  agreement  made  public  September 
7th-8th.  Bulgaria  was  to  receive  the  comer  of 
European  Turkey  marked  off  by  the  line  of  the 
Maritsa  and  Tunja  rivers,  including  the  rail- 
way station  at  Karagatch,  but  not  including 
Adrianople.  The  treaty  was  finally  ratified  Sep- 
tember 22nd,  but  a  brief  delay  was  to  intervene 
before  the  territory  was  occupied  by  Bulgaria. 
Since  considerable  anxiety  had  been  manifested 
with  rc^rd  to  the  implications  of  this  agree- 
ment with  Turkey  (the  Entente  Powers  had  pre- 
sented a  new  note  at  Sofia,  September  16th),  M. 
Radoslavoff  announced  that  Bulgaria  had  prom- 
ised Turkey  to  maintain  armed  neutrality. 

BuLGABiA's  Decision.  The  mobilization  of 
the  Bulgarian  army,  necessary  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  "armed  neutrality,"  was  announced  Sep- 
tember 2lBt  by  the  Bulgarian  minister  in  Wash- 
ington. In  spite  of  unfounded  rimiors  of  a 
cabinet  split,  which  served  to  divert  attention, 
the  decision  of  Bulgaria  to  side  with  Turkey  and 
the  Central  Powers  could  no  longer  be  concealed. 
Sir  Edward  Grey,  manifestly  unconvinced  by  tiie 
official  announcement  of  the  Bulgarian  govern- 
ment (September  26th)  that  mobilization  was 
not  preparatory  to  war,  declared  before  the  Brit- 
ish House  of  Commons,  September  28th,  "If 
Bulgarian  mobilization  should  result  in  Bulgaria 
assuming  an  aggressive  attitude  on  the  side  of 
our  enemies  we  are  prepared  to  give  our  friends 
in  the  Balkans  all  the  support  in  our  power." 
Reports  from  London  and  Athens  pointed  to  the 
existence  of  a  secret  treaty  signed  in  July,  1915, 
between  Bulgaria  and  the  Central  Powers, 
whereby  Bulgaria  was  promised  Saloniki,  Ka- 
vala, Kastoria,  Albania,  and  Macedonia,  in  re- 
turn for  intervention  against  Serbia.  The  grow- 
ing anxiety  of  the  Entente  with  regard  to  Bul- 
garia's intentions  became  still  more  manifest  the 
first  week  in  October,  when  Russia  dispatched 
an  ultimatum  to  Sofia.    "The  presence,"  affirmed 


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the  ultimatum,  "of  Gennan  and  Austrian  oilicers 
at  the  Ministry  of  War  and  on  the  staff  of  the 
army,  the  concentration  of  troops  in  the  asone 
bordering  Serbia,  and  the  extensive  financial  sup- 
port accepted  from  our  enemies  by  the  Sofia 
cabinet,  no  longer  leave  any  doubt  as  to  the  ob- 
ject of  the  military  preparations  of  Bulgaria.*' 
The  Bulgarian  government  was  allowed  24  hours 
to  dismiss  the  Teuton  officers  and  "break  with 
the  enemies  of  the  Slav  cause  and  of  Russia." 
The  Bulgarian  cabinet,  however,  was  too  con- 
fident to  be  swerved  from  its  purpose  by  such 
means.  M.  Radoslavoff  was  quoted  by  the  Lokal 
Anzeiger  as  saying,  "Events  coming  in  the  near 
future  promise  more  favorable  results.  Bul- 
garia will  extend  her  frontiers  toward  the  north- 
west and  the  south.  Our  relations  with  Ru- 
mania are  cordial.  The  conflict  between  Ru- 
mania and  the  Central  Powers  already  has  been 
settled.  Riunania  will  renuiin  neutral  during 
the  whole  of  the  offensive  of  the  C^itral  Powers 
against  Serbia,  even  if  new  complications  arise 
in  the  Balkans."  With  unfaltering  confidence, 
therefore,  not  only  in  the  strength  of  Bulgaria's 
armv  and  in  the  prowess  of  her  allies,  but  also 
in  the  security  of  ner  northern  frontier,  Premier 
Radoslavoff  and  King  Ferdinand  embarked  on 
the  great  "national  enterprise,"  and  attacked  Ser- 
bia on  October  13th.  War  was  declared  against 
Serbia  the  next  day.  On  October  14th  Great 
Britain  declared  war  on  Bulgaria,  and  Sir  Ed- 
ward Grey  admitted  that  the  Central  Powers  had 
successfully  outbid  the  Entente  in  their  offers  for 
Bulgarian  support.  Russia  and  Italy  declared 
war  against  Bulgaria  on  October  19th.  The 
details  of  Bulgaria's  invasion  of  Serbia  are 
given  in  the  article  on  the  Wab  op  the  Nations 

(qj.). 

BTTLLEN,  Frank  Thomas.  English  author 
and  lecturer,  died  March  1,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Paddington  in  1857.  His  education  was  lim- 
ited to  the  public  schools.  He  went  to  sea  in 
1869  and  served  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in  va- 
rious capacities,  rising  to  be  chief  mate.  In 
1883  he  became  clerk  iii  the  Meteorological  Office, 
continuing  there  until  1899.  He  began  about 
that  time  to  write  sea  stories,  the  first  of  them. 
The  Cruise  of  the  Cachalot,  being  a  consider- 
able success.  This  and  his  other  writings  show 
intimate  knowledge  of  sea  life,  and  remarkable 
descriptive  power.  His  other  books  include 
Idylls  of  the  Sea,  The  Log  of  a  Sea  Waif,  Our 
Heritage  the  Sea,  The  Call  of  the  Deep,  A  Com- 
pleat  Sea  Cook,  He  also  contributed  stories, 
articles,  and  essays  to  periodicals. 

BUBEATI  OF  COBPOSATIONS.  See 
Trusts. 

BUSEAU  OF  MINES.  See  United  States, 
section  so  entitled. 

BUBEATI  OF  SOCIAL  HYGIENE.  See 
Prostitution. 

BUBG,  Ferdinand.  Formerly  Archduke 
Ferdinand  of  Austria,  died  March  12,  1915.  He 
was  born  in  1864,  a  nephew  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph,  and  brother  of  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand,  who  was  assassinated  in 
Bosnia.  On  his  marriage  in  1911  to  a  daughter 
of  Hofrat  Czueber,  a  Swiss  professor  of  engineer- 
ing, all  his  privileges  as  a  member  of  the  Im- 
perial family  were  renounced,  and  he  assumed 
the  name  of  Burg.  Several  years  before  the 
Emperor  had  declined  to  permit  him  to  re- 
nounce his  title  and  marry. 

BUBKE,   Andreiw   Sheridan.    An  American 


soldier,  died  Jan.  12,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Cin- 
cinnati in  1839.  In  1861  he  enlisted  as  a  pri- 
vate in  the  Federal  army,  and  served  through- 
out the  war,  rising  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
1866  he  was  appointed  first  lieutenant  in  the 
regular  army.  He  became  major  in  1883;  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  1888;  and  colonel  in  1892.  In 
1898  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers, and  in  1902  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army.  In  the  same  year  he  was  retired 
at  his  own  request.  He  received  brevets  for 
gallantry  during  the  Civil  War. 

BTIBKE,  Thomas  Martin  Alotsius.  Ameri- 
can bishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  died 
Jan.  20,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  IreUnd  in  1840, 
but  when  still  a  child  removed  with  his  parents 
to  Utica,  N.  Y.  He  studied  at  St.  Michael's 
College  in  Toronto  and  at  St.  Charles's  College 
in  Maryland;  he  graduated  from  the  latter  in- 
stitution in  1861,  and  in  the  same  year  entered 
St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  where  he  began 
the  study  of  theology.  At  the  end  of  three  years 
he  received  the  degrees  of  M.A.  and  D.D.  and 
was  ordained  in  1864.  He  served  as  assistant 
in  St.  John's  Church,  Albany,  and  later  became 
rector  of  St.  Joseph's  Church  of  the  same  city. 
He  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the  diocese 
of  Albany  in  1877,  and  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
McNierney  was  appointed  administrator  of  the 
diocese.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Albany 
in  1849.  Bishop  Burke  was  greatly  interested 
in  educational  matters,  and  directed  St.  Joseph's 
School  for  Boys  at  Albany.  Aside  from  his  re- 
ligious duties,  he  participated  in  civic  affairs, 
and  frequently  acted  as  arbitrator  in  settling 
strike  disputes  in  Albany  and  elsewhere.  He 
was  a  Knight  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  Com- 
mander of  the  Holy  Cross  of  Jerusalem. 

BXIBNAM  -  EDDIN,  Mshmed.  Turkish 
prince,  died  March  11,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
1886,  the  fourth  son  of  Abdul  Hamid,  former 
Sultan.  During  the  reign  of  his  father  he  was 
the  14th  in  the  line  of  successors  to  the  throne 
according  to  the  prescribed  system  of  succession, 
but  it  was  said  that  Abdul  Hamid  intended  to 
make  him  his  successor.  In  1909,  when  the  lat- 
ter was  dethroned,  the  prince  was  kept  under 
guard  in  the  palace  for  a  time  on  the  charge  of 
being  concerned  in  a  conspiracy  for  the  restora- 
tion of  absolutism.  He  was  assassinated,  sup- 
posedly by  political  enemies. 

BXIBBy  Joseph  Arthur.  American  jurist, 
died  April  18,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  in  1850,  and  graduated  from  Yale  College 
in  1871.  He  then  studied  law  in  Columbia  Law 
School,  graduating  in  1873.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1896  until 
the  consolidation  of  Brooklyn  with  New  York, 
he  was  the  corporation  counsel  for  the  former 
city.  In  1904  he  was  appointed  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  New  York,  and  was  a  judge 
of  the  appellate  division  from  1909  until  his 
death. 

BTISSEYy  Cyrus.  American  soldier,  died 
March  6,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Hubbard,  Ohio, 
in  1833,  received  a  common  school  education, 
and  in  his  early  years  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits.  In  1860  he  was  a  member  of  the  Iowa 
Senate  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
board  of  conventions  which  nominated  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  for  president.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War,  he  raised  the  third  Iowa  cavalry, 
and  became  its  colonel.  He  was  later  promoted 
to  be  brigadier-general  and  brevet  major-general. 


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At  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge  he  commanded  a 
brigade;  later  was  in  command  of  the  second 
cavalry  division  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee; 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  was  chief  of  cavalir  of 
Grant's  army;  and  he  led  the  advance  of  Sher- 
man's army  against  General  Johnston  to  Jack- 
son, Miss.  He  defeated  (general  Johnston  at 
Canton,  on  July  18,  1863.  In  the  last  year  of 
the  war  he  commanded  the  third  division  of  the 
seventh  army  corps.  After  the  war  he  became 
a  commission  merchant  in  St.  Louis  and  New 
Orleans.  He  was  for  six  years  president  of  the 
New  Orleans  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  in  1881 
he  removed  to  New  York,  which  remained  his 
home  until  his  death.  He  was  active  in  politics, 
and  took  part  in  campaigns  from  1860  on. 
From  1889-03  he  was  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Interior. 

BTTTTEB.    See  Daibtino. 

CAIiTFOBNIA.  The  population  of  the  State, 
as  estimated  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  on  July  1,  1915,  was  2,848,275. 

AoBiouLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Aertage  Prod.  Bu.  Yalu9 

Corn    1915  64,000  2.624,000  2,809.000 

1914  60,000  2,160.000  1.879,000 

Wheat 1916  440,000  7.040.000  6.688,000 

1914  400,000  6,800.000  7.072.000 

Ofttfl    1916  211,000  6.968,000  8,482.000 

1914  220,000  7,700.000  4,081.000 

Rye 1916  8,000  112.000  101,000 

1914  8,000  136.000  116.000 

Barley 1915  1,860,000  89,440,000  24,458.000 

1914  1,402.000  42,060.000  24,815,000 

Rice     1915  84,000  2,268,000  2.041,000 

1914  15,000  800,000  800.000 

Potatoes    ...1915  78.000  10,140,000  7,605,000 

1914  75,000  10,850,000  7.245,000 

Hay     1915  2,511,000  a  4,520.000  50,624,000 

1914  2.700,000  5.265,000  48.178,000 

Cotton    1915  84,000  2»  84.000  1.822,000 

1914  47,000  50,000  1,670,000 

a  Tons,     h  Bales  of  600  ponnde  each. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  The  gold  production  of 
the  State  in  1914  was  $20,653,296,  compared 
with  $20,406,958  in  1913.  The  increased  output 
was  about  equivalent  to  the  great  placer  yield. 
The  mined  production  of  silver  in  1914  was 
1,471,851  fine  ounces,  compared  with  1,378,399 
ounces  in  1913;  473,143  ounces  came  from  cop- 
per ores.  In  1914  California  produced  29,784,- 
173  pounds  of  copper,  compared  with  32,492,265 
pounds  in  1913.  In  the  total  output,  the  State 
ranked  seventh  in  1914.  California  is  first 
among  the  States  in  the  production  of  petro- 
leum. There  were  produced  in  1914,  99,775,227 
barrels,  compared  with  97,788,525  barrels  in 
1913.  In  the  value  of  the  production  the  State 
ranks  second,  being  surpassed  by  Oklahoma. 
The  output  of  1914  was  valued  at  $48,066,096, 
compared  with  a  value  of  $46,709,400  in  1913. 
A  total  of  512  wells  were  completed  in  1914,  of 
which  465  produced  oil. 

Trajvspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  Jan.  30,  1915,  was  11,778.  This 
includes  8177  miles  of  main  track,  and  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  316  miles  over  the  mileage 
of  1914.  Railways  having  the  longest  mileage 
are  the  Southern  Pacific,  6229;  Atchison,  To- 
peka,  and  Santa  Fe,  2249;  Northwestern  Pacific, 
461;  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and  Salt  Lake, 
&11;  Western  Pacific,  498. 


Education.  The  school  population  of  the 
State  in  1914  was  513,319.  This  includes  7808 
students  at  the  universities.  In  the  same  year 
the  total  enrollment  in  all  schools  up  to  high 
schools  was  601,021,  with  an  average  daily  at- 
tendance of  373,478.  The  teachers  numbered  13,- 
250  men,  and  2369  women.  Men  teachers  re- 
ceived an  average  yearly  salary  of  $1018,  and 
women  $745.  In  the  high  schools  the  average 
yearly  salary  was  $1670  for  men,  and  $1125  for 
women. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  Treasurer 
for  the  biennial  period  1912-14  shows  cash  re- 
ceipts during  the  period  of  $60,947,876.  The  dis- 
bursements amounted  to  $66,530,166,  leaving 
cash  in  the  treasury  on  June  30,  1014,  of  $19,- 
213,233.  This  included  a  balance  of  $9,903,533 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period. 

Chabities  and  CoBBEcnoNS.  The  State  in- 
stitutions for  charities  and  corrections  include 
State  prisons  at  San  Quentin  and  Folsom,  the 
Preston  School  of  Industry,  the  Whittier  State 
School,  California  School  for  Girls,  State  Hospi- 
tals at  Stockton,  Napa,  Agnew,  and  Mendocino, 
the  Southern  California  State  Hospital,  the  New 
State  Hospital,  Sonoma  State  Home,  the  Folsom 
State  Hospital,  and  the  Industrial  Home  for 
Adult  Blind.  The  total  expenditures  for  these 
institutions  in  1914  was  $2,661,833. 

Politics  and  Govebnment.  The  Legislature 
was  in  session  in  1915.  A  measure  was  passed 
abolishing  political  party  distinction.  By  the 
terms  of  this  the  names  of  the  candidates  for 
political  parties  would  no  longer  appear  on  party 
ballots,  except  in  the  election  for  Congressmen 
and  for  presidential  electors.  The  measure  was 
defeated  by  referendimi  on  October  26th.  The 
Legislature  enacted  a  provision  for  the  employ- 
ment of  convicts  for  the  building  of  roads. 

On  January  23rd,  Governor  Johnson  declared 
himself  opposed  to  any  amendment  to  the  anti- 
alien  land  act,  passed  by  the  Legislature  of 
1913.  A  bill  had  been  introduced  to  the  As- 
sembly eliminating  the  three-year  leasing  clause, 
and  the  Governor  declared  that  he  would  veto 
this  bill  if  it  were  passed.  The  measure  failed 
in  passage.  The  alien  land  law  was  held  con- 
stitutional on  August  4th,  in  a  decision  handed 
down  by  Judge  Works  of  Los  Angeles.  In  this 
decision  the  court  held  that  an  alien  could  hold 
a  mortgage  on  land.  The  case  was  that  of  a 
mortgage  given  to  a  Japanese  for  a  term  of 
years.  The  attorneys  for  the  mortgagee  claimed 
that  a  Japanese  could  not  hold  a  mortgage  which 
might  give  him  title  to  the  property.  Judge 
Works  held  that  a  mortgage  was  merely  inci- 
dental to  the  commercial  transaction,  which  an 
alien  is  permitted  to  make  under  the  law  and 
the  American- Japanese  treaty  of  1911.  The  Cal- 
ifornia law  provides  that  any  one  unfitted  to  be- 
come a  citizen  in  the  United  States  shall  not 
acquire  land  in  California. 

State  Officebs.  Governor,  Hiram  W.  John- 
son; Lieutenant-Governor,  John  M.  Eshleman; 
Secretary  of  State,  Frank  C.  Jordan ;  Controller, 
John  S.  Chambers;  Treasurer,  F.  W.  Richard- 
son; Attorney-General,  U.  S.  Webb;  Surveyor- 
General,  W.  S.  Kingsbury;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  Edward  Hyatt;  Adjutant- 
General,  C.  W.  Thomas,  Jr. 

JuDiciABY.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Frank  M.  Angellotti;  Associate  Justices — F.  W. 
Henshaw,  William  G.  Lorigan,  Henry  A.  Melvin, 
Lucien  Shaw,  William  P.  Lawler. 


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State  Legislature: 


Senate  How$  Joint  BaUot 

Republicans    20  88                  58 

Democrato 10  17                  27 

ProcressiTes   9  28                  87 

Socfalista     2                   2 

Republiean   majority . .        1 

CALIFOBNIA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  uni- 
versity for  higher  education  at  Berkeley,  Cal., 
founded  in  1868.  The  total  attendance  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  8736. 
There  were  434  members  of  the  faculty.  Depart- 
ments of  the  university  include  the  college;  col- 
leges of  law,  medicine,  and  pharmacy;  the  uni- 
versity farm;  and  the  San  Francisco  University 
of  Art.  The  endowment  amounts  to  about  $6,- 
000,000,  and  the  annual  income  to  about  $2,000,- 
000.  The  library  contains  about  300,000  vol- 
umes, and  several  thousand  manuscripts.  The 
president  is  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler. 

CALLENBEB,  Our  Stevens.  American  edu- 
cator and  economist,  died  Aug.  9,  1915.  He  was 
born  at  Harts  Grove,  Ohio,  in  1865,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Oberlin  College  in  1891.  He  took  a 
post  graduate  course  at  Harvard,  receiving  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1897.  In  1895-6  he  was  in- 
structor in  political  economy  at  Wellesley  Col- 
lege, filling  the  same  position  at  Harvard  from 
1897-1000,  while  from  1900-03  he  was  professor 
of  political  economy  and  sociology  at  Bowdoin 
College.  From  the  latter  year  until  his  death 
he  was  professor  of  political  economy  in  the 
Sheffield  Scientific  School.  He  was  the  author 
of  Selections  from  the  Economic  History  of  the 
United  States,  1765-1860  (1909). 

CAMBODIA.  A  kingdom  of  Farther  India, 
constituting  a  French  protectorate  and  forming 
part  of  French  Indo-China.  The  capital  is 
Pnom-Penh;  its  population,  which  is  variously 
stated,  is  probably  over  60,000.  Much  of  the 
country  is  covered  with  forest.  The  natives  cul- 
tivate rice,  cotton,  betel,  tobacco,  cardamoms, 
etc.,  and  raise  cattle  and  buffaloes.  Most  of  the 
foreign  trade  passes  through  Saigon  (Cochin- 
China).  The  name  of  the  native  King  is  Siso- 
wath.    See  Fbench  Indo-China. 

CANADA,  Dominion  of.  A  British  self-gov- 
erning dependency  north  of  the  United  States. 
Capita.1,  Ottawa,  in  Ontario. 

Area  and  Population.  Canada's  nine  prov- 
inces, with  the  Yukon  Territory  and  Northwest 
Territories,  have  a  combined  area  computed  at 
3,729,665  square  miles.  By  provinces  and  terri- 
tories, the  land  and  water  areas  are  stated  as 
follows,  in  square  miles: 


In  the  foregoing  table,  the  areas  of  Ontario, 
Quebec,  Manitoba,  and  the  Northwest  Territories 
have  been  adjusted  to  conform  to  the  Boundary 
Extension  Acts  of  1912,  whereby  these  three 
provinces  were  enlarged  by  annexations  from  the 
Northwest  Territories.  The  following  table 
shows  the  area  by  provinces  before  the  Boundary 
Extoision  Acts  became  operative,  the  population 
in  1891,  the  popuUtion  according  to  the  censuses 
of  April  1,  1901,  and  June  1,  1911,  and  increase 
per  cent  of  population  between  1901  and  1911: 


AlU. 
B.  C. 
Man. 
N.   B. 
K.  S. 
Ont. 
P.  E.  I 
P.  Q. 
Saik. 
Y.  T. 


Pop.  '01  Pop.  *11     Inc. 

78.022  874.668  418.08 

178,657  892.480  119.68 

255.211  455.614     78.52 

881,120  851,889       6.27 

469,574  492.838       7.18 

260.862  2.ii4;82i  2,162,947  2.528,274     15.58 

2.184      109.078       108,259  98,728     *9.28 

851.873   1.488.585  1,648.898  2,003,282     21.49 

261.700        91,279  492.482  489.48 

207,076        27,219  8,512  *68.78 


8q.  mi. 

255,285 

855.855 

78,732 

27,985 

21,428 


Pop.  '91 

98,173 
152,506 
821.268 
450.896 


Land  Water  ♦  Total  ♦ 

Alberto 252,925  2.860  255,285 

British  Ck>lambi»    858.416  2,489  855,855 

]£axiitoba    281,926  19,906  251.882 

New  Bmniwick 27,911  74  27.985 

NoTa  Scotia 21.068  860  21.428 

Ontorio    865.880  41.883  407,262 

Prince  Edward  Island. .         2,164       2.184 

Quebec    690,865  15.969  706,884 

Saskatchewan    248,882  8,818  251,700 

Yukon  Territory 206,427  649  207,076 

Northwest  Terr 1,207,926  34,298  1,242,224 

The  Dominion 8,608,910  125,755  8,729,665 

*  The  water  area  is  exdnsiTe  of  Hudson  Bay,  Un^ava 


n!  T.   1.921.685         98.967         20.129         18.481     *8.18 
Can.  8.729,665  4,888,239  5,371,815  7,206,648     84.17 

*  Decrease  per  cent. 

The  increase  of  the  area  of  Manitoba,  Ontario, 
and  Quebec,  and  the  decrease  of  the  area  of  the 
Northwest  Territories,  effected  by  the  Boundary 
Extension  Acts  of  1912,  are  shown  below,  to- 
gether with  the  present  area  and  the  population 
adjusted  to  the  1911  census: 

Inereato  Preoent 

Sq.m.  area  Pop. '11 

Manitoba    178.100  251.832  461.680 

Ontario     146.400  407.262  2,527.293 

Qaebec 354,961  706,884  2,005.779 

Northwest    Territories.* 679,461  1,242,224  5,900 

*  Decrease. 

The  average  density  of  population  in  1911, 
calculated  upon  the  total  of  3,729,665  square 
miles,  was  1.93  per  square  mile.  Density  per 
square  mile  by  provinces:  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land. 42.91;  Nova  Scotia,  22.98;  New  Brunswick, 
12.61;  Ontario,  9.67;  Manitoba,  6.18;  Quebec, 
5.69  (figures  for  the  last  three  provinces  are 
calculated  on  the  area  as  before  the  changes  of 
1912);  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  British  Co- 
lumbia, each  less  than  2  per  square  mile. 

Division  of  the  1911  population  into  urban 
and  rural  gives  3,280,964  of  the  former  (46.63 
per  cent)  and  3,926,679  of  the  latter  (54.47  per 
cent) .  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  urban 
population  includes  the  inhabitants  of  certain 
places  which,  in  some  classifications,  would  have 
been  regarded  as  rural.  The  urban  total  in- 
cludes 90,284  inhabitants  of  places  with  a  popu- 
lation less  than  600;  180,784  dwelling  in  towns 
with  a  population  between  600  and  1000;  429,- 
553  in  towns  between  1000  and  3000;  and  226,- 
212  in  towns  between  3000  and  5000.  But  of  the 
total  population  in  1911,  2,354,131  persons,  or 
32.70  per  cent,  were  dwelling  in  cities  or  towns 
with  a  population  exceeding  5000.  In  the  older 
parts  of  the  Dominion  there  is  a  marked  trend  of 
population  from  country  to  town,  and  the  urban 
increase  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  re- 
vealed by  the  1911  census.  While  during  the 
decade  1901-11  the  rural  population  increased  by 


Lake  St.  Peter. 


ban  population  increased  at  the  expense  of  the 
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rural,  for  the  latter  actually  declined^  in  Prince 
Edward  Island  by  10.81  per  cent,  in  Nova  Scotia 
by  7.26,  in  New  Brunswick  by  0.58,  and  in  On- 
tario by  4.18.  At  the  same  time,  the  urban  in- 
crease was  0.1  per  cent  in  Prince  Edward  Island, 
45.43  in  Nova  Scotia,  28.81  in  New  Brunswick, 
and  41.03  in  Ontario.  In  1911,  Montreal  had 
14.34  per  cent  of  the  urban  and  6.53  per  cent  of 
the  total  population  of  the  Dominion;  Toronto, 
11.48  and  5.22;  Winnipeg  and  Vancouver  to- 
gether, 7.21  and  3.28;  Ottawa,  Hamilton,  and 
Quebec,  7.55  and  3.44.  The  1011  census  figures 
for  the  larger  cities  are  as  follows:  Montreal, 
470,480;  Toronto,  376,538;  Winnipeg,  136,035; 
Vancouver,  100,401;  Ottawa,  87,062;  Hamilton, 
81,969;  Quebec,  78,710;  Halifax,  46,619;  London, 
46,300;  Calgary,  43,704;  St.  John,  42,511;  Vic- 
toria, 31,660;  Regina,  30,213;  Edmonton,  24,- 
900;  Brantford,  23,132;  Kingston,  18,874;  Mai- 
sonneuve,  18,684;  Peterborough,  18,3B0. 

Males  in  1911  numbered  3,821,995,  and  fe- 
males, 3,384,648,  the  number  of  females  to  each 
1000  males  being  886,  as  compared  with  952  in 
1901.  The  deficiency  of  females  as  compared 
with  males  is  probaoly  greater  in  Canada  than 
in  any  other  country.  The  number  of  females 
per  1000  males  is  888  in  Ceylon,  896  in  New 
Zealand,  926  in  Australia,  941  in  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  943  in  the  United  States,  953  in 
India,  1004  in  Ireland,  1017  in  Belgium,  1019  in 
Hungary,  1021  in  Holland,  1026  in  Germany, 
1031  in  Switzerland,  1033  in  France  (in  1901), 
1036  in  Austria,  1046  in  Sweden,  1061  in  Den- 
mark, and  1063  in  Scotland. 

In  1911,  unmarried  males  and  unmarried  fe- 
males numbered  2,369,766  and  1,941,886  respec- 
tively; married,  1,331,853  and  1,251,468;  wid- 
owed. 89,154  and  179,656;  divorced,  839  and  691; 
legally  separated,  1286  and  1584;  not  specified, 
29,097  and  9363. 

Of  the  total  increase  in  population  from  1901 
to  1911,  viz.,  1,835,328,  persons  of  English  blood 
numbered  562,251  (30.63  per  cent) ;  Irish,  61,- 
663  (3.36);  Scotch,  197,726  (10.77);  Welsh,  11,- 
754  (0.06);  French,  405,519  (22.09);  German, 
82,819  (4.51);  Austro-Hungarian,  110,925 
(6.05).  Persons  of  British  origin  numbered  3,- 
896,985,  or  54.08  per  cent  of  the  total  population 
in  1911.  English  blood  made  up  25.30  per  cent; 
Irish,  14,58;  Scottish,  13.85.  Persons  of  French 
origin  numbered  2,054,890,  or  28.51  per  cent  of 
the  total  in  1911;  German,  393,320  (5.46  per 
cent);  Austro-Hungarian,  110,925  (1.79);  Scan- 
dinavian, 107,535  (1.49);  Indian,  105,492 
(1.46);  Jewish,  75,681  (1.05);  Dutch,  54,986 
(0.76);  Italian,  45,411   (0.63). 

Of  the  population  in  1911,  5,619,682  (77.98  per 
cent)  were  born  in  Canada;  784,526  (10.89) 
in  the  British  Isles;  29,188  (0.41)  in  British 
possessions  other  than  Canada;  and  19,708  per- 
sons (0.27  per  cent)  were  of  British  birth  but  un- 
known birthplace.  Foreign-bom  inhabitants 
numbered  404,941  (10.44  per  cent),  Europe  be- 
ing the  birthplace  of  5.62  per  cent;  Asia,  0.57; 
the  United  States,  4.21.  Persons  born  in  Aus- 
tria-Hungary numbered  121,430  (1.68  per  cent) ; 
Russia,  100,971  (1.40) ;  Germany,  39,577  (0.55) ; 
Norway  and  Sweden,  49,194  (0.68);  Italy,  34,- 
739  (0.48);  France,  17,619  (0.24);  China,  27,- 
083  (0.38);  Japan,  8425  (0.12);  the  United 
States,  303,680    (4.21). 

In  1911,  males  and  females  respectively  under 
5  years  of  age  numbered  448,219  and  439,264; 
5  to  14,  749,956  and  733,608;   15  to  24,  737,099 


and  649,564;  25  to  44,  1,151,726  and  919,042; 
45  to  64,  538,703  and  469,016;  65  and  over,  169,- 
605  and  164,158;  age  not  given,  26,687  and 
9996;  total,  3,821,995  and  3,384,648;  total  popu- 
lation, 7,206,643.  Total  estimated  population, 
March  31,  1914,  8,075,000. 

Immigrants  into  Canada  during  the  period 
1901-15  numbered  3,050,811.  In  the  year  ended 
March  31,  1915,  there  were  144,789;  in  1914, 
384,878;  in  1913,  402,432;  in  1912,  354,237;  in 
1911,  311,084;  in  1910,  208,794.  Of  the  384,- 
878  immigrants  in  the  year  1913-14,  66,502  were 
children,  and  of  the  remainder  224,348  were 
males  and  94,028  were  females;  of  the  total  num- 
ber, 107,530  came  from  the  United  States.  Im- 
migrants whose  destination  was  the  Maritime 
Provinces  in  1913-14  and  1914-15  respectively, 
16,730  and  11,104;  Quebec,  80,368  and  31,053; 
Ontario,  123,792  and  44,873;  Manitoba,  41,640 
and  13,196;  Saskatchewan,  40,999  and  16,173;  Al- 
berta, 43,741  and  18,263;  British  Columbia,  37,- 
608  and  10,127;  total,  384,878  and  144,789. 

Religion  and  Education.  Religions  number- 
ing 5000  or  more  adherents  in  1911  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

BeHgiont  Adfur^ntM  Inerease 

1901  1911  p^reent 

Adventists    8,058  10,406  29.14 

Anfflicans    681.494  1.058,017  68.05 

Baptisto 818,005  382.666  20.88 

Brethren    8,014  9.278  15.77 

Buddhists    10,407  10,012  — 8.80 

Christian  Scientists 2,619  5.073  93.70 

Christians    6,900  16,773  143.09 

Confacians     5,115  14,562  184.69 

ConCTogationalisto    28,298  84,054  20.86 

Disciples    14,900  11,329  —28.96 

I>ou]chobor8 8.776  10,498  19.58 

Evangelicals     10,198  10,596  8.94 

Greek  Ohureh   15,680  88,507  466.26 

Jews 16,401  74.564  854.68 

Lutherans    92,524  229,864  148.48 

Mennonites    81,797  44,611  40.80 

Methodists    916,866  1,079,892  17.78 

Mormons    6,891  15.971  131.77 

No  religion    4.810  26.027  441.10 

Pagans 16,107  11,840  21.63 

Preshvterians     842,442  1,115.824  92.89 

ProtestanU    11,612  80,265  160.64 

Roman  Catholics 2,229.600  2,833,041  27.06 

Salvation   Army    10.808  18,884  82.71 

Unspecified    48.222  82.490  —24.88 

Total  of  5,000  and 

over    5.840,008     7,159,488         84.07 

Of  the  population  six  years  of  age  and  over 
in  1911,  viz.,  6,154,511,  the  number  returned  as 
being  unable  to  read  was  521,842,  or  8.48  per 
cent.  The  number  of  persons  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  20  at  the  date  of  the  1011  census  was 
2,306,558;  of  this  number,  1,147,838,  or  49.76 
per  cent,  attended  school  for  some  period  during 
1910.  In  general  there  are  two  fundamental 
systems  of  education  in  Canada,  one  that  of 
the  Protestant  communities,  free  from  the  con- 
trol of  religious  bodies,  and  the  other  that  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  French  and  Irish  communities, 
in  which  education  is  united  with  the  religious 
teaching  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  On- 
tario, Quebec,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta, 
Roman  Catholics  have  the  right  to  form  ''sepa- 
rate schools"  for  elementary  education,  the  local 
rates  for  the  support  of  these  schools  being  sep- 
arately levied  and  applied.  In  the  remaining 
provinces,  there  are  separate  schools  for  Roman 
Catholics  in  the  larger  cities  and  towns.  In  all 
the  provinces,  the  cost  of  education  is  defrayed 
from  the  public  revenues,  provincial  and  local, 


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and  public  elementary  education  is  free  except 
for  certain  small  fees  payable  in  parts  of  Que- 
bec. Excepting  Quebec  all  the  provinces  have 
compulsory-education  laws.  The  following  table 
shows,  for  1914,  number  of  schools,  of  teachers, 
and  of  pupils  enrolled,  the  percentage  of  average 
attendance,  and  the  expenditure  for  public  educa- 
tion (year  ended  December  31  for  Alberta,  On- 
tario, Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Saskatchewan; 
July  31  for  Nova  Scotia;  and  June  30  for  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  Manitoba,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Quebec)  : 


SehooU  TeaeKers 

EnroU. 

Iv.at. 

Expand. 

AlU.    . 

.2,027 

3,978 

89,910 

60.71 

$7,834,891 

B.  C.  . 

.     682 

1.783 

58,950 

78.97 

4,684.877 

Man.    . 

.2.688 

2,864 

93,954 

68.60 

6,079.720 

N.   B. 

.1,922 

2,032 

64,310 

68.57 

986,683 

N.  8.  . . 

.2,724 

2,892 

106.351 

62.60 

1,510,079 

Oni.     . 

.6,548 

11,546 

498,838 

64.66 

*12,325,907 

P.  E.  I. 

.     474 

588 

18,069 

61.81 

217,998 

P.  Q.  . . 

.5.827 

7,895 

234,260 

75.82 

7,623,856 

Sftsk.   . 

.2,966 

5,140 

118,927 

.... 

8.827,178 

*Por 

elementftry  schools. 

AouciTLTmuE.  The  area  estimated  as  under 
field  crops  in  1914  was  36,102,176  acres,  as  com- 
pared with  35,376,430  acres  in  1913;  but  owing 
to  the  drought  the  productive  area  in  1914  was 
reduced  to  33,436,675  acres.  Upon  this  area  the 
total  value  of  all  field  crops,  including  roots  and 
fodder,  computed  at  average  local  market  prices, 
amounted  to  $638,680,300,  as  compared  with 
$552,771,500  in  1913,  the  increase  of  $85,808,800 
being  due  chiefly  to  the  enhancement  of  prices 
caused  by  the  war.  The  average  prices  per  bushel 
of  the  principal  grain  and  fodder  crops  in  1913 
and  1914  respectively  were  as  follows:  Wheat, 
67  cents  and  $1.22;  barley,  42  and  60  cents;  rye, 
66  and  83  cents;  oats,  32  and  48  cents;  peas, 
$1.11  and  $1.46;  beans,  $1.88  and  $2.31;  buck- 
wheat, 64  and  72  cents;  mixed  grains,  65  and  66 
cents;  flaxseed,  97  cents  and  $1.03;  com  for 
husking,  64  and  71  cents.  For  hay  and  clover 
the  average  prices  per  ton  in  1913  and  1914 
were  $11.48  and  $14.23;  fodder  com,  $4.78  and 
$4.91;  alfalfa,  $11.86  and  $14.17.  Of  wheat,  the 
total  estimated  yield  in  1914  was  161,280,000 
bushels  from  a  productive  area  of  10,293,900 
acres,  as  compared  with  231,717,000  bushels  in 
1913  from  11,015,000  acres,  the  average  yield  per 
acre  in  1914  being  15.67  bushels,  against  21 
bushels  in  1913.  Fall  wheat  gave  a  total  yield 
in  1914  of  20,837,000  bushels  from  973,300  pro- 
ducing acres,  as  compared  with  22,592,000 
bushels  from  973,300  producing  acres  in  1913; 
average  per  acre,  23.29  and  21.14  bushels.  The 
yield  of  spring  wheat  in  1914  was  140,443,000 
bushels,  from  9,320,600  acres,  the  average  per 
acre  being  15.07  bushels.  In  1913  the  corre- 
sponding figures  for  spring  wheat  were  209,126,- 
000  bushels,  10,045,000  acres,  and  20.81  bushels 
per  acre.  In  the  table  below  are  given  the  area 
in  acres  planted  to  principal  crops  in  1914,  the 
yield  in  bushels  or  tons,  and  the  value: 

CropB                  Acres  Biuhelt  VaXus 

Wheat     10,298,900  161,280,000  $196,418,000 

Oats    10,061,500  318,078,000  161.811,000 

Barley     1,495,600  86,201,000  21,557,000 

Rye   111,280  2,016.800  1,679.800 

Peas    205,550  8,362.500  4,896.000 

Beans    48,880  797,500  1,844,800 

Buckwheat    .  . .       854,400  8,626,000  6,213.000 

Mixed  crains   .       463,800  16,882,600  10,759.400 

Flaxseed    1,084.000  7,176,200  7,868.000 

Corn*     256,000  13,924,000  9,808,000 

Potatoes    473,900  85,672,000  41,598,000 

Turnips,  etc.    .       175,000  69,003,000  18,934.000 


Crops  Aerss 

Hay  and  clover  7,997,000 

Fodder  eom  . .  817,000 

Sugar  beeto   . .  12,100 

Alfalfa     90.815 

*  For  husking. 


Tons 

FolM 

10,259,000 

8,251,480 

108,600 

218,860 

146.999,000 

15,949.700 

651.000 

8.095,600 

Total  areas  and  values  of  field  crops  by  prov- 
inces in  1913  and  1914: 


Acres 


Value 


Alta. 
B.  C. 
Man. 
N.  B. 
Ont. 
P.  E. 
P.  Q. 
Sask. 


1918 

8.690.100 

288.700 

4,965,500 

906,130 

9,200.000 

I.  456,970 

4,898,800 

10,307,600 


1914 
8.369,270 

260.640 
4.671,790 

904,055 
8,978,700 

461,510 
4.863.850 
9.288,000 


1918 

$46,712,000 

11,069.000 

64,557,000 

17.965,100 

167,885.000 

9.535,500 

88,589,000 

129,376,000 


1914 

$59,779,600 
11,463,000 
65,528.400 
20,045,100 

196.220,000 
11.544,000 
99,279.000 

152,751,500 


Tl.    85,875,430  83,486,675  $552,771,500  $638,580,800 

In  the  table  below  are  shown  the  producing 
area  and  the  yield  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  iii 
the  Northwest  Provinces  in  1913  and  1914: 


Manitoba : 

Acres     ...1918 

1914 
Bushels     .  1918 

1914 

Saskatchewan: 
Acres     ...1918 

1914 
Bushels     .  1913 

1914 

Alberta: 
Acres    . . .  1913 

1914 
Bushels     .  1913 

1914 


Wheat 

2,804.000 

2,616.000 

58.831,000 

88.605,000 


Oats  BarUy 

1.898,000  496.000 

1,831,000  468,000 

56.769.000  14,806,000 

81,951,000  9,828,000 


5,720,000       2,756.000  882,000 

6,848,300       2.520,000  290,000 

121.559.000  114,112,000  10.421.000 

73.494.000     61.816.000  4.901.000 


1.512,000  1,639,000  197,000 

1,871.000  1.502.000  178,000 

84.872,000  71,542,000  6,384,000 

28,859.000  57.076,000  4.806.000 


In  1914  the  producing  area  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces  was  reduced  by  drought  to  the  figures 
given  above  by  723,100  acres  planted  to  wheat, 
753,000  acres  oats,  and  102,000  acres  barley. 

Estimated  live  stock  on  farms  June  30,  1913, 
and  June  30,  1914,  respectively :  Horses,  2,866,- 
008  and  2,947,738;  milch  cows,  2,740,434  and 
2,673,286;  other  cattle,  3,915,687  and  3,363,531; 
sheep,  2,128,631  and  2,068,045;  swine,  3,448,326 
and  3,434,261.  The  1911  census  returned  2,698,- 
598  horses,  2,696,256  milch  cows,  3,930,828  other 
cattle,  2,174,300  sheep,  and  3,634,778  swine. 

FiSHEBiEB.  The  stated  value  of  all  kinds  of 
fish,  fish  products,  and  marine  animals  taken  in 
both  sea  and  inland  fisheries  was  $33,389,464  in 
the  year  1912-13,  and  $33,207,748  in  1913-14. 
Value  by  provinces  in  1913-14:  Prince  Edward 
Island,  $1,280,447;  Nova  Scotia,  $8,297,626;  New 
Brunswick,  $4,308,707;  Quebec,  $1,850,427;  On- 
tario, $2,674,685;  Manitoba,  $606,272;  Saskatch- 
ewan, $148,602;  Alberta,  $81,319;  British  Co- 
lumbia, $13,891,398;  Yukon,  $68,265. 

Homesteads.  In  1914  the  total  number  of 
ordinary  homestead  entries  for  lands  of  the  Do- 
minion government  was  26,623,  as  compared  witii 
31,499  in  1913,  36,538  in  1912,  and  38,909  in 
1911.  In  1914,  4205  entries  were  made  in  Man- 
itoba (against  2998  in  1913),  9762  in  Saskatche- 
wan (against  14,524),  10,772  in  Alberta  (against 
12,122),  and  847  in  British  Columbia  (against 
1855).  The  number  of  preemptions  under  the 
Dominion  Lands  Act  was  3262  in  1914  (2417  in 
Saskatchewan  and  1772  in  Alberta).  The  num- 
ber of  purchased  homesteads  under  the  Act  was 
422  in  1914   (290  in  Saskatchewan,  132  in  Al- 


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berta),  against  786  in  1913  (534  in  Saskatche- 
wan, 262  in  Alberta). 

Mining.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral  pro- 
duction in  1914  was  $128,475,499  (preliminary 
report  of  the  Dominion  Department  of  Mines )» 
as  compared  with  the  finally  revised  total  of 
$146,634,812  for  1913.  The  total  value  of  the 
metallic  production  in  1914  was  $58,870,028,  as 
against  $66,361,361  in  1913,  the  decrease  being 
$7,491,323,  or  11  per  cent.  Non-metallic  prod- 
ucts were  valued  at  $69,605,471  in  1914,  as 
against  $79,273,461  in  1913,  the  decrease  being 
$9,667,990,  or  12.19  per  cent.  The  decrease  was 
most  pronounced  in  the  case  of  coal,  asbestos, 
and  gypsum,  and  of  products  generally  classed 
as  structural  materials,  such  as  cement,  brick, 
sewer  pipe,  and  lime. 

Value  of  the  mineral  output  by  provinces,  with 
percentage  of  totals: 


$ 

N.    9.    19,876, 

N.   B 1.102. 

P.    Q 13.475, 

Ont.     59,167, 

Man 2.214, 

Sftsk.     881, 

AHa 15.054, 

B.   0 28,086, 

Yukon     6,276, 

Total    145,684, 


1918 
P.O. 
188  18.80 
618  0.76 
584  9.26 
749  40.68 
496  1.52 
142  0.60 
046  10.84 
312  19.29 
787       4.81 


$ 

17,514, 

1.084, 

12,259, 

52,147, 

2,428 

710, 

12,778 

24,202 

5,402, 


1014 
786     18.68 


706 
687 


0.81 
9.54 


978     40,59 
902        1.89 


840 
669 


0.55 
9.94 


924     18.84 
062        4.21 


812  100.00  128.475,499  100.00 


The  decline  in  production  in  1914  is  ascribed 
in  large  measure  to  conditions  resulting  from 
the  war.  The  cutting  off  of  markets  and  the 
closing  of  metal  exchanges,  with  the  consequent 
cessation  of  market  quotations,  resulted  in  the 
closing  down  or  restriction  of  operation  at  many 
properties. 

llie  following  table  shows  the  quantities  (in 
thousands)  and  the  values  (in  thousands  of  dol- 
lars) of  minerals  produced  in  Canada  in  1913 
and  1914: 


QuantiiieM  DoUan 

(1000)  (1000) 

1018      1014  1018          1014 

Copper,  lb 76,977  75.788  11,754     10.802 

Gold,    oz 808         770  16,599     15,925 

Pig  iron,  tons 1.129         788  16,540     10,008 

L«ad.    lb 87,663  86,838  1,755        1,628 

Nickel,   lb 49,677  45,518  14,908     18,655 

Silver,  oz 81.845  27,544  19,041     16,097 

Other  metallic  products 1,214       1,224 

Total 81,906     67,784 

Less  pig  iron  from 

Imported  ores,  tons  1,065        687  15,544       8,864 

Total  metals 66.861     68.870 

Asbestos  &  asbestic.  tons      161        118  8.860       2,910 

Coal,    tons    15,012  18.595  87,885     88,488 

Gypsum,  tons 686        511  1,448       1,187 

Natural   gas,    M.   ft 20.478  21.047  8,809       8,511 

Petroleum,  bbls 228        215  406          848 

Pyrites,   tons    159        225  521          786 

Salt,  tons   101        107  491          494 

Cement,  bbls 8.659     7,172  11,019       9.188 

Clay   products    9.504       7.091 

Lime,  bush 7.558     6,245  1,609       1.248 

Stone     5,505       5,598 

Miscellaneous 4,275       8,922 

Total    non-metals 79.278     69.605 

Grand  total 145,685  128,475 

Ommebcb.  In  the  table  below  are  shown,  for 
fiscal  years,  the  values  in  dollars  of  imports 
of  dutiable  merchandise,  free  merchandise,  and 


coin  and  bullion,  together  with  the  values  of  the 
total  imports: 

Merchandise  Coin  d  Total 

Dutiable  Free  BuUion        Importe 

1900    112.943,896    68,881,179       8.297,488  189,622,518 

1905  157,164,975  99,861,007  10,308,485  266.834,417 
1910  241,961,556  143.878,547  6,017.589  891,852,692 
1918     456.086,187  280.518,226       5,427.979  692,032,392 

1914  425.324,576  210.186,916  15,235,805  660.746,797 

1915  818,951,094  178,500.808  131.992.992  629,444.894 

Exports  have  been  valued  as  follows,  in  fiscal 
years : 

Merehandiae  Coin  dt            Totat 

Oatiodian       Foreign  BtUlion         Exporte 

1900.  .168.972.801   14,265,254  8.657,168  191.894.728 

1905.  .190,854.946   10,617,115  1,844,811  203,816,872 

1910.. 279,247,551   19,516,442  2,594,586  301,858.529 

1918.  .355,754.600  21,313,755  16,168.702  398.232,057 

1914.. 431.588,439   28,848.785  23,560,704  478,997,928 

1915.. 409,418,886  52,023.678  29,866,868  490,808,877 

Imports  of  merchandise  for  consumption  and 
exports  of  Canadian  merchandise,  in  fiscal  years: 

1010  1018  1014  1016 

Imps.  869,815,427  670,089,066  618,457,144  455,446,812 
Exps.  279,247.551  855,754,600  481,588,489  409.418.886 

One  of  the  consequences  of  the  great  war  was 
the  transfer  to  Canada,  in  trust  for  Great  Brit- 
ain, of  gold  from  the  United  States.  Imports 
of  coin  and  bullion  increased  from  $15,235,305 
in  1913-14  to  $131,992,992  in  1914-15.  Exclu- 
sive of  coin  and  bullion,  the  external  trade  of 
Canada  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31,  1915, 
amounted  to  $958,894,411,  as  compared  with  $1,- 
090,948,716  in  1913-14,  the  decrease  being  12.1 
per  cent.  Of  the  total  value,  exports  amounted 
to  $461,442^509  in  1914-15,  as  compared  with 
$455,437,224  in  1913-14,  and  imports  to  $497,- 
451,902,  as  compared  with  $635,511,492,  the  in- 
crease in  the  exports  being  1.3  per  cent,  and  the 
decrease  in  the  imports,  21.7  per  cent.  It  should 
be  noted  that  values  were  affected  by  variation 
in  prices  due  to  the  war,  especially,  in  the  case 
of  exports,  to  the  rise  in  the  prices  of  grain  and 
flour>  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  decline 
in  the  value  of  imports  began  before  the  out- 
break of  the  war.  For  every  month  of  the  year 
ended  March  31,  1915,  the  imports  were  of  less 
value  than  in  the  corresponding  month  of  the 
previous  year. 

The  principal  imports  for  consumption,  in  the 
fiscal  year  1914  and  1915  respectively,  were  as 
follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars:  Live  animals, 
2515  and  1228;  books,  maps,  pamphlets,  periodi- 
cals, etc.,  6754  and  5854;  breadstuffs,  9426  and 
13,982;  carriages,  automobiles,  bicycles,  etc.,  20,- 
098  and  8523;  coal,  coke,  etc.,  49,036  and  38,620; 
cotton  and  manufactures  thereof,  37,601  and 
27,399;  drugs,  dyes,  chemicals,  and  medicines, 
14,638  and  13,449;  earthenware  and  china,  3131 
and  1941;  electrical  apparatus,  8924  and  6036; 
fancy  goods,  4879  and  3176;  fish,  2173  and  1706; 
flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  manufactures  thereof,  8963 
and  6428;  fruits,  17,233  and  15,469;  glass  and 
manufactures  thereof,  5075  and  3524;  rubber, 
gutta-percha,  and  manufactures  thereof,  8994 
and  7767;  hats,  caps,  etc.,  5452  and  3789;  hides 
and  skins  other  than  fur,  8831  and  12,843; 
leather  and  manufactures  thereof,  8454  and 
7059;  total  metals,  minerals,  and  manufactures 
thereof,  148,383  and  84,366;  (iron  and  e^l^  and 


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manufactures  thereof,  119,322  and  64,750;  cop- 
per and  manufactures  thereof,  6581  and  3561; 
brass  and  manufactures  thereof,  4415  and  2949; 
tin  and  manufactures  thereof,  6358  and  4791 ) ; 
oils,  17,095  and  13,345;  paints  and  colors,  2161 
and  1572;  paper  and  manufactures  thereof,  8043 
and  5764;  provisions,  10,813  and  5935;  seeds, 
1671  and  2365;  settlers'  effects,  14,348  and 
7864;  silk  and  manufactures  thereof,  9689  and 
8139;  spirits  and  wines,  7047  and  5331;  sugar, 
molasses,  etc.,  17,949  and  19,033;  tea,  6650  and 
7364;  tobacco,  6899  and  5801;  vegetables,  3307 
and  3039;  wood  and  manufactures  thereof,  24,- 
676  and  14,505;  wool  and  manufactures  thereof, 
31,438  and  24,839. 

Exports  of  Canadian  produce,  in  fiscal  years, 
are  shown  below  by  great  classes,  values  in  dol- 
lars: 


Minine  prod. . . 
Fisheries  prod. 
Forest  prod.  .  . 
Animal  prod.  . 
Agricultural  prod. ISOJ 1451661 

Manfd.   prod 48,692.708 

Miscellaneous    ...  97,811 


1918 

57.442,646 

16,336.721 

48,225,060 

44,784,598 


2924 
59,089,054 
20.628.560 
42,792,187 
58.849,119 
198,220.029 
57.448.452 
121,088 


1915 
51.740,989 
19,687.068 
42,650,688 
74,890,748 
184.746,050 
85.589.501 

668.802 


Total     855,754,600  481.688,489  409,418.886 

The  following  table  shows  quantities  and  val- 
ues of  exports  of  Canadian  whebt,  oats,  all 
grains,  and  wheat  flour,  in  fiscal  years: 


Wheat,  bush.    . . . 

Wheat,   $    

Oats,  bush 

Oate,  I 

AH  grains,  bush.. 
All  grains,  $  . . . 
Wheat  flour,  bbls. 
Wheat   flour,    | . . 


1918 
.  98.166,009 
.  88,608.780 
.  10,478.554 
.  5,067.950 
.110,571.807 
.  97,941,844 
.  4,478.048 
.    19.970,689 


1914 

120,426,579 

117,719,217 

84,996,664 

18,879.849 

168.929.880 

188.129.261 

4.882.188 

20.581.079 


1915 
71,918,885 
74,298.548 
17,768,166 

8.961.126 
96.578,270 
88.018.288 

4,952.837 
24,610.946 


Besides  cereals,  important  domestic  exports  in 
the  fiscal  years  1914  and  1915  were  as  follows, 
in  thousands  of  dollars:  Planks  and  boards, 
19,514  and  18,921;  deals,  7957  and  7542;  wood 
blocks  for  pulp,  7339  and  6817;  square  timber, 
536  and  533;  shingles,  1776  and  2988;  logs,  818 
and  1259;  silver,  20,972  and  13,516;  gold,  13,- 
327  and  15,407;  copper,  9490  and  7545;  coal, 
3703  and  4466;  asbestos,  2892  and  2227;  dry 
salted  codfish,  4565  and  4122;  canned  lobsters, 
2984  and  3014;  canned  salmon,  6631  and  4949; 
cattle,  7907  and  9266;  furs,  5569  and  2758; 
hides  and  skins  other  than  furs,  9263  and  7730; 
bacon  and  hams,  4033  and  14,465;  cheese,  18,- 
869  and  19,214;  wool,  647  and  1360;  fresh  ap- 
ples, 3465  and  2657;  hay,  1787  and  2233;  pota- 
toes, 1128  and  697;  agricultural  implements, 
7220  and  2808;  carriages,  bicycles,  etc.,  4015  and 
3498;  iron  and  steel,  3757  and  11,407;  wood  pulp, 
6365  and  9266;  liquors,  1306  and  1102;  leather 
and  manufactures  thereof,  3214  and  10,807; 
drugs,  dyes,  chemicals,  etc.,  1719  and  3530; 
household  effects,  2841  and  3682. 

By  principal  countries,  imports  for  consump- 
tion and  total  exports  in  fiscal  years  have  been 
as  follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

Imports  Exports 

1914  1916  1914         1915 

United    States M10,786  *428,617  200.459  215,409 

United    Kingdom..    132.071  90.161  222.323  211,759 

France     14,277  8,449  8,811      14.596 

Germany    14,586  5.037  4,484       2,162 

Belgium    4.490  1,876  4.820       8.259 

Newfoundland    ...        1.841  1,245  4,770       4.481 


South  America 
West  Indies   . . . 


CANADA 

ImporU  SxportM 

1914  1915  1914  1915 

9,020         9,394       4.026        2,114 

11.504         6,998  11.089        6,41B 

*  Coin  and  buUion  included  waa  $15,220,768  In  1913- 
14  and  1181,984,421  in  1914-15. 

CoMicuNiCATiONS.  The  length  of  railway  in 
operation  June  30,  1914,  was  30,705.  The  in- 
crease in  mileage  during  the  year  then  ended 
was  1401,  as  compared  with  2577  in  1913,  1327 
in   1012,  and  660  in   1011.     In  the   fiscal   year 

1014,  aggregate  railway  earnings  were  $243,083,- 
530,  showing  a  decrease  of  $13,610,164,  or  5.6 
per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  previous  year. 
Operating  expenses  in  1013-14  amounted  to 
$178,075,250,  showing  a  decrease  of  $3,036,431, 
or  1.7  per  cent,  from  the  total  of  the  previous 
year.  During  1013-14  the  sum  of  $276,990,060 
was  added  to  the  capital  liability  of  steam  rail- 
ways in  operation,  including  stocks,  $97,794,137. 
funded  debt,  $160,145,686,  and  consolidated  de- 
benture stock  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railwav, 
$10,050,246.  These  additions  bring  the  total 
capitalization  of  steam  railways  in  operation  to 
$1,808,820,761  on  June  30,  1014.  If  the  capiUl- 
ization  of  railways  under  construction  be  added 
to  that  of  the  operating  railways,  the  total  is  in- 
creased to  $1,062,128,070,  of  which  $017,748,153 
are  stocks,  $173,307,470  are  consolidated  deben- 
ture stock,  and  $871,072,447  are  funded  debt. 

The  following  table  shows  the  mileage  of  Cana- 
dian steam  railways  by  provinces  at  the  end  of 
fiscal  years : 

1909  1918  1913  1914 

Ontario     8.229  8.546  9,000  9.255 

Quebec    8,663  8,882  8,986  4,043 

Manitoba     8.205  8,520  8,993  4.076 

SaBkatchewan 2,681  8,754  4,651  5,089 

Alberta     1,822  1.897  2,212  2.545 

British  Columbia 1,796  1,855  1,951  1.978 

New  Brunswick l.o47  l,o45  1,545  1.839 

Nova  Scotia 1,351  1,857  1.860  1.365 

Prince  Edward  Island...       269  269  270  279 

Yukon     91  102  102  102 

In  United  States 225  224 

Total    24,014  26,727  29,804  80,795 

The  report  of  the  Comptroller  of  Railways  Sta- 
tistics of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  issued    in 

1015,  showed  that  the  operating  railway  mileage 
on  June  30,  1914,  was  30,795  miles,  which  rep- 
resented an  increase  of  1492  miles  during  the 
fiscal  year  of  1914,  the  greatest  annual  gain 
from  1908  to  1914  inclusive,  barring  1913,  when 
2575  were  added.  Ontario  led  l£e  provinces 
with  9255  miles  of  track ;  Saskatchewan  was  sec- 
ond, with  5089  miles,  of  which  438  were  added  in 
1914.  In  addition  to  the  lines  under  operation, 
11,472  miles  were  surveyed  throughout  the  Do- 
minion in  1914.  Under  contract  were  5521  miles, 
and  3417  were  completed  but  not  in  operation. 
The  bulk  of  this  mileage  was  in  the  western 
provinces,  where  Alberta  had  805  miles  under 
contract,  and  1189  miles  completed  but  not  in 
operation;  British  Columbia  1235  under  con- 
tract, and  698  completed;  Saskatchewan  340 
miles  imder  contract,  and  555  miles  completed; 
and  Manitoba  108  miles  under  contract,  and  134 
miles  completed.  Ontario  had  1841  miles  under 
contract,  and  836  completed  but  not  in  operation. 
The  capital  spent  during  the  year  was  $276,090,- 
069,  and  the  total  capital  expenditure  was  $1,- 
808,820,961.  The  ratio  of  operating  expenses 
to  gross  earnings  was  73.63   per   cent.    There 


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^vere  169,142  employees,  to  whom  had  been  paid 
$111,762,972  during  the  ;rear. 

During  1915,  718.7  miles  of  new  first  track 
was  completed  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and 
.84  miles  of  second  track.  This  is  a  decrease 
over  the  record  for  1914  and  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  European  war  seriously  interfered  with 
all  construction  activities.  The  718  miles  of  line 
completed  was  nearly  all  work  which  was  far  ad- 
vanced. Thus  the  Pacific  Coast  extension  of  the 
Canadian  Northern  was  placed  in  service  during 
the  year.  On  other  lines  the  extension  had  taken 
place  so  rapidly  in  other  years  that  there  was 
no  necessity  for  great  extension,  especially  in 
Western  Canada,  as  in  many  districts  the  rail- 
way facilities  were  in  advance  of  the  settlement 
of  the  country.  The  Canadian  Pacific  west- 
em  lines,  whidi  reported  a  total  of  574  miles 
built  in  1914,  reported  only  23  miles  opened  in 
1915. 

On  Nov.  22,  1915,  the  Canadian  Northern  Rail- 
way ran  the  first  train  on  its  Pacific  Line  from 
Edmonton  to  Vancouver,  B.  C,  thus  making  the 
third  Canadian  transcontinental  railway  to  be  in 
operation.  The  Canadian  Northern  Railway  fol- 
lows the  valley  of  the  Athabasca  and  Miette 
rivers  to  the  summit  of  the  Yellowhead  Pass, 
whence  it  runs  westerly  along  Yellowhead  Lake 
down  the  Eraser  River  and  across  the  head  of 
Cranberry  Lake,  beyond  which  it  rises  to  the 
Albreda  Summit  at  an  elevation  of  2861  feet. 
Thence  it  follows  the  Albreda  River  to  the  North 
Thompson,  which  it  runs  along  with  as  far  as 
Kamloops,  and  thence  the  Thompson  River  to 
Lytton,  and  the  Eraser  River  to  the  coast. 
Erom  Kamloops  the  new  line  parallels  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway.  The  railway  company  has 
established  a  new  city  and  port  at  Port  Mann, 
but  the  line  runs  beyond  this  to  Vancouver, 
whence  a  car  ferry  will  transfer  across  to  Pat- 
ricia Bay  on  Vancouver  Island,  so  that  track 
connection  can  be  maintained  with  Victoria,  B. 
C,  making  this  the  terminal  port  for  the  Pa- 
cific steamers  instead  of  Vancouver.  The  Pa- 
cific Coast  section  of  the  three  Canadian  trans- 
continental railways  is  as  follows: 

M<UB,   Max, 
BUv.  Grad4 
BaihpiKif  Winnipeg  to         MUes        Ft.      P.e. 

Cftn.   Northern  VftneouTer    1,610     8,711     0.7 

Or«nd  Tmnk  Pse.   Prince  Rupert.  .1,764     8,724     1.0 
Oftnadi«n   P«eilLe     Vancoaver    1,484     6,821     2.2* 

*  Reduced  from  the  original  grade  of  4.2  per  cent. 

EiwANCE.  The  system  of  Canadian  public  fi- 
nance fncludes  a  consolidated  fund  and  miscel- 
laneous accounts.  To  the  consolidated  fund  are 
paid  in  the  revenues,  and  out  of  it  are  paid  the 
expenditures,  properly  relating  to  the  fiscal  year. 
The  miscellaneous  accoimts  comprehend  loans, 
debt  redemption,  railway  administration,  capital 
expenditure  on  public  works,  etc.  For  nacal 
years  ended  March  31st,  the  expenditure  and  the 
revenue  of  the  Dominion  government  are  shown 
in  the  following  table.  The  several  items  are 
indicated  as  follows:  a  expenditure  chargeable 
to  consolidated  fund;  h  expenditure  chargeable 
to  capital ;  o  railway  subsidies ;  d  other  charges ; 
e  total  disbursements;  /  revenue  on  account  of 
consolidated  fund;  g  other  revenues;  h  total  rev- 
enue; i  difference  between  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments; ;'  sinking  funds;  k  net  difference  between 
receipts  and  disbursements. 


2010  1918  1918  1914 

a  $79,411,747  $08,161,441  1112,060.537  $127,884,478 

b  20.756.858  80,080,676  27.206,046  87,180,176 

c    2.048.007  850,400  4,986,507  10.086,287 

d   4.179,577  7,181.666  235,787  2,640.162 

e  115,895.774  187.142.082  144,456,877  186.241,048 


186,108.217  168,680,008   168,174,806 
524   


f  101,503,711 
g     112.765 

h  101,616.476  186.108,217  168,600.427  168.174.806 


i         8,770,208 
j         1,441.081 

k    *12,888.267 
*  Net  excess 


1.088,866       24.288,550       28,066,658 
1.156.456  1,884,285  1.871,420 


tl22.501     t2o,617,885     *21.605,224 
of  ezpenditnre     t  Net  excess  of  receipts. 


Receipts  from  customs  in  1912-13  and  1913-14 
respectively,  $111,764,609  and  $104,691,238; 
from  excise,  $21,447,445  and  $21,452,037.  The 
interest  on  the  public  debt  in  1912-13  was  $12,- 
605,882,  and  in  1913-14,  $12,893,505.  The  public 
debt,  March  31,  1914,  was  $544,391,389;  assets, 
$208,394,519;  net  debt,  $335,996,850. 

Abmy.  The  Ministry  of  Militia,  under  Gen. 
Sir  Samuel  Hughes,  K.  C.  B.,  had  been  actively 
engaged  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  re- 
cruiting, equipping,  and  sending  forward  the 
volunteer  forces  of  the  Dominion.  The  annual 
expenditure  in  1915  in  this  respect  was  estimated 
at  some  $175,000,000.  The  army  service  corps 
had  transported  114,249  men  of  all  ranks  since 
the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and  26,562  remounts 
had  been  purchased,  of  which  23,155  had  been 
shipped  to  Europe.  The  Canadian  Ordnance 
Corps  had  purchased  600,000  pairs  of  boots, 
400,000  caps,  600,000  shirts,  600,000  suits  of 
underclothing,  40  armored  cars,  1800  transport 
wagons,  280  other  transport  vehicles,  6000  sets 
of  harness,  350  motor  trucks,  40  ambulances, 
143  motor  cycles,  1400  bicycles,  8700  binoculars, 
3850  telescopes,  110,000  Ross  rifles,  500,000 
automatic  pistols,  llie  expenditures  for  horses 
had  totaled  $4,163,000.  Ocean  transport  of 
troops  and  supplies  $6,780,000.  To  the  Shell 
Committee  $5,000,000  had  gone  for  shells  for  the 
Canadian  artillery,  and  other  expenses  had  been 
in  proportion.  The  Canadian  Defence  Ministry 
decided  tliat  the  volunteer  army  of  Canada  in 
the  field  should  be  increased  to  a  maximum  of 
500,000  men,  which  would  require  the  enlistment 
of  some  275,000  more  men,  and  would  doubtless 
involve  an  annual  expenditure  for  military  pur- 
poses alone  of  $400,000,000. 

The  Canadian  losses  for  the  first  contingent 
as  reported  were  1213  killed,  5230  wounded  and 
1565  missing.  Up  to  October  16th  the  number 
of  casualties  totaled  667  officers  and  14,510  en- 
listed men.  The  Canadian  infantry  regiments 
fighting  in  Belgium  suffered  severely,  and  of  12 
infantry  battalions  engaged  in  the  three  days 
fighting  around  Ypres  over  70  per  cent  were 
killed  or  wounded,  so  that  replacements  were 
necessary,  which  in  the  main  came  from  promo- 
tion on  account  of  the  enlisted  personnel.  It 
was  proposed  to  start  an  officers'  training  school 
at  Niagara.  It  was  reported  early  in  uie  vear 
that  30,000  of  the  Canadians  were  in  Belgium, 
another  30,000  ready  to  sail,  and  a  third  con- 
tingent was  making  ready.  Later  in  the  year 
the  Canadian  Minister  of  Militia  announced 
that  an  effort  would  be  made  to  raise  27  addi- 
tional regiments  of  infantry,  and  six  batteries 
of  artillery,  or  about  35,000  men,  which  would 
bring   the    Canadian    forces    to    about    150,000. 


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Little  difficulty  was  experienced  in  recruiting 
the  volunteer  organizations,  and  many  unem- 
ployed and  college  students  were  anxious  to 
enlist.  The  second  contingent  of  volunteers  was 
delayed  on  account  of  outbreaks  of  contagious 
diseases  in  the  training  camps,  and  criticism 
was  heard  of  mismanagement  and  faulty  sup- 
plies. 

Navy.  The  Naval  Service  Department  was  es- 
tablished in  1910,  and  subsequently  programmes 
of  construction  were  introduced  but  failed  of 
enactment.  The  only  ships  of  fighting  value  are 
the  cruisers  Niobe  (11,000  tons)  and  Rainhou) 
(3000),  and  two  submarines.  The  submarines 
had  been  completed  in  1914  for  Chile,  and  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  they  were  pur- 
chased by  Canada  and,  together  with  the 
cruisers,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Imperial 
government.  There  are  a  number  of  small  ves- 
sels for  fishing  protection  duty,  revenue  and  sur- 
veying services,  etc. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is  ex- 
ercised in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  by  an  appointed  Governor-General 
acting  through  a  privy  council,  or  responsible 
mini^ry.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Parliament  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Commons.  Senators,  nominated  for 
life  by  the  Governor-General,  are  87  in  number; 
in  the  next  Parliament  they  will  number  93. 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commons — now  226 
in  number — are  elected  by  popular  vote  and  hold 
office  for  five  years  unless  the  Parliament  is 
sooner  dissolved;  in  the  next  Parliament  they 
will  number  234,  apportioned  as  follows:  Que- 
bec, 65;  Ontario,  82;  Prince  Edward  Island,  3; 
Nova  Scotia,  16;  New  Brunswick,  11;  Manitoba, 
16;  Saskatchewan,  16;  Alberta,  12;  British  Co- 
lumbia, 13;  Yukon  Territory,  1.  TTie  Governor- 
General  in  1916  was  Prince  Arthur,  Duke  of  Con- 
naught  (brother  of  Edward  VII),  who  assumed 
office  Oct.  31,  1911.  The  Conservative  ministry 
of  Sir  Robert  Laird  Borden,  which  succeeded  the 
Liberal  ministry  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  Oct.  10, 
1911,  was  composed  as  follows  in  1916:  Pre- 
mier and  president  of  the  council,  Sir  Robert 
Laird  Borden;  minister  of  trade  and  commerce. 
Sir  George  Eulas  Foster;  public  works,  Robert 
Rogers;  railways  and  canals,  Francis  Cochrane; 
finance,  William  Thomas  White;  marine  and 
fisheries,  John  Douglas  Hazen  (also  minister  of 
the  naval  service) ;  justice,  Charles  Joseph 
Doherty;  militia  and  defense.  Sir  Samuel 
Hughes;  interior,  William  James  Roche;  labor, 
Thomas  Wilson  Crothers;  customs.  Dr.  John 
Dowsley  Reid;  agriculture,  Martin  Burrell; 
mines,  Pierre  Edouard  Blondin;  inland  revenue, 
Esioff  JAon  Patenaude;  ministers  without  port- 
folios, Sir  George  Halsey  Perley,  Albert  Edward 
Kemp,  and  James  Alexander  Lougheed;  post- 
master-general, Thomas  Chase  Casgrain;  so- 
licitor-general (not  in  the  Cabinet),  Arthur 
Meighen. 

Each  of  the  provinces  has  an  elected  Legis- 
lature, and  an  executive  (Lieutenant-Governor) 
appointed  by  ttie  Governor-General  and  acting 
through  a  responsible  ministry. 

History 

Relations  with  the  United  States.  Rela- 
tions between  the  United  States  and  Canada  re- 
mained friendly  throughout  the  year,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  on  several  occasions  com- 


plications of  a  serious  nature  arose.  The  most 
serious  of  these  questions  was  the  ''Niagara 
Fisheries"  case.  On  Dec.  28,  1914,  two  American 
citizens,  Walter  Smith  and  Charles  Dorsch,  both 
of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  rowed  across  the  Niagara  River 
at  Buffalo  and  began  to  fish  in  Canadian  waters 
at  Fort  Erie.  Provincial  Constable  T.  W.  De- 
laney  demanded  that  the  young  men  come  ashore 
and  surrender  and  when  they  began  to  row  in 
the  opposite  direction  he  called  upon  Corp. 
Archie  Kay  and  Privates  Kinsman  and  Mcintosh 
for  assistance.  An  order  was  given  to  fire  in  the 
air  in  the  direction  of  the  boat,  but  two  shots 
went  true,  killing  Smith  and  seriously  wounding 
Dorsch.  The  coroner's  jury  rendered  a  verdict 
of  accidental  shooting,  but  the  families  of  the 
two  men  appealed  to  the  American  government 
for  redress.  On  January  7th  Canada  voluntarily 
accepted  blame  for  the  shooting.  This  action 
was  taken  on  the  initiative  of  tiie  Ottawa  gov- 
ernment before  the  American  government  had 
time  to  enter  a  protest.  On  January  22nd,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  Ontario  provincial  gov- 
ernment made  preparations  to  prosecute  the  sol- 
diers, the  Dominion  government  announced  that 
it  would  defend  them  on  the  advice  of  the  war 
department.  Under  an  agreement  reached  at 
Washington  on  February  Ist  Canada  paid  $10,- 
000  to  the  family  of  Smith  and  $6000  to  the 
family  of  Dorsch  and  expressed  regrets  for  the 
incident.  At  the  same  time  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment held  that  such  action  on  her  part  was 
entirely  voluntary  and  that  it  in  no  way  ad- 
mitted responsibility  for  the  incident.  On 
March  2nd  the  grand  jury  at  Welland,  Ont., 
returned  no  bill  against  the  constable  and  sol- 
diers who  were  being  tried  in  connection  with 
the  Fort  Erie  case.  This  ended  the  matter  which 
for  a  time  caused  great  excitement  along  the 
Canadian  and  American  frontiers. 

Van  Horn  Cabs.  Another  complication  of  in- 
ternational importance  was  the  Van  Horn  case. 
On  February  2nd  Werner  Van  Horn,  a  German 
reservist  ofiScer,  endeavored  to  blow  up  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway  Bridge  crossing  the  St. 
Croix  River  at  Vanceboro,  Me.  Early  in  the 
morning  Van  Horn  crossed  to  the  Canadian  side 
of  the  bridge  and  planted  a  charge  of  dynamite. 
The  explosion  of  the  charge  did  little  dam- 
age to  the  bridge,  but  wrecked  windows  in  all 
the  buildings  in  Vanceboro.  Van  Horn  was  ar- 
rested, and  Canadian  authorities  put  in  an  ap- 
plication for  his  extradition  to  Canada.  The 
prisoner  resisted  the  demand  for  extradition  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  a  German  army  officer, 
had  committed  an  act  of  warfare  against  Can- 
ada, and  was,  therefore,  a  political  prisoner  and 
not  subject  to  extradition.  The  American  au- 
thorities were  inclined  to  believe  that  Van  Horn 
could  be  extradited  by  means  of  a  clause  in  its 
treaties  with  Canada  which  provides  for  ex- 
tradition of  persons  who  attempt  to  destroy 
railroad  bridges,  or  that  if  this  course  failed  he 
could  be  tried  on  the  charge  of  violating  Amer- 
ican neutrality.  Awaiting  a  decision  on  these 
matters,  Van  Horn  was  sentenced  to  30  days  in 
jail  for  breaking  windows  in  Vanceboro  by  means 
of  his  dynamite  charge  under  the  bridge.  On 
February  4th  the  German  Embassy  took  notice 
of  the  proceedings,  the  counselor  of  the  Em- 
bassy calling  at  8ie  State  Department  in  Wash- 
ington for  details  of  the  charges  against  Van 
Horn.  Late  in  the  month  the  Federal  Grand 
Jury  in  Boston  took  up  the  case  to  see  if  it 


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would  be  poflsible  to  charge  Van  Horn  with  hav- 
ing carried  ezplosiveB  illegally  from  one  State 
into  another.  On  March  2nd  he  was  indicted  by 
the  Grand  Jury  on  three  charges  of  this  nature. 
In  the  meantime  Captain  Boy-Ed,  German  naval 
attache,  was  accused  of  instigating  Van  Horn 
in  his  attempt  to  destroy  the  railway  bridge. 
Captain  Boy-Ed  claimed  the  rumor  to  be  with- 
out foundation.  The  prisoner  was  transferred 
to  Federal  jurisdiction  on  March  7th  and  taken 
to  Boston  to  stand  trial  on  the  charges  named  in 
the  indictment.  Van  Horn  contested  his  re- 
moval, but  a  Federal  commission  decided  against 
him.  Counsel  for  the  prisoner  also  tried  to  ob- 
tain a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  but  this  was  de- 
nied by  two  Federal  judges.  Several  postpone- 
ments of  the  case  finally  brought  it  to  the  Sep- 
tember session  of  the  Federal  courts.  On  Aug- 
ust 17  th  an  Eastern  newspaper  printed  the  story 
of  an  alleffed  confession  of  Van  Horn.  This 
confession  implicated  leEtdin^^  German  officials. 
Van  Horn  denied  its  authenticity,  but  the  news- 
paper insisted  that  the  original  of  the  confes- 
sion was  in  the  hands  of  the  Department  of 
Justice  in  Washington.  On  September  28th  Van 
Horn  took  appeal  from  the  Federal  decision 
charging  illegal  transportation  of  explosives 
from  State  to  State.  Van  Horn  questioned  the 
reffularity  of  the  extradition  proceeding  and  the 
refusal  of  the  court  to  permit  him  to  mvoke  the 
law  of  nations,  or  present  his  commission  as  an 
officer  in  the  German  army,  while  he  also  claimed 
a  general  error  on  the  part  of  all  the  judf^es  and 
magistrates  who  had  been  connected  with  the 


The  Canadian  government  decided  to  await 
the  result  of  the  United  States'  action  against 
Van  Horn  before  pushing  the  Canadian  claims 
for  his  extradition. 

Trade  Rexations  with  thk  United  States. 
A  rumor  circulated  late  in  January  charged  Can- 
ada with  boycotting  American  goods.  This  ru- 
mor was  indignantly  denied  by  the  Canadian 
government,  although  it  was  generally  admitted 
that  Canadians  were  offended  because  the  United 
States  had  taken  no  action  in  the  case  of  Bel- 
gium or  the  Lusitania.  On  September  23rd  Can- 
ada issued  an  unusual  order  when  she  threw 
open  Canadian  ports  on  the  Great  Lakes  to 
ships  of  American  or  other  registry.  Previously 
Canada  had  compelled  all  ships  in  the  carrying 
trade  to  bear  Canadian  registry.  The  necessity 
of  removing  the  grain,  however,  from  the  Su- 
perior region  to  the  Atlantic  coastline  and  the 
shortage  of  Canadian  ships,  due  to  the  number 
which  were  being  used  in  transporting  munitions 
to  Europe,  made  it  necessary  for  the  Dominion 
government  to  let  down  the  barriers  which  pre- 
viously had  kept  American  ships  out  of  this 
lucrative  trade. 

Economic  Conditions  in  Canada.  The  Euro- 
pean war  had  a  far-reaching  effect  on  the  in- 
ternal conditions  of  the  Dominion.  Its  greatest 
effect  was  on  the  finances  of  the  country.  Early 
in  January  the  city  of  Montreal  found  it  neces- 
sary to  issue  bonds  for  nearly  $7,000,000,  part 
of  which  were  bought  by  New  York  financial 
houses.  In  the  middle  of  January  the  Province 
of  Alberta  listed  $6,000,000  of  4%  per  cent  ten- 
year  debentures  on  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change. This  was  the  first  time  in  the  history 
of  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  that  Dominion  bonds  had  been  listed  on 
the  exchange.    Early  in  February  a  New  York 


financial  firm  purchased  $5,475,000  in  5  per  cent 
bonds  of  Manitoba.  On  March  29th  announce- 
ment was  made  in  London  of  a  Canadian  loan  of 
£5,000,000,  secured  by  five-  and  ten-year  bonds. 
On  July  22nd  the  Dominion  government  sold 
$45,000,000  of  5  per  cent  notes  to  a  New  York 
syndicate.  Of  this  amount  $25,000,000  was  to 
run  for  one  year,  and  the  rest  for  two  years. 
It  was  the  first  time  that  the  Canadian  Dominion 
government  ever  had  made  a  loan  in  the  United 
States.  That  the  people  of  the  United  States 
had  faith  in  their  Canadian  neighbors  was  shown 
by  the  fact  that  within  three  days  the  loan  was 
three  times  oversubscribed.  In  the  middle  of 
September  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York 
loaned  $2,500,000  in  a  private  transaction  to  the 
city  of  Toronto.  In  November  the  Dominion 
government  floated  a  war  loan  of  $50,000,000, 
which  was  oversubscribed  by  $60,000,000.  The 
Canadian  buiks  were  in  a  much  stronger  posi- 
tion by  September  than  they  had  been  the  year 
previous,  and  were  able  to  offer  better  credit 
accommodation  to  grain  and  other  brokers.  By 
the  Canadian  Finance  Act  of  1914  (see  Year 
Book,  1914)  the  banks  were  able  to  create  addi- 
tional liquid  capital  by  issuing  Dominion  notes 
against  grain  bills,  warehouse  receipts,  and 
other  paper  securities.  A  proposal  in  January 
to  increase  Canadian  freight  rates  in  comparison 
with  an  increase  (m  American  roads  met  with 
objections  on  the  part  of  the  government.  In 
the  last  of  March  the  Dominion  government  took 
over  the  operation  of  a  railroad  line  running 
from  Moncton,  N.  B.,  to  Winnipeg,  Man.,  a  dis- 
tance of  1800  miles.  This  road  was  built  by  the 
government  for  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  which 
later  declined  to  take  over  the  lease.  The  de- 
cision on  the  part  of  the  government  to  operate 
the  road  itself  delayed  a  crisis  which  for  a  time 
appeared  inevitable  in  Canadian  railroad  affairs. 
It  appeared  probable,  however,  that  eventually 
the  government  would  be  compelled  to  take  over 
several  of  the  unprofitable  roads  which  were  con- 
structed through  barren  parts  of  the  country  at 
a  time  when  ^e  financiers  had  a  craze  for  rail- 
road construction. 

The  Canadian  government  on  November  27th 
commandeered  all  of  the  wheat  in  the  district 
between  Fort  William  on  Lake  Superior  and  the 
Canadian  coast,  a  total  amount  of  approxi- 
mately 25,000,000  bushels.  This  was  comman- 
deered for  government  purposes,  and  to  prevent 
it  from  getting  into  the  hands  of  the  enemies  of 
Canada.  Three  days  later,  in  response  to  the 
complaints  of  many  dealers  who  had  large  con- 
tracts which  could  not  be  filled  if  all  the  wheat 
in  the  east  was  held  up,  part  of  the  wheat  was 
released  for  60  days  on  condition  that  the  deal- 
ers return  it  when  requisitioned. 

Parliament.  Unusual  methods  were  taken  in 
February  to  protect  the  Duke  of  Connaught, 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  at  the  opening  of 
Parliament.  At  the  first  meeting  on  February 
8th  the  Opposition  announced  that  it  would  not 
object  to  the  passage  of  war  funds  but  that  it 
would  insist  upon  a  strict  accoimtance  for  the 
expenditures  already  made.  On  February  Uth 
the  government  annoimced  a  drastic  war  tax- 
ation measure,  affecting  bank  circulation,  busi- 
ness of  loan  and  fire  insurance  companies,  busi- 
ness and  banking  transactions,  railway  and 
steamship  tickets,  telegraph  and  cable  messages, 
and  patent  medicines.  An  increase  in  tariff  du- 
ties was  laid  on  all  imports,  although  British 


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products  were  given  a  preferential  rate.  This 
Increase  in  rates  was  expected  to  produce  an 
extra  $30,000,000  of  revenue  which  would  par- 
tially offset  the  deficit  of  $100,000,000  brought 
about  by  the  war.  The  War  Revenue  Act  was 
signed  on  April  8th  and  went  into  effect  on  April 
16th.  Parliament  was  prorogued  on  the  same 
day.  The  Duke  of  Connaught,  in  closing  the 
session,  said: 

"There  is  no  abatement  in  the  intense  determi- 
nation of  the  Canadian  people  to  imite  their 
efforts  with  those  of  all  other  British  domains 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  empire's  integrity 
and  for  the  preservation  of  its  institutions  and 
liberties.  The  response  to  the  call  for  men  has 
fully  equaled  all  our  anticipations.  I  have  been 
proud  to  learn  that  the  Canadian  soldiers  have 
shown  conspicuous  bravery  and  efficiency  on  the 
field  of  battle." 

Canada's  Shabe  in  the  War.  The  first  con- 
tingent of  troops  which  Canada  had  sent  to  Eng- 
land was  called  to  the  firing  line  in  France,  Jan- 
uary 30th,  while  the  second  contingent  was  al- 
ready prepared  in  Canada,  awaiting  orders  to 
embark  for  Great  Britain.  The  first  contingent 
received  its  baptism  of  fire  the  day  after  it 
reached  the  front,  January  31st,  when  Princess 
Patricia's  Light  Infantry  regiment  helped  the 
British  defend  the  trenches  near  La  Bass^e.  In 
March  the  second  contingent  sailed  from  Canada, 
to  undergo  a  brief  period  of  training  in  Eng- 
land and  then  to  be  sent  to  France.  The  Ca- 
nadian troops  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
gallantry  in  the  battle  of  Ypres  (see  War  of 
THE  Nations,  Battle  of  Ypres) ;  for  conspicuous 
acts  of  bravery  at  Ypres  the  Victoria  Cross  was 
presented  to  three  Canadians — Captain  Francis 
Sorringer  of  the  Army  Medical  Service,  Color 
Sergeant  Fred  Hall  of  the  8th  Canadian  bat- 
talion, and  Corporal  Fred  Fisher  of  the  13th 
Canadian  battalion.  In  May,  the  White  Star 
liner  Megantio  carried  a  third  division  of  sol- 
diers to  Europe.  The  Strathcona  Horse  and  the 
Royal  Canadian  Dragoons  were  dismounted 
early  in  May  and  sent  to  France  in  conjunction 
with  an  English  cavalry  company  as  unmounted 
cavalry.  More  than  6000  Canadian  troops  had 
been  killed,  wounded,  or  captured  at  the  battle 
of  Ypres  in  May;  by  June  this  number  had  been 
increased  to  8000;  and  by  August  the  total 
casualties  were  well  over  10,000.  By  October, 
Canada  had  in  actual  service  over  100,000  troops, 
with  75,000  more  in  Canadian  training  camps 
waiting  to  be  called  to  the  front.  The  maximum 
of  150,000,  which  had  been  placed  upon  the  num- 
ber of  Canada's  overseas  forces,  was  raised  to 
200,000  by  the  authority  of  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment, October  29th.  The  entire  country  re- 
sponded to  the  appeals  for  more  men  to  aid  the 
cause  of  the  Allies.  In  a  majority  of  Canadian 
cities  buildings  and  vehicles  were  placarded 
with  patriotic  posters  demanding  that  Canada 
do  her  share  of  the  fighting.  McGill  and  other 
universities  undertook  to  train  student  recruits 
and  send  them  to  the  front.  Volunteers  who 
could  not  yet  enlist  for  active  service  were  given 
a  preliminary  military  training  in  the  summer 
camps  which  were  established  at  Aldershot 
(N.  B.),  Sussex  (N.  B.),  Valcartier  (Que.), 
Barriefield,  Niagara,  and  London  (Ont.),  Sewell 
(Man.),  and  Vernon  (B.  C).  Furthermore,  a 
Canadian  firm  at  Montreal,  in  January,  began 
to  construct  submersibles  for  the  Allies,  and  in 
July  was  able  to  send  ten  of  these  craft  across 


the  Atlantic  under  the  escort  of  two  auxiliary 
cruisers. 

German  Plots  in  Canada.  Nimierous  con- 
spiracies on  the  part  of  Germans  and  Austrians 
in  Canada  were  discovered  and  frustrated.  Carl 
Mackensen,  nephew  of  the  famous  German  gen- 
eral of  the  same  name,  was  arrested  in  Van- 
couver, B.  C,  January  14tii,  by  order  of  the 
Canadian  military  authorities,  who  suspected 
him  of  treasonable  activities.  Mackensen  and  a 
German  lawyer  of  Vancouver  were  lodged  in  jail 
pending  the  decision  of  their  case.  Later,  in 
January,  nine  Grerman  prisoners  of  war  escaped 
from  the  Halifax  Citadel;  four  were  recaptured, 
but  the  others  eluded  pursuit.  As  a  precaution 
against  German  attempts  to  blow  up  Canadian 
shipping,  the  Dominion  government  Issued  or- 
ders to  ships  not  to  enter  the  port  of  Halifax  or 
Quebec  in  case  the  warning  signal  of  three  red 
balls  or  lights  in  a  vertical  line  was  displayed. 
At  the  same  time  the  government  ordered  all 
lights  out  in  the  Parliament  buildings,  Rideau 
Hall,  the  home  of  the  Governor-General,  and  the 
Royal  Mint,  for  fear  of  a  night  attack  by  aero- 
planes, several  of  which  had  been  seen  to  leave 
the  American  shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  Do- 
minion government  also  ordered  a  double  watch 
at  the  Canadian  end  of  the  international  bridge 
at  Niagara  Falls.  In  April  an  unofficial  warn- 
ing reached  Canadians  tiiat  the  Atlantic  coast 
was  to  be  attacked  by  a  German  fleet.  To  meet 
this  rumored  attack  it  was  reported  that  44 
British  and  French  ships  were  dispatched  to 
patrol  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Canada  as  well  as 
the  Island  of  Newfoundland.  It  also  was  feared 
that  the  Grermans  might  attempt  to  establish  a 
submarine  base  on  the  Canadian  coast  to  prey  on 
British  commerce  in  the  Atlantic.  Mobs  in  Vic- 
toria, in  May,  wrecked  several  German-owned 
buildings  in  avenging  the  destruction  of  the 
LuHtania  and  compelled  the  government  to  place 
the  city  under  martial  law  before  order  could  be 
restor^.  An  attempt  of  10  Austrians  to  blow 
up  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Bridge  at 
Smiths  Falls,  Ont,  on  May  25th,  was  frustrated 
by  soldiers,  and  the  Austrians  were  taken  into 
military  custody.  On  the  same  day  Vancouver 
interned  115  Austrians  and  Germans  who  had 
been  employed  for  a  year  as  strike-breakers  in 
the  Cumberland,  Southfield,  and  Nanaimo  mines. 
(See  also  the  paragraph  in  this  article  on  the 
Van  Horn  Case,  supra.) 

Regarding  the  exposure  of  corrupt  political 
practices  in  Manitoba  Province,  see  separate  ar- 
ticle on  Manitoba. 

CANALS.  At  the  end  of  1915  it  was  authori- 
tatively stated  that  one  more  season  would  fin- 
ish the  Champlain  Canal  of  the  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal  system,  and  also  a  channel  from 
the  Hudson  River  to  Lake  Ontario,  via  the  Erie 
and  Oswego  branches.  On  each  of  these  units 
there  was  a  single  unfinished  and  imawarded 
contract.  The  ratification  at  the  November, 
1915,  election  of  the  $27,000,000  bond  issue  for 
the  completion  of  the  whole  improvement  mstde 
it  possible  to  push  the  work  on  these  remaining 
two  contracts,  together  with  that  on  the  few 
others  not  quite  completed,  provided  the  Legis- 
lature took  steps  for  the  immediate  issuing  of 
the  bonds.  At  the  end  of  1915  the  Erie  Canal 
west  of  the  Oswego  junction  contained  several 
uncompleted  parts.  Legal  complications  were 
largely  responsible  for  the  unfinished  condition. 
On  this  section  there  were  numerous  railroad 


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croBsinga,  causing  delays  both  in  coming  to 
agreements  with  the  railroads  and  in  perK>rm- 
ing  the  work  so  as  not  to  interrupt  traflSc.  Tak- 
ing into  consideration  the  amount  of  work  re- 
maining and  especially  the  number  of  crossings, 
Mr.  Williams,  the  State  engineer,  expressed  the 
opinion  that  two  seasons  would  be  required  to 
complete  the  western  half  of  the  Barge  Canal. 

With  the  approach  of  completion  of  the  canal 
proper  much  attention  was  being  paid  to  the 
matter  of  terminals.  A  large  number  of  con- 
tracts had  been  awarded  for  the  various  termi- 
nals, and  on  many  of  these  work  was  in  prog- 
ress. About  the  city  of  New  York  the  terminals 
selected  were  on  the  east  side  of  the  East  River 
just  north  of  the  Queensboro  Bridge,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Harlem  River  just  north  of  the 
Fourth  Avenue  Railroad  Bridge,  and  at  the  foot 
of  Camelia  Street,  Hallett's  Cove  in  the  East 
River,  and  on  the  south  side  of  Flushing  Bay  in 
the  Borough  of  Queens.  A  terminal  was  also 
in  progress  of  construction  at  Gowanus  Bay  in 
Brooklyn,  and  plans  were  developed  for  one  at 
Newtown  Creek  or  Greenpoint.  The  canal  au- 
thorities were  also  proceeding  with  the  acquire- 
ments on  Manhattan  Island  of  piers  in  the  East 
River,  and  a  canal  basin  at  62nd  Street  and  the 
North  River.  Throughout  the  State  progress 
was  being  made  on  the  various  local  terminals. 

Cape  (>>d  Canal.  Since  the  opening  of  traffic 
on  the  Cape  Cod  Canal,  Aug.  1,  1014,  to  Dec.  31, 
1915,  there  passed  through  the  canal  9000  ves- 
sels. Up  to  Oct.  1,  1916,  the  canal  was  unavail- 
able for  vessels  drawing  more  than  18  feet,  but 
since  that  date  the  large  heavy  tows,  most  of 
which  are  used  in  the  transportation  of  coal, 
steamers  drawing  20  feet,  and  some  90  per  cent 
of  the  schooners  engaged  in  the  coast  coal  and 
lumber  trade  were  using  the  canal.  A  large 
number  of  government  vessels,  mainly  sunboats, 
destroyers,  and  submarines,  also  passed  through 
the  canal  during  the  year. 

Canals  at  Sault  Ste.  Mabie.  The  season  of 
1915,  for  the  United  States  canal,  opened  April 
17th  and  closed  December  20th,  and  that  for  the 
Canadian  canal,  opened  on  April  13th  and  closed 
December  16th.  In  this  time  21,233  vessels  of  a 
registered  net  tonnage  of  56,399,147  passed 
through  both  canals,  16,910  using  the  American 
canal,  and  4323  using  the  Canadian,  the  regis- 
tered tonnage  being  47,918,847  for  the  American, 
and  8,480,300  for  the  Canadian.  This  was  an 
increase  of  2516  vessels,  or  13  per  cent  over  the 
total  traffic  for  1914,  when  18,717  vessels  passed 
through  the  canals,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  41,- 
986,339.  The  total  freight  in  1915  was  71,290,- 
304  short  tons,  as  compared  with  55,369,934  in 
1914.  The  most  important  item  of  cargo  east- 
bound  in  1915,  as  usual,  was  iron  ore,  of  which 
45,212,104  short  tons  passed  through  the  canals, 
and  255,481,558  bushels  of  wheat. 

During  the  year  progress  was  made  on  the 
new  work  at  the  United  States  canal,  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  Mich.,  and  at  Lock  No.  4  the  excavation 
was  completed,  and  work  commenced  by  the  con- 
tractors for  the  masonry.  The  new  lock  is 
parallel  with  and  a  duplicate  of  Lock  No.  3.  It 
is  1350x80  feet,  with  from  24%  to  25  feet  of 
water  on  the  sills.  The  filling  culverts  extend 
under  the  floor  of  the  lock  for  its  full  length, 
and  the  emptying  culverts  extend  from  its  lower 
end  to  discharge  beyond  the  lower  gates.  These 
culverts  were  to  have  butterfly  valves  operated 
by   hydraulic   cylinders.    The   steel   lock    gates 


of  this  canal  are  to  be  operated  by  electric  wind- 
ing engines. 

Lake  Washington  Canal.  During  the  year, 
Lake  Washington  Canal,  at  Seattle,  Wash.,  was 
virtually  completed.  This  canal  extends  from 
Puget  Sound  to  Lake  Washington,  a  lock  being 
located  about  a  mile  inland  from  the  main 
waters  of  the  Sound.  Salmon  Bay,  immediately 
above  the  lock,  has  a  basin  about  a  mile  in 
length,  and  Lake  Union  begins  about  2%  miles 
above  the  lock,  the  two  being  connected  by  a 
canal  nearly  1%  miles  long.  The  tidal  range 
at  this  point  is  approximately  17  feet,  and  at 
Salmon  Bay  a  basin  or  lock  is  formed  about  16  V^ 
feet  above  mean  tide,  or  only  8  feet  above  high 
tide,  with  its  bottom  from  24  feet  to  32  feet  1^ 
low  high  tide.  At  this  point  there  is  a  lock 
80  X  825  feet,  with  one  lift,  so  that  Salmon  Bay 
affords  a  non-tidal  basin  of  approximately  the 
same  area  as  the  Royal  Victoria  and  Albert 
docks  of  London,  on  the  shores  of  which  various 
industrial  establishments  are  to  be  located. 

The  Dalles-Celilo  Canal,  which  opens  the 
Columbia  River  to  light  draft  vessels  as  far  up 
stream  as  Priest  Rapids  on  the  main  river  above 
Pasco,  and  to  Lewiston,  on  the  Snake  River 
(Idaho),  was  completed  in  the  spring  of  1915, 
and  a  formal  opening  was  held  May  3rd  to  8th, 
a  fleet  of  river  boats  passing  down  from  Lewiston 
to  Astoria,  touching  at  intermediate  points,  and 
participating  in  the  numerous  celebrations  which 
marked  the  dedication  and  formal  opening.  The 
canal  is  about  8^  miles  in  length,  and  overcomes 
a  fall  varying  from  about  82  feet  at  low  water, 
to  45  feet  at  high  water.  The  cost  of  the  work 
was  about  $5,000,000. 

New  Illinois  Canal.  The  Illinois  Legisla- 
ture during  1915  passed  the  Illinois  Waterway 
Bill  providing  for  the  expenditure  of  $5,000,000 
for  tne  65-mile,  8-foot  waterway  from  Joliet  to 
Utica.  This  canal  will  start  at  the  end  of  the 
Sanitary  District  Canal  and  will  follow  the  route 
of  the  old  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  for  a  dis- 
tance of  15  miles  to  Dresden  Heights.  At  Dres- 
den Heights  an  alternative  plan  is  provided  of 
following  the  Des  Plaines  River  instead  of  the 
canal,  in  case  litigstion  involving  a  privately 
owned  dam  site  is  decided  in  favor  of  <^e  State. 
From  Dresden  Heights  to  Utica  the  Illinois 
River  will  be  followed,  except  for  a  distance  of 
3  miles  at  Marseilles,  where  a  new  channel  will 
be  dug  in  order  to  get  around  the  privately 
owned  dam  at  that  point.  From  Utica  south  to 
the  Mississippi  the  Illinois  River  now  is  navi- 
gable. The  proposed  canal  will  in  general  fol- 
low the  Illinois  River  and  will  have  seven  locks. 
Surveys  were  in  progress  during  the  year  and  it 
was  estimated  that  two  years  would  be  required 
to  complete  the  work. 

Ohio  Riveb  Impbovements.  The  Federal 
project  for  providing  9-foot  slack  water  naviga- 
tion for  the  Ohio  River  involves  the  construction 
of  53  locks  and  dams  at  a  total  cost  of  $47,000,- 
000.  Up  to  1915,  31  of  these  locks  and  dams  had 
been  completed  or  were  under  construction,  and 
the  construction  of  the  remainder  will  be  begun 
within  two  years.  The  extensive  improvements 
to  the  Louisville  and  Portland  Canal  were  near- 
ing  completion,  so  that  the  canal  by  the  "Falls 
of  the  Ohio"  would  be  in  operation  some  time 
during  the  following  year.  The  improvement 
consisted  principally  in  widening  the  canal  from 
86%  feet  to  200  feet,  in  building  a  new  lock  600 
feet  in  length  and  110  feet  in  width,  alongside 


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of  the  old  locks,  and  in  the  renewal  of  the  two 
existing  swing  bridges,  one  being  replaced  by  a 
swing  bridge  276  feet  in  length,  and  the  other  at 
18th  Street  over  the  canal  proper  at  Louisville 
by  a  Strauss  direct  lift  bri^^  spanning  the  en- 
tire width  of  the  canal.  Ae  new  IcMk  is  of 
Standard  Ohio  River  plan  dimensions,  110x600 
feet,  and  permits  passage  between  the  two  pools 
which  the  river  here  forms.  The  difference  in 
level  varies  from  27  feet,  depending  upon  the 
height  of  water.  The  new  lock  has  a  lift  at  low 
water,  above  and  below,  of  27  feet;  with  the 
present  dam  up,  a  lift  of  27  feet;  and  with  the 
proposed  new  dam  up,  of  40  feet.  It  represents 
the  most  massive  concrete  construction,  and  pos- 
sesses the  practical  advantage  of  permitting  the 
coal  barges  to  pass  through  in  groups  of  three  in 
line  and  four  abreast. 

New  Jebset  Ship  Canal.  The  ship-canal 
route  across  New  Jersey,  surveyed  by  the  Fed- 
eral government  a  few  years  previously,  was  to 
be  permanently  marked  by  the  New  Jersey  Board 
of  Commerpe  and  Navigation.  A  survey  party 
was  engaged  in  placing  monuments  along  the 
centre  line.  The  canal  is  to  extend  from  Bor- 
dentown,  on  the  Delaware  River,  to  Morgan,  on 
Raritan  Bay — about  33  miles,  the  route  from 
Bordentown  to  Jamesburg  having  been  previously 
surveyed.  The  State  is  to  purchase  the  right  of 
way  for  the  canal,  according  to  a  resolution  of 
the  New  Jersey  Legislature  in  1911.  The  type 
of  canal  recommended  by  a  special  board  of 
United  States  army  engineers,  in  its  investiga- 
tion of  inland  waterways,  was  a  sea-level  canal 
of  25  feet  depth  and  126  feet  bottom  width. 
The  estimate  of  cost  was  $46,000,000. 

Pittsbubgh-Lake  Ebie  Canal.  During  1015 
Governor  Brumbaugh  of  Pennsylvania  appointed 
a  new  Lake  Erie  and  Ohio  River  Canal  Board  to 
replace  the  old  board  which  went  out  of  exist- 
ence in  May  after  preparing  a  report  on  the 
prospects  and  design  of  a  canal  to  connect  the 
Pittsburgh  district  with  Lake  Erie.  The  new 
board  was  to  complete  the  estimates  of  cost  made 
by  its  predecessors.  It  was  proposed  that  at  the 
spring  elections  the  issue  of  bonds  to  provide 
for  the  construction  should  be  passed  on  by  the 
people  of  the  State,  so  that  if  the  expenditure 
was  authorized  the  canal  board  could  start  the 
actual  construction  of  the  canal  in  1916-17. 
The  waterway,  it  was  asserted,  could  be  built  in 
five  or  six  years,  making  allowances  for  legal 
holidays,  though  the  actual  work  would  consume 
only  four  years.  The  canal  could  be  in  operation 
in  1921  or  1922,  and  by  that  time  the  Ohio 
River  would  be  deepened  to  Cairo,  and,  with  the 
Erie  Canal  open  in  New.  York,  Pittsburgh  and 
Western  Pennsylvania  could  reach  27  States  and 
Canada  by  water  transportation. 

Welland  Canal.  With  the  completion  of  the 
Panama  Canal  the  most  important  waterway 
for  ships  under  construction  was  the  enlarged 
Welland  Ship  Canal  in  Canada  upon  which  the 
Dominion  government  was  expecting  to  spend 
some  $60,000,000.  The  canal  so  far  as  its  length 
is  concerned  will  not  be  notable,  but  its  lock 
system  will  be  unique  in  that  it  will  have  a 
higher  lift  than  any  ship  canal  so  far  con- 
structed. The  locks  are  to  have  a  clear  inside 
dimension  of  80  X  800  feet,  with  30  feet  of  water 
on  the  sills,  while  eac^  of  them  will  have  the 
great  lift  of  46%  feet.  At  Thorold  a  flight 
will  be  constructed  rivaling  that  at  Gatun,  for, 
Uiough  the  lodes  themselves  will  not  accommo- 


date as  big  a  vessel,  the  lift  will  be  greater. 
There  will  be  three  locks  in  the  flight,  each  with 
a  lift  46%  feet,  or  a  total  lift  of  139%  feet. 
This  flight  of  locks  will  be  double,  one  side  for 
upbound  and  the  other  for  downbound  vessels. 
One  of  the  unusual  features  of  the  construction 
will  be  the  use  of  swinging  single-leaf  gates. 
The  new  harbor  at  the  Lake  Ontario  entrance 
was  well  imder  way  at  the  end  of  the  year  with 
the  entrance  piers  and  embankments,  while  much 
had  been  done  toward  widening  and  deepening 
the  existing  canal. 

EuBOPEAN  Canals.  A  canal  between  the  Vis- 
tula and  the  Oder,  large  enough  for  460  ton 
barges  of  4  feet  8  inches  draft,  was  opened  for 
traffic  in  April,  1916.  It  is  182  miles  in  length 
and  extends  up  the  Warthe  and  the  Netze  rivers. 
The  summit  level  for  16.8  miles  is  in  an  old 
and  smaller  canal  whence  the  new  waterway 
descends  the  Brahe  to  the  Vistula.  The  total 
lift  on  the  east  side  is  167%  feet  and  on  the 
west  side  92  feet. 

It  was  proposed  during  1916  that  an  investi- 
gation be  made  of  a  proposed  waterway  between 
Sweden  and  Norway,  through  the  Strom  water- 
course and  the  Kvamsberg  lakes.  This  would 
make  possible  the  shipment  of  Swedish  exports 
via  a  Norwegian  Atlantic  port,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  would  facilitate  the  transport  of  prod- 
ucts from  West  Norway  to  North  Sweden.  The 
important  ore  deposits  which  have  recently  -been 
found  on  the  Norwegian  frontier,  and  not  far 
from  the  Kvamsberg  lakes  and  also  on  the 
Swedish  side,  cannot  be  exploited  unless  im- 
proved means  of  transport  are  provided;  and 
the  proposed  canal  system  would  present  an 
adequate  solution. 

One  of  the  projects  suggested  by  the  great 
European  war  was  the  estamishment  of  a  water- 
way between  the  North  Sea  and  the  Indian 
Ocean  via  the  Black  Sea.  A  waterway  for  laree 
vessels  between  the  Rhine-Main  on  the  one  side 
and  the  Danube  on  the  other  for  years  had  been 
urged  as  an  industrial  and  commercial  neces- 
sity not  onlv  for  Bavaria  but  for  the  whole  of 
Germany,  which  has  devoted  much  attention  to 
its  internal  waterways.  The  canalization  of  the 
Main  as  far  as  Aschafl'enburg  had  been  under- 
taken, and  the  extension  of  this  canalization  as 
far  as  Hamburg  was  under  contemplation  before 
the  war,  but  no  time  had  been  determined  upon 
for  taking  up  the  work.  The  Bavarian  Canal 
Union,  on  October  26th,  laid  the  matter  before 
the  Chancellor,  asking  that  special  interest  might 
be  devoted  to  the  completion  of  the  Main-Danube 
waterway.  The  proposed  canal  was  important 
both  as  a  commercial  and  a  military  measure,  as 
it  would  provide  an  outlet  for  German  manu- 
factures that  could  not  be  stopped  by  the  Brit- 
ish navy. 

CANABY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  off 
the  northwest  coast  of  Africa,  constituting  a 
province  of  Spain.  Area,  7273  square  kilo- 
meters (2808  square  miles).  The  census  of 
Dec.  31,  1910,  returned  a  population  of  444,016; 
estimate  of  Dec.  31,  1913,  469,768.  The  capital, 
Santa  Cruz  de  Tenerife,  had  63,004  inhabitants 
in  1910;  Las  Palmas,  the  most  important  town, 
had  60,338.  Potatoes,  bananas,  onions,  tomatoes, 
and  nuts  are  exported. 

CANCEB.  Some  remarkable  studies  on  the 
heredity  of  mouse  cancer  were  published  by  Maud 
Slye  in  1914  and  1915.  The  work  of  this  in- 
vestigator seems  to  show  that  cancer  is  trans- 


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CABNEOIE  LABORATOBY 


miBsible  from  generation  to  generation,  strictly 
in  line  with  the  laws  of  heredity,  and  it  can  be 
bred  in  and  out  of  mice  at  will.  The  stock  of 
ten  thousand  mice,  representing  ten  generations, 
now  under  observation,  shows  almost  constant 
development  of  spontaneous  cancer.  The  im- 
mense amount  of  evidence  accumulated  warrants 
the  belief  that  the  tendency  to  develop  cancer 
is  transmissible.  The  lesson  drawn  by  Miss 
Slye  is  that,  since  cancer  is  not  transmitted 
itself,  but  is  likely  to  arise  (probably  as  a  re- 
sult of  local  irritation)  in  individuals  with  a 
marked  heredity  tendency,  such  individuals 
should  be  careful  to  avoid  overirritation  of  tis- 
sue in  which  cancer  i»  likely  to  develop.  The 
eugenic  control  of  marriages  in  which  a  pro- 
nounced cancer  history  is  present  on  both  sides, 
would  do  mudi  to  decrease  the  frequency  of  this 
scourge.  The  drug  treatment  of  cancer— chemo- 
therapy— has  not  realized  the  hopes  which  the 
work  of  Ehrlich,  Wassermann,  and  others  seemed 
at  first  to  justify.  It  is  a  rare  year  which  does 
not  witness  the  exploitation  of  at  least  one 
cancer  cure.  The  treatment  which  attracted 
most  attention  during  1915,  and  which  was  ex- 
ploited in  the  newspapers,  is  known  as  the 
Horowits-Beebe  treatment.  The  specific  is  called 
autolysin  and  originated  with  an  Austrian  bi- 
olo^st  and  chemist  named  Horowitz.  Althoufifh 
the  exact  composition  of  the  serum  was  not  dis- 
closed, it  was  said  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  fol- 
lowing plants:  menyanthes  trifoliata  (com- 
monly known  as  buckbean) ;  melilotus  offioinalia 
(the  common  yellow  sweet  clover) ;  meniha 
crispa  (a  European  variety  of  mint)  ;  hr€utsxca 
alba  (white  mustard);  anemone  (a  common 
spring  flower  sometimes  called  liver  leaf)  ;  viola 
irioolor  (pansy) ;  anthemis  (Roman  camomile) ; 
fruoius  colooynihidis  (colocynth)  ;  lignum  quaa- 
siw  (quassia) ;  urtica  dioica  (nettle) ;  rhu- 
barb root;  and  hedge  hyssop.  The  medicine  was 
used  both  as  a  poultice  and  an  injection.  The 
"cure"  was  short  lived.    See  also  Atjtoltsyw. 

The  Public  Health  Bulletin  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Department  of  Health  says  that  statistics 
give  a  higher  mortality  from  cancer  for  New 
England  than  for  anv  other  group  of  States,  and 
each  separate  State  has  a  higher  mortality  than 
the  general  rate  of  78.9  per  hundred  thousand 
in  the  entire  registration  area  of  the  United 
States.  In  Maine  the  mortality  is  107.6;  New 
Hampshire,  104.4;  Vermont,  111.7;  Massachu- 
setts, 101.4;  Rhode  Island,  93.3;  and  Connecticut, 
86.1  per  100,000.  The  census  of  1913  is  the 
basis  for  these  figures,  and  they  show  that  6817 
persons  died  of  cancer  in  New  England  during 
that  year.  English  statistics  for  the  same  year 
indicate  that  cancer  is  increasing  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  death  rate  among  males  was  947  per 
million,  among  females  1165  per  million.  The 
conspicuous  facts  in  the  registrar-general's  re- 
port are  first,  the  constantly  increasing  mor- 
tality in  the  European  population,  particularly 
amonff  males;  second,  that  the  excessive  female 
mortality  is  greater  among  individuals  from  26 
to  66. 

In  the  United  States  Beitler  has  made  a 
study  of  the  cancer  mortality  in  the  registra- 
tion area  during  the  decade  from  1904  to  1913, 
and  finds  that  the  number  has  increased  from 
23,296  in  1904  to  49,928  in  1913,  an  increase  in 
the  rate  from  70  to  79  per  100,000.  This  in- 
crease applies  not  only  to  the  number  of  deaths, 
but  to  the  death  rate,  which  is  12.5  per  cent  less 


in  the  first  than  in  the  last  decade.  Beitler 
believes  that  cancer  mortality  is  increasing  in 
the  United  States  and  that  the  question  of  more 
refined  diagnosis  and  changes  in  the  composition 
of  the  population  are  negligible  factors. 

CANFIELD,  DoBOTHT.  See  Litebatube, 
English  and  American,  Fiction, 

GAPE  COD  CANAL.    See  Canals. 

CAPE  COLONY.  See  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Pbovince. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  PBOVINCE.  One 
of  the  four  original  provinces  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa.  Population  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1904,  2,409,804,  of  whom  579,741  were 
whites;  census  of  1911,  2,664,965,  of  whom  682,- 
377  were  whites.  In  1911  Capetown,  the  capital, 
had,  with  suburbs,  161,679  (86,442  whites) ; 
Capetown  mimicipality  had  67,169  (29,863 
whites).  Kimberley  and  Beaoonsfidd,  44,433 
(17,607  whites);  Kimberley  municipality,  29,- 
626  (13,698);  Beaconsfield  municipality,  14,294 
(3404);  Kenilworth,  614.  Port  Elizabeth,  30,- 
688;  with  suburbs,  37,063  (20,007  whites).  East 
London,  20,867;  with  suburbs,  24,606  (14,899 
whites).  Grahamstown,  13,830;  Paarl,  11,018; 
Simonstown,  4751;  Vryburg,  2461;  Maf eking, 
2296.  Of  the  total  population,  Europeans  form 
about  one-quarter  and  the  colored  races  three- 
quarters;  one-fifth  of  the  population  is  urban. 
Christians  numbered  1,437,688,  most  of  whom 
were  Protestants;  Roman  Catholics,  35,934; 
Mohammedans,  24,189;  Jews,  16,744.  Returned 
as  of  no  religion  were  1,077,998,  of  whom  1,047,- 
233  were  natives.  Of  the  total  population, 
1,736,491  (859,716  males)  were  unable  to  read 
or  write.  For  area,  population,  production,  and 
trade,  see  South  Africa,  Union  of. 

CAPE  VEBDE  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  Por- 
tuguese West  African  islands,  having  a  total 
area  of  1516  square  miles.  Population  (1912), 
143,929.  Imports  and  exports  (1913),  1,860,- 
240  and  306,684  escudos  respectively.  The  budget 
for  1913-14  balanced  at  474,135  escudos.  Capi- 
tal, Praia. 

CAJtBIDE.    See  Cheicistbt,  Industbxal. 

CAJtDEN,  Sib  Lionel  Edwabd  Gbeslet. 
British  diplomat,  died  Oct.  16,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  1851,  and  educated  at  Eton  College.  In 
1877  he  was  appointed  vice-consul  at  Havana, 
and  from  1886-89  was  British  Commissioner  on 
the  Mexican  Mixed  Claims  Commission,  subse- 
quently filling  consular  and  diplomatic  posts 
in  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  Central  America.  He  was 
British  minister  to  Mexico  from  1905-13.  In 
the  spring  of  1914  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Brazil,  but  instead  of  proceeding  to  that 
coimtry,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Edward  Grey  he 
returned  to  Mexico  where  a  struggle  for  rival 
candidates  for  presidency  had  reduced  the  coun- 
try to  a  state  of  anarchy.  He  was  convinced 
that  the  best  chance  for  a  stable  government  and 
for  the  safe  interests  of  the  Mexican  people,  lay 
in  the  success  of  General  Huerta.  This  convic- 
tion emphatically  expressed  created  friction  be- 
tween him  and  the  United  States  government, 
and  he  was  eventually  recalled  to  l^ndon.  On 
his  arrival,  he  was  informed  that  his  appoint- 
ment to  Brazil  had  been  revoked. 

CABINTHLA..     See  Austbia-Hunoabt. 

CABNEQIE  FOUNDATION  FOB  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  TEACHING.  See  tlNi- 
VEBsrriES  and  Colleges. 

CABNEOIE  OEOPHYSICAI.  LABOISIA- 
TOBY.    See  Geology;  and  Minebalogt. 


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CABKEGIE  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOIi- 
OGY.  An  institution  for  technical  education 
founded  by  Andrew  Carnegie  at  Pittsburgh,  in 
1909.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  3432.  The  faculty 
numbered  211.  The  institution  includes  four 
separate  schools,  each  with  its  own  faculty,  build- 
ings, and  student  body.  These  are  the  School  of 
Applied  Science,  the  School  of  Applied  Design, 
the  School  of  Applied  Industries,  and  the  Mar- 
garet Morrison  School  for  Women.  There  were 
no  noteworthy  changes  in  the  membership  of 
the  faculty  during  the  year.  An  additional 
$1,000,000  for  the  Endowment  Fund  was  received 
from  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  total  endowment 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to 
about  $9,000,000,  and  the  income  from  1914-15 
to  $603,320.  There  were  350,000  volumes  in  the 
adjacent  Carnegie  Library. 

CABNEGIE  INSTITITTION  OF  WASH- 
IKGKTOK.  The  annual  official  report  for  1916 
differs  from  preceding  reports  on  account  of  the 
European  war.  Instead  of  summaries  of  the 
important  work  done  in  the  several  departments 
of  the  institution,  it  deals  mainly  with  the 
salient  events  of  the  year,  the  characteristics  of 
the  institution,  its  financial  records,  and  its 
publications. 

With  the  progress  of  the  war  it  became  in- 
creasingly clear  that  there  must  be  a  suspension 
of  the  institution's  activities  in  the  belligerent 
countries.  Therefore  all  research  associates  of 
American  citizenship  were  withdrawn  from  war 
zones.  The  result  was  many  changes  in  plans, 
especially  in  the  departments  of  historical  re- 
search and  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  delay  in 
research  work  because  of  exclusion  of  the  work- 
ers from  necessary  sources  of  information.  Ex- 
cept for  this,  however,  the  direct  effects  of  the 
war  upon  the  activities  of  the  institution  have 
not  been  serious.  The  unparalleled  destruction 
of  life  and  property  now  going  on  in  Europe 
will  probably  have  closely  related  though  quite 
different  results  in  neutral  countries;  and  it  is 
not  inconceivable  that  sound  methods  of  re- 
search may  undergo  a  temporary  eclipse  as  a 
consequence  of  the  pending  struggle. 

The  institute's  participation  in  the  Panama- 
Pacific  International  Exposition  called  for  a  very 
restricted  choice  of  illustrations  of  methods  ana 
results  of  research,  in  order  to  make  a  suc- 
cessful appeal  to  a  wide  range  of  popular  in- 
terests. Photographs,  models,  pamphlets  ex- 
plaining the  plan  and  development  of  the  insti- 
tution, and  a  classified  list  of  its  publications, 
were  freely  distributed.  The  aim  was  to  get  an 
objective  popular  estimate  of  the  institution's 
functions  in  contemporary  society.  The  results 
showed  (1)  that  inappropriate  ancestral  pre- 
possessions still  clouded  popular  views  of  scien- 
tific research,  and  (2)  that  there  was  a  tendency, 
noticeable  even  in  the  public  press,  to  exagger- 
ate and  to  attribute  to  occultism  the  most  mani- 
fest products  of  forethought,  diligence,  and  the 
application  of  well-known  principles.  Neverthe- 
less it  was  evident  that  the  scientific  method  is 
gaining  wider  recognition  even  among  unre- 
flective  minds,  and  this  is  seen  in  nearly  every 
field  of  current  activity.  New  research  institu- 
tions have  sprimg  up  in  the  last  few  years,  and 
these  have  been  benefited  by  the  influence  of, 
and  by  their  relation  with,  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion. More  rational  notions  of  the  meaning  and 
objects  of  research,  and  especially  of  its  cost 


and  the  economies  to  be  gained  hj  it,  are  being 
disseminated.  Along  with  the  rise  of  new  re- 
search organizations  the  scientific  method  is 
rapidly  gaining  control  in  the  management  of 
commercial  and  industrial  enterprises.  The 
necessity  of  science  in  successful  business  is 
thus  aiding  in  the  diffusion  of  soimd  learning 
among  the  masses.  The  so-called  laborer  now 
has  to  know  more  than  he  knew  before;  many 
manufacturing  plants  now  provide  instruction 
for  operatives;  and,  what  is  more  important, 
there  is  a  general  recognition  of  research  as  an 
essential  preliminary  to  progress. 

With  regard  to  the  costs  of  research,  the 
Cam^e  Institution  has  found  it  necessary  to 
endeavor  to  correct  popular  misapprehensions. 
With  this  in  view  it  lays  down  the  following 
elementary  truths,  which  have  been  generally 
ignored:  (1)  Sound  research  is  expensive  in 
proportion  to  its  comprehensiveness  and  thor- 
oughness; (2)  the  objects  of  research  are  now 
too  great  in  number  to  be  adequately  financed; 
(3)  each  research  organization  must  therefore 
choose  its  field  and  restrict  itself  to  it.  In  this 
connection  the  relatively  narrow  limitations  of 
the  Carnegie  Institution  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  fact  that  the  United  States  government 
spends,  for  work  which  may  be  properly  called 
research,  twenty  times  the  income  of  the  insti- 
tution. Municipalities  and  industrial  organiza- 
tions are  likewise  active.  No  endowed  institu- 
tion can  be  reasonably  expected  to  supplant  gov- 
ernmental functions  or  to  supplement  govern- 
mental resources  in  research,  and  our  under- 
standing of  this  truth  is  necessary  to  correct 
fallacious  popular  beliefs  that  the  Carnegie  In- 
stitution should  undertake  enterprises  for  which 
it  cannot  be  financially  responsible.  Its  activi- 
ties are  strictly  limited  by  its  income,  more 
especially  since  the  purchasing  capacity  of  mone- 
tary standards,  which  has  fallen  by  more  than 
30  per  cent  during  the  last  two  decades,  is  ap- 
parently still  diminishing. 

The  report  for  1915  contains  the  first  official 
statement  yet  made  as  to  the  theories  of  pro- 
cedure in  the  institution  and  of  the  objects  to 
be  attained.  This  has  been  possible  only  after 
a  decade  of  patient  observation.  While  it  is 
easier  to  say  what  the  institution  is  not  rather 
than  what  it  is,  nevertheless  it  may  be  posi- 
tively defined  as  an  establishment  for  the  con- 
duct and  promotion  of  original  research,  whose 
results  are  freely  given  to  the  world  without 
restrictions  of  letters-patent  and  without  privi- 
leges derived  from  copyrights.  In  answer  to 
innumerable  inquiries  as  to  what  it  can  under- 
take, or  as  to  the  scope  of  its  activity,  the  atti- 
tude of  the  institution  may  be  said  to  be  liberal 
in  its  recognition  of  all  branches  of  demonstra- 
ble knowledge  and  critical  in  respect  to  all  un- 
verified and  un verifiable  representations.  While 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  limit  recognition 
to  mathematico-physical  science,  it  needs  to  be 
said  that  complete  equality  in  application  of 
the  institution's  income  has  not  been  attained 
and  is  unattainable. 

Its  departments  of  research  are  the  most 
striking  characteristic  of  the  institution,  and 
absorb  the  bulk  of  its  income.  For  their  work 
long  periods  of  time  are  required  and  the  true 
value  of  the  results  cannot  be  estimated  ade- 
quately in  terms  of  an  interval  shorter  than  a 
decade.  With  respect  to  these  departmental 
aims,   needs,   and   attainable   ideals  the  report 


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CEYIiON 


for  1915  omits  the  brief  sunmiaries  hitherto 
annually  given  and  is  restricted  to  general  ob- 
servations. In  doing  so  it  protests  against  any 
narrow  interpretation  of'  the  word  'practical," 
affirms  that,  in  general,  results  justify  the  cost, 
and  that,  as  regards  completion  of  the  work  of 
any  department,  it  is  unwise  to  expect  from 
sudden  discoveries  results  at  all  comparable  to 
those  obtained  from  steady  increments  of  knowl- 
edge. These  remarks  hold  true  not  only  con- 
cerning the  work  of  the  departments,  but  of  the 
activities  of  research  associates. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  institution  is  the 
Division  of  Publications  established  in  1909. 
The  problem  of  book  distribution  is  solved  by 
sale  at  nominal  prices,  to  cover  the  cost  of  book- 
making  and  transportation  to  purchasers. 

In  the  fiscal  year  ending  Oct.  31,  1916,  the 
total  appropriations  amounted  to  $1,274,017; 
the  total  receipts  for  the  year  were  $1,216,046. 
The  total  of  appropriations  in  1912-16  was 
$11,228,677;  the  total  receipts,  $11,066,632. 
During  the  year  the  following  amounts  were 
allotted:  Botanical  research,  $40,616;  experi- 
mental evolution,  $48,919;  geophysical  labora- 
tory, $89,164;  historical  research,  $31,400; 
Marine  biology,  $19,160;  meridian  astrometry, 
$26,380;  solar  observatory,  $220,130;  terres- 
trial magnetism,  $141,310;  embryology,  $32,180; 
nutrition  laboratory,  $46,064;  Division  of  Pub- 
lications, $10,000. 

Hie  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
was  held  in  December.  Two  distinguished  re- 
search associates  died  during  the  year:  Alfred 
Thayer  Mahan,  Rear  Admiral,  United  States 
navy  (retired) ;  and  Charles  Sedgwick  Minot, 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  in  the  medi- 
cal school  of  Harvard  University.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  institution  is  Robert  S.  Woodward. 

CABJ^GIE  MAGNETIC  INSTITUTE. 
See  Exploration,  Oceanic. 

CABOLINE  ISLANDS.  Formerly  a  Ger- 
man possession  lying  north  of  New  Guinea  and 
forming  a  dependency  of  German  New  Guinea 
(q.v.).  Area  (Caroline,  Palau,  and  Mariana  or 
Ladrone  Islands,  excepting  Guam),  307  square 
miles;  population,  about  66,000;  white  popula- 
tion (1913),  264  (of  whom  164  Germans). 
Capitals,  Ponan6  and  Yap.  The  principal  ex- 
port is  copra.     British  troops  took  it  in  1914. 

CABBy  LvciBN.  American  archseologist  and 
art  curator,  died  Jan.  27,  1916.  He  was  bom  in 
Lincoln  County,  Mo.,  in  1829;  graduated  from 
St.  Louis  University  in  1846;  and  from  1877 
to  1894  was  assistant  curator  at  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  American  Archseology  and  Ethnology. 
He  wrote  several  books  on  archaeology,  including : 
The  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley;  Pre- 
historic Remains  of  Kentucky  (with  Prof.  N.  S. 
Shaler)  •  and  Missouri  (a  brief  history). 

CABBANZA,  Venustiano.  See  Mexico,  His- 
tory, 

CABSONy  Sib  Edwabd.  See  Gbeat  Bbitain, 
History,  pcusiin, 

CASTEIiNAUy  Genebal  db  Cubi£:bes  de. 
See  FBance,  History,  Politics  and  High  Com- 
mand. 

CATHEBy  WiLLA  S.  See  Litebatube,  Eng- 
lish AND  AiCERicAN,  Fiction. 

OATHOIJG  UNIVEBSITY  OF  AMEBIGA. 
A  Roman  Catholic  institution  for  higher  educa- 
tion, founded  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1887. 
The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments  in  the 
autumn  of  1916  was  680.    The  faculty  numbered 


86.  The  Very  Rev.  John  A.  Ryan,  D.D.,  and  Rev. 
John  O'Grady  were  made  members  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year.  No  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received  in  1916.  The  productive  funds  of 
the  university  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $3,736,144.  The  library  contains 
about  80,000  volumes. 

CATSKILL  AQUEDUCT.     See  Aqueduct. 

CATTLE.  See  Daibtino;  Leatheb;  Stook 
Raising  and  Meat  Pboduction;  Vetebinabt 
Medicine. 

CAVALBY.     See  Militaby  Pbogbbss. 

CAVEIiL,  Edith.  See  Belgium,  History, 
Case  of  Edith  Cavell;  Gbeat  Bbitain,  History. 

CAYENNE.    See  Fbench  Guiana. 

CELTIC      PHILOLOGY.     See      Philoloot, 

MODEBN. 

CEMENT.  The  most  notable  feature  of  the 
cement  industry  in  1914  was  the  fact  that  the 
first  recorded  decrease  in  the  annual  produc- 
tion of  Portland  cement  took  place  in  that  year. 
This  was  due  to  the  large  increase  in  produc- 
tion and  stock  in  1913,  which  resulted  in  a  neces- 
sary curtailment  of  the  output  in  1914.  Natural 
cement  showed  an  increase,  but  it  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  carry  the  total  for  all  hydraulic  cements 
beyond  the  record  production  of  1913.  The  price 
of  Portland  cement  decreased  7.8  per  cent  a 
barrel  in  1914.  The  total  quantity  of  Portland, 
natural,  and  puzzolan  cement  marketed  or 
shipped  from  the  mills  in  1914  was  87,267,662 
barrels,  valued  at  $80,633,203,  compared  with 
80,641,348  barrels  valued  at  $89,660,627  in 
1913.  The  quantity  of  Portland  cement  marketed 
in  1914  was  86,437,966  barrels,  valued  at  $80,- 
118,276.  The  total  quantity  of  Portland  cement 
produced  in  1914  was  88,230,170  barrels,  valued 
at  $81,789,368.  Pennsylvania  is  the  most  im- 
portant producer  of  Portland  cement,  with  In- 
diana second,  and  New  York  third.  In  1913  the 
output  of  California  exceeded  that  of  New  York 
and  Illinois,  but  in  1914  this  State  dropped 
from  third  to  fifth  place.  Other  States  produc- 
ing large  quantities  are  Missouri,  Michigan, 
Iowa,  New  Jersey,  Kansas,  Texas,  and  Washmg- 
ton.  The  exports  of  cement  from  the  Unit^ 
States  in  1914  amounted  to  2,662,666  barrels, 
valued  at  $3,760,920.  The  imports  of  foreign 
cement  amounted  to  120,196  barrels. 

The  production  of  natural  cement  in  the  United 
States  in  1914  was  761,286  barrels,  valued  at 
$361,370,  compared  with  the  output  of  744,686 
barrels,  valued  at  $346,889  in  1914.  The  chief 
producers  of  natural  cement  are  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Georgia, 
Minnesota,  and  Kansas.  The  output  of  puzzolan 
cement  in  1914  was  68,311  barrels,  valued  at 
$63,368.  Practically  the  entire  quantity  was 
produced  in  Alabama,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania. 

See  Chemistry,  .  Industrial,  Cement  from 
Beets. 

CENTBAL  AMEBICA.  See  Central  Ameri- 
can countries;  and  Peabodt  Museum. 

CEFHAELINE.  An  alkaloid  obtained  from 
the  ipecacuanha  plant.  Its  chemical  formula  is 
CmH^OsN,  and  it  occurs  in  snow-white  needles, 
which  readily  turn  yellow.  Its  action  and  uses 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  plant  from  which  it 
is  derived,  but  it  is  more  emetic  than  ipecac 
and  causes  more  irritation  of  the  kidneys;  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  less  nauseant  and  less  de- 
pressing to  the  heart. 

CEYLON.  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
south  of  India;   a  British  crown  colony.    The 


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capital  is  Colombo.  Area,  25,332  square  miles; 
population,  according  to  the  census  of  March  10, 
1911,  4,110,367.  There  were  8524  Europeans, 
26,673  Burghers  and  Eurasians,  2,715,686  Sin- 
ghalese, 1,060,167  Tamils,  267,054  Moors,  12,992 
Malays,  19,271  various.  More  than  half  the 
people  (2,474,393)  are  Buddhists;  Hindus,  939,- 
701;  Christians,  410,525;  Mohammedans,  284,- 
482;  various,  1266.  The  city  of  Colombo  had 
213,396  inhabitants;  Negombo,  13,152;  Mora- 
tuwa,  27,253;  Kalutara,  13,006;  Kandy,  30,148; 
Jaffna,  40,539;  Galle,  40,187;  Matara,  13,851; 
Batticaloa,  10,715;  Trincomalee,  9086. 

Plantation  laborers  number  about  510,000  (in 
large  part  Indian  coolies).  Acreage  under  coco- 
nuts, 942,621;  rice,  680,574;  other  grains,  101,- 
708;  tea,  580,845;  rubber,  215,000;  cinnamon, 
47,292;  cacao,  43,358;  tobacco,  16,241;  coffee, 
1512;  cinchona,  263.  There  are  1986  gem  quar- 
ries, and  pearl  banks  leased  to  an  English  com- 
pany; the  plumbago  mines  and  pits  (381) 
yielded  (1913)  about  570,807  cwts.,  valued  (esti- 
mate) at  Rs.  9,047,290. 

Commercial  and  financial  statistics  appear 
below,  in  rupees  (total  trade  and  trade  with 
the  United  Kingdom ;  total  shipping  and  British 
shipping)  : 


1920  1912 

Imports     164.864.703  181,999.991 


U.   K.. 


U.   K. 


Imports, 
Exports 
Exports, 
Reyenue 
Expenditure 

Shipping*    15,088,446 

Shipping  Br.    ...      9.755,605 


42,874,524     60,999,044 

178,717,722   198,954.902 

80,063,196     97,756,191 


48.741,758 
86,467.708 


50,156,829 
49,277.870 
15,420,142 
10.114,485 


1918 

199.640.797 

58,199.628 

284,863,554 

105.612,748 

52,476.416 

56.494.754 

15.811.078 

12,818.892 


*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 


A. large  part  of  the  trade  is  with  British  col- 
onies. Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1913,  Rs.  91,505,- 
020.  The  railways  are  all  owned  and  operated 
by  the  government;  total  mileage,  604%.  The 
line  from  Madawachchi  to  Talai  Manaar  (about 
65^  miles)  at  the  northwestern  end  of  Manaar 
Island,  will  be  connected  with  the  Indian  rail- 
ways by  steamers  landing  at  Dhanuskodi,  the 
terminus  of  the  Indian  line.  Governor  (1915), 
Sir  Robert  Chalmers. 

Tributary  to  the  Ceylon  government  is  the 
Maldive  Archipelago  (a  group  of  17  islands, 
with  a  population  estimated  at  72,237)  ;  the 
Laccadive  Islands  belong  to  British  India. 

A  serious  rebellion  in  Oylon  was  reported  in 
September  by  German  dispatches.  The  entire 
island  was  asserted  to  have  been  in  revolt  since 
June;  rioting  and  sanguinary  street-fighting  had 
occurred  at  Colombo;  thousands  of  persons  had 
been  killed  and  other  thousands  arrested.  The 
English  press  was  inclined  to  regard  the  dis- 
turbances in  Ceylon  as  unimportant  local  out- 
breaks, devoid  of  political  significance. 

CHAMPLIK,  John  Denison.  American  au- 
thor, and  editor  of  reference  books,  died  Jan.  8, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  Stonington,  Conn.,  in 
1834;  graduated  from  Yale  in  1856;  studied 
law;  and  in  1859  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
practiced  but  a  short  time,  however,  becoming 
a  newspaper  editor.  From  1869  until  his  death, 
practically  all  his  time  was  devoted  to  writing 
and  compiling.  He  was  the  author  or  editor  of: 
Young  Folks*  Cyclopwdia  of  Common  Things 
(1879);  Young  Folks*  Cyclopwdia  of  Persons 
and  Places  ( 1880 ) ;  Young  Folks*  Cyclopasdia  of 
NaturtU  History  (1905) ;  Cyclopcfdia  of  Painters 


and  Paintings  (1886-88) ;  Cyelopa^ia  of  Music 
and  Musicians  (1888-90) ;  The  Tragedy  of  Anne 
Hutchinson  (1911) ;  and  One  Hundred  Families 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century  in  England  and  Ifew 
England  (1912).  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  American  Cyolopasdia  and  the  Standard  Buy 
tionary;  contributed,  also,  to  the  EttcyelopiBdia 
Britannica  and  the  Memorial  History  of  New 
York;  and  wrote  many  articles  for  magazines 
and  newspapers. 

CKAJSTDLER,  John  Gobham.  American  sol- 
dier, died  Jime  21,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  1830 
at  Lexington,  Mass.,  and  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1853.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  cap- 
tain and  assistant  quartermaster.  He  seryed 
throughout  the  war,  and  in  1867  was  appointed 
major  and  quartermaster.  After  advancing  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1904  he  was 
retired.  He  received  two  brevets  for  gallant 
service  during  the  Civil  War. 

CHABCOAIi,  Animal.  See  Chemistbt,  In- 
dustrial, Bone  Black  and  Charcoal. 

CHAJtITIES.  As  in  the  immediately  preced- 
ing years,  so  in  1915,  there  was  a  continued 
expansion  of  the  scope,  purpose,  and  financial 
resources  of  charitable  and  philanthropic  under- 
takings in  the  United  States,  if  not  throughout 
the  world.  There  were  no  large  new  founda- 
tions, but  there  were  numerous  benefactions  ( see 
Guts),  and  the  total  expenditures  in  all  lines 
of  charity  and  philanthropy  were  not  less  than 
a  half  billion  dollars.  The  work  undertaken  by 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation  (q.v.),  the  American 
Red  Cross,  and  numerous  other  societies  in  1914 
for  the  relief  of  Belgium  was  continued  and  new 
undertakings  for  the  relief  of  Poland,  of  Serbia, 
and  of  the  Jewish  population  of  devastated 
areas  were  b^gun  on  a  large  scale.  (See  Red 
Cboss,  and  Relief  fob  Wab  Victims.)  At 
the  opening  of  the  year  American  cities  were 
struggling  with  a  very  acute  problem  of  relief 
for  unemployment;  the  development  of  business 
made  this  particular  problem  less  difficult  in 
the  winter  of  1915-16.  (See  Unemployment.) 
Matter  of  interest  in  connection  with  this  topic 
will  be  found  under  the  following  articles: 
Child  Labob;  JuvxaviLE  Coubtb;  Labob;  Mini- 
mum Wage;  Occupational  Diseases;  Old- 
Age  Pensions;  Pensions  fob  Mothebs;  Pe- 
nology; PbOSTITUTION  ;  WOMEN  IN  IndUSTBY; 
and  WoBKMEN's  Compensation.  These  arti- 
cles are  of  interest  primarily  through  the 
fact  that  they  show  various  organized  move- 
ments for  the  prevention  of  destitution  which 
is  everywhere  recognized  now  as  immensely 
more  rational  than  temporary  relief,  however 
necessary  the  latter  may  still  be.  Scientific 
inquiry  into  the  causes  of  dependency  and  de- 
linquency is  necessarily  followed  by  an  ex- 
tension of  public  supervision,  the  control  of 
haphazard  charitable  activities,  and  construc- 
tive modifications  of  the  industrial  and  social 
system  so  as  to  secure  greater  justice  and  self- 
sufficiency. 

National  Confebence  gf  Chabities  and 
CoBRECTioN.  The  42nd  annual  meeting  of  this 
conference  was  held  in  Baltimore  in  May.  With 
2400  registered  delegates,  it  was  the  largest 
meeting  in  the  history  of  the  conference.  In- 
dianapolis was  chosen  as  the  place  for  the  1916 
meeting.  Rev.  Father  Francis  H.  Gavisk  of 
Indianapolis  was  elected  president,  and  W.  T. 
Cross  was  reelected  secretary.    The  conference 


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ftWA'n.TTTft!^ 


changed  its  organization  by  reducing  the  num- 
ber of  ex-presidents  on  its  executive  committee 
from  22  to  3.  This  was  believed  to  make  the 
organization  more  democratic  in  that  the  control 
of  the  organization  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  members.  There  was  presented  a  rounded 
community  programme  in  children's  work,  which 
dealt  with  public,  private,  indoor,  and  outdoor 
work  to  secure  fair  treatment,  health,  and  edu- 
cation for  children.  The  family  was  discussed 
by  Dr.  Crothers  and  Prof.  James  H.  Tufts  of 
the  University  of  Chicago.  Dr.  Tufts,  analyzing 
and  reviewing  the  old  and  the  new  in  his  paper 
on  the  "Ethical  Basis  of  the  Family,"  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  family  will  remain  about 
as  it  is  without  shifting  toward  free  love  and 
freer  divorce  than  we  have  now.  It  will  be 
wiser,  he  believed,  to  promote  right  marriages 
than  to  inveigh  against  divorce,  and  within  a 
generation  society  will  find  some  better  method 
of  dealing  with  illegitimacy  than  to  inflict  pun- 
ishment upon  the  children  for  the  sins  of  their 
fathers.  He  thought  that,  if  we  could  improve 
morals,  we  should  change  social  conditions  by 
raising  the  standard  of  living,  providing  fairer 
wages  and  more  recreation.  Abraham  Flexner 
argued  against  including  social  work  among  the 
professions,  saying  the  professions  have  specific 
ends,  while  social  work  seemed  to  him  not  so 
much  a  definite  field  as  an  aspect  of  work  in 
many  fields,  as  medicine,  law,  education,  and 
architecture.  The  need,  he  thought,  is  for  well- 
informed,  well-balanced,  resourceful  people  rather 
than  for  any  definite  kinds  of  technical  skill. 
Porter  R.  Lee  took  the  opposite  view,  maintain- 
ing that  case-workers  and  social  investigators, 
who  make  up  social  workers,  have  developed 
technical  skill  to  a  point  which  may  be  consid- 
ered professional.  The  one  group  is  of  social 
diagnosticians,  while  the  other  is  of  social  in- 
vestigators who  provide  the  information  on  which 
sweeping  chanses  through  social  legislation  are 
based.  Miss  Vaile,  supervisor  of  outdoor  relief 
in  Denver,  gave  a  paper  on  public  outdoor  re- 
lief, emphasizing  the  success  of  turning  such  a 
public  office  into  a  charity  organization,  and  the 
need  for  removing  the  old  time  relief  official. 
Mr.  Jeffrey  R.  Brackett  of  Boston  pointed  out 
that  growth  of  the  widows'  pension  movement 
tremendously  increasing  the  cost  of  outdoor  re- 
lief work  makes  it  more  necessary  than  ever 
that  public  funds  be  safeguarded  from  abuse. 
The  public  must  take  an  intelligent  interest  in 
the  care  of  the  poor,  for  the  protection  of  the 
public  as  well  as  for  the  protection  of  the  poor, 
and  it  must  ^adually  secure  a  better  adminis- 
tration of  relief,  just  such  as  it  has  of  schools 
and  fire  departments.  The  relation  of  public 
to  private  charity  was  also  discussed.  A  com- 
munity plan  in  children's  work  was  described 
by  its  author,  C.  C.  Carstens,  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Children. 

The  following  committees  for  1916  and  their 
chairmen  were  named:  Children,  Julia  C. 
Lathrop,  Washington;  corrections,  Katharine  B. 
Davis,  New  York;  public  and  private  charities, 
H.  H.  Shirer,  Colimmus;  family  and  commimity, 
Ada  E.  Sheffield,  Cambridge;  feeble-mindedness, 
E.  R.  Johnstone,  Vineland,  N.  J.;  promotion  of 
social  programmes,  Edward  T.  Devine,  New 
York;  health.  Prof.  Irving  Fisher,  New  Haven; 
inebriety,  Bailey  B.  Burritt,  New  York;  and  un- 
employment. Prof.  Charles  E.  Merriam,  Chicago. 


Of  HSB  Baltimobs  Meetings.  In  conjunction 
with  the  foregoing  met  The  American  Associa- 
tion of  Officials  of  Charity  and  Correction.  Tlie 
piogrammes  dealt  with  treatment  of  the  insane 
and  mentally  defective;  home  relief;  correctional 
programmes  and  administration  of  institutions. 
The  annual  conference  of  the  National  Proba- 
tion Association  considered  the  securing  of  ef- 
fective adult  probation  laws  in  the  many  States 
now  having  none;  extension  of  probation  work 
in  rural  commimities;  development  and  applica- 
tion of  standards  in  juvenile  court  work.  The 
American  Association  of  Societies  for  Organiz- 
ing Charity  gave  special  attention  to  a  con- 
structive programme  on  the  basis  of  the  case- 
work method.  In  the  discussion  on  ''Maintain- 
ing Standards  in  Times  of  Stress"  it  was  re- 
vealed that  progress  had  been  made  since  the 
hard  times  of  1907  in  the  intelligent  handling 
of  depressions  and  that  greater  confidence  on 
the  part  of  the  public  was  manifested.  It  was 
stated  that  correspondence  had  been  conducted 
with  289  towns  and  cities  on  all  conceivable 
points  regarding  organization  and  the  adapta- 
tions of  policy  to  new  situations.  Other  Bal- 
timore conferences  included:  the  National  Fed- 
eration of  Settlements;  National  Conference  on 
the  Education  of  Dependent,  Backward,  Truant 
and  Delinquent  Children;  National  Federation 
of  Remedial  Loan  Associations  (see  Loan 
Sharks  ) ;  National  Probation  Association ;  and 
National  Association  of  Jewish  Social  Workers. 

State  Confebences.  The  nation-wide  inter- 
est in  organized  and  scientific  diaritable  activi- 
ties is  reflected  in  the  numerous  State  confer- 
ences held  annually  in  all  parts  of  the  Union. 
Only  a  few  of  these  may  be  referred  to  here. 
The  7th  California  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Corrections  met  in  February.  Unemployment 
and  the  municipalizing  of  charity  work  were  the 
foremost  topics.  The  name  of  the  conference 
was  changed  to  California  Conference  of  Social 
Agencies.  The  12th  State  Conference  of  Chari- 
ties and  Corrections  of  Virginia  met  in  Febru- 
ary. The  unique  feature  was  the  share  taken 
by  the  colored  del^^tes,  whites  and  negroes  be- 
ing present  in  about  equal  numbers.  The  14th 
annual  meeting  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Corrections  was  held 
in  April.  The  growing  conviction  of  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  State  and  municipalities 
rather  than  private  organizations  for  philan- 
thropic undertakings  was  made  clear.  Points 
emphasized  were:  the  tendency  toward  a  broad- 
ening of  public  relief;  agents  should  be  trained 
social  workers;  the  close  connection  of  educa- 
tion with  social  problems;  and  prevention  is 
fundamentallv  more  important  than  cure.  ''The 
outstanding  features  of  the  6th  New  York  City 
Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction  were 
the  discussions  of  health  programmes,  medical 
social  service,  and  the  relations  of  occupations 
and  diseases;  the  radical  change  created  by  re- 
cent l^slation  in  placing  the  New  York  City 
Department  of  Correction  upon  a  semi-reforma- 
tory basis  through  the  introduction  of  the  inde- 
terminate sentence  and  parole  system  for  the 
penitentiary  and  the  workhouse  as  well  as  for 
the  New  York  City  Reformatory  for  Misde- 
meanants; the  discussion  of  a  city  plan  for 
Greater  New  York;  and  unemployment  as  a 
social  problem."  *  A  resolution  to  form  a  State 
board  of  charities  and  corrections  was  an  out- 
*  The  Survey,  June  12,  1915,  p.  258. 


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come  of  the  3rd  Alabama  Sociological  Con- 
gress held  in  May.  Problems  of  legislation,  of 
community  health,  and  of  improvements  needed 
in  rural  conditions  were  also  discussed. 

"At  its  meeting  in  October,  the  Pennsylvania 
Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction  was  re- 
christened  the  Pennsylvania  Conference  on  Social 
Welfare.  The  limited  time  of  a  two-day  con- 
ference was  so  divided  that  half  a  dozen  im- 
portant subjects  were  treated  in  general  meet- 
ings: prisons,  infant  mortality,  mothers'  assist- 
ance or  pensions,  juvenile  courts  and  probation, 
public  health,  and  charity  organization  work 
in  small  cities  and  in  rural  communities."  *  At 
luncheons  were  considered  a  large  number  of 
other  topics,  including:  work  for  neglected  and 
dependent  children,  public  health  nursing,  com- 
munity organization  for  social  work,  reforma- 
tive work  for  girls  in  small  cities,  federation  for 
financial  purposes,  girls'  clubs,  hospital  social 
service,  social  hygiene,  social  research,  and  spe- 
cial work  for  boys.  The  41st  annual  conven- 
tion of  the  Pennsylvania  Association  of  Direc- 
tors of  the  Poor  and  Charities  and  Correction 
was  held  in  October.  "The  topics  discussed 
included  methods  and  principles  of  giving  out- 
door relief,  qualifications  and  selection  of  em- 
ployees for  county  institutions,  prevention 
of  feeble-mindedness,  care  of  dependent  children, 
the  functions  and  administration  of  the  alms- 
house, and  the  relations  of  county  and  State  in 
the  care  of  various  classes  of  insane.  The  ques- 
tion of  bringing  about  a  union  with  the  Penn- 
sylvania Conference  on  Social  Welfare  was  dis- 
cussed, but  no  definite  action  was  taken."  *  A 
resolution  was  presented  to  the  Legislature  bv 
the  Public  Charities  Association  of  Pennsyl- 
vania requiring  the  State  board  to  devise  and 
present  to  the  next  Legislature  a  plan  whereby 
the  State  can  assume  full  care  and  control  of 
all  dependent  insane.  The  methods  of  financing 
and  administering  Pennsylvania  charitable  in- 
stitutions have  long  been  unsatisfactory  to  many 
students  of  such  matters.  The  State  is  giving 
money  to  300  institutions,  most  of  them  local  in 
scope,  private  in  management,  sectarian  and  de- 
nominational in  control.  This  fosters  the  de- 
velopment of  unnecessary  agencies,  many  of  them 
inefficient,  and  has  thrown  the  philanthropies 
into  the  game  of  unscrupulous  partisan  politics. 

At  the  Massachusetts  State  Conference  of 
Charities  held  in  October  fundamental  plans 
rather  than  emergency  relief  methods  for  hand- 
ling unemployment  were  discussed.  Neighbor- 
hoSd  recreation,  mothers'  aid,  correctional  in- 
stitutions, and  feeble-mindedness  were  also  con- 
sidered. The  Illinois  Conference  of  Charities 
and  Correction  celebrated  its  20th  anniversary 
at  a  meeting  in  October.  Papers  were  read  on 
"A  Plea  for  the  Under-average  Child  in  the  Pub- 
lic School,'*  and  "The  Limit  of  Social  Service 
Work  by  a  Municipality."  Mental  and  physical 
efficiency  was  discussed  from  the  standpoints  of 
public  schools,  the  health  commissioner,  sociology, 
and  business  efficiency.  Medico-social  service, 
rural  social  service,  the  family  and  children,  pro- 
bation, and  prevention  of  crime  were  considered. 

Conferences  on  Blindness  and  Tubebcu- 
Ijosib.  The  first  meeting  of  the  National  Com- 
mittee for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness  was  held 
in  New  York  in  November.  With  an  enlarged 
staff  and  an  eictended  field  it  continues  the 
work  carried  on  for  six  years  by  the  New  York 

*  The  Survey,  Not.  13,  1916.  p.  171. 


Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness. 
Illustrated  lectures  prepared  in  simple  language 
for  foreigners  were  suggested  as  an  educational 
method.  Compulsory  notification  of  blindness 
at  birth  was  emphasized  as  the  most  effective 
method  yet  at  hand  for  reducing  preventable 
blindness.  Ophthalmia  neonatorum,  trachoma, 
toxic  blindness,  infectious  and  constitutional 
diseases,  occupational  disease  and  accidents  were 
discussed  as  causes  of  blindness.  It  was  urged 
that  this  committee  remedy  those  conditions 
which  spoil  eye  efficiency,  such  as  poor  illumina- 
tion in  schools,  factories,  stores,  and  elsewhere. 

The  National  Anti-Tuberculosis  Association 
met  in  four  sectional  conferences  during  Octo- 
ber and  November  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Mississippi  Valley  Conference 
met  at  Indianapolis^  the  Southern  at  Columbia, 
S.  C,  the  New  England  at  Springfield,  and  the 
North  Atlantic  at  Albany,  jointly  with  the  New 
York  State  Conference.  The  points  especially 
emphasized  at  these  four  conferences  were: 
standardization  of  methods;  educational,  nurs- 
ing, dispensary,  and  institutional  measures;  the 
enlistment  of  the  general  medical  practitioner 
in  the  movement;  early  diagnosis;  tubercu- 
losis as  an  industrial  problem;  the  tuberculous 
negro  with  his  racial  and  hereditary  factors  as 
well  as  environmental,  housing,  ana  work  con- 
ditions; problems  of  childhood;  open-air  schools. 
Each  conference  appointed  a  continuation  com- 
mittee to  arrange  meetings  and  serve  as  a  cen- 
tre for  appeals  for  legislative  and  general  com- 
munity support. 

Jewish  Chabtties.  The  National  Associa- 
tion of  Jewish  Social  Workers  met  at  Balti- 
more in  May.  Consideration  was  given  to  gen- 
eral problems  as  well  as  to  those  peculiar  to 
the  charitable  work  among  Hebrews  on  account 
of  their  dietary  laws  and  special  customs.  The 
problem  of  tuberculosis  and  especially  of  trans- 
portation of  afflicted  persons  was  discussed.  In 
connection  with  family  desertion  the  activities 
of  the  National  Desertion  Bureau  which  had 
been  previously  organized  were  analyzed.  The 
establishment  of  a  school  for  Jewish  social 
workers  with  courses  in  Jewish  history,  lan- 
guage, and  literature  was  considered;  favor  was 
expressed  for  a  national  field  secretary  to  or- 
ganize Jewish  communities,  and  $1500  was 
pledged  to  this  end.  Other  subjects  considered 
were  the  naturalization  of  Jewish  immigrants, 
the  problems  of  the  Jewish  settlement,  and  es- 
pecially its  relation  to  other  relief  agencies. 

In  New  York  City  the  Jewish  Community 
established  a  placement  clearing  house  at  360 
Second  Avenue.  Six  departments  were  estab- 
lished to  analyze  the  problems  peculiar  to  Jew- 
ish people  in  industry,  in  philanthropy,  in  reli- 
gious aiffairs,  in  education,  in  social  work,  and 
in  social  morals.  The  Free  Synagogue  under- 
took an  interesting  experiment  in  the  relief  of 
unemployment  (see  Unemployment).  The  Jew- 
ish Aid  Society  of  Chicago  similarly  entered 
upon  the  plan  of  establishing  men  in  business 
who  had  become  dependent  through  sickness  or 
insufficient  earnings.  Plans  for  the  Federation 
of  Jewish  Charities  and  Philanthropies  in  New 
York  City  made  substantial  progress. 

CHABITY.    See  Chabitibs. 

CHABITY,    City.    See   Municipal   Gotebk- 

MENT. 

CHABITY  AND  COBBECTION,  Amebican 
Association  of  Officials  of.    See  Chabitibb. 


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CHABTEBS,     Municipal.    See    Municipal 

GOVEBNMENT. 

CHAUI«MOOGBA  OIL.    See  Leprosy. 

CHAUTAUQUA  INSTITUTION.  During 
1915  the  attendance  was  not  equal  to  that  of 
1914,  and  this  was  attributed  to  the  war. 
Nevertheless,  the  attendance  was  second  to  that 
of  the  record  year,  and  the  home  reading  course 
showed  an  increase  of  5  per  cent  over  1914, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  this  was  the  year  of 
American  topics  in  that  course.  At  the  sum- 
mer assembly  and  school  in  1915  there  were 
about  3500  students  in  200  different  classes,  and 
with  a  teaching  faculty  of  85.  The  programme 
was  for  eight  weeks.  Since  The  Chautauquan 
was  merged  in  The  Independent^  the  latter  peri- 
odical, which  now  supplies  for  Chautauqua  read- 
ers a  current  events  element,  has  been  the  offi- 
cial organ  of  the  home  reading  circle.  The 
Chautauqua  Institution  in  1915  started  a 
monthly  bulletin  of  helps  and  hints  called  The 
Round  Table,  which  is  sent  to  each  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  New  York  office  is  at  119  West  40th 
Street. 

CHEESE.     See  Daibtino. 

CHEMICAL  INDUSTBIES,  National  Ex- 
position OF.  See  Chbmistbt,  Industrial,  sec- 
tion so  entitled. 

CHEMICAL  INDUSTBY.  See  Chemibtbt, 
Industrial. 

CHEMICAL  SOCIETIES.  See  Chemistry, 
Industsial. 

CHEMISTRY,  General  Progress  of.  It 
has  been  said  that  "Science  moves  but  slowly, 
creeping  on  from  point  to  point.'*  This  is  not 
always  true.  The  history  of  science  presents 
its  course  rather  as  an  irregular  succession  of 
rapid  advances  and  slow  ploddings.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  single  phenomenon  may  suddenly 
open  to  view  long  vistas,  the  careful  explora- 
tion of  which  will  require  many  and  laborious 
years.  The  phenomena  of  radio-activity,  the 
characteristics  of  electrical  discharges  in  vacuo, 
the  X-ray  spectra  of  metals  and  their  reflection 
from  crystal  surfaces,  the  more  careful  study 
of  spectrum  lines  and  the  influence  of  mag- 
netic and  electrical  fields  upon  them,  the  very 
recent  investigations  on  the  behavior  of  sub- 
stances at  temperatures  near  the  absolute  zero 
or  at  pressures  compared  with  which  that  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  insignificant,  have  fur- 
nished unexpected  insight  into  the  constitution 
of  matter  and  placed  theoretical  chemistry 
upon  an  eminent  vantage  groimd.  The  ad- 
vances in  1915  have  not  fallen  short  of  expecta- 
tion. In  a  fragmentary  accoimt  like  the  pres- 
ent only  a  few  of  the  more  salient  investiga- 
tions can  be  discussed. 

Particularly  persistent  have  been  the  re- 
searches on  the  so-called  isotopic  elements;  that 
is,  elements  of  identical  chemical  properties, 
which  occupy  the  same  space  in  the  periodic 
table,  but  which  have  different  atomic  weights. 
The  possibility  of  the  existence  of  such  elements 
was  indicated  by  Mosley's  work  on  the  X-ray 
spectra,  and  in  a  radio-active  disintegration  se- 
ries some  of  the  elements  have  been  shown  to 
be  isotopic.  According  to  theory,  isotopic  ele- 
ments are  those  which  have  the  same  positive 
charge  on  the  nucleus  of  the  atom,  and  it  is  this 
electrical  charge,  not  the  mass  of  the  atom, 
that  determines  the  chemical  character  of  the 
element.  During  the  past  year  a  large  number 
of  determinations  of  atomic  weight  of  the  lead 


contained  in  different  radio-active  minerals 
have  been  carried  out.  For  lead  from  the  min- 
eral thorite  Soddy  and  Hyman  found  the  atomic 
weight  208.4.  Honigschmidt  and  Horowitz 
found  for  lead  from  a  crystallized  specimen  of 
uranite  from  Morogoro  in  German  East  Africa, 
the  value  206.04.  Others,  working  with  lead 
from  other  radio-active  sources,  have  found  val- 
ues between  these  two  extremes.  According  to 
the  latest  determinations  by  Baxter  and  'Dior- 
valdsen,  the  atomic  weight  of  ordinary  lead  is 
207.19.  If  we  take  into  consideration  that  the 
end  product  of  the  radio-active  disintegration 
of  ^  uranium  is  calculated  to  have  an  atomic 
weight  of  206.0,  and  the  end  product  of  thorium 
an  atomic  weight  of  208.4,  we  are  led  to  the 
belief  that  ordinary  lead  is  a  mixture  of  at 
least  two  isotopic  elements, — ^the  end  disinte- 
gration products  of  these  two  series. 

How  many  of  our  chemical  elements  are  mix- 
tures of  isotopes,  we  cannot  say.  Two  forms 
of  neon,  with  identical  spectra,  but  having  re- 
spectively the  atomic  weights  20  and  22,  have 
been  discovered  by  Aston  working  with  J.  J. 
Thomson. 

In  addition  to  lead,  atomic  weight  determina- 
tions of  the  year  1916  include  carbon,  sulphur, 
iodine,  copper,  nickel,  cadmium,  mercury,  tin, 
tantalum,  praseodymium,  ytterbium,  and  ura- 
nium. With  respect  to  a  sentiment  favoring 
conservatism  in  the  adoption  of  new  atomic 
weights,  no  changes  have  appeared  (until  1916) 
in  the  annual  lists  of  the  international  conunit- 
tee  on  atomic  weights  since  1912.  This  year 
the  following  changes  seemed  warranted  and 
have  been  made:  ' 

Previoutly  At.  Wt.  According  to 

Accepted  IrUernational  LiH 

At.Wt.  of  1916 

C  12.00 12.005 

S  82.07 82.06 

H«  8.99 4.00 

Su  119.0    118.7 

Pb  207.10 207.20 

Ra  226.4    226.0 

U  288.5    288.2 

Yt  89.0    88.7 

Pr  140.6    140.9 

Yb  172.0    178.5 

Lu  174.0    175.0 

In  the  field  of  high  pressures  Bridgman  has 
continued  his  determination  of  melting  point 
curves  up  to  the  very  extreme  pressures  which 
he  has  been  able  to  obtain,  and  has  fixed  the 
transition  point  curves  of  solids  which  exist  in 
different  forms  over  a  range  of  200  degrees  Cen- 
tigrade and  up  to  12,000  atmospheres  (about 
180,000  pounds  per  square  inch).  His  work  at 
these  pressures,  carried  out  by  means  of  a 
chrom-vanadium  steel  bomb  with  a  compressing 
piston  fitted  with  a  novel  and  practically  un- 
leakable  packing  device,  has  broken  a  new  trail 
into  a  far  and  fascinating  field.  All  of  the 
considerable  number  of  melting  point  curves 
traced  by  him  show  a  continuous  rise  or  a  con- 
tinuous fall  in  melting  temperature  with  the 
pressure.  Judging  from  the  results  of  his  lat- 
est paper,  the  same  rule  usually  holds  for  trans- 
formations of  solid  forms  into  other  solid 
forms.  But  that  this  is  not  an  absolutely  gen- 
eral rule,  is  shown  by  the  curve  which  gives  the 
temperature  of  transformation  of  the  red  into 
the  yellow  form  of  mercuric  iodode  at  different 
pressures.  The  temperature  of  transition  at  at- 
mospheric pressure  is  127<°C;  with  increase  in 


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preasnre  the  transition  temperature  increases; 
at  5000  atmospheres  it  reaches  a  maximum  of 
181.2°C.  Further  increase  in  pressure  causes  a 
fall  in  the  transition  temperature,  and  at  10,- 
000  atmospheres  the  equilibrium  temperature  is 
only  79.4*^C.  According  to  thermodynamics,  at 
the  maximum  of  the  melting  point  or  transition 
curve  the  specific  gravity  of  the  two  forms 
should  be  the  same,  and  this  is  experimentally 
found  bv  Bridgman  to  be  the  case. 

The  determination  of  the  compressibility  of 
38  elements  in  the  solid  state  by  Richards  and 
his  students  has  been  completed.  The  earlier 
values  were  referred  to  that  of  mercury.  Re- 
cent determinations  of  the  compressibility  of 
mercury,  however,  by  Bridgman,  E.  P.  Bartlett, 
J.  H.  Hodges,  and  Richards,  have  fixed  the  ab- 
solute value  for  the  compressibility  of  this  sub- 
stance within  narrow  limits,  and  a  recalcula- 
tion of  the  compressibility  of  the  other  elements 
to  this  standard  has  accordingly  been  made. 

A  comparison  of  the  compressibilities  of  the 
elements  with  their  atomic  weights  brings  out 
clearly  that  this  quantity,  like  the  atomic  vol- 
umes, coefficients  of  expansion,  reciprocals  of 
absolute  melting  points,  etc.,  is  a  periodic  func- 
tion of  the  atomic  weights.  Particularly  strik- 
ing is  the  close  parallelism  between  the  curves 
of  atomic  volumes  and  of  compressibility. 
Tungsten  has  the  smallest  compressibility  of 
all  the  elements  studied. 

Turniner  to  investigations  at  very  low  pres- 
sures, the  researches  of  Langmuir  on  chemical 
reactions  in  the  presence  of  electrically  heated 
filaments  attract  attention.  It  appears  that 
when  a  wire  of  tungsten,  platinum,  or  palla- 
dium is  heated  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen 
imder  reduced  pressure,  part  of  the  sas  is  dis- 
sociated into  atoms.  This  atomic  hydrogen  has 
remarkable  properties;  it  readily  condenses  on 
glass  surfaces,  reduces  metallic  oxides,  and  re- 
acts with  oxygen  and  phosphorus  at  room  tem- 
perature. Langmuir  has  calculated  that  the 
percentage  dissociation  of  hydrogen  under  a 
pressure  of  760  millimeters  of  mercury  is  0.33 
per  cent  at  2000''K,  and  30.0  per  cent  at 
3500  ^'K,  and  that  the  heat  of  formation  of 
ordinary  from  atomic  hydrogen  is  76,000  calor- 
ies per  gram  mol,  that  is,  appreciably  greater 
than  the  heat  of  combustion  (67,600  calories), 
of  the  same  quantity  of  molecular  (ordinary) 
hydrogen. 

Of  the  work  published  in  1915,  that  of  F. 
Haber  and  his  co-workers  on  the  thermal  and 
chemical  behavior  of  ammonia  stands  out 
prominentlv  as  a  thorough  and  accurate  sci- 
entific study  of  a  problem  of  high  technical  im- 
portance. The  results  of  these  researches  which 
have  occupied  some  four  years,  appear  in  a  se- 
ries of  articles  in  the  Zeitechrift  fur  Elektro- 
chenUe.  As  is  well  known,  the  amount  of  am- 
monia produced  in  the  reaction  N,  -|-  3Ha  = 
2NH,  from  a  given  amoimt  of  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen,  if  all  three  are  allowed  to  remain  in 
contact  until  equilibrium  is  reached,  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  pressure  and  the  temperature 
(see  article  Ammonia  in  the  New  Intebna- 
TiONAL  Encyclopaedia,  2nd  Edition).  Two  of 
the  papers  in  this  series  deal  with  the  e<]^ui- 
librium  constant  characteristic  of  the  reaction 
in  question  at  1  atmosphere  and  at  30  atmos- 
pheres from  SOO*'  to  1100*'C.  The  method  con- 
sisted briefly  in  allowing  a  mixture  of  hydro- 
gen and  nitrogen  to  pass  imder  constant  pres- 


sure through  an  electrically  heated  quartz  tube 
containing  the  osmium  catalyzer.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  tube  was  kept  constant.  The 
volume  of  mixed  gases  passing  into  the  reac- 
tion tube  was  measured  by  means  of  a  gas 
meter.  The  gases  passing  out  were  allowed  to 
flow  through  wash-bottles,  which  removed  the 
ammonia,  and  then  through  a  second  gas  meter, 
readings  on  which  recorded  the  amount  of  nit- 
rogen plus  hydrogen  remaining  un combined. 
Two  other  papers  of  the  series  deal  with  the 
heat  of  formation  of  ammonia  at  0°C  and  from 
466*^0  to  659*^0.  Still  another  paper  discusses 
the  efficiency  of  uranium  nitride  as  a  catalyzer 
and  also  the  dependence  of  the  amount  of  am- 
monia formed  In  the  reaction  on  the  rate  of 
flow  of  the  gases  through  the  catalyzing  cham- 
ber. It  is  £own  that  although  the  percentage 
of  ammonia  in  gases  which  have  passed  over 
the  heated  contact  substance  decreases  with  in- 
crease in  the  velocity  of  flow,  the  total  amount 
of  ammonia  formed  increases  with  the  velocity. 

Ernst  Cohen  has  continued  his  long  series  of 
researches  on  the  allotropy  of  the  metals.  To 
summarize  the  results,  he  has  found  that  most 
of  the  metallic  elements  exist  in  allotropic 
forms  and  that  as  ordinarily  known  the  ele- 
ments are  really  mixtures  of  different  forms  in 
metastable  equilibrium,  the  proportions  of 
these  forms  present  in  any  given  specimen  of 
the  element  depending  upon  the  immediate 
thermal  history  of  the  specimens.  Methods 
have  been  found  for  preparing  the  different  al- 
lotropic forms  in  pure  condition,  and  some  of 
their  physical  properties  have  been  measured. 
The  importance  of  these  discoveries  is  evident. 
The  heat  of  fusion,  heat  of  reaction,  and  in 
general  all  the  physical  and  chemical  proper- 
ties of  an  element  will  differ  for  the  different 
allotropic  modifications.  The  determinations  of 
these  quantities  carried  out  by  previous  in- 
vestigators were,  not  upon  individuals,  as  sup-, 
posed,  but  upon  mixtures  of  indefinite  compo- 
sition. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  values  for  the 
heat  of  fusion  of  sodium  found  in  the  litera- 
ture show  differences  of  80  per  cent  and  those 
for  lead  of  20  per  cent.  The  most  recent  work 
by  Cohen,  and  by  Cohen  and  Heldermann  in- 
cludes studies  of  the  allotropic  forms  of  lead, 
bismuth,  zinc,  antimony,  potassium,  and  cad- 
mium. 

H.  Elamerlingh  Onnes,  who  succeeded  in 
liquefying  helium,  has  continued  his  work  at 
low  temperatures.  His  latest  researches  in- 
clude determinations  of  the  vapor  pressure  of 
hydrogen  from  the  boiling  point  to  the  triple 
point,  and  of  carbon  dioxide  from  —  160°C  to 
—  183**C,  of  the  critical  points  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  and  of  the  specific  heat  and  thermal 
conductivity  of  mercury  at  temperatures  ob- 
tainable with  liquid  helium.  Most  sensational 
are  the  extraordinary  electrical  conductivities 
of  metals  at  temperatures  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  absolute  zero.  The  conductivity  of  lead, 
for  example,  at  1.8''  absolute,  is  200,000,000 
times  as  great  as  at  ordinary  temperature. 
With  such  a  "superconductor*'  Onnes  was  able 
to  imitate  a  permanent  magnet.  A  closed  coil  of 
lead  wire  having  a  resistance  of  736  ohms  was 
placed  in  a  cryostat  containing  liquid  helium, 
and  a  current  of  0.8  amperes  was  induced  in 
the  coil  by  withdrawing  a  magnet  from  its 
vicinity.  After  one  hour  the  current  flowing 
through  the  coil  had  not  appreciably  decreased. 


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The  lead  coil  with  its  continuously .  encirling 
and  but  slowly  decaying  current  has,  of  course, 
the  properties  of  a  magnet.  With  regard  to 
the  theoretical  bearings  of  Onnes's  experiments 
on  "superconductors/'  it  may  be  noted  that 
they  strike  a  death  blow  at  the  electron  theory 
of  electrical  conduction.  Neither  the  number 
of  electrons  in  the  conductor,  nor  their  velocity 
can  possibly  be  conceived  to  increase  with  low- 
ering of  temperature. 

Radium  preparations  have  been  tried  to  such 
an  extent  in  medicine  that  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing to  learn  that  experiments  on  their  effect 
on  plant  growth  have  been  made.  But  the  re- 
sults are  somewhat  startling.  Stoklasa  and 
Zdobrisky  treated  various  plants  with  water  in 
which  radium  emanation  had  been  dissolved. 
Lentils,  peas,  and  wheat  registered  gains  of  62, 
116,  ana  164  per  cent  respectively  over  the 
control  plants  which  had  not  been  so  treated. 
Rusby  used  radium  ore  tailings  to  enrich  sev- 
eral acres  of  land.  Of  the  27  kinds  of  vege- 
tables that  were  planted,  only  three  failed  to 
show  a  gain  under  enrichment  with  radium. 
The  average  increase  was  30  per  cent.  Using 
a  method  which  he  has  developed  for  deter- 
mining the  radio-active  content  in  a  fifty-pound 
sample  of  soil,  Sanderson  analyzed  thirteen  typ- 
ical Minnesota  soils  for  radium  and  thorium. 
Without  exception  the  soils  comparatively  rich 
in  radio-active  content  were  fertile,  and  vice 
versa. 

Oboanic  Chemistbt.  When  one  views  the 
ponderous  volumes  of  Beilstein's  great  refer- 
ence work  on  organic  chemistry,  one  might  al- 
most think  that  that  science  would  present  a 
poor  field  for  further  research.  But  when  one 
considers  that,  as  Holeman  calculated  in  1016, 
of  the  5000  possible  benzol  derivatives  contain- 
ing two  and  three  common  substituents  onlv 
about  7  per  cent  have  actually  been  prepared, 
it  becomes  evident  that  organic  chemistry  still 
offers  alluring  opportunities. 

A  doubting  attitude  toward  t)ie  value  of  pre- 
paring new  compounds  and  new  classes  of  com- 
pound, is  almost  as  unreasonable  to-day  as  it 
would  have  been  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 
Without  knowledge  of  amino  acids,  nothing 
could  have  been  accomplished  toward  protein 
analysis;  sugars  led  to  glucosides;  purmes  to 
nucleic  acids;  butadienes  to  rubber  synthesis — 
the  list  might  be  continued  indefinitely. 

For  several  years  organic  chemistry  has  more 
and  more  concerned  itself  with  substances  of 
biological  origin.  Emil  Fischer's  researches  on 
sugars,  purines,  proteins,  polypeptides,  pep- 
sides,  and  glucosides,  which  comprehend  vol- 
umes, are  all  of  great  importance  biologically. 
Wallaech  has  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the 
terpenes — ^another  class  of  biochemical  sub- 
stances. Wilst&tter,  Piloty,  Hans  Fischer,  and 
others  are  steadily  progressing  toward  knowl- 
edge of  the  structure  of  chlorophyll  and  hsemo- 
globin.  Cellulose,  starch,  cholesterol,  and  the 
still  unexplained  alkaloids  show  signs  of  yield- 
ing to  the  efforts  of  skilled  workers. 

During  the  year,  in  addition  to  his  chloro- 
phyll contributions,  Wi]st9.tter  investigated  the 
red,  blue,  and  violet  coloring  matter  of  fiowers 
and  fruits.  These  substances,  known  as  an- 
thocyans,  are  usually  present  in  small  Quan- 
tities, although  the  dry  petals  from  the  dark- 
red  dahlia  may  contain  as  much  as  20  per  cent 
of  pigment.    The  anthocyans  are  glucosides  or 


galactosides  having  one  or  two  six-carbon  sugar 
molecules  combined  with  the  pigment  proper. 
They  contain  no  nitrogen,  but  are  basic  in  prop- 
erties. In  their  preparation  a  large  quantity 
of  dry  petal  meal  was  extracted  with  glacial 
acetic  acid  or  acidified  alcohol  and  an  impure 
anthocyan  oil  precipitated  with  ether.  Re- 
crystallization  of  the  picrates  gave  nicely  crys- 
talline pure  products.  The  anthocyans  have 
been  named,  from  their  sources:  pelargonin, 
cyanin,  delphinin,  pieonin,  and  so  forth.  Hy- 
drolysis of  these  anthocyans  with  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid  gives  the  sugar  and  the  chlorides 
of  the  anthocyanidin  pigments  of  pelargonidin, 
cyanidin,  delphindin,  or  pceonidin.  Of  these, 
cyanidin  and  pelargonidin  have  been  synthe- 
sized by  Wilst&tter,  and  the  structure  of  nearly 
all  has  been  determined.  They  all  contain  tri- 
hydroxy-benzol,  and  a  mono-,  di-,  or  tri-hy- 
droxy-benzoic  acid  or  its  methoxyl  derivative. 
Anthocyans  occur  in  nature  in  various  colors. 
The  acid  salts  are  red,  the  alkali  salts  blue, 
while  the  neutral  bases  are  violet.  The  blue 
corn  flower  contains  the  potassium  salt  of  cya- 
nin. Anthocyan  solutions  are  decolorized  by 
isomerization  in  neutral  solution,  but  the  color 
is  restored  by  addition  of  acid.  WilstUtter  has 
suggested  that  vari-colored  petals  are  so,  not 
because  of  heterogeneous  distribution  of  oxi- 
dases, but  because  of  differential  hydrogen  ion 
concentration. 

Osborne  and  Mendel's  feeding  experiments 
with  isolated  proteins  have  now  yielded  suf- 
ficient data  to  justify  some  discussion  of  their 
biochemical  aspects.  All  previous  experiments 
of  this  nature  had  been  limited  to  more  or  less 
empirical  food  mixtures.  Now,  however,  that 
chemistry  is  in  possession  of  a  number  of  com- 
paratively pure  vegetable  proteins  and  of  a 
knowledge  of  their  hydrolysis  products,  a  really 
scientific  study  of  nutrition  has  become  pos- 
sible. Albino  rats  were  chosen  for  the  experi- 
ments in  question  for  several  reasons:  their 
food  requirements  are  small,  and  they  are  eas- 
ily cared  for;  their  growth  rate  has  been  ex- 
haustively investigated  by  the  Wistar  Insti- 
tute, and  the  life  period  was  found  to  be  only 
about  three  years,  so  that  a  short  period  is 
comparable  with  several  years  in  man.  It  has 
for  years  been  recognized  that  gelatin  lacks 
one  or  more  constituents  necessary  to  the  main- 
tenance of  life.  Osborne  and  Mendel  have 
found  that  zein  from  corn,  hordein  from  bar- 
ley, and  possibly  other  proteins  are  inadequate 
to  sustain  life,  although  fully  digested.  But 
the  addition  of  the  amino-acids,  known  as 
tryptophane  and  lysine,  renders  the  above  pro- 
teins fully  adequate  to  sustain  life  and  pro- 
mote normal  growth.  Some  few  amino-acids 
are  apparently  incapable  of  synthesis  by  the 
body;  but  disproportionate  amounts  of  the  va- 
rious amino-acids  in  the  ingested  protein,  or 
even  the  absence  of  some  of  them  does  not  seem 
to  affect  nutrition.  Rats  have  been  bred 
through  three  or  four  generations  upon  a  diet 
containing  glycocoll-free  casein  as  the  sole  pro- 
tein. A  female  rat  fed  on  sugar,  starch,  fat, 
and  a  mixture  of  Inorganic  salts  simulating 
bone-ash,  produced  a  litter  of  three  young  and 
nourished  them  to  normal  growth  rate.  These 
facts  suggest  some  startling  questions.  It 
seems  extremely  improbable  that  these  pecu- 
liarly fed  rats  differed  from  normally  fed  ones 
in  body  composition.    But  then,  are  we  to  con- 


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elude  that  from  a  protein  of  such  peculiar  con- 
stitution as  gliadin,  from  carbohydrates,  and  a 
mixture  of  inorganic  salts,  the  female  has  syn- 
thesized her  own  complex  body  constituents  and 
also  secreted  a  perfectly  normal  milkf  Fats, 
too,  are  not  essential,  as  rats  were  srown  at 
normal  rates  on  food  completely  free  from  fat. 
The  Question  whether  growth  may  be  deferred 
until  old  age  was  also  taken  up  with  very  in- 
teresting results.  Since  gliadin  is  incapable  of 
promoting  growth,  although  furnishing  •  body 
maintenance,  young  rats  were  kept  on  such  food 
until  long  after  the  period  at  which  normal 
growth  would  have  ceased.  But  when  now  a 
mixed  diet  was  introduced,  the  animals  grew 
to  adult  size  at  a  normal  rate.  Is  there  stored 
in  each  animal  a  substance  capable  of  promot- 
ing growth  under  proper  nutritive  conditions, 
but  remaining  quiescent  and  itself  unchanged 
as  long  as  the  nutritive  conditions  are  abnor- 
mal? 

Among  items  of  interest  is  the  isolation,  by 
Scherndal,  of  "azulene,"  the  blue  hydrocarbon 
occurring  in  very  small  quantity  in  terpene 
oils.  Scherndal  ascribes  to  it  the  formula 
CxftHu  and  believes  it  to  be  highly  unsaturated. 
The  substance  was  isolated  by  its  solubility  in 


Chemistbt,  General  Progress  of.)  The  great 
war  in  Europe  had  a  potent  influence  on  indus- 
trial chemistry.  The  sending  of  men  engaged 
on  researches  either  in  laboratories  or  universi- 
ties to  the  front  of  course  prevented  the  usual 
amount  of  chemical  investigations.  Curiou»lv 
enough  also  the  impossibility  of  sending  finished 
products  from  Germany  and  others  of  the  O-n- 
tral  Powers  to  the  usual  markets  compelled  the 
undertaking  of  measures  to  produce  artielfs 
never  before  made  outside  of  Germany  in  order 
to  fill  the  demand  for  current  work.  This  was 
conspicuously  the  case  in  the  United  Stat^e^s, 
where  extraordinary  efforts  were  made,  notablv 
in  the  case  of  dyestuffs,  aided  by  the  efforts  of 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commeri'e, 
to  bring  about  the  manufacture  of  materials  in 
America  to  replace  those  that  formerly  came 
from  Europe. 

C^ANiZATiONS.  The  Ninth  International 
Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry  was  to  have 
been  held  in  Petrograd,  Russia,  during  Aug. 
1-14,  1916,  under  the  presidency  of  P.  I.  Walden, 
but  was  postponed  owing  to  the  war  in  Europe. 
The  previous  congress  was  held  in  Washington. 
D.  C,  during  Sept.  4-13,  1912.  ITie  American 
Chemical  Society  held  its  spring  meeting  in  New 
Orleans,   La.,   during  April    1-3,   1915,   and   it* 


concentrated  HjSO^c  ;.       .    -«    r.,     «t   a^     j     - 

Fischer  having  already  prepared  theophylline-  summer  meetmg  m  Seattle,  Wash.,  during  Aug. 
fflucoside  and  methyl-glucoside,  has  gone  a  step  31-Sept.  3,  1916.  The  total  membership  had 
further  in  the  synthesis  of  nucleic  acids  by  reached  the  large  number  of  7400.  The  president 
combining  the  above  glucosides  with  phosphoric  during  the  year  was  Charles  H.  Herty  of  the 
acid  At  the  present  stage,  the  purine-gluco-  University  of  North  Carolina, 
side-phosphoric  acids  appear  to  bear  to  nucleic  The  Society  of  9^eDiif*jJf?d»«^fy^J^^^^.^*f 
^acfids  somewhat  the  same  relation  as  polypep- 
tides beax  .  x^  |.jjg  proteins. 

Although  K-j^^^i^g  in  result,  the  attempt  of 
^''^f^Z^ene  is  intcraphite  from  various  sources 
lu  ?^S2^  dissolves  like,  , ting.  The  general  rule 
*''?L«/«  that  graphite  is  .^oupled  with  the  hy- 
L'rbon  inoleSul^  pointed  to  tne^e  up  of  cyclic 
aiifih  an  experiment.  lirability  of 

Japan  lac  has  been  shown  by  Majima  . 
aiBt  in  large  part  of  1-pentadecyl  2,3  dihydrox/^on- 
benzol.     The    substances    urushiol    and    hydro- 


urushiol  were  isolated  and  shown  to  give  pal- 
mitic acid  on  oxidation.  By  a  very  nice  syn- 
thesis, using  2,3  dimethoxy-phenyl-propionic- 
acid  chloride  and  the  sodium  salt  of  decylace- 
tylene  and  subsequent  reduction,  Majima  ob- 
tained  a   substance    identical   with   the   methyl 


thirty-fourth  annual  meeting  in  the  Municipal 
School  of  Technology  in  Manchester,  England, 
during  July  14-16,  1916,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prof.  George  G.  Henderson.  The  member- 
ship was  reported  as  4017,  as  compared  with 
4142  last  year.  The  formation  of  local  sections 
in  Edinburgh  and  the  east  of  Scotland  was  an- 
nounced. Dr.  Charles  C.  Carpenter,  of  the 
South  Metropolitan  Gas  Co.,  London,  was 
chosen  president,  and  for  the  next  meeting 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  was  selected. 

TBtt-^NATIOWAL    EXPOSITIOW    OF    CHEMICAL    INDTJS- 

there  wab  During  the  week  of  Sept.  20-26,  1915, 
ace  in  Newvheld  in  the  New  Grand  Central  Pal- 
of  Chemical  ihOfork  City  a  National  Exposition 
demonstrations  oS^ustries  &t  which  exhibits  and 
ery,  and  apparatus^^r^ducts,  processes,  machin- 


ether  of  hydro-urushiol.  Hydro-urushiol  is  of  dustries  were  made  J&PPHed  in  the  chemical  in- 
interest  inasmuch  as  naturally  occurring  ana-  from  all  over  the  UnifSCy  leading  manufacturers 
logs  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the  substance  portant  of  these  werp  fiTxJStates.  The  most  im- 
would  be  1-pentadecyl  3,4  dihydroxy-benzol,  but  the  efforts  made  by  chemiafX:?  that  demonstrated 
the  synthesis  of  this  compound  eliminated  this    States  from  foreim  dom*     foLjo  '^ee  the  United. 

o'  chemicals  and  coal  tir*  X'^  «  the  matter 
consequence  of  this  fact  f k^  ""Xtb-  It  was  in 
various  bases  used  in  makino?^!^^^,\Ve»  that  the 
as  dyestuffs,  including  The*^^^^.P?o\t-»ives  as  well 
processes  of  Thomas  1.   Edison       ,!X?   ™*^^    *^^ 

nf   x^'^^acted  con- 


spicuous  attention.     A 


hypothesis. 

An  organic  review  would  be  incomplete  with- 
out mention  of  Abderhalden.  Towara  the  close 
of  the  year  he  published  his  synthesis  of  op- 
tically   active    fats.     Naturally    glycerides    are 

known  which  exhibit  optical  activity,  but  these        ^  -.ac^ea  con- 

are  composed  of  optically  active  acids  and  in-  of  exhibits  demonstrated  thn*  *^®  ^full  line 
active  glycerol.  In  this  new  class  of  substances  ing  in  the  United  States.  iuihL/^^<^3k^  eiist- 
the  middle  glycerol  carbon  atom  is  asymetric.  war  began,  have  been  used  h^^'l^o'  ^^n&^Al  the 
These  new  (fits  are  prepared  from  1-  or  ^^^  >n<iust"al  mdependencr^and  ^^u*"^  cainSUSa 
d-epihydrin  alcohol  or  active  amino-glycerol  and  put  of  both  chemicals  and  color-  ®  ^HylKut- 
exhibit  rotations  of  .6-2.6.  No  optically  active  »»^;;^"["«_^^otion  pictures  ^^^^  ^*«  stialdny 
fats  occur  in  nature,  and  it  seems  probable  that  chemical  experts  added  to  the  vam  ^^^^res  Ihy 
no  enzyme  exists  which  might  resolve  racemic  hibits.  ^  «\^^lar  exhibition  wlg^^  ?f  the  eT 
?:t  miUes  (if  such  exist)  into  their  com-  '^^.JTLl^^nr'^^^^^^^ 
Pon:^:^ ^_  r^ .,..       ,««,        also    the  leading  chemists  of  the  UnU^X'?*^^ 


CHEMISTBT,        Industrial.     (See 


stai;^- 


of 


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Relations  gt  Chemistby  to  Goyebnkents. 
The  members  of  both  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry  and  the  Chemical  Society  of  London, 
through  their  respective  councils,  proffered 
their  services  to  the  British  government,  and 
in  consequence  their  membership  was  classified 
so  that  it  was  possible  to  furnish  at  a  short 
notice  a  reliable  and  complete  statement  as  to 
the  sources  of  supply  of  particular  chemical 
products,  also  to  keep  the  government  informed 
from  the  manufacturer's  point  of  view  of  dif- 
ficulties arising  from  time  to  time  as  respects 
labor,  materials,  transport,  etc.,  which  may  be 
interfering  with  the  output  of  essential  chem- 
ical products. 

Also  an  Advisory  Council  of  scientific  men 
was  organized  in  Great  Britain  whose  duties 
were  to  report  to  a  committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  on  (1)  proposals  for  institutini^  spe- 
cific researches;  (2)  proposals  for  establishing 
or  developing  special  institutions  or  depart- 
ments of  existing  institutions  for  the  scientific 
study  of  problems  affecting  particular  indus- 
tries and  trades;  and  (3)  the  establishment  and 
award  of  research  studentships  and  fellowships. 

A  Navy  Invention  Board  was  created  in  Eng- 
land, the  duties  of  which  are  to  co5rdinate  and 
encourage  scientific  work  in  relation  to  require- 
ments of  the  navy.  Among  the  chemists  ap- 
pointed to  the  board  are  Herbert  B.  Baker, 
George  T.  Beilby,  Percy  F.  Ftankland,  William 
J.  Pope,  and  Sir  William  Crookes. 

The  French  government,  by  a  presidential  de- 
cree, has  created  a  special  bureau  in  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce,  for  the  duration  of  the 
war,  charged  with  matters  touching  the  pro- 
duction and  supply  in  France  of  chemical  and 
pharmaceutical  products.  The  duties  of  this 
bureau  are  to  determine  the  amount  of  exist- 
ing stocks  of  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  prod- 
ucts, to  estimate  the  present  volume  of  pro- 
duction, and  to  secure  production  and  distri- 
bution for  the  future. 

In  the  United  States  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  announced  the  appointment  on  September 
12th  of  a  Naval  Advisory  Board  of  Inventions, 
consisting  of  23  members  with  Thomas  A.  Ed- 
ison as  chairman.  The  representatives  selected 
from  the  American  Chemical  Society  are  Wil- 
liam R.  Whitney  of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and 
I^eo  H.  Baekeland  of  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Medals.  On  January  22nd  the  W.  H.  Perkin 
medal  was  awarded  to  Edward  Weston  for  his 
work  in  connection  with  the  development  of  the 
industries  connected  with  the  electro-deposition 
of  metals,  the  electrolytic  refining  of  copper, 
the  construction  of  electric  generators  and  mo- 
tors, the  electric  illumination  by  arc  and  by 
incandescent  light,  and  the  manufacture  of 
electrical  measuring  instruments.  The  Willard 
Gibbs  medal  of  the  Chicago  Section  of  the  Amer- 
ican Chemical  Society  was,  on  April  17th,  pre- 
sented to  Arthur  Amos  Noyes  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  for  his  inves- 
tigations in  industrial  chemistry. 

Metals.  AlunMnum.  One  of  the  results  of 
the  war  in  Europe  was  the  transfer  to  Amer- 
ican interests  of  the  large  aluminum  plant  in 
Stanley  Co.,  N.  C,  by  the  foreign  owners. 
There  was  a  growing  importance  in  the  Amer- 
ican production  of  this  metal  as  shown  by  the 
value  of  its  exports,  which  were  $1,101,920  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1914,  and  a  year  later 
had  increased  to  $3,245,799.     Tungsten,  now  so 


largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  high  speed 
and  other  special  flteels,  as  well  as  in  steel  used 
for  armament,  was  formerly  obtained  solely 
from  Germany,  but  in  order  to  meet  the  demand 
in  England,  a  plant  was  established  in  Lanca- 
shire during  the  year.  Thorium  and  Meso- 
thorvum.  The  salts  of  these  rare  metals  are 
derived  from  the  mineral  monazite  which  is  im- 
ported from  Brazil,  but  the  increasing  use  of 
thorium  nitrate  for  incandescent  gas  mantles 
has  agitated  the  possible  utilization  of  the 
domestic  supply.  Monazite  is  found  in  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Idaho,  and  on  the  Pacific 
Slope. 

Radium,  The  demand  for  this  valuable  sub- 
stance is  also  increasing.  The  Bureau  of  Mines 
reported  a  new  and  cheaper  process  for  pro- 
ducing radium  that  differs  from  former  meth- 
ods not  only  in  detail  but  in  apparatus  used. 
The  time  of  operation  is  much  shorter  than  in 
any  other  plant  now  producing  radium,  and  the 
commercial  recovery  is  much  greater.  More- 
over, the  cost  of  production  is  less.  The  mar- 
ket price  of  radium  has  been  from  $120,000  to 
$160,000  a  gram,  but  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  with 
the  plant  under  its  supervision,  is  now  able 
to  produce  it  for  $37,000  a  gram.  The  applica- 
tion of  radium  in  the  treatment  of  cancer  and 
other  malignant  growths  had  made  rapid  prog- 
ress during  the  years  1914  and  1915.  Hospitals 
that  have  worked  with  as  much  as  half  a  gram 
of  radium  reported  cures  in  larger  numbers. 
The  extent  and  variety  of  cures  reported  and 
the  helpful  effects  of  the  gamma  rays  at  depth 
are  almost  in  direct  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  radium  that  can  be  applied  at  one  time 
to  the  patient.  Uranium  and  Vanadium.  In 
connection  with  radium  there  is  reported  a 
growing  demand  for  the  salts  of  these  metals. 
The  production  of  their  compounds  was  greater 
during  the  year  than  ever  before  in  this  coun- 
try. (See  The  Rare  Earth  Industry  by  S.  J. 
Johnstone,  London,  1915.) 

Iron  and  Steel.  In  October  the  Ford  Motor 
Company  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  announced  that  they 
had  succeeded  in  making  gray  iron  and  mal- 
leable iron  direct  from  the  initial  heat  of  the 
blast  furnace.  The  elements  while  still  in  a 
molten  state  are  changed,  and  refined,  and  fi- 
nally finished,  and  poured  direct  into  molds  for 
gray  iron  or  malleable  castings,  as  the  case 
may  be.  This  new  process  not  only  effects  a 
great  economy  in  the  cost  of  manufacturing, 
but  also  produces  gray  and  malleable  iron  of 
much  greater  strength  and  durability.  In 
January  word  came  from  Sheffield,  England, 
that  Thomas  Firth  and  Sons  had  produced  a 
stainless  steel,  which  is  nonrusting,  unstain- 
able,  and  untarnishable.  This  steel  is  especially 
adapted  for  table  cutlery,  as  the  original  pol- 
ish is  maintained  after  use,  even  when  brought 
in  contact  with  the  most  acid  foods,  and  it 
only  requires  ordinary  washing  to  cleanse.  It 
is  said  that  it  retains  a  keen  edge  -  like  that 
of  the  best  double-shear  steel,  and,  as  the  prop- 
erties are  inherent  in  the  steel  and  are  not  due 
to  any  treatment,  knives  can  readily  be  sharp- 
ened on  a  "steel"  or  by  using  the  ordinary 
cleaning  machine  or  knifeboard.  Later  the 
same  results  were  claimed  by  the  Krupp  Plant 
in  Essen,  Germany,  by  the  announcement  that 
they  had  developed  a  process  for  making  steel 
that  was  absolutely  immune  against  rust  and 
even  against  the  action  of  nitric  acid. 


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PoTABBiuii  Salts.  With  the  cessation  of  the 
customary  importation  of  potash  salts  from 
Germany  and  the  danger  of  the  interruption 
being  continued  indefinitely,  there  was  a  re- 
newed interest  in  the  possibility  of  securing  a 
supply  of  these  much  needed  compounds  from 
domestic  sources.  Attention  has  been  called  in 
previous  volumes  of  this  Yeab  Book  to  the 
work  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
searching  the  United  States  for  sources  of  po- 
tassium salts  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
fertilizers  in  place  of  those  imported.  Several 
sources  were  developed  during  the  year.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  kelp  which  occurs  in  such 
vast  quantities  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where 
three  varieties  of  seaweeds  and  rockweeds  are 
found  that  contain  large  amounts  of  potassium 
salts.  It  was  claimed  that  in  the  shallow 
waters  of  the  Pacific  Coast  there  was  produced 
each  year  without  cultivation  a  crop  which,  if 
simply  collected  and  dried,  possesses,  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, at  the  market  prices  of  potash  and  nitro- 
r  before  the  war,  a  value  of  $160,000,000. 
used  as  a  source  of  commercial  potassium 
chloride,  the  product  would  have  a  value  of 
$90,000,000.  The  total  cost  of  production  was 
estimated  at  $3.83  a  ton,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: cutting  and  collecting,  $1.83;  drying, 
grinding,  hauling,  loading,  etc.,  $1;  and  general 
expenses,  interest,  etc.,  $1.  The  total  value  of 
the  ton  based  upon  potash  ($9.07),  nitrogen 
($6.93),  and  phosphoric  acid  ($0.76)  is  $16.76. 
Thus  the  margin  for  the  refining  of  the  crude 
material  is  nearlv  $12  a  ton,  which,  with  the 
potassium  chloride  selling  as  high  as  $2.06  a 
ton,  seemed  to  offer  a  possible  profit.  In  March 
a  sale  of  10,000  tons  was  reported  in  New 
York  from  this  source  at  a  price  similar  to 
that  paid  for  the  imported  article.  During  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1914,  1,060,000  long  tons 
of  potash  salts  were  imported  from  Germany 
for  fertilizers  which  sold  at  about  $38  a  ton. 
In  October  it  was  reported  from  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  that  a  deposit  of 
alunite  in  Utah  was  being  worked,  with  the  re- 
sult that  200  tons  of  the  mineral  had  been 
milled,  yielding  two  tons  of  a  product  contain- 
ing 99  per  cent  of  potash.  It  was  claimed  that 
from  this  source  alone  adequate  supplies  of 
potassium  salts  for  agricultural  purposes  could 
be  obtained  without  any  further  importation 
from  abroad. 

An  economical  method  of  decomposing  feldspar, 
of  which  there  are  large  deposits  in  the  United 
States,  resulting  in  the  salvage  of  potassium 
carbonate  and  of  aluminum,  was  announced 
during  the  year.  From  the  potassium  carbon- 
ate thus  recovered  almost  any  of  the  salts  of 
potassium  could  be  obtained.  The  process  con- 
sists of  heating  the  feldspar  with  limestone 
and  iron  oxide  at  a  temperature  of  about  2200 
degrees  F.,  which  produces  a  partly  fused  mass 
that  is  easily  decomposed  by  a  weak  acid. 
From  this  product  the  potash  salts  can  readily 
be  extracted  for  further  purification.  A  prac- 
tical tryout  for  another  method  of  obtaining 
potash  fertilizer  was  announced  at  a  New  Or- 
leans distillery  where  molasses  was  used  in 
large  quantities.  It  is  a  fact  that  106  tons  of 
potash  are  wasted  daily  by  the  26  or  more  dis- 
tilleries where  molasses  is  subjected  to  process 
of  fermentation.  The  sugar  beet  waste  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  said,  could  be  made  to  yield 
enough  potash  to  supply  the  entire  present  de- 


mand of  the  chemical  manufacturers.  About  a 
third  as  much  is  lost  annually  in  scouring  the 
country's  raw  wool  clip,  and  much  of  this  could 
be  recovered.  Still  another  source  is  the  salt 
incrusted  valley  floor  commonly  known  as 
Searles  Lake,  in  southeastern  California,  where 
a  deposit  of  4,000,000  tons  of  water  soluble 
potai^  salts  is  available. 

Other  sources  mentioned  include  the  seaweed 
from  the  Sargasso  Sea  in  the  central  Atlantic 
Ocean  which,  however,  does  not  yield  as  much 
potash  or  nitrogen  as  the  Pacific  kelp.  The 
ash  of  seaweed  collected  on  the  shores  of  Ma- 
nila Bay  gave  16  per  cent  of  potash,  an  un- 
usually large  amoimt.  Deposits  of  potassium 
salts  in  Spain  are  also  known,  notably  from 
the  province  of  Catalufia,  but  their  commercial 
development  has  never  been  successful.  The 
production  of  potassium  salts  in  the  United 
States  from  the  different  sources  mentioned  is 
chemically  feasible  in  each  instance,  but  the 
high  cost  of  railroad  transportation  is  the  fac- 
tor that  has  thus  far  prevented  their  commer- 
cial success. 

Synthetic  Ammonia.  The  London  Journal 
of  Qa9  Lighting  published  a  process  which  al- 
lows of  gas  producers  being  utilized  to  manu- 
facture ammonia  by  synthesis  that  has  been 
devised  by  Adolph  Bambach.  By  its  aid  at- 
mospheric nitrogen  can  be  fixed  in  the  form  of 
metallic  compounds,  both  carbureted  and  nitro- 
genous (cyanides,  cyanamides,  etc.),  or  metal- 
lic nitrogen  compoimds  (nitrides),  and  these 
substances  decomposed,  either  with  saturated 
and  superheated  steam  or  with  water,  to  ex- 
tract the  ammonia. 

New  Method  of  Making  Sulphttbic  Acid. 
The  new  feature  of  the  method  was  that  the 
gases  employed  are  drawn  downward  through 
a  spiral  flue  in  place  of  being  drawn  through 
lead  chambers  or  intermediate  towers.  It  was 
asserted  that  the  resistance  of  gases  to  the 
downward  pull  and  the  constant  change  in  their 
course  through  the  spiral  tend  to  mix  them 
very  intimately.  The  fact  that  the  gases  con- 
stantly impinge  on  the  walls  of  the  spiral  flue, 
which  can  be  cooled  either  by  air  or  water, 
makes  it  practicable  to  maintain  the  gases  at 
a  temperature  most  favorable  for  the  efficient 
yield  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  laboratory  tests  in 
which  the  spiral  was  used  practically  all  the 
sulphur  dioxide  was  oxidized  to  sulphuric  acid, 
only  traces  being  lost  through  escape  or  in  the 
system.  The  lead  spiral,  however,  was  not  in- 
tended to  replace  the  Glover  tower,  nor  to  do 
away  with  the  Gay-Lussac  tower.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  while  the  lead  spiral  would  take 
considerable  lead,  the  great  reduction  it  would 
effect  in  the  chamber  space  would  make  it  pos- 
sible to  construct  a  plant  with  considerably 
less  lead  than  is  required  in  the  ordinary  cham- 
ber system. 

Bone  Black  and  Charcoal.  Waste  bone 
black  formerly  discarded  by  refiners  of  sugar, 
petroleum,  and  glucose,  and  by  other  decolor- 
izing institutions  was  the  subject  of  serious 
study  in  Germany.  The  method  of  refining 
largely  determined  what  disposition  would  hi 
made  of  the  waste  material,  and  in  large  sugar 
refineries  filtration  processes  are  essential.  If 
the  waste  bone  black  is  used  as  an  absorbent 
during  the  filtration  it  cannot  be  sold  for  other 
industrial  purposes  without  being  revived  and 
again  purified.    Recently  filter  presses  were  so 


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improved  that  the7  largely  could  be  used  in- 
stead of  bone  bladk.  Various  German  patents 
treat  of  processes  to  purify  bone  black  after  it 
has  been  used  as  an  absorbent.  One  of  these 
patents  covered  a  process  to  purify  bone  black, 
using  a  gaseous  sulphurous  acid  instead  of  di- 
luted hydrochloric  acid. 

German  chemists  were  making  progress  in 
the  use  of  animal  charcoal  for  medical  pur- 
poses. It  was  discovered  by  experiments  on 
animals  that  different  kinds  of  poisonous  sub- 
stances, such  as  morphine,  strychnine,  and  car- 
bolic acid,  lose  partly  or  entirely  their  effect 
when  given  with  animal  charcoal.  Not  only 
can  directly  administered  poisons  be  neutral- 
ized in  their  effect  upon  the  organism  by  ani- 
mal charcoal,  but  also  poisonous  substances 
which  arise  in  the  intestinal  canal,  as  in  the 
case  of  cholera.  The  action  of  animal  charcoal 
eictends  to  the  bacteria  themselves,  which  it 
mechanically  absorbs,  destroying  their  destruc- 
tive influence.  The  labors  of  Freundlich,  Licht- 
witz,  Glassner,  and  Suida  show  that  the  ab- 
sorbing quality  of  animal  charcoal  is  promoted 
by  the  presence  of  the  phosphates,  sulphates, 
and  nitrates  of  calcium,  sodium,  and  potassium. 
The  rapidity  of  the  absorption  increases  with 
the  temperature,  so  that  the  heat  of  the  animal 
body  aids  the  therapeutic  effect  of  the  animal 
charcoal. 

Utilization  of  Peat.  Late  in  the  year  a 
new  process  for  the  distillation  of  peat  was 
patented  in  Great  Britain  and  other  countries 
by  which  coke,  fuel  oil,  tuluol,  ammonia,  par- 
affin wax,  and  acetone  are  obtained  in  valuable 
quantities.  The  process  is  in  practical  opera- 
tion and  promises  to  revolutionize  the  peat  in- 
dustry and  to  furnish  sources  of  fuel  oil  to 
the  British  navy  which  may  make  it  independ- 
ent of  foreign  oils.  Peat,  as  taken  from  the 
peat  beds,  contains  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of 
water  and  is  of  a  fibrous  cellular  structure,  so 
that  by  hydraulic  pressure  it  is  possible  to 
lower  the  water  content  only  slightly.  An  im- 
portant part  of  the  new  process  is  a  macerator 
that  breaks  up  the  fibrous  cellular  tissue  and 
thus  allows  a  more  complete  separation  of  the 
water.  After  passing  through  the  macerator  the 
broken  peat  is  compressed  into  briquets,  which 
are  dried  until  they  contain  not  more  than 
25  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  then  fed  into  a 
hopper  from  which  they  pass  into  the  retort. 

Irish  agriculturists  were  greatly  interested 
in  the  discovery  by  W.  B.  Bottomley  of  a 
method  of  converting  ordinary  peat  into  a 
highly  concentrated  fertilizer  by  a  simple  and 
inexpensive  bacterial  treatment.  Professor  Bot- 
tomley's  principle  is  that  bacteria  facilitate  the 
chemical  processes  connected  with  plant  growth, 
and  the  peat  bacterial  culture  immensely  fa- 
cilitates food  absorption  by  v^etables  and  other 
farm  crops.  He  has  exhibited  specimens  of  ma- 
ture potatoes  grown  in  seven  weeks  by  the  use 
of  the  peat  fertilizer,  and  says  that  an  acre 
of  land  treated  with  one  ton  of  the  peat  ma- 
nure has  produced  41  per  cent  more  potatoes 
than  an  acre  treated  with  80  tons  of  ordinary 
farm  manure. 

The  Swedish  experts  commissioned  to  exam- 
ine Laval's  method  of  carbonizing  peat  reported 
the  processes  employed  were  as  follows:  The 
peat  is  diluted  with  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
the  resulting  pap  is  then  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  150^  to  250''G.    The  chemical  changes 


thus  produced  leave  a  drr  mass  of  an  increased 
heat  value,  though  reduced  in  volume,  the 
physical  constitution  of  the  material  being  al- 
tered in  such  a  way  that  water  can  be  removed 
in  a  much  larger  proportion  than  would  have 
been  possible  with  the  original  peat.  'After  the 
water  has  been  partially  removed  by  pressure 
or  suction  a  product  is  left  containing  50  to  70 
per  cent  of  water.  By  artificial  drying  peat 
powder  is  then  easily  prepared,  to  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  briquets. 

According  to  a  Friesland  newspaper,  the  mu- 
nicipal gas  works  at  Akkrum,  Holland,  was  ex- 
tracting gas  from  peat  mixed  with  coal.  It 
was  stat^  that  if  peat  alone  were  used,  the 
retorts  would  become  too  hot,  because  of  the 
steam  created  by  the  moisture  always  found  in 
peat.  Accordingly  the  retorts  are  filled  with 
two  parts  in  weic^ht  of  coal  to  one  part  of  peat. 
The  peat — as  well  as  the  coal — produces  aoout 
30  cubic  meters  of  gas  per  100  kilos  (220.40 
pounds).  The  gas  produced  from  this  mixture 
was  declared  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  The 
peat  is  entirely  consumed  in  the  process,  and 
therefore  yields  no  by-products,  as  coal  does  in 
tar  and  coke. 

Cement  teou  Beets.  Excellent  cement  was 
being  made  in  France  from  a  by-product  in  the 
process  x>f  making  beet  sugar.  The  scum  that 
forms  when  beets  are  boiled,  and  which  has 
been  thrown  away,  consists  largely  of  calcium 
carbonate  and  water;  and  from  70,000  tons  of 
beets  treated,  4000  tons  of  calcium  carbonate 
is  obtained;  to  this  1100  tons  of  clay  is  added, 
the  resulting  product  being  3162  tons  of  ex- 
cellent cement.  The  scum  is  pumped  into  large 
tanks,  where  it  is  allowed  to  dry  partially; 
finely  divided  clay  is  then  mixed  with  it;  the 
mixture  is  thoroughly  amalsramated  by  b(»,ters 
for  an  hour  and  burned  in  a  rotary  kiln,  in 
the  same  way  as  Portland  cement.  The  clinker 
is  then  removed  and  pulverized  into  cement. 

Cabbidb  Slime  as  Building  Material.  In 
the  manufacture  of  acetylene  gas  (from  cal- 
cium carbide  and  water),  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  so-called  carbide  slime  are  left  in  the 
apparatus.  In  view  of  the  large  increase  in 
the  consmnption  of  acetylene  since  the  out- 
break of  the  war^  a  report  of  R.  Schumann  on 
the  utilization  of  carbide  slime  was  of  interest. 
The  material  could  not  be  used  as  fertilizer, 
phosphorous  salts  being  absent,  but  might  be 
used  as  water  purifier  when  of  a  certain  com- 
position. Experiments  with  the  employment  of 
carbide  slime  as  building  material  yielded  the 
best  results.  When  mixM  with  40  per  cent  of 
building  sand,  the  carbide  slime  formed  a  usable 
mortar  which  set  well  and  bound  the  bricks 
firmly.  This  new  building  material  was  to  be 
thoroughly  tested  by  further  experiments. 

A  New  Allot.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment was  experimenting  in  the  Brooklyn  Navy 
Yard  with  a  new  alloy  of  aluminum  and  cop- 
per invented  by  L.  G.  Smith,  intended  for  use 
in  army  and  navy  projectiles.  It  had  the  ap- 
pearance of  gold  and  was  said  to  have  the 
wearing  qualities  of  Egyptian  bronze  that  was 
manufactured  some  6000  years  ago,  but  which 
has  never  been  reproduced  since.  There  were 
about  10  alloys  of  aluminum  and  copper  on 
the  market  which  had  been  used  as  substitutes 
for  copper  and  bronze.  The  chief  difficulty  in 
getting  a  composition  of  durability  is  to  get 
the  aluminum  and  copper  to  fuse.    Tests  were 


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also  being  made  on  battleships,  where  the  al- 
loy is  being  made  to  make  fittings  water  tieht. 
Other  experiments  are  being  made  at  the  United 
States  mint  in  Philadelphia  with  a  view  of 
substituting  the  alloy  for  the  copper  in  one- 
cent  pieces. 

Explosives.  From  Sweden  a  new  explosive 
was  announced  4hat  was  very  powerful,  and 
one  of  the  principal  ingredients  is  ammonium 
perch  lor  ide  prepared  in  a  special  way.  "Kauso- 
lit,"  as  it  was  called,  has  great  explosive  power 
and  seems  especially  adapted  for  shells.  An 
important  discovery  was  reported  by  the  Du 
Pont  Powder  Company  whereby  the  time  re- 
quired to  manufacture  smokeless  powder  was 
greatly  reduced.  Under  a  new  method  adopted, 
the  drying  process  took  only  5  days  instead  of 
60  days  as  heretofore.  Only  21  days  were  re- 
quired to  turn  out  the  finished  product. 

Papeb  Making.  Among  the  various  materi- 
als advocated  during  the  year  as  sources  for 
making  paper  was  the  long  leaf  pine  in  the 
United  States,  while  from  Mexico  came  reports 
of  excellent  results  from  the  use  of  henequen 
stalks  and  waste.  Wrapping  paper  and  straw- 
board  were  made  in  Venezuela  from  an  aquatic 
plant  that  grows  in  large  quantities  on  the 
margins  of  Lake  Tacangua.  A  commercial 
paper  pulp  was  made  from  the  fibres  of  the 
Neuquen  and  Misiones  pines  in  Argentina,  and 
it  was  said  that  the  fibres  from  these  two  va- 
rieties of  pine  trees  when  heated  with  bisul- 
phite yielded  a  pulp  surpassing  in  whiteness 
that  of  paper  materials  imported  from  Europe. 
From  the  searches  made  for  raw  materials  to 
supply  the  demand  for  paper  in  Great  Britain 
reports  were  received  from  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  suggesting  the  use  of  papyrus  and  the 
tambookie  grass,  while  from  India  the  use  of 
Hedychium  coronarium  was  recommended.  Ex- 
periments in  Brunswick,  Germany,  showed  that 
willow  tree  bark  and  broom  fibres  failed  to 
yield  satisfactory  results,  but  from  the  fibre  of 
hop  vines  an  especially  long  fibre  was  avail- 
able from  which  paper  could  be  made. 

A  curious  experience  growing  out  of  the  war 
has  been  the  Mortage  of  filter  paper  used  in 
analytical  and  technical  chemistry  owing  to  the 
inability  of  obtaining  stocks  of  this  material 
from  Germany.  To  meet  this  condition  the 
firm  of  W.  and  R.  Balston  of  Maidstone,  Eng- 
land, makers  of  the  Whatman  drawing  paper, 
began  to  produce  for  the  first  time  in  England 
a  filtre  paper  that  would  compete  with  the 
German  article.  Reports  showed  that  their 
paper  had  been  used  with  universal  approval. 
In  the  United  States  the  problem  came  before 
the  Bureau  of  Standards  and  was  being  studied 
by  the  experts  of  that  bureau  from  the  point 
of  view  that  the  present  time  was  opportune 
for  starting  this  new  branch  of  an  important 
industry. 

Soap  from  Sugar.  The  discovery  is  an- 
nounced from  Hamburg  of  a  method  of  manu- 
facture of  soap  from  sugar,  of  which  Germany 
has  plenty,  instead  of  from  oil,  which  is  scarce. 
In  the  past  it  had  been  possible  to  use  sugar 
only  in  soaps  that  had  little  value.  By  the 
new  method,  it  is  claimed,  the  soap  produced 
is  not  only  fine  and  delicate,  but  it  acts  as  ef- 
ficiently in  salt  water  as  in  fresh,  a  fact  that 
may  make  the  soap  valuable  for  the  navy. 

New  Method  of  Extracting  Lemon  Oil.  A 
new  chemical  process  invented  by  Professor  Li- 


otta  of  Catania,  Italy,  may  revolutionize  the 
lemon  oil  industry.  All  previous  chemical 
processes  caused  changes  in  the  properties  and 
smell  of  the  essence,  but  the  new  method  does 
not  affect  the  oil  in  any  way.  The  new  proc- 
ess is  as  follows:  The  lemons  are  mashed  in 
a  large  receptacle,  and  an  acid,  the  nature  of 
which  is  secret,  is  added.  This  acid  causes  the 
essential  oil  to  separate  and  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, from  which  it  is  drawn  off.  A  chemical 
reagent  is  then  added  to  the  acid  mixture  that 
liberates  the  acid  and  permits  its  recovery. 
The  residue,  consisting  of  lemon  juice,  pulp, 
and  peel,  and  foreign  matter,  is  then  sold  to 
citrate  manufacturers.  The  new  process,  it 
was  claimed,  would  save  about  2^  per  cent 
more  oil  than  the  old  hand  process.  The  cost 
of  extraction  is  2.3  cents  for  1000  lemons,  and 
the  process  requires  22  minutes. 

Rubber.  The  advent  of  the  war  led  to  new 
uses,  as  there  was  rubber  so  treated  as  to 
make  vessels  unsinkable;  there  was  the  buffer 
of  rubber  that,  when  collisions  occur  at  sea, 
gives  only  a  slight  tap;  there  was  the  sheath- 
ing of  rubber  for  battleships,  from  which  the 
enemy's  shot  and  shell  will  rebound;  and  there 
were  the  rubber-studded  blocks  for  fixing  steel 
rails  in  chairs. 

Successful  attempts  were  made  to  manufac- 
ture a  substitute  for  rubber  tubing  out  of  masses 
of  solidified  glue.  These  tubes,  whose  trade 
name  is  "Sonjatin,"  are  better  than  those  of 
rubber  for  certain  purposes,  since  they  are  more 
impervious  to  gases  and  more  resistant  to  heat. 
It  was  also  claimed  that  they  do  not  grow  rot- 
ten so  quickly  as  rubber  and  that  when  en- 
cased in  a  suitable  envelope  they  will  withstand 
high  pressure.  The  inventor,  J.  Traube,  stated 
that  they  were  also  peculiarly  suited  for  con- 
ductors of  petroleum  and  gasoline. 

A  valuable  discovery,  it  was  claimed,  had 
been  made  in  Ceylon  in  the  use  of  coconut 
water  as  a  rubber  coagulant.  This  method,  if 
as  successful  as  experiments  would  indicate, 
should  prove  a  great  boon  to  the  rubber  indus- 
try. Millions  of  gallons  of  coconut  water, 
which  now  runs  to  waste  on  estates  in  copra 
drying  and  desiccation  mills,  can  be  utilized  as 
a  profitable  by-product,  besides  producing  a  su- 
perior coagulant  in  making  rubber. 

New  Processes  fob  Coal  and  PErrROLEUM 
Products.  There  had  becai  in  recent  years  a 
growing  demand  for  gasoline  owing  to  its  in- 
creasing use  for  motor  vehicles.  Also  for  many 
years  the  United  States  had  imported  from 
Germany  the  special  products  of  the  distillation 
of  coal,  such  as  benzol  and  tuluol,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  coal  tar  dyestuffs.  In  Marcli 
the  Bureau  of  Mines  announced  that  Dr.  Walter 
F.  Rittman,  a  member  of  its  staff,  who  had 
been  working  in  the  chemical  laboratories  of 
Columbia  University,  had  found  that  by  treat- 
ing vapor  of  petroleum  instead  of  the  liquid 
itself  he  could  get  greater  pressure  than  by  use 
of  the  still.  In  the  still,  pressures  of  100 
pounds  are  high,  and  an  undue  increase  of  heat 
after  that  pressure  is  reached  is  usually  dan- 
gerous. Gas,  however,  is  compressible  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  100  pounds  without 
danger  of  explosion  in  apparatus  of  the  type 
used,  and,  in  his  experiments,  Rittman  has  suc- 
ceeded in  working  with  a  pressure  greater  than 
500  pounds.  With  such  pressures  and  with  a 
degree    of    heat    perfectly    controllable    by    the 


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means  used,  the  Rittman  process  not  only  de- 
livers gasoline  to  the  amount  of  from  60  to  75 
per  cent,  but  permits  him  to  obtain  benzol  and 
tuluol  at  will.  By  this  invention,  it  was  claimed, 
200  per  cent  more  gasoline  could  be  obtained 
from  a  given  quantity  of  petroleum  than  had 
been  possible  m  the  past.  Rittman's  process 
waa  patented  "for  the  general  use  of  the  pub- 

A  still  further  application  of  the  "cracking" 
principle  was  the  discovery  bv  Dr.  Walter  0. 
Snelling  of  the  conversion  of  natural  hydro- 
carbons of  all  kinds,  such  as  vaseline,  red  wax, 
fuel  oil,  etc.,  into  "crude  oil"  ca|pable  of  yield- 
ing gasoline.  To  brin^  about  this  change,  the 
oil  or  wax  is  heated  m  a  tight  vessel,  but  it 
is  apparently  necessary  that  the  ratio  of  the 
volume  occupied  by  the  substance  to  the  empty 
space  above  it  should  not  vary  above  or  below 
certain  limits.  Not  less  than  one-tenth  of  the 
vessel  nor  more  than  one-half  must  be  occupied 
bv  the  oil,  otherwise  the  change  does  not  take 
place.  The  reason  for  this  remains  yet  undis- 
covered, but  the  advantages  of  being  able  to  ob- 
tain gasoline  from  a  great  variety  of  substances 
instead  of  from  only  one  is  obvious. 

W.  A.  Hall,  an  American  inventor,  has  pat- 
ented in  England  a  process  which  he  described 
as  follows:  "I  take  a  cheap  hydrocarbon,  such 
as  gas  oil,  and  I  subject  this  to  a  temperature 
of  about  eSO^'C,  under  a  pressure  of  about  70 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  in  a  suitable  coil  of 
pipe,  whereby  the  oil  is  cracked  and  a  consid- 
erable portion  gasified.  From  this  coil  of  pipe, 
called  a  'converter'  the  mixture  of  oil  vapor 
and  gas  produced  is  passed  through  suitaole 
coolers  whereby  the  temperature  of  the  mixture 
is  lowered  to  about  200''C.,  and  the  mixture 
fractionally  condensed  in  a  suitable  separator 
with  or  without  reduction  of  pressure.  Those 
portions  of  the  mixture  nonvolatile  at  about 
200^C.  are  thus  extracted  in  the  liquid  state. 
The  gas  and  the  remaining  fractions  of  liquid, 
volatile  at  the  approximate  temperature  of 
200*^ C,  may,  if  the  pressure  has  not  been  re- 
duced, be  conducted  directly  through  a  cooler 
and  condensed  imder  the  pressure  of  the  con- 
verter, or,  if  the  pressure  has  been  reduced  in 
the  separator,  may  be  recompressed  by  means  of 
any  suitable  mechanical  compressor,  and  then 
condensed  under  pressure  in  the  cooler."  A 
plant  yielding  about  6000  gallons  daily  of  this 
"motor  spirit^'  was  erected  in  England  and  the 
product  taken  over  by  the  British  government. 

By  the  discovery  of  these  processes  the  United 
States  thus  became  independent  of  foreign  man- 
ufacturers; for  by  their  use  not  only  was  cheaper 
gasoline  possible,  but  the  crude  materials, 
notably  benzol  and  tuluol,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives,  coal  tar  dyestuffs,  syn- 
thetical drugs,  etc.,  are  now  readily  available. 
See  The  Chemiatry  of  Petroleum  and  Its  Sub- 
atitutes,  by  C.  K.  Tinker  and  F.  Challinger 
(London,  1015). 

New  Dyestuffs  and  Pbocesses.  The  estab- 
lishment of  new  plants  in  the  United  States  and 
the  allied  countries  led  to  the  publication  of 
improved  processes  and  of  new  dyestuffs.  The 
most  important  in  the  United  States  was  the 
formation  of  the  Pearsite  Company  with  a  cap- 
ital of  $2,000,000,  and  with  the  equipment  of 
a  large  plant  in  Cannel  City,  Ky.  For  this 
corporation  the  announcement  was  made  that 
their  operations  were  based  on  a  new  process 


dependent  upon  the  use  of  oxidized  cannel  coal. 
In  September  they  began  the  delivery  of  the 
following  colors:  a  s^  blue,  a  direct  black, 
a  benzol  red,  a  wool  black,  and  a  direct  green. 
The  output  at  first  was  5000  poimds  of  colors 
a  week,  but  the  expectation  was  of  reaching 
40,000  pounds  a  day  when  the  plant  was  in 
complete  running  order.  H.  A.  Frasch,  a  New 
York  chemist,  revived  his  discovery  of  "pe- 
tracin,"  a  compound  made  from  the  sludge  acid 
of  petroleum  refining  and  from  which  he  had 
been  successful  in  making  a  series  of  colors  and 
dyestuffs.  From  England  came  the  annoimce- 
ment  early  in  the  year  of  the  successful  em- 
ployment of  sulphur  dyes  for  dyeing  wools  and 
fabrics  other  than  cotton  (for  which  sulphur 
dyes  have  been  hitherto  exclusively  applied). 
It  had  been  discovered  that  these  sulphur  dyes 
might  be  used  with  success  for  wool,  silk,  arti- 
ficial silk,  hemp,  and  other  fibres,  which  can  be 
dyed  either  separately  or  in  combination.  As 
sulphur  dyes  are  cheap  and  will,  as  opposed  to 
aniline  dyes,  add  to  the  properties  of  milled 
cloth,  the  new  process  is  a  valuable  one.  Dur- 
ing the  year  it  was  announced  that  the  chemical 
department  at  Leeds  University  in  England  has 
succeeded  in  manufacturing  a  cheap  dyestuff 
for  use  in  dyeing  khaki  for  soldiers'  uniforms. 
Formerly  England  was  compelled  to  use  dye- 
stuffs  of  German  manufacture  on  all  khaki 
cloth.  See  Dyeatuffa  and  Coal  Tar  Products,  by 
Thomas  Beacall  and  others  (London,  1915). 

Dtestxtft  Situation  in  the  United  States. 
In  August,  1914,  in  consequence  of  the  war  in 
Europe  the  importation  of  dyestuffs  practically 
ceased.  At  that  time  the  consumption  of  arti- 
ficial dyestuffs,  derived  chiefiy  from  coal  tar 
products,  had  an  annual  value  of  about  $15,000,- 
000,  of  which  the  imports  from  Germany  were 
$7,850,000,  Switzerland  $910,000,  and  Great 
Britain  and  other  countries  $370,000 ;  with  added 
amounts  paid  for  duties,  about  $2,000,000,  and 
expenses  and  profits,  the  sum  annually  expended 
for  foreign  coal  tar  dyes  exceeded  $12,000,000. 
Besides  the  textile  industries,  the  paint,  varnish, 
and  ink  trades,  the  paper  industry,  the  feather 
and  leather  trades,  and  other  minor  industries 
were  threatened  with  disaster  unless  some  means 
were  devised  to  furnish  them  with  the  needed 
coloring  materials.  Accordingly  on  January 
26th,  the  United  States  Senate  directed  the  Sec- 
retary of  Commerce  to  report  fully  the  facts 
relating  to  the  supply  of  dyestuffs  for  American 
textile  and  other  industries,  as  well  as  the 
sources  of  such  supply,  the  extent  and  nature 
of  the  supply,  and  similar  information.  The 
duty  of  gathering  this  information  was  assigned 
to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce, and  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Norton,  the  well 
equipped  and  expert  chemist,  prepared  a  pre- 
liminary report  on  Dyestuffs  for  American  Tex- 
tile and  other  Industries,  which  was  issued  over 
date  of  March  20th.  Meanwhile  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  there  were  four  establishments 
in  the  United  States  having  an  annual  output 
valued  at  about  $3,000,000.  Each  of  these  plants 
specialized  in  their  products  for  some  particular 
trade  as  woolen  goods,  cotton,  paper,  etc. 

The  problem  therefore  was  how  to  increase 
the  output  from  various  sources  to  meet  the 
demands  for  dyestuffs  that  formerly  came  from 
abroad,  and  also  how  to  retain  the  industry 
permanently  in  the  United  States.  One  import- 
ant element  in  the  demonstration  of  the  power 


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of  what  American  ingenuity,  enterprise,  and  capi- 
tal were  capable  of,  was  the  National  Exposition 
of  Chemical  Industries,  held  in  September,  where 
it  was  shown  that  the  output  of  dyestuffs  had 
quadrupled  within  the  year.  The  field  was  one 
that  offered  considerable  promise,  and  soon 
many  of  the  American  coke  ovens  equipped  their 
plants  with  appliances  for  the  proauction  of 
coal  tar  bases  from  which  the  dyes  were  manu- 
factured. The  most  difficult  part  of  the  prob- 
lem was  the  manufacture  of  the  intermediate 
compounds  from  which  the  finished  dyes  are 
produced.  Of  these  aniline  oil  is  tiie  most  im- 
portant and  by  May  it  was  officially  reported 
that  the  supply  of  this  article  was  sufficient  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  dyestuff  makers  in  the 
United  States.  New  corporations  with  ample 
capital  were  organized  by  large  financial  inter- 
ests, such  as  the  Du  Pont  Company  of  Delaware 
and  the  Standard  Oil  Company  of  New  York 
and  numerous  plants  in  various  places  were 
started.  New  and  improved  processes,  and  new 
dyes  were  constantly  reported  during  the  year. 
A  report  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce  towards  the  close  of  the 
year  showed  the  1915  production  of  American 
coal  tar  dyestuffs  to  be  at  the  rate  of  approxi- 
mately 9000  short  tons  a  year,  whereas  in  1913 
the  rate  was  3000  tons.  It  was  now  confidently 
expected  that  by  the  end  of  1916  the  output 
would  reach  16,000  tons  as  against  22,000  tons 
imported  from  Germany  in  1913.  In  that  year 
practically  all  of  the  intermediates  used  by  do- 
mestic color  manufacturers  came  from  abroad; 
at  the  end  of  1915  they  were  produced  in  the 
United  States.  It  was  predicted  that  by  1920 
the  great  bulk  of  artificial  dyes  consumed  in 
the  United  States  would  be  made  in  America 
from  American  raw  materials.  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  selling  prices  of  these  materials 
were  higher  than  those  of  similar  products  when 
importcMl,  but  it  was  demonstrated  during  the 
year  that  the  United  States  could  produce  suffi- 
cient coal  tar  raw  material  for  the  needs  of  a 
complete  domestic  coal  tar  industry  inclusive 
of  explosives  and  dyes,  provided  there  was  a  cer- 
tainty of  outlet  as  to  volume  and  continuity. 
Attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  domestic 
manufacturers  were  prohibited  by  law  from  mak- 
ing use  of  cooperative  devices,  such  as  pools, 
trusts,  manufacturing  and  selling  agreements, 
and  the  like,  while  such  devices  were  regarded 
as  lawful  and  encouraged  by  European  govern- 
ments, so  that  alterations  in  the  tariff  were  es- 
sential in  which  the  consumer  in  the  first  place, 
and  the  public  in  general  must  share  in  the 
burden  imposed  if  the  dyestuff  industry,  so 
auspiciously  started,  was  to  be  preserved  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Dyestuff  Situation  in  Europe.  The 
conditions  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and 
elsewhere  in  Europe  were  somewhat  similar  to 
those  described  as  existing  in  the  United  States. 
In  England,  without  attempting  to  discuss  the 
details,  the  conditions  were  met  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  national  company  in  Manchester  in- 
corporated as  the  "British  Dyes  (Ltd.)*'  with  a 
capital  of  £2,000,000  which  the  government  in- 
creased by  £1,500,000  at  4  per  cent  to  be  paid  in 
25  years;  also  the  government  added  £100,000 
for  a  research  laboratory.  The  largest  existing 
plant  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
dyes  at  Huddersfield  was  secured  and  actual 
manufacture   began    in    May.    It   was   believed 


that  from  these  works  the  greater  portion  of 
the  artificial  dyestuffs  required  in  England  could 
be  supplied.  The  vogue  for  brown  in  1915  was 
said  to  be  due  to  the  existence  of  large  stocks 
of  this  color  in  England  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war,  and  with  its  exhaustion  gray  was  said  to 
have  become  fashionable. 

From  Italy  came  reports  of  shortage  of  dye- 
stuff,  resulting  in  the  closing  of  dyeing  establish- 
ments. The  factories  used  for  the  production 
of  munitions  of  war,  it  was  said,  would  be  con- 
verted into  plants  for  the  manufacture  of  dye- 
stuffs  when  hostilities  cease.  In  Russia  a  pro- 
ject for  the  manufacture  of  coal  tar  colors  was 
advanced.  It  was  to  have  a  capital  of  $5,000,- 
000,  of  which  about  one-half  was  to  be  supplied 
by  firms  requiring  dyestuffs  in  their  business. 
In  France  a  similar  plan  was  adopted.  A  na- 
tional company  was  organized  with  an  initial 
capital  of  $10,000,000,  the  government  to  ad- 
vance $5,000,000  at  the  rate  of  $1  for  every  $5 
subscribed  by  the  public  and  an  additional 
$2,500,000  at  the  rate  of  $1  for  every  $4  sub- 
scribed. For  the  government  advances  4  per 
cent  was  to  be  paid.  A  grant  of  $500,000  for 
a  research  laboratory  was  also  made  by  the 
government.  The  condition  in  Switzerland  be- 
came a  most  peculiar  one.  The  factories  in  that 
country  were  dependent  upon  Germany  for  their 
crude  material,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
Germanv  declined  to  furnish  any  more  crude 
materials  unless  Switzerland  would  refuse  to 
export  the  finished  dyestuffs  to  countries  with 
which  Germany  was  at  war.  As  the  manufac- 
turers in  Basel  declined  to  do  this  they  soon 
found  themselves  compelled  to  close  their  fac- 
tories. Under  these  circumstances  they  made 
overtures  to  American  manufacturers  for  crude 
materials,  agreeing  to  pay  for  them  with  finished 
products.  See  The  British  Coal-tar  Industry, 
Its  Origin,  Development,  and  Decline,  by  Walter 
M.  Gardner   (London,  1915). 

Cotton  Substitutes.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  war  in  Europe  there  was  an  unusual  demand 
for  cotton,  both  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
explosives,  as  gun  cotton,  and  in  medicine,  as 
absorbent  cotton.  Reports  from  Germany  indi- 
cated the  use  of  ordinary  wood  pulp  as  a  basis 
for  high  explosives,  although  the  presence  of 
rosin  and  oxy-cellulose  renders  its  action  un- 
certain as  well  as  highly  dangerous  to  those 
manufacturing  the  explosive.  French  experts 
reported  that  the  ballistic  power  of  nitro-lignose 
was  not  equal  to  that  of  gun  cotton.  "Lignin" 
is  made  of  pine  cellulose  and  is  sold  in  Berlin 
as  a  substitute  for  absorbent  cotton.  It  was 
said  to  absorb  blood  better  than  cotton  but  was 
not  as  good  a  dressing  for  a  wound.  In  Sweden 
cellulose  wadding  from  chemical  wood  pulp  was 
made  for  dressing  wounds.  It  is  sold  in  thin 
sheets,  like  tissue  paper,  but  crimped.  The  Eng- 
lish found  the  bog  moss,  Spagnum  cymhUifolium, 
of  great  value  as  a  surgical  dressing.  It  is  anti- 
septic, soft,  light,  and  cool,  and  has  only  to  be 
sterilized  and   placed   in   flannel  bags  for   use. 

AsPHTXiATiNO  Gases.  A  curious  phase  of 
industrial  chemistry  was  to  be  found  in  the  use 
of  poisonous  gases  for  the  injury  of  combatants 
in  warfare.  This  method  of  destruction  called 
upon  knowledge  from  most  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  and  each  step  in  the  evolution  of  its 
use  was  an  additional  application  of  scientific 
knowledge.  As  used  in  May,  Sir  John  French 
reported  that  the  gas  was  emitted  from  cylinders 


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during  a  period  of  four  and  a  half  hours.  The 
greenish  color,  the  strong  odor,  and  the  great 
density  of  the  gas,  causing  it  to  flow  along  the 
ground  seemed  to  indicate  that  it  was  chlorine; 
moreover,  the  symptoms  of  those  inhaling  it 
tended  to  confirm  this  opinion.  Later  it  was 
said  that  three  kinds  of  gas  were  used,  namely, 
chlorine,  bromine,  and  nitrogen  peroxide.  The 
last  was  described  as  paralyzing  the  soldiers 
from  their  waist  down.  According  to  Grerman 
authorities  the  gas  was  described  as  a  s^thetic 
product  of  some  complexity,  the  ingredients  so 
far  defying  analysis.  Sodium  siuphate  and 
oxygen  are  said  to  be  used  to  neutralize  the 
effects  of  these  gases.  Masks  impregnated  with 
neutralizing  chemicals  were  used,  and  those  em- 
ployed by  the  Germans  were  said  to  contain 
sodium  hypophosphite.  According  to  the  Bulle- 
tin of  the  Alliance  Francaise,  a  ^'flquid  flre"  was 
also  used.  This  was  emitted  from  portable  fire 
extinguishers  that  throw  out  a  fiame  that  burns 
immediately  and  spontaneously.  The  waves  of 
flame  had  an  effective  length  and  breadth  of  20 
meters.  They  had  immediate  and  deadly  effect 
and  they  drove  back  the  enemy  as  a  result  of 
their  development  of  heat.  The  translated 
orders  for  the  use  of  these  "flame  projectors'* 
said:  "As  they  burn  for  a  duration  of  a  minute 
and  a  half  to  two  minutes,  and  as  they  can  be 
interrupted  at  will,  it  is  recommended  to  make 
only  isolated  and  brief  jets  of  flame  so  as  to  be 
able  to  fight  against  several  objectives  with  a 
single  fl  lling  dose," 

CHEMl^nYf  Oboanio.  See  Chbmistbt, 
General  Progress  of,  under  section  so  entitled. 

CHENG  TSENG  TU,  Chinese  admiral  and 
administrator,  assassinated  Nov.  10,  1916. 
He  was  formerly  commander  of  the  Chinese 
navy,  and  during  the  revolution  of  1913  was 
active  against  the  revolutionists.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Monarchist  party.  With  his 
private  secretary  he  was  traveling  to  the  Japan- 
ese Consulate  at  Shanghai  to  attend  the  cor- 
onation reception,  when  he  was  fired  upon  by 
two  revolutionaries,  and  was  fatally  wounded. 

CHESS.  Activities  in  chess  were  naturally 
lessened  during  1915  as  a  result  of  the  Euro- 
pean war,  but  several  interesting  matches  were 
contested  in  the  United  States.  Jos6  R.  Capa- 
blanca  was  the  central  figure,  perhaps.  The 
Cuban  champion,  on  February  22nd,  in  Brook- 
lyn, played  sixty-five  games  simultaneously 
against  eighty-four  opponents.  This  feat  ap- 
peared to  have  been  an  inspiration  to  F.  J. 
Marshall,  the  United  States  champion,  for  later 
in  the  year  at  Portland,  Ore.,  he  conducted 
games  on  ninety-two  boards  at  one  and  the  same 
time. 

The  most  important  tournament  was  held  in 
Brooklyn  from  April  19th  to  May  10th,  there 
being  eight  competitors,  including  Marshall  and 
Capablanca.  The  latter  won  the  first  prize  with 
thirteen  victories  and  one  defeat.  Marshall 
finished  second,  winning  twelve  games  and  losing 
two.  O.  Chajes  and  A.  Kupchik  divided  the 
third  and  fourth  prizes,  each  capturing  seven 
games  and  losing  a  like  number. 

The  annual  championship  tourney  of  the  New 
York  State  Chess  Association  resulted  in  a  vic- 
tory for  A.  Kupchik,  who  won  all  four  of  his 
games.  The  Brooklyn  Chess  Club  won  the 
second  annual  championship  tourney  of  the 
Metropolitan  Chess  League,  the  mdividual 
honors  going  to  Edward  Lasker. 


The  twenty-third  annual  tournament  of  the 
American  Quadrangular  College  League  was  won 
by  Columbia  with  10  victories  and  2  defeats. 
Ihrinceton  was  second,  winning  5^  games  and 
losing  6^,  and  Harvard  third  with  a  score  of 
5-7.  Yale  was  last,  losing  8^  games  and  win- 
ning only  3H*  The  Triangular  College  League 
contest  resulted  in  a  tie  between  Cornell  and 
Pennsylvania,  each  team  winning  12  games  and 
losing  4.     Brown  failed  to  make  a  single  score. 

ChESTEBTON,  Gilbert  KkiTH.  See  Lit- 
KRATURE,  English  and  American,  P.oetry. 

CHETNE,  Thomas  Kellt.  English  Hebraist 
and  Bible  critic,  died  Feb.  16,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  London  in  1841;  educated  at  Worcester 
College,  Oxford,  and  G5ttingen;  and  in  1868 
appointed  a  Fellow  of  Balliol  College.  His  writ- 
ings on  subjects  connected  with  the  Bible  began 
in  that  year,  and  continued  practically  until 
his  death.  From  1885,  he  was  rector  of  Ten- 
dring,  Essex.  Of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Company  he  was,  in  1886,  a  member,  and  was 
Bampton  lecturer  in  1889,  and  American  lecturer 
on  the  history  of  religions  in  1897-98.  In  some 
respects,  he  was  generally  the  most  original 
writer  among  the  English  scholars  of  his  time 
who  devoted  themselves  to  Old  Testament 
studies.  In  recent  years  the  special  theories 
which  he  advocated  failed  to  win  acceptance. 
From  1885-1908  he  was  Oriel  Professor  of  the 
Interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  at  Oxford,  from 
which  position  ill  health  compelled  him  to  resign, 
after  which  he  was  made  professor  emeritus. 
His  published  writings  include:  Notes  and 
Criticisme  on  the  Hebrew  Tewt  of  Isaiah  ( 1868) ; 
Job  and  Solomon  (1887);  Foundations  of  Old 
Testament  Criticism  (1894);  Jevoish  Religious 
Life  after  the  Eaoile  (1898) ;  The  Christia/n  Use 
of  the  Psalms  (1899)  ;  The  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Judah  (1908);  and  The  Ttco 
Religions  of  Israel  (1910).  He  was  an  editor 
of  the  Encyclopcedia  Bihlica  and  the  Critica 
Bihlica.  He  also  contributed  articles  on  re- 
ligious subjects  to  the  Encyelopiedia  Britannioa, 
He  received  the  honorary  degrees  of  D.Litt.  and 
D.D. 

CHICAGK).     See  Illinois. 

CHICAao,  University  of.  An  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  in  dlhicago, 
111.,  in  1893.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  4324. 
The  faculty  numbered  314,  not  including  assist- 
ants and  special  lecturers.  There  were  no  not- 
able changes  in  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and 
no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  received.  The 
productive  funds  at  the  end  of  Uie  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $19,446,184,  and  the  income  was 
$1,094,253.  The  library  contained  at  the  same 
date  431,544  volumes. 

CHICAGO,  BOCK  ISLAND,  AND  PA- 
CIFIC SITUATION.    See  Railways. 

CHILD  LABOR.  While  no  striking  events 
occurred  in  1915  in  the  development  of  child 
labor  restrictions  the  progress  of  recent  years 
was  maintained.  In  a  number  of  States  cam- 
paigns were  carried  on  to  improve  child  labor 
laws.  Some  of  the  improvements  sought  were 
the  14  year  age  limit;  the  eight-hour  day;  no 
night  work  under  16;  regulation  of  street 
trades;  issuance  of  work  permits  including  proof 
of  age;  educational  qualifications;  and  physical 
examinations.  The  regulation  of  home  work  in 
the  large  cities  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  most 
serious  problems  confronting  those  working  for 


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improved  conditions  in  Northern  States.  Thus 
in  New  York  City  alone  there  are  13,000  licensed 
tenement  houses,  each  with  from  1  to  40  families 
where  children  may  be  employed.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  prevent  the  employment  of  children 
even  of  a^  4  and  6  in  home  work.  Here  is 
the  stronghold  of  the  sweated  trades.  The  solu- 
tion advocated  by  many  is  the  complete  prohi- 
bition of  home  industries,  thus  forcing  the  trades 
into  regular  factories  where  inspection  is  easy 
and  sanitary  regulations  can  be  enforced.  In 
New  York,  also,  the  canning  industry  proves 
difficult  to  control.  Out  of  42  canning  companies 
prosecuted  by  the  State  Labor  Department,  only 
2  were  convicted  and  these  were  fined  only  $20; 
in  such  cases  local  sentiment  plays  a  determin- 
ing part.  In  North  and  South  Carolina  effort 
was  made  to  secure  a  14-year  age  limit  and  an 
eight-hour  day,  and  an  increase  in  educational 
requirements.  In  Illinois,  California,  Con- 
necticut, Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Missouri 
child  labor  committees  were  at  work  to  secure 

Srotection  for  young  children  from  the  moral 
angers  of  street  trades  and  to  limit  hours  of 
work  to  eight  per  day.  In  Texas  they  sought 
to  extend  the  present  age  limit  to  a  number  of 
occupations  not  now  covered  and  also  to  limit 
the  number  of  hours  of  work.  In  Utah  and 
Maine  they  endeavored  to  extend  the  14-year 
limit  to  occupations  other  than  those  in  fac- 
tories, and  provide  an  eight-hour  day  and  no 
night  work.  In  Vermont  the  programme  was 
to  extend  the  14-year  limit  to  occupations  not 
now  considered  and  prohibit  work  under  16  in 
quarries  and  dangerous  occupations.  New  York 
advocates  worked  for  the  eight-hour  day.  In 
Pennsylvania  committees  triol  to  abolish  the 
exemption  law  allowing  boys  under  14  to  work 
at  night  in  glass  factories,  to  regulate  street 
trades,  and  to  require  physical  examinations. 
The  Oregon  Board  of  Inspectors  of  Child  Labor 
noted  a  decided  change  in  the  character  of  ap- 
plications for  permits  during  the  past  two  years, 
due  to  three  causes:  (1)  less  effort  to  employ 
very  young  children  in  store,  shop,  or  factory; 

(2)  better    codperation   of   school  authorities; 

(3)  rulings  of  the  Industrial  Welfare  Commis- 
sion as  to  the  minimum  wage  law.  Many  firms 
refuse  to  employ  children  under  16. 

In  Congbebs.  For  several  years  the  passage 
of  a  national  child  labor  law  under  the  authority 
of  Congress  to  regulate  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce  has  been  agitated.  This  resulted 
early  in  the  year  in  the  passage  of  the  Palmer- 
Owen  Bill  by  the  House  by  a  vote  of  237  to  46. 
A  long  filibuster  by  Senator  Overman  of  North 
Carolina  prevented  it  from  passing  the  Senate 
before  adjournment  in  March.  The  bill  aims 
to  remove  the  disadvantages  which  the  States 
not  employing  child  labor  are  placed  under, 
when  competing  with  those  which  permit  it,  by 
forbidding  the  shipment  in  interstate  commerce 
of  the  products  of  mills,  factories,  and  canneries 
upon  which  children  under  14  have  been  em- 
ployed and  of  products  of  mines  or  quarries 
employing  children  under  16,  or  of  any  products 
on  which  children  of  14  to  16  have  worked  at 
night  or  for  more  than  eight  hours  a  day. 
Among  the  Representatives  voting  against  the 
bill  by  States  were:  Georgia,  9;  North  Ctoo- 
lina,  7;  Mississippi,  6;  Texas,  5;  South  Caro- 
lina, 5;  Alabama,  3;  all  of  these  States  are 
backward  in  child  legislation. 

Legislation.    The  principal  child  labor  enact- 


ments of  the  year  were  the  following.  A  bitter 
fight  in  the  Alabama  Legislature  did  not  suc- 
c^  in  reducing  the  number  of  hours  per  week 
below  60,  but  a  law  was  passed  raising  the  age 
limit  to  14  years  after  1916  in  all  occupations, 
including  street  trades;  provisions  for  enforce- 
ment were  strengthened.  California  fixed  10 
years  as  a  minimum  for  street  trades.  Delaware 
established  an  unpaid  labor  commission  to  have 
charge  of  the  women  and  child  labor  inspectors. 
Florida  enacted  a  compulsory  education  law 
operative  when  adopted  locally  and  strengthened 
the  child  labor  law.  Iowa  limited  the  hours  of 
children  under  16  to  eight  per  day  and  regulated 
street  trades  and  messenger  service.  Maine 
passed  a  nine-hour  day  and  54-hour  week  law 
for  children  imder  16,  canneries  being  excepted 
from  its  operation.  The  Missouri  iSenate  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  draft  a  code  of  laws 
relating  to  children.  Pennsylvania  took  a  long 
step  forward  in  child  labor  legislation  by  pro- 
viding a  51 -hour  week,  and  a  14-year  age  limit. 
It  was  required  that  for  children  of  ages  14  to 
16  eight  hours  out  of  the  61  per  week  must  be 
devoted  to  vocational  training  wherever  facili- 
ties exist.  An  appropriation  of  $1,000,000  was 
made  to  provide  suitable  schools.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  there  were  employed  in  Pennsylvania 
industries  nearly  30,000  girls  and  over  46,000 
boys  of  ages  14  to  16  or  under.  Many  thousands 
of  the  bojrs  had  been  employed  as  breaker  boys 
at  coal  mines  and  as  carriers  in  glass  factories, 
but  machines  had  already  been  installed  in  some 

? laces  to  do  this  work.  In  South  Carolina  and 
exas  compulsory  school  attendance  laws  were 
passed,  the  latter  applying  to  ages  up  to  14,  but 
the  former  being  optional  with  each  district  as 
to  age  limit.  A  new  Michigan  law  raised  the 
age  limit  duriuff  school  hours  to  15  years,  and 
prohibited  child  labor  in  certain  occupations 
deemed  inimical  to  health  and  morals.  Utah 
forbade  employment  of  children  under  the  aee 
of  14  in  or  about  places  where  tobacco  is  sold 
or  in  any  pool  room.  Wyoming  forbade  the  em- 
ployment of  children  under  18  years  in  brew- 
eries, saloons,  or  concert  halls,  or  under  14  as 
messengers  to  such  places;  and  established  a 
nine-hour  day  for  children  under  14  years. 

The  Eleventh  Attntjal  Conference  under 
the  auspices  of  the  National  Child  Labor  Com- 
mittee was  held  at  San  Francisco  late  in  May 
It  was  preceded  by  a  joint  conference  of  that 
Committee  with  the  Southern  California  Child 
Labor  Committee  at  Los  Angeles.  The  session 
at  San  Francisco  included  an  impressive  pageant 
designed  to  impress  upon  the  West  the  advan- 
tages of  restri<^ing  child  labor  before  it  became 
a  problem.  A  session  was  devoted  to  the  pro- 
posed Federal  children's  charter  (see  below), 
and  there  was  considerable  discussion  of  a 
Federal  child  labor  law.  Other  subjects  in- 
cluded the  struggle  for  better  conditions  in  the 
South;  street  trades  in  California;  and  local 
needs  of  western  communities. 

Federal  Charter.  At  the  1914  and  1915  ses- 
sions of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee 
there  was  considerable  discussion  of  a  proposed 
national  children's  charter.  This  was  first  sug- 
gested by  Roger  N.  Baldwin  of  St.  Louis  and 
strongly  advocated  by  Edward  N.  Clopper.  A 
committee,  lead  by  C.  C.  Carstens  of  the  M[assa- 
chusetts  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Children,  was  appointed  to  further  the  idea. 
It  enlisted  the  support  of  numerous  agencies, 


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CHILD  LABOB 


139 


CHILE 


including  P.  P.  Claxton,  Commissioner  of  Bdu- 
cation,  and  Julia  C.  Lathrop  of  the  Children's 
Bureau.  The  proposal  is  based  on  the  belief 
that  all  child  welfare  activities  should  be  co- 
ordinated under  a  systematic  and  well-reasoned 
plan.  It  is  pointed  out  that  multitudes  of 
agencies  are  now  in  the  field,  each  striving  to 
promote  its  own  activities,  whereas  with  co- 
operation and  a  imified  goal  mudi  more  effective 
work  could  be  done.  As  outlined  by  Mr.  Clop- 
per  of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee  this 
charter  would  include  three  principal  sections. 
One  of  these  dealing  with  the  "preservation  of 
life  and  health"  would  outline  the  principles  to 
govern  the  segresation  of  the  unfit;  require- 
ments of  physical  fitness  for  marriages;  free- 
dom of  mothers  from  toil  before  and  after  con- 
finement; responsibility  for  illegitimacy;  birth 
registration;  medical  inspection;  district  nurs- 
ing; pure  food;  and  administration.  Another 
section  dealing  with  "protection  from  want, 
abuse  and  crime''  woula  include  "care  of  de- 
pendent, neglected  and  delinquent  children"; 
protection  from  cruelty  and  premature  toil;  age 
of  consent;  iuvenile  courts;  and  "protection 
from  demoralizing  conditions."  A  final  section 
dealing  with  "education  and  recreation"  would 
cover  school  laws,  industrial  training,  voca- 
tional guidance,  social  centres,  parks  and  play- 
grounds, and  libraries,  and  their  administration. 
It  was  not  contemplated  that  such  a  charter 
would  include  specific  l^islation  but  rather  a 
collection   of  fundamental   principles. 

New  Yobk.  The  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Labor  of  New  York  for  the  year  ending  Sep. 
30,  1014,  gave  the  results  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Division  of  Mercantile  Establishments  of  the 
Bureau  of  Factory  Inspection  to  determine  the 
extent  of  child  labor  in  mercantile  establish- 
ments within  the  State.  Nearly  25,000  inspec- 
tions were  made;  7500  children  were  found  em- 
ployed, of  whom  2607  or  34.8  per  cent  were 
illegally  employed.  Of  those  illegally  employed 
1761  were  of  ages  14  to  16,  but  lacking  certifi- 
cates, while  846  were  imder  14  years  of  age. 
During  the  year  717  proceedings  were  begun  for 
violations  of  the  mercantile  law,  in  611  of  which 
convictions  were  secured,  while  51  were  dis- 
missed and  8  withdrawn.  Of  the  717  proceed- 
ings, 531  were  for  the  illegal  employment  of 
children.  The  remainder  related  to  the  hours 
of  women  and  minors,  sanitation,  and  the  day 
of  rest  provision. 

SwrrzEBLAND.  In  a  new  Swiss  law,  the  mini- 
mum age  of  employment  was  put  at  14  years. 
In  addition  children  under  16  were  not  to  be 
employed  where  the  normal  hours  of  labor  (10 
hours  per  day)  are  exceeded,  or  nine  hours  on 
Saturdays  and  days  preceding  holidays.  The 
Federal  Council  may  further  designate  occupa- 
tions at  which  persons  under  16  may  be  em- 
ployed. For  children  under  16  who  are  still 
attending  to  their  religious  instruction  and 
schooling,  the  daily  hours  of  attendance,  together 
with  their  hours  of  labor  in  the  factory,  must 
not  exceed  the  prescribed  maximum  of  10  hours. 

Great  Britain.  A  conservative  estimate  of 
the  boys  and  girls  under  14  years  of  age  em- 
ployed for  wages  in  the  United  Kingdom  placed 
the  number  at  677,321.  Of  these  34,535  were 
half-timers,  mostly  in  the  cotton  mill  centres. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  total  were  boys.  These 
figures  revealed  the  great  importance  of  the  ef- 
fort being  made  to  raise  the  age  limit,  intro- 


duce uniformity  in  legal  requirements,  and 
greatly  extend  the  educational  opportunities. 
At  present  there  is  a  great  lack  of  uniformity 
in  diild  labor  laws  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland;  and  this  is  aggravated  by  differences  in 
educational  facilities  and  requirements.  This 
situation  is  primarily  due  to  the  fact  that  local 
authorities  are  given  discretion  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  many  features  of  child  labor  laws. 

CHILDBEN'S  CHABTEB.  See  Chiud 
Labor,  Federal  Charter. 

CHILDBEN'S  COTTBT.  See  Juvenile 
Court. 

CHILDBEN'S  DISEASES.      See  Htqiene. 

CHILE.  A  republic  south  of  Peru  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  South  America.  The  capital  is 
Santiago. 

Area  and  Population.  Chile  comprises  23 
provinces  and  one  territory,  with  an  area  offi- 
cially estimated  at  757,366  square  kilometers 
(292,419  square  miles).  Its  length  from  the 
Peruvian  boundary  to  the  southern  limits  of 
South  America  is  about  4230  kilometers;  its 
width,  though  varying,  may  be  stated  as  ap- 
proximately 285  kilometers.  The  census  of  Nov. 
27,  1907,  returned  a  population  of  3,249,279; 
the  estimated  population  at  the  end  of  1912  was 
3,505,317.  The  population  of  Santiago  is  esti- 
mated at  upwards  of  400,000,  and  of  Valparaiso 
200,000.  Population  of  the  larger  cities  (1907 
census):  Santiago,  332,724;  Valparaiso,  162,- 
447;  Concepci6n,  55,330;  Iquique,  40,171;  Talca, 
38,040;  ChillAn,  34,269;  Antofagasta,  32,496. 
For  all  of  these  cities  estimates  have  been  pub- 
lished very  much  higher  than  the  foregoing 
figures,  but,  while  undoubtedly  there  has  been 
a  considerable  increase  since  1907,  the  estimates 
are  probably  excessive. 

Marriages,  as  reported  for  1912  and  1913  re- 
spectively, 21,258  and  21,341;  births,  135,373 
and  139,974;  deaths,  103,905  and  111,225;  excess 
of  births,  31,468  and  28,719.  Immigration  in 
1910,  2651;  in  1911,  863;  in  1912,  1839. 

Education.  Primary  instruction  is  free,  but 
not  compulsory,  and  there  is  a  low  average  at- 
tendance at  the  schools.  In  1914  there  were 
3040  public  primary  schools,  with  317,525  pupils, 
and  483  private  primary  schools,  with  56,950 
pupils;  86  public  and  117  private  secondary 
schools,  with  25,217  and  17,181  students  re- 
spectively; 12  public  and  7  private  higher  grade 
schools,  with  2457  and  828  students;  11  public 
and  10  private  commercial  schools,  with  3728 
and  1683  students;  7  public  and  7  private  special 
schools,  with  1851  and  653  students;  16  public 
and  2  private  normal  schools,  with  2641  and  723 
students.  In  addition  there  are  various  techni- 
cal and  professional  schools.  There  are  two  uni- 
versities, which,  in  1912,  had  3217  students. 
The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism,  but 
religious  toleration  prevails. 

Production.  In  the  year  1911-12,  the  area 
under  cultivation  was  1,233,663  hectares,  or  1.62 
per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  country ;  of  the  culti- 
vated area,  47.4  per  cent  was  planted  to  cereals. 
Some  of  the  important  yields  are  reported  as 
follows:  wheat,  3,262,000  metric  tons  in  1913-14, 
and  6,203,000  in  1914-15  (the  average  for  the 
years  1905-6  to  1914-15  was  about  5,375,000 
metric  tons) ;  barley,  1,250,000  tons  in  1913-14; 
oats,  644,890  tons  in  1912-13;  corn,  418,356  tons 
in  1912-13;  potatoes,  2,627,954  tons  in  1911-12, 
and  2,382,244  in  1912-13;  wine,  1,964,380  hecto- 
litres   in    1911-12,    and    2,262,853    in    1912-13. 


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CHILE  »40  CHILE 

^    1     /loiQi.  i,«r««.   457840-  aBses,  32,-  trunk    line   of   the   government   system    is  ttie 

Live  stoclt    (1913):   O"'***}       i'o««'«'W.    rfieen  Loniritudinal,  called  the  Central  between  Santi- 

892;    mules,    f '193 '„?"iti„'   22*1  384  iTWySiaraiso.  116  mUes  (187  kilometers), 

4,602,317;  «»?*»' J^^^'   Sy  to  fts  mineral  ^i  between'V.ti'ago  and  Puerto  Montt,  761 

Chile  owes  Its  P;««P^'ty  'fJS  not  in  suffl-  miles  (1208  kilometers),  the  southern  portion  of 

resources.    Coal  "^'if'J-^^^Zon.    Ihe  this,  fiom  Osorno  to  Puerto  Montt,  having  b«m 

cient    quantities    for  ,''i>"»« . ^HhTrS™?.^  was  opened  to  traffic  in  the  early  months  of  1013. 

produ^ion  of  "^PP^iV   deTltatd  ^ut   to   re^  tL  Longitudinal  Railway  north  of  Valparsiso, 

once   famous,   f?a*ly   "«?'"^i„"*   Sie  ™tae  at  present  open  to  Copiap6,  was  opened  in  No- 

ycars  the  output  has  beeiijncreasmg.    The  value  ai^^n      p«  ^   important^vemment 

of  the  gold  and  silver  P'«l«««i '"  «>i"P"iS'the  ratt,  built  with  the  co6?eration  of  Bolivia, 

small.    But  "-fif^"!  "'"f^^J^ *^,*  tt,  is  coZS^  Arica  with  La  PazVa  distance  of  273 

country's  gr^test  single  source  •w^^'^'  j^  ^^^  (440  kilometers) ,  thus  oflfering  a  short  line 

sodium  nitrate,  produced  in  the  and  noi^  in  mu^^         highland^  and  the  co^t,  somewhat 

Antofagasta  and  Tarapac*.  and  widely  used  m  ^  tfaditiomil  trail  of  the  aborigmes. 

a  fertiliiser.    The  nitrate  ecport  m   1913  was  p«  a         8  ^    j      1,^3     ^ 

about  60,000,0(K)  »«*«°  SJ"^*''^^,  have  been  U  ex^  ttat^wengers  can  be  «rrled  the 

P^il'^fi,  i^rt.o^Stt>llars:  Lntire^distanoe  to  16  hSirs.  and  suitable  cars, 

valued  as  follows,  m  thousands  ot  aoiiars.  ^.^  provisions  to  make  rapid  ascent  and  de- 

— — -       TTT.       7^       i0i4  acent  comfortable,   are   installed.    The  Chilean 

T      ^         loS  582  12?  881  122  076  120,274    ««.828  government  is  projecting  the  electrification  of 

KSSX  ••  120022  128884  189  878  144:668  109.882  &,«   gection   unitmg  Santiago   and   Valparaiso, 

E»porw   ...x^u.» _  ^^^  Motive  power  from  the  river  Aconcagua  to 

Larirer  classified  imports  in  1914,  in  thousands  be  used,  and  as  there  are  numerous  rivers  flow- 

„f^^r8-    oils    varnishes,   patots,    and   coal,  ing  westward  from  the  Andes,  power  cim  with 

?|4?8.   teirtiff'nlsS;  min^al  products,  16,-  little  difficulty  be  obtained  for  the  electriflca; 

9?3.    've^bte    pridu<is,    14,162;    machtoery.  tion  of  the  entire  system  south  of  Santiago" 

♦I^i'a   I^^atus    etc     11.193;   arms,  ammuni-  in  1915  the  Longitudinal  Railway,  which  ex- 

J^„\nA  «Dloeives  8639.    Classifled  exports  to  tends  from  extreme  north  to  extreme  south,  a 

19T4  w^ewfoK  in  thousands  of  dollars:  distance  of  2132  miles,  was  completed  for  1960 

minerri%rXct8,  93,208;  animal  products,  7966;  miles,  and  the  Itoe  was  to  operation  as  far  north 

SS^lfwucts,  6082;  variou^  2124.    Trade  as  Pintados.  Chile.    A  b^inning  was  made  with 

b^nrindpSTuntries,  in  thousands  of  dollars:  a  connecttog  line  from  the  main  bne  to  I^uiqws 

by  principal  couui,       , ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  stopped  for  insuffl- 

Imporu  ExpaiU  cient  available  appropriation.    It  was  proposed 

i»i»     191S     i»ii     i»n  to  spend  $134,000  to  continue  this  work.    The 

Cnlt«d  Kingdom 88.617  88.028  56,108  65.678  completion  of  the  Iquique  line  would  open  up 

O^i^^  rT. 88.189  29.579  28.061  80.880  ^     development  nitrate  and  other  mtoeral  de- 

tnitedfeuUMi ^SlSS^nis    7.669    MM  posits.    Tfie    connection    of    the    Longitudinal 

g^'""'    ^'"'^    *•  • :—  Railway    with   the   ports   of    Antofagasta   and 

"Durinir  1913  there  were  added  to  the  railway  when    times    improve.    The    South     American 

linM^rowSn  in  (aUe  721  miles  (1161  kilo-  Railway  from  Buenos  Au«  to  Valparaiso  was 

lines  in  operawonin  vu                      kilometers)  often   interrupted   by   wtoter   storms   and   was 

S^So^rno^d  ^A^  Montt  were  of  1.68  blocked   in  tje  moiitains  of  Chile.    This    ed 

metT  (Bt^K   gauge;  273  miles   (430  kilo-  to  increased  discussion  of  a  second  new  line  for 

meters)    between  Arica  and  I*  Pj^^^^»«t^J  Tdegraphs  at  the  end  of  1913:   offices,  808 

gauge;  J'th  "ther  7  "'^f  ^JiJ,^S?Tmeter  with  14,884  miles  of  line  and  30,342  miles  of 

Arica;  alw  261  milM  (404k^tom^,  Railway,  wire.    Telephone  Itoe,   26,430  miles;   telephone 

*^H*^irm,Z^180Wlom^Worthe  South  wire,  36.291  miles.    Post  offices.  1U4.    A  radio- 

?       Vf^i^Ji    Riiltav    ^e^              railways  telegraph  system  has  been  tastalled.  with  sta- 

Longitudinal   Ba»lway.    ^^f.*2^J\^"^i{^  tioM    at   Arica,    Antofagasta,    Coquimbo,   Val- 

TeirtoLtersK   lttheeidTl913Tth:i"  paraiso,   Talcahuiuio    V^STivia,    Puerto   Montt, 

fore  the  ndl^ys  of  Oiile  measured  4621  miles  W  Arenas  and  the  Juan  FernAndez  Islands. 

(T279  kilwnSere).    There  are  other  lines  now  Finanob.    The   monetary   unit    m   the   peso, 

LZr  ^nrtSon   which  will  bring  the  rail-  whose  par  value  is  equivalent  to  18  pence,  or 

wa^  toTtotel  r66M  miJ  (9148  kilometers),  about  36  5  cents.    The  paper  ^  fluctuates  in 

of  which  3641  mUes  (5700  kilometers)  are  owned  value.    Accounts  of  revenue  and  expend.tureare 

bv  the  (tovernment  and  2143  miles   (3448  kilo-  kept  partly  m  pesos  gold  and  partly  in  pesos 

^*,!^Kll«n^tonrivate  concerns     These  pri-  paper.     Reduced  to  gold  value,  revenue  and  ex- 

™tnL^rrpriSciSsh~t1Xays  running  penditure  amounted  to  221.332,000  and  235,127,- 

r       -^«t  nnrt^^  .X  ttie  inter'w                    ni-  000  pesos  respectively  in  1912,  and  209,783,000 

^T  ^A  n'iw  mii^eral  piXrt^  fo?  shipment  and  216,487,000  in  1913.     Estimated  expenditure 

ibr^d"The?e*^sTh"wUr?*;ltn^theS^^^^  for  1914,  252,568,000  pesos  gold  and  121,769,000 

TrLns-Andean  via  Juncal,  which  joins  Valparaiso  pesos  paper.    Customs  revenue  in  1914  amounted 

Ind  Sa^tiwo  ?from   Llai-Llai)    with  M^oza,  to    112,700,243    p^s   gold,   as   compared   with 

ana  "^^^J^"    '|™'".,„„i__  ^^  inaueurated  to  168,070,367  in  1913.    Customs  at  the  three  chief 

S^LnrtoternS!lVSwar<^m^to-  ports  in  1913  and  1914  respectively  were:     Anto- 

piO;  and  theinwraaiiona.  ra        ,  fagaste,  38,221,531   and  30,268,639  pesos  gold; 

Irc^fmStn67Xn:SrrsK^e great  Valparaiso.  38,936,176  and  25,863,856;  Iquique, 

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CHILE 


141 


CHINA 


33,755,714  and  25,229 J27.  On  Jan.  1,  1014,  the 
foreign  debt  was  £33,912,340;  internal  debt,  155,- 
822,535  pesos  paper  (equivalent  to  32,920,839 
pesos  gold). 

Abmt.  Military  service  in  Chile  is  compul- 
sory under  the  terms  of  a  law  enacted  Feb.  12, 
1896,  which  requires  men  over  20  to  receive 
military  instruction.  The  military  organization 
thus  formed  is  called  the  National  Guard,  and 
the  first  draft  under  the  law  was  made  in  1901, 
when  recruits  were  held  for  four  and  one-half 
months'  service.  This  period  obtained  until 
1903  when  it  was  increased  to  six  months,  and 
in  1908  it  was  increased  to  one  year,  the  re- 
cruits being  called  in  two  classes  every  six 
months.  This  division  of  recruits  was  being 
criticised  by  the  military  authorities  who 
favored  a  single  draft  of  the  entire  contingent, 
and  at  the  same  time  there  was  a  movement  to 
increase  the  length  of  service  to  two  years  or 
at  least  to  18  months,  and  provide  for  a  reserve. 
Various  schemes  have  been  suggested  to  ensure 
the  registration  of  all  men  available  for  service, 
and  it  was  proposed  to  deny  the  right  of  suffrage 
to  all  not  exhibiting  certificates  of  having  per- 
formed military  service. 

Navt.  The  Chilean  navy  includes  two  old 
battleships  {Gapitdn  Prat  and  O'Higffwia),  ag- 
gregating 15,600  tons;  one  armored  cruiser 
(Esmeralda),  7000  tons;  4  protected  cruisers, 
14,500  tons;  two  torpedo  cruisers,  1470  tons; 
and  a  number  of  smaller  craft,  including  destroy- 
ers, torpedo  boats,  and  two  submarines. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  President,  elected  indirectly  for  five 
years  and  ineligible  for  the  next  succeeding  term. 
He  is  assisted  by  a  responsible  ministry,  and  by 
a  Council  of  State,  which  includes  five  members 
nominated  bv  himself  and  six  chosen  by  the 
Congress.  The  latter  body  consists  of  two 
houses,  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. Senators,  numbering  36,  are  elected  for 
six  years,  and  deputies,  118  in  number,  for  three 
years.  For  the  term  ended  Dec.  23,  1915,  the 
President  was  Ram6n  Barros  Luco,  who  was 
succeeded  on  that  date  by  Juan  Lufs  San  Fuentes. 

History.  Internal  Conditums.  Chile  was 
affected  by  the  European  war  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  other  South  American  republics. 
Her  credit  in  Europe  was  suspended,  her  export 
market  was  destroyed,  and  her  imports  had  to 
be  secured  from  new  sources.  The  coimtry  suf- 
fered most  through  the  destruction  of  the  ex- 
port market  as  it  depended  largely  on  its  foreign 
sale  of  nitrate  and  guano.  The  failure  of  Europe 
to  contract  for  the  purchase  of  these  products 
brought  about  a  graver  and  more  prolonged  eco- 
nomic crisis  than  was  experienced  by  the  other 
nations  of  South  America.  The  withdrawal  of 
European  support  opened  an  opportunity  for 
American  enterprise  and  capital,  and  a  close 
relationship  between  the  financiers  of  the  two 
countries  was  brought  about  by  means  of  the 
Pan-American  Congress  held  at  Washington  in 
May.  Sefior  Don  Juan  Lufs  San  Fuentes  was 
elected  President  of  the  Republic  in  May,  and 
his  election  was  confirmed  by  the  two  houses 
of   /the    Chilean    Congress    on    September    17th. 

Chilean  Relations  trith  Foreign  Countries. 
Or.e  of  the  first  official  acts  of  the  year  on  the 
part  of  the  Cliilean  government  was  to  order 
the  German  auxiliary  cruiser  Sacramento  to 
leave  the  port  of  Valparaiso  within  24  hours  or 
Ui  interned.    Several  days  later  the  government 


ordered  the  expulsion  from  Chile  of  two  Peruvian 
politicians,  ex-President  Guillermo  Billinghurst 
(see  Year  Book,  1914,  Peru)  and  Dr.  Augusto 
Durand,  who  had  be^  exiled  from  Peru  and 
were  now  proving  troublesome  to  Chile. 

On  April  2nd  a  British  squadron  appeared  in 
Chilean  waters  and  opened  fire  on  the  German 
battleship  Dresden  which  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment had  ordered  interned.  The  Governor  of 
one  of  the  islands  adjacent  to  the  mainland  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  British  flagship  to  warn 
the  commander  that  he  was  violating  interna- 
tional law  by  firing  within  the  three-mile  mark 
in  neutral  waters,  but  the  firing  from  the  Brit- 
ish fieet  compelled  him  to  turn  back.  The  cap- 
tain of  the  Dresden,  rather  than  lose  his  ship  to 
the  British,  set  fire  to  the  magazine  and  blew 
up  the  vessel.  Chile  immediately  demanded  an 
apology  from  Great  Britain  for  this  insult  to 
her  sovereignty,  and  Sir  Edward  Grey  acknowl- 
edged that  the  British  commander  had  erred  in 
firing  on  the  ship  within  the  limit  set  by  inter- 
national law  and  apologized  for  the  act.  Ger- 
many became  incensed  at  the  action  of  the 
Chilean  government  in  accepting  this  apology 
and  a  sharply  worded  note  was  sent  to  the  South 
American  republic  acauainting  the  government 
with  Germany's  displeasure.  Chile  responded 
with  a  like  note,  demanded  an  apology  from 
Germany  for  her  inexcusable  action  of  over- 
stepping the  bounds  of  international  law,  and 
for  a  time  it  appeared  that  Chile  might  be  drawn 
into  the  conflict.  The  matter,  however,  was  sub- 
sequently settled  without  recourse  to  arms.  On 
May  25th  Sefior  Alejandro  Lira  signed  the  ABC 
peace  treaty  at  Buenos  Aires,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  representatives  of  Brazil  and  Argen- 
tina affixed  their  signatures  to  the  document 
which  was  aimed  to  bring  about  a  lasting  peace 
between  the  countries  of  Latin  America.  In 
April  Chile  decided  to  send  representatives  to 
the  Pan-American  Congress  at  Washington  and 
appointed  as  delegates  Luis  Izquierdo,  former 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Augusto  Villanueva, 
Director-General  of  the  Bank  of  Chile,  and  Lufs 
Aldunate,  a  private  banker.  These  delegates 
proposed,  among  other  things,  a  direct  line  of 
steamships  between  the  United  States  and  Chile 
in  order  that  closer  trade  relations  between  the 
two  countries  might  be  established. 

CHINA.  The  Chinese  Empire  became  the 
Chinese  Republic  Feb.  12,  1912,  following  a  revo- 
lution ended  by  the  abdication  of  the  infant 
Emperor   Pu-yi.     The  capital   is  Peking. 

Area  and  Poptjlation.  The  republic  consists 
of  China  proper,  or  "the  18  provinces,"  Man- 
churia (3  provinces),  Sinkiang  province  (in- 
cluding East  Turkestan),  and  Mongolia  and 
Tibet  (dependencies).  In  recent  years  there 
have  been  several  revolutionary  movements  of 
more  or  less  magnitude  in  the  dependencies,  es- 
pecially Outer  Mongolia;  and  the  autonomy  of 
the  latter  was  recognized  by  the  Peking  govern- 
ment in  a  convention  with  Russia  signed  in 
October,  1913.  The  population  of  China  is  not 
definitely  known.  For  many  years  it  was  ex- 
pressed by  the  round  number  400,000,000.  The 
estimates  of  the  Maritime  Customs  for  1912 
showed  a  total  for  China  proper  and  Manchuria 
of  437,996,000.  Various  estimates  and  enumera- 
tions have  been  made  under  governmental  au- 
thority, but  with  so  complete  an  ignorance  of 
statistical  method  that  they  command  little 
confidence.    There  is  reason  to  believe,  however, 


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that  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  fairly  repre- 
sented by  the  returns  of  the  1910  census,  based 
on  an  enumeration  of  households.  This  enumer- 
ation tends  to  confirm  the  opinion  held  by  some 
authorities  that  the  traditional  400,000,000  and 
the  estimates  of  the  Maritime  Customs  are 
greatly  excessive.  Moreover,  it  seems  not  im- 
probable that  the  population  has  increased  very 
slowly  if  at  all.  The  census  returns  shown  be- 
low by  provinces  are  exclusive  of  children  under 
six  years  old;  these  are  estimated  at  9,000,000. 
In  the  case  of  Szechwan,  a  fiji^ure  reported  by  the 
viceroy,  and  regarded  as  being  more  nearly  ac- 
curate than  the  census  figure,  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  the  census  figure. 

Sq.miUs  Pop.  1910        Capital 

Anhwei    54,826  14,077.683  Anking 

Chekiang    86,680  18,924,655  HanRchow 

Chihii     115,830  22,970.654  Paotin^rfn 

Pukien    46.833  8,565.678  Fooebow 

Honan     67,954  22.875,616  Kaifenf; 

Hunan     83,898  20.588,187  Channha 

Supeh    71.428  21.256.144  Wnchan? 

Kanau    125,488  8,807,888  Lanchowfu 

KianfiTsi    69,498  16.254.874  Nanchang 

KiangBu    88,610  15,879.042  Nanking 

Kwangsi     77,220  5.426,856  Kweilin 

Kwangtung    .  . .       99.970  23.696.866  Oanton 

Kweichow    67,182  9,266,914  Kweiyang 

Shanai    81.858  9.422.871  Taiyiianfn 

Shantung     55,984  25.818.685  Tbinan 

Shensi    75,290  6,726,064  Sianfu 

Sxechwan     218.588  64,505.600  Chengtu 

Tunnan   146,718  8.049.672  Tunnanfu 

China  proper.  1,582.789  *802,111,884     Peking 

Heilungkiang    .    202.708         1.662,254     Taitaihar 

Kirin    105,019  5.349.287     Kirin 

Shengking 54,761         5.880,819    Mukden 

Manchuria  . .     862,483     *12,742,860 

SInkiang    530,579       *1,768,560     Tihwafu 

TibetanMarehea 
(of  Ssechwan 
and  Tunnan)        195.496 

Children  under 
aix  years  (es- 
timated)     9.000,000 

Total   prOT... 2, 445,851     825.817.750 

Mongolia    1,076.292       n.800.000     Urga 

Pibett 756,000       t2,000.000     Lhasa 

Grand   Total. 4,278,148     829,617,750 
*  Not  including  children  under  six  years,     f  Includ- 
ing Koko-Nor  and  Tsaidam.     t  Estimate. 

Estimates  of  urban  populations  vary  widely. 
According  to  the  1010  census,  Peking  had  821,- 
000  inhfu>itants,  this  figure  including  an  esti- 
mate of  the  number  of  children  under  six  years. 
The  population  of  some  of  the  larger  treaty 
ports  has  been  estimated  as  follows:  Canton, 
900,000;  Tientsin,  800,000;  Shanghai,  651,000; 
Chungking,  631,700;  Foochow,  624,000;  Han- 
kow, 696,000;  Hangchow,  694,000;  Soochow, 
600,000;  Ningpo,  456,000;  Nanking,  269,000; 
Changsha,  250,000;  Chinkiang,  184,000;  Amoy, 
114,000;  Wenchow,  100,000;  Shasi,  100,000; 
Wuhu,  89,000;  Nanning,  87,600;  Kharbin,  81,- 
400;  Swatow,  70,000;  Kongmoon,  62,000;  Ichang, 
65,000.  The  estimated  number  of  foreigners 
resident  in  China  in  1913  was  163,827,  of  whom 
80,219  were  Japanese,  56,765  Russians,  8966 
British,  5340  Americans,  3486  Portuguese,  2949 
Germans,  2292  French,  and  3810  others. 

Education  and  Reuoion.  The  traditional 
system  of  examination  in  the  Chinese  classics 
as  the  only  means  to  state  employment  weh 
abolished  by  the  Imperial  edict  of  Sept.  3,  1905. 


The  government  undertook  the  gradual  inttoduc- 
tion  of  Occidental  learning,  and  progress  has 
been  rapid.  Old  style  schools  still  exist  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  but  the  new  schools  are  con- 
stantly increasing,  and  the  new  education  is  al- 
ready widespread.  A  Board  of  Education  under 
the  central  government  at  Peking  has  in  charge 
university  instruction  as  well  as  that  of  techni- 
cal and  preparatory  colleges  and  higher  normal 
schools.  Lower  normal  schools,  middle  schools, 
and  primary  schools  are  controlled  by  the  provin- 
cial governments.  The  Imperial  University,  at 
Peking,  and  the  university  at  Tientsin  have  a 
European  and  Japanese  staff  in  addition  to 
Chinese  professors.  There  is  a  tendency  to  dis- 
place foreign  teachers  by  Chinese  educated 
abroad.  There  are  numerous  mission  schools 
and  colleges,  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic. The  estimated  number  of  educational  in- 
stitutions of  all  kinds  in  China  is  about  68,000, 
with  an  enrollment  of  some  1,600,000  pupils  and 
students.  Translations  of  forei&fn  books  are  in 
increasing  demand.  There  are  over  300  daily, 
weekly,  or  monthly  papers  and  magazines  pub- 
lished in  the  country. 

The  religions  acknowledged  by  the  Chinese  are 
Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and  Taoism.  Under 
the  republic  no  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  is  main- 
tained, but  Confucianism  is  r^arded  as  the 
basis  of  ethical  teaching  in  the  system  of  na- 
tional education.  Mohammedans  appear  to  be 
fairly  numerous,  especially  in  Kansu,  Sinkiang, 
Chihii,  and  Junnan.  Their  number  is  not  known 
even  approximately;  formerly  it  was  supposed 
to  be  about  30,000,000,  but  recent  estimates 
place  it  between  5,000,000  and  10,000,000.  At 
the  end  of  1912,  European  Roman  Catholic 
priests  are  reported  to  have  numbered  1423,  and 
Roman  Catholic  native  Christians  1,631,216. 
Foreign  members  of  Protestant  missions  in  1913 
are  reported  at  5449,  including  1060  ordained 
ministers;  the  number  of  Protestant  native 
Christians  was  stated  at  356,209. 

Industries.  China,  though  rich  in  minerals, 
is  a  distinctly  agricultural  country.  Tlie  prin- 
cipal crops,  in  the  north,  are  wheat,  barley, 
corn,  millet,  and  other  cereals,  and  beans  and 
peas;  in  the  south,  rice,  sugar,  indigo,  and  cot- 
ton are  grown.  Tea  is  an  important  product 
in  the  south  and  west,  as  also  are  silk  cocoons, 
which  to  some  extent  are  produced  in  all  the 
provinces.  It  has  been  estimated  that  about  27 
per  cent  of  the  world's  silk  supply  comes  from 
China.  The  tea  export  in  1913  amounted  to 
192,181,200  pounds.  In  the  same  year,  the  soy 
bean,  which  is  the  chief  crop  of  Manchuria,  was 
exported  to  the  amount  of  620,000  tons.  Con- 
siderable attention  is  given  to  horticulture  and 
the  cultivation  of  many  kinds  of  fruit.  Opium 
was  formerly  produced  in  large  quantities,  but 
the  output,  as  well  as  the  importation  from  In- 
dia, has  been  greatly  restricted,  pursuant  to 
government  decree  and  to  the  Anglo-Chinese 
treaty  of  May  8,  1911.  The  government  of  India 
agreed  that  the  export  of  opium  from  India 
to  China  should  cease  before  1917,  conditionally 
upon  the  establishment  of  proof  of  the  nonexist- 
ence of  poppy  cultivation  throughout  the  repub- 
lic by  that  date.  No  Indian  opium  may '\  be 
brought  into  any  Chinese  province  which  Has 
succeeded  in  suppressing  cultivation.  At  tlie 
end  of  1914,  the  only  provinces  into  which  tjie 
entry  of  opium  was  permitted  were  Yunnata, 
Kwangtung,      Kweichow,      Kiangsi,      Kiangs^^ 


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Shensi,  and  Kansu.  On  the  same  date,  the  stock 
of  Indian  opium  in  China  was  8100  chests  (480 
tons).  The  net  import  of  Indian  opium  in  1013 
is  reported  at  1088  tons,  or  227  tons  less  than 
in   1912. 

China's  pro^esp  in  mining,  as  compared  with 
its  great  mineral  resources,  is  insignificant. 
Although  many  mining  concessions  have  been 
granted  to  foreigners,  the  opposition  of  pro- 
vincial and  other  authorities  has  hindered  de- 
velopment. The  coal  deposits  of  the  coimtry, 
which  are  worked  to  some  extent,  are  known  to 
be  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  Of  the 
other  minerals  worked,  the  more  important  are 
tin  (in  Yunnan),  iron,  antimony,  lead,  zinc, 
copper,  and  salt.  The  tin  export  in  1913 
amounted   to  8321   tons. 

The  leading  manufactures  are  cotton,  silk,  and 
woolen  goods.  Forty- five  mills,  with  1,250,000 
spindles,  were  reported  in  operation  at  the  end 
of  1914.  There  is  some  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  especially  at  Hanyang,  near  Hankow. 
A  number  of  modem  flour  and  rice  mills  have 
been   established. 

Commerce.  In  the  following  table  are  shown 
the  value  in  haikwan  taels  of  imports  and  ex- 
ports general,  and  also  of  the  special  trade  (that 
18,  imports  for  consumption  and  exports  of 
Chinese  produce).  The  figures  do  not  include 
specie  and  bullion.  The  avera^re  value  of  the 
haikwan  tael  was  6«5  cents  in  1911,  74  cents  in 
1012,  and  73  cents  in  1913. 

1911  1918  1918 

Imports,     gen 482,576.127  485,726.080  586.290.481 

Imports,     spec...  .471,503,943  478.007.081  570,162.557 

Exports,     gen 388.410.350  883,149.452  419.483,420 

Exports,     spec.  ..377,388,166  870,520,403  403,805.546 

For  1913  the  principal  imports  and  the  prin- 
cipal exports  of  Chinese  produce  are  given  be- 
low, in  thousands  of  haikwan  taels: 


JmporU  1000  tU. 

Cotton   fabrics    ...109,882 

Ck)tton   yarns    ....  72,587 

Opium    41.028 

Sugar     86,464 

Petroleum    25,408 

Rice     18,884 

Dyes,  etc 17.511 

Tobacco 16.891 

Iron    18.862 

Pish 12.976 

Flour    10.801 

Coal     9.492 

Machinery 7.980 

Leather    7.179 

Paper     7,169 

Arms,  etc 6,91S 

Copper 6,788 

Timber     6,687 

Matches 6,841 

Woolen  fabrics   .  . .  4.879 

Tin   4,875 

Medicines,   etc 4,027 


ExporU  1000  a». 

Raw  silk,  waste,  etc.88,156 
Beans      and      bean 

cake    48.468 

Tea     88.937 

Silk  mfrs 21.719 

Hides  and  skins 19.789 

Cotton    16,587 

Oils 12.609 

Sesame    12.872 

Tin 10.917 

Wheat    9.514 

Live  animals 6,781 

Wool 6.656 

Coal 6.598 

Straw  goods 5.074 

Peanuts     6.038 

Silks    4.435 

Meats 8,990 

Matting    8.838 

Medicines,   etc 8,789 

Timber 8.810 

Fireworks 8,200 

Paper 8,182 

PruiU 8,040 


The  tea  export  amounted  to  248,757,333 
pounds  in  1895,  182,573,064  in  1905,  197,559,867 
in  1912,  and  191,181,200  in  1913.  In  the  latter 
year  120,795,600  pounds  were  exported  to  Rus- 
sia, 19,178,000  to  the  United  States,  13,783,600 
to  Hongkong,  and  10,144,800  to  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  trade  with  Hongkong  is  princi- 
pally transit,  the  imports  being  chiefly  of  British 
origin,  while  the  exports  are  reshipped  to  various 
countries.  Trade  by  countries  has  been  as  fol- 
lows, in  thousands  of  haikwan  taels: 


Importt  SxporU 

1919  1918  1919         1918 

Hongkong 147,801  171,686  108,884   117,129 

Japan    91  017  119,847  45.262     65.544 

United   Kingdom 74.^56  96.911  15.900     16.846 

British    India    4r^Ei]6  48.292  7,678       6.190 

Unitod    States    &(^  1^8  85.427  85.050     87.650 

Germany     £1  1  :^0  28,802  14.889     17.025 

Russia     21,  J  2  22,158  55.197     44.921 

Belgium     ^jr.l  15.881  6,556        6.546 

StraiU  Settlementa  . .      ^.f,<i5  8.985  6.889       7.558 

Du.  E.  Indies GcnS  6.887  1.618       2.605 

Macao     ^m8  6.596  4,578       4,952 

Prance    u 'i:p2  6,800  88,809     40.750 

Indo-China    ,^  :^i9  4,782  1.497       1.887 

Austria-Hungarj     ..      2  275  4.122  1.878        1.550 

Corea     3.1.^5  8.527  5.448       6,818 

British  America 1,111  1,866  885          652 

Netherlands    982  1,424  7,615       8,692 

Italy    486  664  10,848       8,818 

Other   Europa    916  2.052  1,081          968 

Other     1,859  2,286  6,789       7.205 

ToUl    485,726  686.290  870.520  408,806 

Reexportation     ...    12.629  16,128     

Total    net 478,097  670,168  870,520  403,806 


Shipping.  In  the  direct  foreign  trade,  ves- 
sels entered  and  cleared  at  the  ports  in  1913 
were  as  follows: 

BnUred  Olnwd 

No.  Tont  No.          Tout 

BritUh    4,971  6,127.578  5.095  5.288,289 

Japanese     2.880  8.882.664  2.829  8.889.488 

Chinese 27,008  2,886.806  26.409  2.822,227 

German     691  1,405.086  711  1,481.836 

French    801  469.450  297        463.675 

Russian     620  422.274  518         422.089 

American     282  269.091  221         245.704 

Norwegian    141  167.196  184        165,212 

TU.  incl.  other. 87,807  14,618,224  86,774  14,682,647 

Total.    1912    ..84.548  12,847.881  84,267  18,228,601 

CJoMMiTNiCATiONS.  Throughout  the  greater 
part  of  China  proper  there  are  numerous  roads, 
which,  though  mostly  in  poor  condition,  carry  a 
large  internal  trade.  They  are  supplemented 
by  many  canals  and  navigable  rivers,  which,  so 
far  as  commerce  is  concerned,  are  probably 
more  important  than  the  roads.  The  length  of 
railway  open  to  traffic  at  the  beginning  of  1014 
was  reported  at  5960  miles  (including  the  Man- 
churian  railways)  ;  under  construction,  2273 
miles.  Of  the  railway  in  operation,  about  1300 
miles  had  been  built  by  British  capital.  An 
imperial  edict  of  May  9,  1911,  providing  for 
the  reversion  to  imperial  control  of  all  trunk 
railway  lines  contributed  largely  to  the  unrest 
that  culminated  in  the  rebellion  of  the  follow- 
ing October. 

The  Canton-Hankow  Railway,  at  the  end  of 
1914,  was  open  as  far  as  Wu  Shek,  121  miles 
from  the  Canton  terminus,  and  in  1915  work 
was  under  way  on  the  next  section  of  19  miles 
to  Shiukuan.  The  total  length  of  the  section 
to  be  built  by  the  Canton  Company  was  214 
miles,  which  would  take  the  line  to  Ichang, 
just  across  the  Hunan  frontier.  The  receipts 
were  in  excess  of  expenses  and  upkeep,  and 
were  expected  to  increase  considerably  with  the 
extension  of  the  railway  to  Shiukuan.  The 
Canton-Samshui  Railway,  32  miles  long,  had  a 
good  year  in  1914,  in  spite  of  damage  to  the 
roadbed  by  flood.  The  Chekiang  Railway,  which 
became  known  as  the  Shanghai-Hangchow- 
Ningpo  Railway,  was  formally  taken  over  by 
the  Chineee  government  and  placed  under  the 


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control  of  the  Shan^hai-Nanking-Hangchow 
Railway  management.  It  was  found  that  as  a 
result  of  Chinese  construction  and  management 
the  whole  of  the  rolling  stock  would  have  to 
be  replaced  and  the  roadbed  relaid.  One  of 
the  unsolved  problems  was  bridging  the  Chien- 
tang  River  near  Fuyang,  but  the  shifting  bottom 
of  the  river  presents  a  well-nigh  insuperable 
obstacle.  With  the  delivery  of  material  held 
up  at  Tsingtau  during  the  siege,  progress  was 
being  made  with  the  construction  of  the  bridge 
near  Paikuan.  It  was  believed  that  the  line 
beyond  Hangchow  eventually  would  run  via 
Chiakou  and  Fuyang  to  Chuchi,  Shaohsing,  and 
Paikuan.  Another  branch  would  probably  ex- 
tend from  Fuyang  to  Lanchi,  the  junction  from 
Chinhua  and  Wenchow  in  one  direction,  and 
Ch'uchow,  Changshan,  Yushan,  and  the  Ning 
Hsiang  Railway  (Nanking-Hunan),  in  the 
other. 

Telegraphic  communication  exists  between  the 
principal  cities  and  with  adjacent  countries. 
Length  of  line  at  the. end  of  1914,  36,339;  of 
wire,  49,963;  offices,  661.  There  are  wireless 
telegraph  stations  at  Peking,  Shanghai,  Nan- 
king, Canton,  Hankow,  and  Kalgan.  Postal 
service  is  maintained  in  China  proper,  Man- 
churia, and  Sinkiang.  Post  offices  in  1913, 
7808. 

Finance.  Statements  of  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure are  not  reported  as  in  western  coun- 
tries. Recent  calculations,  based  upon  imper- 
fect data,  placed  the  revenue  at  297,000,000 
taels,  and  the  expenditure  at  576,000,000  taels. 
Revenue  derived  from  the  foreign  trade  is  col- 
lected by  the  Chinese  Maritime  Customs,  orig- 
inally organized  by  the  late  Sir  Robert  Hart, 
and  under  the  control  of  a  British  inspector- 
general  (F.  A.  Aglan  in  1915).  Receipts  from 
Maritime  Customs  and  from  opium  likin  re- 
spectively have  been:  in  1910,  32,732,856  and 
2,839,023  haikwan  taels;  in  1912,  35,526,495 
and  4,424,117;  in  1913,  40,150,720  and  3,819,133. 

The  foreign  debt,  at  the  end  of  1914,  is  re- 
ported to  amount  to  about  £173,494,000,  in- 
cluding the  Boxer  indemnity  of  £67,500,000,  and 
certain  treasury  bills,  etc.,  approximating  £4,- 
000,000. 

The  haikwan,  or  Maritime  Customs,  tael 
fluctuates  with  the  price  of  silver.  Its  average 
value  was  about  79  cents  in  1907,  65.5  cents 
in  1908,  63.4  cents  in  1909,  66  cents  in  1910, 
65  cents  in  1911,  74  cents  in  1912,  and  73  cents 
in  1913;  at  the  end  of  1913,  it  was  valued  at 
72.3  cents,  and  at  the  end  of  1914  at  66.4  cents. 

Armt.  While  an  elaborate  scheme  of  organ- 
ization had  been  prepared  for  the  Chinese  army, 
yet  the  realization  in  1915,  due  largely  to  in- 
ternal political  conditions,  was  far  from  satis- 
factory. The  actual  organization  was  based  on 
the  Imperial  edict  of  1902,  but  its  execution 
had  been  under  the  direction  of  the  President, 
Yuan  Shi  Kai.  There  was  a  standing  army  in 
which  the  length  of  service  was  three  years 
with  the  colors,  three  years  in  the  first  reserve, 
and  four  years  in  the  second  line,  which 
paid  about  $3  per  month,  or  better  wages  than 
the  average  laborer.  A  reservist  was  paid 
monthly  75  cents,  but  has  to  appear  personally 
and  receipt  for  the  same,  so  it  is  possible  to  keep 
up  the  organization.  The  Chinese  non-commis- 
sioned officers  are  derived  either  from  the  ranks 
or  from  special  schools,  and  are  required  to  serve 
one  year  longer  than  the  privates.    The  cadets 


receive  a  preliminary  schooling,  and  then  serve 
with  the  colors  for  six  months,  after  which  they 
are  two  years  in  a  military  academy  and  are 
commissioned  as  officers.  A  War  College  is 
designed  for  exceptional  men  to  give  further  and 
more  advanced  professional  training.  It  was 
reported  in  1915  that  Yuan  Shi  Kai  had  put  36 
divisions  into  existence,  each  made  up  of  about 
8800  effective  troops,  and  2000  supply  and  ad- 
ministrative troops,  on  the  basis  of  an  organiza- 
tion that  provided  that  each  division  would  be 
increased  to  about  17,000  and  3000  men,  re- 
spectively, in  time  of  war.  In  July,  1914,  the 
army  was  said  to  total  130,000  infantry,  12,000 
cavalry,  17,000  artillery,  with  800  guns,  900  en- 
gineers, and  8000  train.  In  the  middle  of  1915 
100,000  troops  of  this  standing  army  were  said 
to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  Peking.  The  infantry 
was  variously  supplied  with  arms,  Mauser  rifles 
of  two  models,  a  Japanese  Murata,  and  a  Mann- 
licher  rifle,  predominating.  The  machine  guns 
are  Vickers-Maxim,  but  the  artillery  had  many 
old  style  Krupp  pieces,  164  modem  field  gims 
and  250  mountain  guns,  in  addition  to  a  varied 
assortment  from  different  gim  makers  of  the 
world.  Foreign  critics  believed  that  the  Chinese 
army  might  have  furnished  a  substantial  re- 
sistance to  an  invasion  by  Japan,  but  in  its 
organization  and  equipment  the  force  was  not 
to  be  compared  with  the  troops  of  the  neighbor- 
ing empire. 

Navy.  Various  plans  for  reorganization  and 
development  of  the  navy  have  been  officially 
proposed  and  discussed  in  recent  years,  but  lit- 
tle of  importance  has  been  effected.  Dock- 
yards are  inadequate,  no  proper  naval  bases  ex- 
ist, and  the  small  and  partly  antiquated  fleet 
is  quite  devoid  of  imiformity.  Aside  from  small 
craft,  the  only  serviceable  vessels  are  several 
protected  cruisers.  Four  of  them  (one  of  4300 
tons  and  three  of  about  3000  tons  each)  were 
built  in  1897  and  1898.  The  flfth,  the  Ying 
fiftcet,  of  2400  tons,  was  launched  at  Barrow 
in  July,  1911,  and  the  sixth,  the  Ch€M  Ho,  of 
2400  tons,  at  Elswick  in  the  following  October; 
both  were  completed  in  1912,  in  which  year  a 
seventh  cruiser  of  about  the  same  displacement 
was  launched.  Besides  old  craft,  there  are  sev- 
eral destroyers,  river  gunboats,  sea-going  gun- 
boats, and  torpedo  boats. 

Government.  The  Manchu  dynasty,  which 
came  into  power  in  China,  ended  with  the  ab- 
dication of  the  Emperor  Pu-yi  (reign  title 
Hsun-tung),  Feb.  12,  1912.  Pu-yi  was  bom 
Feb.  11,  1906,  and  his  uncle.  Prince  Chun,  had 
acted  as  regent.  The  republic  established  upon 
the  Emperor's  abdication  was  recognized  by  the 
United  States  May  2,  1913,  and  by  other  powers 
Oct.  6,  1913.  Yuan  Shi  Kai  was  declared  pro- 
visional president  Feb.  15,  1912,  and  was  elected 
(Oct.  6,  1913),  and  inaugurated  (October  10), 
as  the  first  constitutional  president  for  the 
term  1913-18.  A  new  constitution  was  pro- 
mulgated May  1,  1914,  and  an  edict  was  pro- 
mulgated on  December  29  extending  the  presi- 
dent's term  to  10  years,  with  provision  that 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate  might  continue 
it  indefinitely.     See  also  section  History,  below. 

HiSTOBT 

The  Japanese  Demands.  One  of  the  most 
significant  features  of  the  year  was  the  inabil- 
ity of  the  Chinese  government  to  resist  Japan's 
insistent    demands    for    special    privileges    in 


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China.  In  view  of  their  extraordinary  impor- 
tance, the  Japanese  demands  are  here  repro- 
duced in  full,  as  they  were  contained  in  the 
document  handed  to  President  Yuan  Shi-Kai 
on  Jan.  18,  1015,  hy  the  Japanese  minister  at 
Peking,  M.  Hioki. 

Gboup  I.  The  Japanese  GoTernment  and  the  Ohinese 
GoTernment,  being  desirons  to  maintain  the  general 
peace  in  the  Far  East  and  to  strengthen  the  relations 
of  amity  and  good  neighbourhood  existing  between  the 
two  countries,  agree  to  the  following  articles: — (l)The 
Chinese  Government  engages  to  give  full  assent  to  all 
matters  that  the  Japanese  Government  may  hereafter 
agree  with  the  German  Government  respecting  the  dis- 
position of  all  the  rights,  interests  and  concessions, 
which,  in  virtue  of  treaties  or  otherwise,  Germany 
possesses  via-^-vis  China  in  relation  to  the  Province  of 
Shantung.  (2)  The  Chinese  Government  engages  that, 
within  the  Province  of  Shantung  or  along  its  coast,  no 
territory  or  island  will  be  ceded  or  leased  to  any  other 
Power,  under  any  pretext  whatever.  (3)  The  Chinese 
(Government  agrees  to  Japan's  building  a  railway  con- 
necting Chefoo  or  Lungkow  with  the  Kiao-chou-Tsinan 
Railway.  (4)  The  Chinese  Government  engages  to  o^n 
of  its  own  accord,  as  soon  as  possible,  certain  im- 
portant cities  and  towns  in  the  Province  of  Shantung 
for  residence  and  commerce  of  foreigners.  The  places 
to  be  so  opened  shall  be  decided  upon  in  a  separate 
agreement. 

Gboup  II.  The  Japanese  Government  and  the  Ohi- 
nese Government,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Chinese 
Government  has  always  recognized  the  predominant  po- 
sition of  Japan  in  South  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner 
Mongolia,  agree  to  the  following  articles: — (1)  The  two 
contracting  parties  mutuallv  agree  that  the  term  of  the 
lease  of  Port  Arthur  and  Dairen  and  the  term  re- 
specting the  'South  Manchuria  Railway  and  the  An- 
tung-Mukden  Railway  shall  be  extended  to  a  further  pe- 
riod of  99  years  respectively.  (2)  Japanese  subjects 
shall  be  permitted  in  South  Manchuria  and  Eastern 
Inner  Mongolia  to  lease  or  own  land  required  either  for 
erecting  buildings  for  various  commercial  and  indus- 
trial purposes  or  for  farming.  (8)  Japanese  subjects 
shall  have  the  right  to  enter,  reside  and  travel  in  South 
Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia,  and  to  carrv 
on  business  of  various  kinds, — commercial,  industrial, 
and  otherwise.  (4)  The  Chinese  Government  grants 
to  Japanese  subjects  the  right  of  mining  in  South  Man- 
churia and  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia.  As  regards  the 
mines  to  be  worked,  they  shall  be  decided  upon  in  a 
separate  agreement.  (5)  The  Chinese  Government 
agrees  that  the  consent  of  the  Japanese  Government 
shall  be  obtained  in  advance  (a)  whenever  it  is  proposed 
to  grant  to  other  nationals  the  right  of  constructing  a 
railway  or  to  obtain  from  other  nationals  the  supply 
of  funds  for  constructing  a  railway  in  South  Manchuria 
and  Eastern  Mongolia,  and  (b)  whenever  a  loan  is  to 
be  made  to  any  other  Power,  under  security  of  the  taxes 
of  South  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia.  (6) 
The  Chinese  Government  engages  that  whenever  the 
Chinese  Government  needs  the  service  of  financial  or 
military  advisers  or  instructors  in  South  Manchuria 
or  in  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia,  Japan  shall  be  first  con- 
sulted. (7)  The  Chinese  Government  apees  that  the 
control  and  management  of  the  Kirin-Cnanchun  Rail- 
way shall  be  handed  over  to  Japan  for  a  term  of  99 
years  dating  from  the  signing  of  this  Treaty. 

Gboijp  III.  The  Japanese  (Government  and  the  Chi- 
nese Government,  having  regard  for  the  close  relations 
existing  between  Japanese  capitals  and  the  Han-Yeh- 
Ping  Company  and  desiring  to  promote  the  common  in- 
terests of  the  two  nations,  agree  to  the  following  ar- 
ticles:— (1)  "nie  two  contracting  parties  mutually  agree 
that  when  the  opportune  moment  arrives  the  Han-Yeh- 
Ping  Company  shall  be  made  a  joint  concern  of  the 
two  nations,  and  that,  without  the  consent  of  the  Japa- 
nese Government,  the  Chinese  Government  shall  not  dis- 
pose of  or  permit  the  Company  to  dispose  of  any  right 
or  property  of  the  Company.  (2)  The  Ohinese  (Gov- 
ernment engages  that,  as  a  necessary  measure  for  the 
protection  of  the  vested  interests  of  Japanese  capitalists, 
no  mines  in  the  neighborhood  of  those  owned  by  the 
Han-Yeh-Ping  Company  shall  be  permitted,  without  the 
consent  of  the  said  Company,  to  be  worked  by  anyone 
other  than  the  said  Company ;  and  further  that  when- 
ever it  is  proposed  to  take  any  other  measure  which  may 
likely  affect  the  interests  of  the  said  Company  directly 
01  indirectly,  the  consent  of  the  said  Company  shall  first 
be  obtained. 

Gboup  IV.  The  Japanese  Government  and  the  Chi- 
nese (Government,  with  the  object  of  effectively  preserv- 
ing the  territorial  integrity  of  China,  agree  to  the  fol- 
lowing article: — TTie  (Jhinese  (Government  engages  not 
to  cede  or  lease  to  any  other  Power  any  harbor  or  bay 
on  or  any  island  along  the  coast  of  China. 


145  CHINA 

Gboup  V.  (1)  The  Ohinese  (Government  to  engage 
influential  Japanese  as  political,  financial  and  military 
advisers.  (2)  The  Chinese  Government  to  grant  the 
Japanese  hospitals,  temples  and  schools  in  the  interior 
of  China  the  right  to  own  land.  (8)  In  the  face  of 
many  police  disputes  which  have  hitherto  arisen  be- 
tween Japan  and  China,  causing  no  little  annoyance, 
the  police  in  localities  (in  (Thina)  where  such  arrange- 
ments are  necessary  to  be  placed  under  joint  Japanese 
and  Chinese  administration,  or  Japanese  to  be  employed 
in  police  offices  in  such  localities,  so  as  to  help  at  the 
same  time  in  the  improvement  of  the  Chinese  Public 
Service.  (4)  China  to  obtain  from  Japan  the  supply 
of  a  certain  quantity  of  arms,  or  to  establish  an  arsenal 
in  China  under  joint  Japanese  and  Chinese  manage- 
ment and  to  be  supplied  with  experts  and  materials  from 
Japan.  (5)  In  order  to  promote  the  development  of 
the  Nanchang-Kiukiang  Railway,  with  which  Japanese 
capitalists  are  so  closely  identified,  and  with  due  re- 
gard to  the  negotiations  which  have  for  years  been 
pending  between  Japan  and  China  in  relation  to  the 
railway  question  in  South  China,  China  to  agree  to  give 
Japan  the  right  of  constructing  a  railway  to  connect 
Wuchang  with  the  Nanchang-Kiukiang  line,  and  also 
the  railways  between  Nanchang  and  Hangehou  and  be- 
tween Nanchang  and  Chaochou.  (6)  In  view  of  the  re- 
lations between  the  Province  of  Fukien  and  Formosa 
and  of  the  agreement  respecting  the  non-alienation  of 
that  province.  Japan  to  be  consulted  first  whenever  for- 
eign capital  is  needed  in  connection  with  the  railwavs, 
mines,  and  harbor  works  (including  dockyards)  in  the 
Province  of  Fukien.  f7)  China  to  grant  to  .Japanese 
subjects  the  right  of  religious  propaganda  in  China. 

In  short.  Group  I  of  the  Japanese  demands 
would  secure  Japan's  predominance  in  the 
Shantung  peninsula,  formerly  under  German  in- 
fluence, without  committing  Japan  to  the  sur- 
render of  Kiao-chow,  which  she  had  conquered 
from  the  Germans  (see  Ykab  B<x>k,  1914). 
Group  II  would  assure  to  Japan  valuable  min- 
ing, commercial,  and  railway  rights  in  the  re- 
gions of  South  Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner 
Mongolia.  Group  III  would  safeguard  the  in- 
terests of  Japanese  capitalists  in  the  Han-Yeh- 
Ping  Mining  Company.  Group  IV  would  ex- 
clude other  powers  from  the  Chinese  coast. 
Group  V  would  not  only  secure  Japanese  finan- 
cial control  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Fukien, 
just  opposite  Formosa,  and  a  railway  conces- 
sion in  Southern  China,  but  would  also  give 
Japan  a  very  considerable  influence  over  the 
general  military,  police,  and  flnancial  affairs  of 
the  Chinese  Empire. 

Chino-Japanese  Negotiations.  Following 
the  presentation  of  the  Japanese  demands  there 
ensued  a  protracted  series  of  conferences  be- 
tween the  Japanese  minister  to  China  and  the 
Chinese  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  At  the  con- 
ference of  February  12,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment announced  its  readiness  to  accept  the  flrst 
Group  of  the  Japanese  demands,  relating  to 
Shantung,  provided  that  Japan  would  uncon- 
ditionally return  Kiao-chow  to  China,  indem- 
nify Chinese  citizens  who  had  suffered  by  the 
Japanese  operations  against  Tsingtao,  withdraw 
the  Japanese  forces  remaining  outside  of  the 
leased  territory,  and  give  China  a  voice  when 
the  peace  negotiations  between  Japan  and  Ger- 
many should  take  place.  As  regards  Group  II, 
subsequent  negotiations  made  it  clear  that 
China  was  willing  to  grant  Japan  special  priv- 
ileges in  the  provinces  of  South  Manchuria  and 
Eastern  Inner  Mongolia,  if  Chinese  sovereignty 
over  those  regions  were  speciflcally  recognized, 
and  if  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  clauses  of 
the  Group  were  considerably  modifled,  so  that 
more  towns  would  be  thrown  open  to  interna- 
tional trade,  but  complete  extraterritorial 
rights  would  not  be  extended  to  Japanese  na- 
tionals. The  Chinese  government  was  willing 
to  make  voluntary  assurances,  but  not  to  alien- 


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ate  its  Bovereignty  by  giving  irrevocable  asaent 
to  Group  rV,  excluding  other  Powers  from  con- 
cessions on  the  Chinese  coast.  The  second 
clause  of  Group  III  seemed  altogether  too  ex- 
travagant. And  some  of  the  clauses  of  Group 
V  were  incompatible  with  the  sovereignty  of 
China.  In  response  to  the  representations  of 
the  Chinese  minister,  Japan  revised  her  de- 
mands and  submitted  a  new  draft,  containing 
24  clauses,  much  more  moderate  in  tone  than 
the  original  document,  and  omitting  the  de- 
mand for  partial  control  of  the  police.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Japanese  version  of  the  negotiations, 
Japan  at  this  time  renewed  her  offer  to  restore 
Kiao-chow  to  China  if  the  demands  were  ac- 
cepted. To  this  revised  list,  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment replied  with  a  counter-project.  This 
failed  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment in  three  respects:  (I)  China  still  in- 
sisted upon  the  unconditional  return  of  Kiao- 
chow,  with  damages  for  Chinese  losses,  and  rep- 
resentation in  the  diplomatic  negotiations  with 
Germany  in  respect  of  the  leased  territory;  (2) 
China  introduccni  a  number  of  minor  amend- 
ments in  the  clauses  of  Group  II  relating  to 
Japanese  privileges  in  Manchuria  and  Mons^olia; 
(3)  China  refused  to  bind  herself  formallv  by 
the  clauses  of  Group  V  pertaining  to  railway 
concessions  in  South  China,  the  employment  of 
Japanese  advisers,  the  right  of  Japanese  sub- 
jects to  buy  or  lease  land  in  China  for  the 
erection  of  schools  and  hospitals,  and  the  pur- 
chase of  arms  from  Japan.  The  clause  of 
Group  V  relating  to  Fukien  had  already  been 
agreed  to,  while  the  clause  relating  to  the  right 
of  religious  propaganda  had  been  deferred  and 
the  provision  for  joint  police  administration 
withdrawn  by  Japan.  The  reason  for  China's 
obstinacy  in  refusing  the  fifth  Group  was  ex- 
plained in  a  memorandum  accompanying  the 
Chinese  counter-project  as  arising  from  the  fact 
that  demands  in  the  fifth  Group  "all  infringe 
China's  sovereignty,  the  treaty  rights  of  other 
Powers,  or  the  principle  of  equal  opportunity." 
Without  further  parley,  Japan  now  delivered 
an  ultimatum.  May  7,  allowing  the  Chinese 
government  two  days  to  accept  Groups  I,  II, 
III,  IV,  and  the  Fukien  article  of  Group  V. 
In  event  of  a  refusal,  the  Japanese  government 
would  take  such  action  as  it  deemed  neces- 
sary. It  is  important  to  note  that  the  condi- 
tional offer  to  restore  Kiao-chow  to  China  was 
repeated,  and  that  the  major  demands  of 
Group  V,  which  would  have  made  China  sub- 
servient to  Japan  in  political  and  military  as 
well  as  in  economic  affairs,  were  now  dropned. 
Thoroughly  intimidated  by  the  vague  threat  of 
the  Japanese  ultimatum,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment on  May  8  accepted  Groups  I,  II,  III,  IV, 
and  the  Fukien  article  of  Group  V,  completely 
complying  with  the  ultimatum.  The  articles 
thus  agreed  upon  were  incorporated  in  two 
treaties  and  a  series  of  notes,  dated  May  25,  at 
Peking — ^a  treaty  respecting  the  province  of 
Shantung  (permitting  Japan  to  agree  with  Ger- 
many upon  the  transfer  of  German  privileges 
in  Shantung  to  Japan)  ;  an  exchange  of  notes 
whereby  China  promised  never  to  alienate  any 
territory  on  or  near  the  coast  of  Shantung;  a 
treaty  respecting  South  Manchuria  and  East- 
ern Inner  Mongolia  (giving  Japanese  nationals 
a  free  hand  in  the  economic  exploitation  of 
those  regions,  and  extending  the  leases  of  Port 
Arthur  and  Dairen,  the  ^outh  Manchurian  Rail- 


way, and  the  Antung-Mukden  Railway,  until 
1997,  1997,  2002,  and  2007  A.D.,  respectively); 
a  series  of  notes  defining  the  status  of  Japan- 
ese subjects  in  the  above-mentioned  provinces 
in  respect  of  Chinese  courts  and  taxes,  speci- 
fying the  districts  in  which  Japanese  capital- 
ists would  be  allowed  to  select  coal,  iron,  and 
gold  mines  for  exploitation,  and  promising  to 
give  Japanese  capital  and  Japanese  advisers  the 
preference  in  those  provinces;  an  exchange  of 
notes  safeguarding  the  control  of  the  Han-Yeh- 
Ping  Company  by  Japanese  capitalists;  an  ex- 
change of  notes  declaring  that  China  had  no  in- 
tention to  permit  any  foreign  power  to  con- 
struct a  shipyard,  coaling  station,  naval  base, 
or  other  military  establishment,  on  the  coast  of 
Fukien,  or  to  construct  such  establishments  her- 
self with  foreign  capital;  and,  finally,  an  ex- 
change of  notes  whereby  Japan  promised  with 
certain  provisos  to  return  the  leased  territory 
of  Kiao-chow  to  China,  "if,  upon  the  conclusion 
of  the  present  war,  the  Japanese  government 
should  be  given  an  absolutely  free  disposal  of 
the  leased  territory  of  Kiao-chow  Bay." 

Political  Aftaibs.  Late  in  January  the 
Far  Eastern  Bureau  made  the  announcement 
that  Lu  Cheng-Hsiang,  China's  ablest  diplomat, 
had  been  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
to  succeed  Sun  Pao-Chi  who  became  head  of 
the  Audit  Department  of  the  government.  In 
April  President  Yuan  Shi  Kai  accused  Dr.  Sun 
Yat-sen  of  plotting  a  new  revolution  against 
the  government.  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen  had  been 
residing  in  Tokio  since  his  last  unsuccessful  ef- 
fort to  depose  Yuan  Shi  Kai.  It  was  rumored 
unofiicially  that  Japan  was  backing  the  revo- 
lutionary efforts  of  the  former  president  of  the 
Chinese  Republic.  Dr.  Frank  J.  Goodnow, 
president  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  was  ap- 
pointed constitutional  adviser  to  the  govern- 
ment by  President  Yuan  early  in  June.  Two 
weeks  later  the  president  of  the  republic  un- 
earthed an  amount  of  peculation  and  petty 
graft  among  government  officials,  with  the  re- 
sult that  Chang-Hu,  vice-minister  of  finance, 
and  Yeh  Kung-Qio,  vice  high  minister  of  com- 
munications, were  dismissed.  Chang-Hu,  who 
had  been  acting  as  a  director  of  the  Salt  Gabelle, 
one  of  the  government's  principal  sources  of 
revenue,  was  sentenced  to  banishment  in  Sze 
Chuen  Province. 

Restobation  of  the  Monarchy.  The  trend 
of  the  Chinese  government  to  revert  to  abso- 
lutism in  the  hands  of  Yuan  Shi  Kai  became 
more  pronounced  in  the  summer  of  1915.  Ru- 
mors were  frequent  that  Yuan  Shi  Kai  was 
contemplating  a  coup  d*4tat  for  the  restoration 
of  the  Empire,  with  himself  as  Emperor.  The 
progress  of  the  monarchist  reaction,  it  was  al- 
leged, caused  the  resigation  of  Vice-President 
Li  Yuan  Heng,  September  2nd.  A  little  later, 
the  Society  for  the  Preservation  of  Peace  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  the  Advisory  Council  call- 
ing for  the  reSstablishment  of  the  monarchy. 
The  first  week  in  October  the  Council  of  State, 
acting  as  a  provisional  parliament,  enacted  a 
bill  convoking  a  citizen's  representative  con- 
gress to  decide  the  question  whether  or  not  the 
republic  should  be  abandoned.  Accordingly 
elections  were  held  in  November.  So  over- 
whelming a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  was 
cast  in  favor  of  monarchist  candidates  that  the 
Council  of  State  in  December  urged  Yuan  Shi 
Kai  to  declare  himself  emperor.    iTie  President 


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hesitated.  He  had  repeatedly  declared  himself 
in  favor  of  maintaining  the  republic,  and  he 
was  reported  to  have  received  advice  from 
Japan,  Russia,  and  Great  Britain  pointing  out 
that  it  would  be  wise  to  avoid  any  radical  al- 
teration of  the  Chinese  constitution,  lest  dis- 
turbances should  occur.  The  warning  against  a 
restoration  of  the  monarchy  was  repeated  De- 
cember 15th  by  the  diplomatic  representatives 
of  Japan  and  the  Quadruple  Entente  in  Pdcing. 
Nevertheless,  Yuan  announced  that  it  was  no 
longer  possible  to  disregard  the  will  of  the  na- 
tion, as  expressed  by  the  Council  of  State  and 
as  manifested  by  the  elections;  therefore  he 
considered  it  his  duty  to  consent  to  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Empire.  The  formal  changes  that 
would  be  necessary  in  the  administrative  ma- 
chinery, and  the  coronation  ceremony,  however, 
were  to  be  delayed  at  least  until  tne  close  of 
the  year  1915,  in  accordance  with  the  assur- 
ances which  had  been  given  to  the  Entente 
Powers.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Empire  would  encounter  the  most 
stubborn  opposition  from  the  convinced  repub- 
lican leaders  who  had  fought  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic  in  1911-12  (see  Yeab 
Books  1911,  1912,  China).  A  republican  in- 
surrection was  confidently  predicted  by  many 
students  of  Chinese  politics.  Reports  of  a 
mutiny  on  board  the  Chinese  cruiser  Chao-Ko 
in  Shanghai  harbor,  seemed  at  first  to  fulfill 
the  prophecy,  but  presently  it  appeared  that 
the  ''mutiny"  was  merely  the  escapade  of  a 
handful  of  revolutionaries  who  seized  the  ship 
and  opened  fire  on  neighboring  vessels.  The 
"mutiny"  was  easily  suppressed  and  seemed  to 
be  quickly  forgotten.  More  serious,  however, 
were  the  report  which  began  to  appear  at  the 
close  of  December,  alleging  that  two  of  the 
southernmost  provinces,  Yunnan  and  Kwangsi, 
had  seceded  and  were  in  the  hands  of  the  rebel 
General  Tsai-To,  who  had  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1911. 

Relations  with  the  United  States.  Chi- 
nese relations  with  the  United  States  were  im- 
proved greatly  during  the  year.  The  European 
war  took  away  China's  market  for  products, 
with  the  result  that  she  appealed  to  the  United 
States  in  many  different  connections.  The  first 
important  effect  took  place  on  January  13th, 
when  China  shipped  $1,700,000  in  gold  to  San 
Francisco.  This  money  was  not  necessarily  for 
goods  purchased  in  America,  but  to  represent 
a  debit  balance  on  the  transactions  in  which 
China  was  interested  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  As  the  gold  would  ordinarily  have  been 
sent  to  London,  the  shipment  to  San  Francisco, 
and  thence  to  New  York,  was  a  noteworthy 
event  in  the  development  of  the  United  States 
as  a  financial  centre.  This  shipment  was  fol- 
lowed later  by  two  of  smaller  amount.  Amer- 
ican consuls  m  China  at  various  times  reported 
increases  in  the  sale  of  American-made  goods 
in  different  Chinese  provinces.  A  most  impor- 
tant development  in  trade  relations  with  the 
United  States  was  the  decision  to  send  a  trade 
commission  to  that  country.  Many  of  the 
highest  officials  and  most  prominent  Chinese 
merchants  were  formed  as  a  result  of  the  com- 
mission; they  arrived  in  the  United  States  in 
May,  and  spent  two  months  inspecting  indus- 
trial plants  all  over  the  country.  Nearly  200 
plants  were  visited  durinc:  this  period.  Much 
closer  relations  between  Chinese  and  American 


merchants  were  formed  as  a  result  of  the  com- 
mission's visit.  In  many  plants  which  were 
visited  the  Chinese  commissioners  were  so  fa- 
vorably impressed  that  they  gave  immediate 
orders  for  purchases. 

The  United  States  took  little  action  in  re- 
gard to  the  demands  which  Japan  made  on 
China  in  January.  On  February  27th  two  im- 
official  representatives  of  the  United  States  in 
Japan — Dr.  Sidney  Gulick  and  Prof.  Shailer 
Matthews — ^visited  Count  Okuma,  Japanese 
Premier,  and  were  informed  by  the  latter  that 
Japan  had  no  intentions  of  trespassing  on 
Chma's  rights  or  the  privileges  of  other  nations 
in  the  country.  Late  in  March  President  Wil- 
son branded  as  false  the  Japanese  rumor  that 
the  United  States  approved  of  the  demands  on 
China.  As  no  answer  had  as  yet  been  received 
from  Japan,  it  was  impossible,  said  the  Presi* 
dent,  either  to  approve  or  disapprove  of  the 
demands.  A  few  days  later  the  United  States 
goyemment  protested  to  Japan  against  her  in- 
terference in  the  selection  of  foreign  advisers, 
the  purchase  of  war  munitions,  and  the  con- 
traction of  foreign  loans.  On  May  6th  the  gov- 
ernment issued  a  statement  to  the  effect  that 
it  had  been  advised  that  Japan  had  no  inten- 
tion of  interfering  with  the  political  independ- 
ence or  territorial  integrity  of  China  or  with 
the  "open-door"  policy  to  which  all  of  the  lead- 
ing nations  were  committed.  Furthermore,  the 
United  States  government  had  not  been  asked 
to  surrender  any  of  its  treaty  rights  in  China, 
and  did  not  intend  to  do  so  if  asked.  One  week 
after  the  treaty  had  been  agreed  upon  by  the 
two  Powers,  the  United  States,  as  a  precaution- 
ary measure,  sent  each  a  note  to  the  effect 
that  it  could  not  agree  to  any  action  which 
might  impair  the  treaty  obligations  contracted 
by  the  United  States  and  China,  the  ''open- 
door"  policy,  or  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese 
Republic.  On  July  26th,  Dr.  V.  K.  Wellington 
Koo  was  appointed  Chinese  minister  to  Mex- 
ico, Peru,  and  Cuba.  Dr.  Koo,  after  graduat- 
ing from  Columbia  University,  had  been  se- 
lected by  President  Yuan  Shi  Kai  as  official 
secretary,  and  had  been  of  valuable  assistance 
to  the  Chinese  foreign  minister  in  the  conduct 
of  the  n^otiations  with  Japan  in  the  spring 
of  1916.  Three  months  aft^  his  appointment 
as  minister  to  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Cuba  had 
been  announced,  Dr.  Koo  was  named  as  Chi- 
nese minister  to  the  United  States,  succeeding 
Kai  Fu  Shah,  who  had  been  recalled.  Because 
of  his  fiuent  command  of  the  English  language, 
and  his  American  education.  Dr.  Koo  was  par- 
ticularly well  qualified  to  represent  the  Chi- 
nese government  at  Washington.  In  August  the 
Chinese  government  sent  a  naval  commission 
to  the  United  States,  headed  by  Admiral  Wei 
Han,  chief  of  Chinese  naval  construction,  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  American  naval  equip- 
ment, navy  yards,  and  submarines.  A  news- 
paper report,  probably  unfoimded,  later  an- 
nounced that  the  commission  had  arranged  to 
purchase  from  an  American  firm  no  fewer  than 
100  submarines,  at  a  total  cost  of  $75,000,000, 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  Chinese  navy. 

CHOLEILAl.  An  epidemic  of  this  disease  oc- 
curred in  Manila  in  1914,  a  record  of  which  was 
published  in  April,  1915.  Two  features  of  the 
treatment  are  worth  recording.  In  all  there 
were  1 1 00  cases,  including  suspects  and  car- 
riers;  330  were  genuine  cases  of  cholera,   170 


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not  cholera,  and  570  were  carrierB.  The  total 
number  of  deaths  with  and  without  medical 
treatment  was  190.  The  percentage  of  recover- 
ies among  the  330  genuine  cases  treated  at  San 
Lazaro  was  72.5.  It  was  observed  that  nearly 
all  patients  slept  with  their  eyes  partly  open, 
the  eye-balls  rotated  upward,  the  lids  parted, 
and  two-thirds  of  the  pupil  frequently  visible. 
This  symptom  was  invariably  present  among 
the  children,  and  was  considered  of  diagnostic 
importance.  In  the  treatment,  a  solution  of 
0.45  per  cent  sodium  chloride,  0.25  per  cent  so- 
dium bicarbonate,  was  injected  into  a  vein  at 
the  rate  of  about  1  litre  in  45  minutes.  The 
injection  acted  as  a  mild  hypnotic  and  made 
good  the  loss  of  fluid  through  the  watery  bowel 
movements.  Another  measure  which  appeared 
to  give  equally  good  results  was  continuous 
proctoclysis.  The  slow,  steady  introduction  of 
warm  saline  fluid  into  the  rectum  caused  the 
pulse  to  return  to  normal  in  from  8  to  10 
hours.  Proctoclysis  was  particularly  scnrvioe- 
able  in  cases  of  cholera  sicca.  These  patients 
generally  died,  in  spite  of  intravenous  saline 
injections  when  used  alone;  but  when  the  in- 
testine was  emptied  by  a  copious  enema,  and 
this  followed  by  proctoclysis,  signs  of  recovery 
often  began  to  appear  in  about  an  hour.  Under 
the  treatment  outlined,  the  application  of  ar- 
tificial heat,  the  administration  of  sedatives  and 
cardiac  stimulants  were  rarely  found  neces- 
sary. 

In  controlling  the  epidemic  the  Bureau  of 
Health  confined  its  efforts  largely  to  detecting 
and  isolating  vibrio  carriers.  All  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  of  a  cholera  suspect  were 
immediately  examined,  and  those  found  to  har- 
bor cholera  vibrios  were  promptly  quarantined. 
In  all,  670  persons  were  isolated.  They  were 
confined  to  the  hospital  until  at  least  two  nega- 
tive stools  were  obtained  on  separate  days. 
The  carriers  received  saline  cathartics,  followed 
by  salol. 

Active  immunization  against  cholera  was  un- 
dertaken by  the  bacteriologic  institution  at 
Budapest,  which  distributed  free  serum  for  the 
purpose.  The  serum  is  described  as  being  pre- 
pared from  a  fresh  culture  of  the  cholera  ba- 
cillus, a  bacterial  emulsion  being  made  with 
physiologic  salt  solution  in  the  proportion  of 
2  mg.  of  bacteria  to  1  c.c.  of  salt  solution.  The 
fluid  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  132.8*^. 
for  one  hour  in  order  to  kill  the  bacteria,  and 
0.5  per  cent  phenol  is  added  for  preservation. 
The  substance  is  really  not  a  serum,  but  a  vac- 
cine. Those  exposed  to  infection,  such  as  hos- 
pital attendants,  are  advised  to  have  two  in- 
jections five  days  apart,  which  confers  immim- 
ity  lasting  from  a  few  months  to  a  year.  A 
reaction  of  greater  or  lesser  intensity  is  ob- 
served during  48  hours  following  the  injection. 
See  also  Insects,  Pbopaoation  of  Disease  by, 
and  Vital  Statistics. 

CHOBAL    SOCIETIES.     See   Music. 

CHOSEN.     See  Korea. 

CHBISTIAN  ENDEAVOB,  United  Societt 
OF.  The  27th  international  convention  of  the 
society  was  held  in  Chicago,  July  7-12,  1915. 
The  convention  was  one  of  the  most  successful 
and  significant  held  in  its  history.  Thursday, 
July  8,  was  State  day,  and  was  observed  by 
speeches  from  representatives  of  the  work  in 
the  different  States.  Special  attention  was  given 
during  the  convention  to  the  subjects  of  tem- 


perance, missions,  and  internationalism.  De- 
nominational rallies  were  held  in  the  leading 
churches  in  the  various  denominations  in  Chi- 
cago. The  society  numbers  4,000,000  members, 
75,000  different  societies,  and  includes  80  de- 
nominations. 

CHBISTIANS.  The  total  number  of  com- 
municants in  this  denomination  in  1014  was 
113,887.  There  were  13fi0  churches,  and  1086 
ministers.  The  administrative  body  of  the 
church  is  the  American  Christian  Convention, 
which  is  made  up  mostly  of  delegate  from  the 
conferences.  This,  of  course,  has  the  general 
supervision  of  the  work  of  the  denomination. 
Several  schools  and  colleges  are  maintained,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  the  Union  Chris- 
tian College  in  Indiana,  Defiance  College  in 
Ohio,  Starkey  Seminary  in  New  York,  Elon  Col- 
lege and  Franklinton'  Christian  College  (col- 
ored) in  North  Carolina,  Palmer  Coll^^  and 
Weaubleau  College  in  Missouri,  and  Jir3i  Col- 
lege in  Wyoming.  It  has  also  a  theological 
school,  the  Christian  Biblical  Institute,  in  Ohio. 
Missions  are  conducted  in  Japan,  Porto  Rico, 
continental  United  States,  and  Canada. 

CHBISTIAN  SCIENCE.  During  the  year 
1015  the  administration  of  the  trust  created  by 
the  terms  of  the  will  of  Mary  Baker  Eddy  was 
continued.  In  1914  the  trustees,  Archibald  Mc- 
Lellan,  Allison  V.  Stewart,  John  V.  Dittemore, 
Adam  H.  Dickey,  and  James  A.  Neal — directors 
of  the  First  Church  of  Christ  Scientist  in  Bos- 
ton— and  Josiah  E.  Femald,  of  Concord,  N.  H., 
announced  their  plan  for  using  the  income  of 
Mary  Baker  Eddy's  estate  for  the  purpose  stated 
in  her  will,  lliis  purpose  was  the  "more  effect- 
ually promoting  and  extending  the  religion  of 
Christian  Science  as  taught  by  her."  The  plan, 
as  announced  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Mother  Church  on  June  8,  1914,  was  as  follows: 

1.  To  contribute  toward  the  expense  of  lectures 
given  by  Christian  Science  organizations  outside 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Great  Britain. 

2.  To  contribute  toward  the  ever-increasing  dis- 
tribution of  authorized  literature  throughout 
the  world.  3.  To  contribute  toward  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  circulating  or  lend- 
ing libraries  of  authorized  Christian  Science 
literature  in  connection  with  the  denomination's 
churches,  societies,  reading-rooms,  and  Sunday 
schools.  4.  To  assist,  in  so  far  as  is  possible 
and  practicable,  in  building  church  edifices. 

Tlie  plan  thus  formulated  was  carried  into 
effect  in  1914  and  with  increased  vigor  and  effi- 
ciency in  1916.  A  large  sum  of  money,  amount- 
ing to  about  $250,000  thus  far,  was  distributed 
for  the  benefit  of  Christian  Scientists  and  others 
affected  by  the  war  in  Europe.  In  response  to 
an  appeal  from  the  Mother  Church,  nearly  all 
branch  churches  and  societies,  as  well  as  indi- 
viduals, contributed  liberally  to  the  war  relief 
fund.  An  official  representative  of  Christian 
Science  from  Boston  visited  the  countries  at 
war,  found  where  the  needs  were  greatest,  and 
appointed  representatives  to  distribute  funds. 
The  distribution  of  literature  was  continued; 
and  up  to  June  1,  1915,  the  number  of  maga- 
zines, journals,  pamphlets,  and  other  pieces  of 
literature  in  five  languages  (English,  French, 
German,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian)  amounted  to 
over  600,000. 

The  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Mother  Church 
decided  in  Jime,  1916,  to  accept  the  plans  for  a 
memorial  to  Mary  Baker  Edd^  in  Mount  Auburn 


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Cemetery  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  designer  of 
the  memorial  is  Egerton  Swartout,  of  New  York 
City.  The  plot  is  80  feet  square,  and  the  memo- 
rial consists  of  a  circular  open  colonnade  of  eight 
columns,  resting  upon  a  stylobate  of  three  steps, 
surrounded  on  the  front  by  a  circular  platform 
slightly  above  the  natural  grade,  from  which 
platform  a  double  flight  of  steps  leads  to  a 
lower  platform  at  a  lake's  edge.  The  scheme  is 
a  screen  of  columns  open  to  the  sky,  enclosing 
a  flower-grown  circle.  The  material  is  white 
granite,  the  inscription  of  white  bronze,  and 
the  detail  is  entirely  floral  in  form  and  free  in 
treatment,  the  wild  rose  and  the  morning-glory 
beinff  used  as  the  main  motives.  The  extreme 
width  of  the  memorial  is  80  feet,  colonnade  18 
feet  in  diameter,  and  columns  15  feet  in  height. 

During  1915  the  Christian  Science  movement, 
in  number  of  adherents,  niunber  of  churches,  and 
in  every  respect,  showed  a  steady  and  progres- 
sive development. 

CHTJBCH  BUILDING.    See  Abchitegtubb. 

CHUBCHILL,  Winston.  See  Litebature, 
English   and  Amebican,  Fiction. 

CHT7BCHILL,  Winston  Leonabd  Spbnceb. 
See  Great  Britain,  History,  paaaim. 

CHTJBCH  OF  ENGLAND.  See  England, 
Church  of. 

CHUBCH  OF  GOD,  The.    See  Adventists. 

CHTJBCH  OF  GOD  IN  JESUS  CHBIST, 
The.    See  Adventists. 

CHUBCH      STATISTICS.    See     Reuqious 

DENOlilNATIONS. 

CIGABS     AND     CIGABETTES.    See     To- 
bacco. 
CITBUS  FBTJITS.    See  Horticulture. 
CITY    CHABTEBS.    See    Municipal    Gov- 

ERN  ME  NT . 

CITY      GOVEBNMENT.    See      Municipal 

CtO  VERN  TtfH!  N  T 

CITY-MANAGEB  PLAN.  See  Municipal 
Government. 

CITY  PLANNING.  Just  how  the  events  of 
the  year  1916  on  the  battlefields  of  Europe  will 
ultimately  affect  city  planning  in  England  or 
on  the  Continent  it  would  be  vain  to  attempt 
to  predict.  For  the  time  both  the  planning 
and  execution  of  all  sorts  of  municipal  im- 
provements except  those  connected  with  mili- 
tary operations  seemed  to  have  come  nearly  to 
a  stop.  In  Canada  there  was  a  similar  pause, 
but  the  work  of  Thomas  Adams,  City  Planning 
Adviser  to  the  Canadian  Conservation  Com- 
mission, was  continued.  In  the  United  States 
there  was  also  a  check  to  city  planning,  but 
projects  already  under  execution,  like  the  group 
plan  of  the  public  buildings  at  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
went  forward. 

At  the  seventh  National  Conference  on  City 
Planning,  held  at  Detroit  in  June,  1915,  Flavel 
Shurtleff,  secretary,  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  dominant  note  in  American  city  plaai- 
ninff  literature  prior  to  1909,  was  Aesthetic, 
while  at  the  first  Conference,  held  that  same 
year,  the  "lesthetic  note"  was  "almost  absent," 
stress  havinff  been  "put  on  planning  as  an  eco- 
nomic rerae^  for  municipal  waste  and  for  so- 
cial misery."  At  subsequent  conferences  the 
economic  and  social  sides  of  the  subject  were 
also  dominant.  In  the  1916  Conference  con- 
siderable attention  was  paid  to  the  architec- 
tural phases  of  city  planning,  but  the  one  sub- 
ject which  was  given  most  attention  at  the 
Detroit   meeting  was   land   subdivision,   or   the 


size  and  arrangement  of  blocks  and  lots. 
Papers  and  discussions  on  this  subject  occupy 
about  90  pages  of  the  report  of  the  1915  Con- 
ference. A  notable  feature  of  the  discussion 
on  subdivision  was  the  part  taken  in  it  by  real 
estate  men. 

Another  feature  of  the  1915  Conference  was 
a  report  of  a  committee  on  the  Constitution  and 
Powers  of  a  City  Planning  Authority,  consist- 
ing of  a  summary  of  replies  to  a  questionnaire, 
A  single  city  planning  authority  or  office  for 
each  city  was  favored  by  79  of  80  replies.  Of 
76  replies  to  a  second  question,  45  favored 
making  the  creation  of  a  city  planning  author- 
ity mandatory,  and  2  favored  it  if  the  authority 
had  advisory  powers  only;  25  favored  the  per- 
missive method,  and  4  believed  in  this  method 
at  first,  with  the  mandatory  method  eventually. 
A  third  question  dealt  with  the  powers  that 
should  be  given  a  city  planning  authority  to 
correlate  particular  improvements  with  the 
comprehensive  city  plan.  Of  74  who  replied, 
9  favored  advisory  powers;  7  an  absolute  veto; 
28  a  veto  that  could  be  overridden  by  the  city 
council;  and  30  some  combination  of  the  meth- 
ods named.  A  great  diversity  of  opinion  was 
shown  as  to  the  proper  constitution  of  a  city 
planning  authority.  A  total  of  71  opinions 
were  expressed.  Of  these  28  favored  a  special 
unpaid  commission  of  citizens,  not  city  officials; 
3  were  for  a  committee  of  the  council;  2  ad- 
vocated an  ex-officio  commission  of  department 
heads  or  engineers;  2  favored  the  city  engineer; 
and  36  favored  a  combination  of  the  four  meth- 
ods. As  to  the  advisability  of  vesting  local  au- 
thorities with  powers  like  those  in  the  English 
Town  Planning  and  Housing  Act  of  1909,  55 
answered  yes,  and  4  no.  State  legislation 
compelling  or  permitting  city  planning  commis- 
sions has  been  enacted  in  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  and  Cal- 
ifornia, and  about  100  commissions  have  been 
appointed.  The  first  of  these  commissions  was 
created  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1908. 

Excess  condemnation,  or  the  taking  of  more 
land  than  is  needed  for  a  public  improvement 
with  power  to  combine,  subdivide,  and  sell  the 
excess,  is  considered  by  many  as  essential  to 
city  planning,  both  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling abutting  or  facing  property,  and  of 
enabling  the  city  to  reap  a  part  of  the  enhance- 
ment of  the  value  of  property  surrounding  the 
improvement,  thus  reducing  the  cost  of  the  im- 
provement. The  apparent  success  of  this  prac- 
tice abroad  led  to  its  advocacy  in  the  United 
States.  Legislation  authorizing  excess  con- 
demnation was  enacted  by  Massachusetts  and 
Ohio  in  1904,  Virginia  in  1906,  Connecticut  and 
Pennsylvania  in  1907,  and  Maryland  in  1908. 
A  Philadelphia  purchase  under  the  1907  act 
was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  State  Su- 
preme Court  the  same  year.  Constitutional 
sanction  for  excess  condemnation  was  secured 
in  Massachusetts  in  1911,  Wisconsin  and  Ohio 
in  1912,  and  New  York  in  1913.  It  was  de- 
feated by  popular  vote  in  New  Jersey  and  Cal- 
ifornia in  October,  1915.  To  the  middle  of  the 
year  no  use  of  this  constitutional  power  had 
been  reported,  but  New  York  City  had  just  per- 
fected a  plan  for  putting  excess  condemnation 
into  effect. 

Courses  in  city  planning  are  now  offered  at 
Harvard  University,  the  University  of  Illinois, 


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CIVIL  SERVICE 


and  perhaps  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  and 
at  the  University  of  Liverpool  in  England. 
During  the  year  members  of  the  classes  in  civic 
design  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  working 
under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Charles  M.  Rob- 
inson, made,  and  the  university  published,  A 
Study  in  City  Planning  in  Champaign  and  Ur- 
hana.  The  National  Conference  on  Citv  Plan- 
ning (Boston,  Mass.)  established  a  small  City 
Plan  Quarterly  in  1915.  Recent  British  books 
are  Patrick  Geddes,  Cities  in  Evolution  (Lon- 
don) ;  Henry  Aldridge,  The  Case  for  Town  Plan- 
ning (National  Town  Planning  and  Housing 
Council ) .  At  the  close  of  the  year  a  new  Amer- 
ican book  was  announced:  Nolen,  City  Planning 
(New  York).  See  Municipal  Govern mbnt,  un- 
der Model  City  Charter, 

CIVIC  ASSOCIATION,  American.  No  an- 
nual meeting  of  this  association  was  held  during 
1015,  but  it  was  postponed  until  the  early  part 
of  January,  1016.  The  work  of  the  association 
during  the  year  progressed  as  usual,  the  war 
having  had  but  little  influence  upon  it.  The 
general  headquarters  of  the  association  are  at 
Washington.  The  officers  are:  J.  Horace  Mc- 
Farland,  president;  William  B.  Howland,  treas- 
urer; Richard  B.  Watrous,  secretary. 

CIVIC  CENTRES.    See  City  Planning. 

CIVIC  FEDEBATION,  National.  The  us- 
ual annual  meeting  was  not  held  in  1015,  partly 
owing  to  the  war,  and  partly  to  the  unusual 
number  of  topics  which  demanded  attention. 
The  meeting  annually  held  in  December  of  each 
year  was  therefore  postponed  for  over  a  month, 
and  no  annual  report  was  made  during  1915. 
Among  the  subjects  which  were  vigorously  dis- 
cussed during  the  year  especial  emphasis  was 
given  to  the  legal  and  moral  obligations  rest- 
ing upon  foreign-born  citizens  of  the  United 
States — those  who  have  become,  and  those  who 
have  taken  steps  to  become,  naturalized  citi- 
zens. Attention  was  also  given  to  the  duties 
and  prospects  of  those  who  are  engaged  in 
labor  and  business  in  the  United  States,  but 
who  do  not  intend  to  take  out  citizens'  papers. 
The  remarkable  check  imposed  by  the  war  upon 
immigration  led  to  a  careful  inquiry  concern- 
ing its  economic  results,  its  effect  upon  the 
wage-earner,  upon  industry,  and  upon  the  body 
politic.  Special  committees  were  engaged  to 
prepare  reports  upon  the  profit-sharing  plans 
now  in  operation  in  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  a  description  of  the  abandoned  ones  and  the 
causes  of  their  failure.  The  investigation  was 
thorough,  covering  the  different  methods  em- 
ployed in  industrial  enterprises — ^manufacturing 
plants,  mercantile  houses,  public  service  cor- 
porations, and  financial   institutions. 

The  remarkable  condition  of  affairs  in  Eu- 
rope, where  governments  have  been  compelled 
by  the  war  to  take  over  more  and  more  of  pri- 
vate industry,  has  had  a  profound  effect  upon 
thought  in  this  country,  and  during  the  year 
much  attention  was  given  by  members  of  the 
federation  to  the  question  as  to  how  far  gov- 
ernment here  could  enter  into  private  industry. 
The  crux  of  the  inquiry  was  whether  the  change 
in  Europe  was  permanent,  or  only  tolerated  as 
a  military  necessity. 

The  industrial  economics  department  of  the 
federation  made  a  survey  during  the  year  of 
the  social  and  industrial  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  United  States  during  the 
last  generation.     The  object  of  the  survey  was 


to  summarize  the  changes  in  American  national 
life,  and  to  gather  together  the  essential  ma- 
terial from  which  to  judge  where  there  has  been 
improvement,  where  loss,  and  how  far,  on  the 
whole,  gains  and  losses  balance  or  outweigh 
one  another.  More  particularly  the  survey 
tried  to  find  out  ( 1 )  how  wages,  hours  of 
labor,  and  the  physical  conditions  of  the  fac- 
tory and  the  home  compare  with  those  of  30 
years  ago;  (2)  what  effect  the  work  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  the  Railway 
Brotherhoods,  and  the  social  reform  organiza- 
tions, and  the  l^islation  secured  by  them  has 
had  upon  conditions  in  factories,  mercantile  es- 
tablishments, mines,  bakeries,  tenement  houses, 
and  sweat  shops;  (3)  whether  child  labor  has 
increased  or  diminished  in  recent  decades;  (4) 
what  effect  State  legislation  has  had  upon  age 
limits,  hours  worked,  and  opportunity  for  edu- 
cation; (5)  the  effect  of  the  adoption  of 
the  principle  that  industry  shall  bear  the 
burden  of  industrial  accidents;  (6)  what  has 
been  done  by  employers  for  the  physical  well- 
being  of  wage-earners;  (7)  whether  the  farmer 
is  holding  to  the  ownership  of  his  farm,  lapsing 
into  tenancy,  or  sinkin?  under  mortgage  debt; 
(8)  the  housing  conditions,  educational  oppor- 
tunities, public  health,  business  ethics,  political 
ethics. 

The  officers  of  the  federation  are:  president, 
Seth  Low;  vice-presidents,  Samuel  Gompers  and 
Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler;  treasurer,  Isaac  N. 
Seligman;  chairman  of  the  executive  council, 
Ralph  M.  Easley. 

CIVIL  SEBVICE.  Federal  Civil  Sebvioe. 
The  total  positions  held  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  United  States  on  June  30,  1015,  were  454,- 
116.  Of  these  0692  were  presidential  appoint- 
ments. In  addition  to  this  total,  28,605  were 
employed  on  the  Panama  Canal,  making  a  grand 
total  of  482,721.  There  were  employ^  in  the 
City  of  Washington  33,464  persons  in  the  civil 
service,  and  outside,  420,652.  There  were  no 
noteworthy  developments  in  the  history  of  the 
Federal  Civil  Service  during  1915.  The  Na- 
tional Civil  Service  Reform  League  began  an 
energetic  campai^  with  the  special  purpose  of 
securing  le^^islation  providing  for  the  competi- 
tive classification  of  first,  second,  and  third 
class  postmasters.  Improvement  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  foreign  service  was  promised 
by  the  passage  of  the  so-called  Stone-Flood  Bill 
in  the  63rd  Congress.  This  bill  provided  for 
the  classification  of  the  diplomatic  secretaries 
and  consular  officers  in  the  grades,  and  the  as- 
signments of  the  members  of  this  service  from 
these  grades.  The  President  was  also  author- 
ized to  transfer  these  officers  from  post  to  post 
as  the  interests  of  the  service  might  require. 
The  Secretary  of  State  was  required  to  keep  a 
service  record  of  the  officers  of  the  foreign  serv- 
ice, and  to  report  to  the  President  the  names 
of  those  who  especially  deserved  promotion. 

The  State  Civil  Service.  The  State  Legisla- 
tures did  not  enact  many  important  civil  serv- 
ice measures  in  1915.  There  appeared  to  be 
in  general  a  reaction  against  social  legislation, 
and  this  was  accompanied  by  a  similar  reaction 
in  regard  to  civil  service  laws.  The  Legisla- 
ture of  Colorado  enacted  a  new  law,  the  effect 
of  which  will  be  largely  to  defeat  the  purpose 
of  the  merit  system.  In  Wisconsin  an  effort 
was  made  to  weaken  the  merit  system  by  the 
passage   of   a   bill   permitting  the   certification 


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CLEABINQ  SYSTEM 


of  an  entire  eligible  list,  instead  of  three  names. 
The  civil  service  law  was  also  weakened  by  the 
Ohio  Legislature.  In  California  the  L^slature 
approved  a  bill  which  would  take  from  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  its  power  of  inves- 
tigation. This  was  vetoed  by  Governor  John- 
son. In  contrast  to  these  efforts  to  destroy  the 
value  of  civil  service  measures,  the  Legislature 
of  Kansas  passed  a  civil  service  bill  applying 
to  the  State  service.  Similar  measures  were 
passed  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Louisiana. 

CIVIL  SEBVIiiE  COMMISSION.  See 
Civil  Service. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BEFOBM  LEAQT7E,  Na- 
TiONAL.  The  35th  annual  meeting  of  the 
league  was  held  at  Philadelphia,  Dec.  2,  1915, 
the  address  being  delivered  by  the  president, 
Richard  H.  Dana,  who  reviewed  the  league's 
progress  during  the  year.  The  council  reported 
the  steady  growth  of  public  sentiment  in  favor 
of  the  merit  and  efficiency  system,  but  sharply 
criticized  the  Republican  legislatures  in  Con- 
necticut and  Colorado  for  attacks  made  upon 
the  system  in  those  States,  while  it  praised  the 
Republican  legislature  in  New  Jersey  for  up- 
holding the  system.  In  several  other  State 
legislatures,  including  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  and 
California,  attempts  prejudicial  to  civil  service 
reform  were  made,  but  were  not  successful.  In 
Kansas,  Louisiana,  and  New  York,  substantial 
progress  was  made;  but  in  Chicago  a  bitter 
struggle  during  six  months  went  on  between 
civil  service  reform  supporters  and  the  Mayor, 
with  the  result  of  substantial  injury  to  the 
cause  by  the  capture  of  a  large  number  of  of- 
fices for  the  benefit  of  the  Mayor's  following. 
In  New  York  State  Governor  Whitman  secur^ 
the  resignations  of  the  Sulzer-Glynn  Commis- 
sioners, and  vetoed  bills  which  sought  to 
weaken  the  effect  of  civil  service  reform,  and 
the  commission  appointed  by  the  Governor  did 
much  to  restore  the  merit  system  and  its  per- 
sonnel in  the  State.  In  New  York  City,  the 
commission  appointed  by  Mayor  Mitchel  made 
notable  advances  in  methods  of  civil  service  ex- 
aminations, filling  by  competitive  non-assem- 
bled examinations  nigh-^ade  pNOsitions  to 
which  hitherto  the  competitive  classification  had 
not  applied.  The  governing  board  of  the 
league  resolved  to  start  an  active  campaign  to 
secure  the  competitive  classification  of  all  post- 
masters. The  officers  of  the  league  are:  presi- 
dent, Richard  Henij  Dana;  dmirman  of  the 
coimcil,  Robert  D.  «fenks;  secretary,  George  T. 
Keyes;  assistant  secretary,  Harry  W.  Marsh; 
treasurer,  A.  S.  Frissell. 

CLABX,  Charles  Hebeb.  American  writer, 
died  Aug.  10,  1915.  He  was  better  known  un- 
der the  pen  name  of  "Max  Adeler."  Bom  in 
Berlin,  Md.,  in  1841,  he  was  educated  at 
Georgetown,  D.  C;  entered  journalism  in  1865; 
and  engagCMi  in  writing  for  many  years.  He 
was  at  one  time  one  of  the  most  widely  read 
humorous  story-writers  in  the  United  States, 
but  his  later  years  were  devoted  chiefly  to  eco- 
nomic and  industrial  subjects.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Textile  World,  and  was  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing at  Conshohocken,  Pa.  His  writing 
include:  Out  of  the  Burly  Burly;  Captain 
Bullett;  In  Happy  Hallow;  and  The  Quaker- 
ess. 

CLABK  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  at  Worcester,  Mass.  Although 
the  same  buildings  are  used  for  both  Clark  Uni- 


versity and  Clark  College,  the  latter  is  entirely 
independent  in  administration  and  endowment. 
There  were  in  the  different  departments  of  the 
institution  in  the  autumn  of  1015,  171  students, 
and  a  faculty  numbering  27.  Clark  College  is 
non-sectarian.  The  productive  funds  of  the  col- 
lege amounted  to  $1,400,000  and  the  income  to 
about  $70,000.  The  library  contains  75,000  vol- 
umes. The  president  of  the  college  is  Edmund 
C.  Sanford,  Ph.D. 

CLABK  UKIVEBSITY.  An  institution  for 
grraduate  study,  founded  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
m  1889.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  107.  The 
faculty  numbered  21.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  productive  funds  of  the  uni- 
versity amounted  to  about  $2,400,000,  and  of  the 
college  to  $1,400,000.  The  library  contains  about 
65,000  volumes.  The  president  of  the  university 
is  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

CLASSldAL  LITBBATTJBE  AND  SCHOL- 
ABSHIP.     See  Philoloot,  Clabsical. 

CLAY  WOBKINQ  INDUSTRIES.  The 
clay  working  industries  were  not  especially 
prosperous  in  1914.  The  total  value  of  all  clay 
productions    marketed    was    $164,986,983,    com- 

Sared  with  a  value  of  $181,289,132  in  1913,  a 
ecrease  of  nearly  9  per  cent.  This  decrease 
was  due  chiefly  to  the  general  condition  of 
business.  Of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  in- 
dustry— ^brick  and  tile,  and  pottery — the  former 
showed  the  larger  decrease.  Hie  decrease  in 
the  brick  and  tile  industry  was  9%  per  cent, 
and  in  the  pottery  industry  about  7  per  cent. 
The  most  prominent  features  in  the  industry 
were  the  continued  large  decrease  in  the  pro- 
duction and  value  of  common  brick  in  the  re- 
gions supplying  the  New  York  City  markets, 
and  the  large  increase  in  the  value  of  clay  pot- 
tery in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Oklahoma,  Maine,  and 
West  Virginia.  There  was  a  decrease  in  37 
States  in  the  development  of  clay  pottery  in 
1914.  Ohio  has  been  the  leading  State  in  clay 
potteries  since  statistics  were  first  compiled  in 
1894;  Pennsylvania  ranks  second;  New  Jersey 
third;  Illinois  fourth;  New  York  fifth;  and 
Indiana  sixth.  Common  brick  is  the  most 
widely  distributed.  Illinois  was  the  largest 
producer.  Next  to  the  common  brick,  front 
or  face  brick  has  the  widest  distribution. 
The  value  of  all  the  States  in  pottery  in  1914 
was  $35,395,161.  Every  product,  except  red 
earthenware,  decreased  in  value  in  1914.  The 
number  of  States  producing  pottery  of  some 
variety  was  37.  There  are  several  States  in 
which  pottery  of  higher  grades  are  made. 
White  ware  is  made  in  eight  States;  china  in 
four;  and  porcelain  and  electrical  supplies  in 
nine  States.  Ohio  is  the  leading  State  in  pot- 
tery, Pennsylvania  second,  and  Missouri  third. 
New  Jersey  -  is  the  leading  china-producing 
State,  with  New  York  second,  Pennsylvania 
third,  and  West  Virginia  next.  Ohio  produces 
every  variety  of  pottery,  except  china.  The 
principal  pottery  production  in  New  Jersey  is 
sanitary  ware.  The  pottery  imports  in  the 
United  States  in  1914  were  valued  at  $8,349,442. 
The  exports  were  valued  at  $3,578,005. 

CLEABING  HOUSE.  See  Financial  Re- 
view.   

CLEARING  SYSTEM.  See  Banks  and 
Banking,  Federal  Reserve  Clearing  System. 


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COAL 


CLIMATE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

See  Meteobology. 

CLOTHINa  INDUSTBY,  New  York.  See 
Abbitration  and  Ck)NCiLiATioN|  Ifew  York 
Clothing  Indu9try. 

CLOuSTON,  Sis  Thomas  Smith.  English 
physician,  died  April  20,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Orkney  in  1840;  educated  in  Aberdeen  and 
Edinburgh  universities;  and  became  successively 
physician  for  the  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
land Asylum,  physician  superintendent  of  the 
Royal  Asylum,  Morningside,  Edinburgh,  and  lec- 
turer on  mental  diseases  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity. He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  universities,  and  was 
knighted  in  1911.  From  1902-03  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Edinburgh. 
His  published  writings  include:  Clinical  Lec- 
tures on  Mental  Dieeaeea;  The  Hygiene  of  the 
Mind;  and  Unsoundnese  of  Mind, 

CLUB  BUILDINOS.    See  Abchitegtube. 

COAOULEN  CIBA.  This  is  a  hemostatic 
drug  said  to  be  an  extract  prepared  from  blood- 
platelets  and  to  contain  a  thromboplastic  sub- 
stance, mixed  with  lactose,  1  gm.  representing 
20  gm.  of  dried  blood.  Coagulen  is  said  to  act 
as  a  hemostatic  by  increasing  the  natural  proc- 
ess of  clotting.  In  5  per  cent  solution  the  sub- 
stance may  be  used  by  local  application  or  by 
injection  into  the  muscles  or  veins.  Coagulen 
ciba  occurs  as  a  yellowish,  granular  powder, 
having  a  sweet  taste  and  faint  odor.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  water  and  such  a  solution  may  be 
boiled  for  two  or  three  minutes  without  de- 
stroying its  therapeutic  activity. 

CO  All.  The  coal  mining  industry  in  1915  pre- 
sented a  marked  contrast  to  that  of  the  preced- 
ing year.  In  1913  the  production  of  both  an- 
thracite and  bituminous  coal  reached  its  highest 
points  as  recorded;  in  1914  the  output  fell  be- 
low that  of  1913,  and  even  of  1912.  The  pro- 
duction in  these  years  was  phenomenal  and  fol- 
lowed the  reaction  of  the  panic  years  of  1907 
and  1908.  The  decrease  in  production  in  1914 
was  due  partly  to  the  depression  of  the  iron 
trade  in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  After  the 
close  of  the  first  quarter  of  1914,  the  call  for 
bituminous  coal  decreased,  and  during  the  last 
quarter  the  conditions  in  many  of  the  coal  min- 
ing regions  were  little  short  of  demoralized. 
The  European  war  does  not  seem  to  have  exerted 
a  marked  effect  upon  the  production  of  coal  in 
the  United  States  in  1914.  Certain  Rocky  Moun- 
tain fields  suffered  a  decrease  as  a  result  of  the 
curtailment  of  copper  smelting  after  the  war  be- 
gan. There  were  two  important  strikes  during 
the  year,  one  in  Colorado,  and  one  in  Ohio.  But 
the  effect  of  these  was  not  so  serious  as  it  would 
have  been  in  a  year  when  the  demand  for  coal 
was  strong. 

In  view  of  the  general  depression,  and  the 
lighter  demand  for  coal,  the  firmness  of  prices 
in  1914  was  noticeable. 

The  total  production  of  coal  in  1914  was  513,- 
625,477  short  tons,  valued  at  $681,490,643.  The 
decrease  from  1913  in  the  production  amounted 
to  569,960,219  tons,  or  nearly  10  per  cent.  Of 
the  total  amount  of  the  coal  produced,  81,900,631 
long  tons  were  Pennsylvania  anthracite,  and  422,- 
703,970  short  tons  were  bituminous  coal  and  lig- 
nite. The  production  of  anthracite  in  1913  was 
81,718,680  long  tons,  while  the  production  of  bi- 
tuminous in  the  same  year  was  478,435,297  short 
tons.     The   decreased    production    in   anthracite 


was  due  particularly  to  mild  weather  during  the 
winter  months  in  the  area  where  it  is  used  al- 
most exclusively,  and  to  the  decreased  exporta- 
tion to  Canada.  The  decrease  in  the  demand  for 
bitiuninous  coal  was  distributed  generally  all 
over  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  seven 
States  where  the  production  in  1914  was  greater 
than  in  1913.  Two  of  these  States  indicated. 
South  Dakota  and  North  Dakota,  produced  lig- 
nite only,  and  had  relatively  small  outputs.  The 
increase  in  New  Mexico  was  due  to  ability  to  sup- 
ply markets  ordinarily  furnished  by  coal  from 
Colorado,  which,  in  1914,  suffered  from  a  serious 
strike.  The  other  States  which  showed  increase 
were  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Michigan,  and 
Oregon.  The  greatest  decrease  was  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, which  fell  off  almost  26,000,000  tons,  or 
nearly  15  per  cent.  In  Ohio  the  decrease  was 
nearly  50  per  cent,  compared  with  1912.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  strike  conditions. 

Several  changes  took  place  in  the  rank  of  coal 
producing  States  in  1914,  the  most  notable  of 
which  was  the  supplanting  of  Ohio  by  Kentucky 
as  fourth  in  quantity  of  output.  From  1896  to 
1913  Ohio  occupied  fourth  place.  The  change  is 
due  to  decreased  production  on  account  of  strike 
conditions  in  this  State.  Indiana  succeeded  Ala- 
bama in  sixth  place,  and  Wyoming  in  eleventh 
place.  Washington  dropped  from  seventeenth  to 
nineteenth  in  output,  and  from  twelfth  to  fif- 
teenth in  value.  The  value  of  the  coal  in  Ohio 
maintained  fourth  place,  and  Alabama  dropped 
from  sixth  to  seventh  place  in  quantity  of  out- 
put, and  was  sixth  in  point  of  value.  Addi- 
tional information  in  regard  to  the  production  of 
coal  in  individual  States  may  be  found  in  the 
paragraph.  Mineral  Production,  under  the  sepa- 
rate States.  The  tables  below  give  the  rela- 
tive rank  of  the  coal  producing  States  in 
1913-14  with  the  quantity  and  value  of  pro- 
duction. 


1913 
Production 


Rank       State 

1  PennsyWania : 

Anthracite     

BituminouB    

2  West    Virginia    

3  Illinois 

4  Ohio     

5  Kentucky 

6  ^Uabama     

7  Indiana    

8  Colorado     

9  Virginia 

10  Iowa     

11  Wyoming    

12  Kansas 

13  Tennessee     

14  Maryland 

15  Missouri    

16  Oklahoma     

17  Washington    

18  New   Mexico    

10  Utah 

20  Montana     

21  Texas    

22  Arkansas    

23  Michigan    

24  North  Dakota    

25  Georgia     

26  Oregon     

27  California  and  Alaska. 

28  South  Dakota    

2Q  Idaho  and  Nevada  . . . 


Per- 
centage 
Quantity       of  total 
(short  tons)    produc- 
tion. 


.  91,524,922 
.178,781,217 
.  71.254,136 
.  61.618,744 
.  86,300,527 
.  19,616,600 
.  17,678.522 
.  17,165.671 
.   9,232.510 

8,828,068 

7,525,986 
.  7,393,066 
.   7,202,210 

6.860.184 
.  4,779,889 
.  4,818.125 
.  4,165,770 
.  3,877,891 
.  8,708,806 
.   8,254,828 

8,240.978 
.  2,429,144 
.   2.234,107 

1,281,786 

495,820 

255.626 

46.063 

26,911 

10.540 

2,177 


16.1 

80.5 

12.6 

10.8 

6.8 

8.4 

8.1 

8.0 

1.6 

1.5 

1.8 

1.3 

1.8 

1.2 

.8 

.8 

.7 

.7 

.7 

.6 

.6 

.4 

.4 

.2 

.1 


.1 


Total  569,960,219  100.0 


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COAL 


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COAL 


1918 


Bank       8taU 

1  PennsyWania 

Anthracite    $195, 

Bituminous    198, 

2  Wert  Virginia 71, 

3  lUinoia 70, 

4  Ohio 89, 

5  Alabama 28, 

6  Kentucky 20, 

7  Indiana    19, 

8  Colorado     14, 

9  Iowa     18, 

10  Kansas 12 


Valu4 


11  Wyoming    11, 


12  Washington 

18  Virginia     

14  Oklahoma     

15  Tennessee     

16  Missouri     

17  Maryland     

18  Montana     

19  New   Mexico    

20  UUh     

21  Texas     

22  Arkansas     

23  Michigan    

24  North  Dakota    

25  Georgia    

26  Oregon     

27  California    and   Alaska 

28  South  Dakota   

29  IdAho  and  Nevada  . . . . 


.181,127 
,089.806 
822,804 
818.605 
948,058 
088,724 
,516,749 
,001,881 
,035,090 
,496,710 
036.292 
510.045 
243,187 
952.658 
542,748 
889,721 
468,808 
927.046 
658,589 
401,260 
884,127 
283.920 
928,701 
456,227 
750.652 
861.819 
116,724 
95,178 
20.648 
5,285 


Per- 
eentage 
of  total 
value 

25.7 

25.4 

9.6 

9.2 

5.8 

8.0 

2.7 

2.5 

1.8 

1.8 

1.6 

1.5 

1.2 

1.2 

1.1 

1.0 

1.0 

.8 

.7 

.7 

.7 

.6 

.5 

.8 

.1 


Total    $760,416,079     100.0 


1914 
Production 


Rank        State 


Quantity 
{ehort  tons) 


1  Pennsylvania: 

Anthracite     90.821.507 

Bituminous    147,988,294 

2  West  Virginia 71.707,626 

8  Illinois    57,589,197 

4  Kentucky 20,882,768 

5  Ohio   18.843,115 

6  Indiana    16,641,132 

7  Alabama     15.593.422 

8  Colorado     8,170,539 

9  Virginia     7.959,536 

10  Iowa 7.451,022 

11  Kansas     6,860.988 

12  Wyoming    6,475,298 

13  Tennessee    5,943,258 

14  Maryland 4,133,547 

15  Oklahoma     8,988,613 

16  Missouri     8,935.980 

17  New  Mexico 8.877.689 

18  Utah 3,108.086 

19  Washington    3.064,820 

20  Montana     2,805.173 

21  Texas    2,823,778 

22  Arkansas    1.836,540 

23  Michigan    1,283,030 

24  North  Dakota    506,685 

25  Georgia     166,498 

26  Oregon     51,558 

27  California,     Idaho,     and     Ne- 

vada       13,974 

28  South  Dakota   11.850 


Per- 
centage 
of  total 
produe- 

Hon. 

17.7 

28.8 

14.0 

11.2 

4.0 

4.0 

3.2 

3.0 

1.6 

1.5 

1.4 

1.3 

1.2 

1.2 

.8 

.8 

.8 

.7 

.6 

.6 

.6 

.4 

.8 

.2 

.1 


Total     518,525,477     100.0 


1914 
Value 


Rank       State  Value 

1  Pennsylvania: 

Anthracite    $188,181,399 

Bituminous    159,006,296 

2  West  Virginia 71.391,408 

3  Illinois     64.693.529 

4  Ohio     21,250.642 

5  Kentucky     20,852,468 

6  Alabama 20.849.919 


Per- 
centage 
of  total 
value 

27.6 
23.8 
10.5 
9.5 
3.1 
3.0 
3.0 


Per- 

eetUage 

of  total 

value 

2.7 

2.0 

2.0 

1.6 

1.5 

1.2 

1.2 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

.9 

.8 

.7 

.7 

.6 

.5 

.4 

.1 


Bank       State  Value 

7  Indiana    18,290,928 

8  Colorado     18,601,718 

9  Iowa     18,364,070 

10  Kansas     11,288,258 

11  Wyoming   10.083,747 

12  Oklahoma     8,204,015 

13  Virginia     8,032.448 

14  Missouri     6,802.325 

15  Tennessee     6,776,578 

16  Washington    6,751,511 

17  New   Mexico    6.230,871 

18  MsryUnd     5,234,796 

19  Utah     4.935,454 

20  Montana     4,918.191 

21  Texas     3,922.459 

22  Arkansas    8,158.168 

23  Michigan    2,559.786 

24  North  Dakota    771,879 

25  Georgia    289,462 

26  Oreson 148.656 

27  California,    Idaho,    and    Ne- 

vada      89.921 

28  South    Dakota    20,456 

Total     $681,490,648     100.0 

In  regard  to  the  number  of  men  employed  in 
the  coal  mines,  the  year  1914  surpassed  all  oth- 
ers. The  number  employed  in  anthracite  and 
bituminous  mines  for  the  first  time  exceeded  a 
quarter  of  a  million.  The  total  number  of  men 
employed  in  1914  was  763,185;  of  this  number 
179,679  were  engaged  in  the  production  of  an- 
thracite, and  683,506  in  the  bituminous  and  lig- 
nite mines. 

Labor  Troubles.  The  biennial  wage  scale 
agreements  in  the  bituminous  organized  coal 
mining  districts  of  the  United  States,  made  in 
1912,  expired  April  1,  1914,  and  as  usual,  pend- 
ing settlement  of  the  new  agreement,  there  were 
a  Targe  number  of  men  on  strike.  The  most  seri- 
ous conflict  was  in  Ohio,  where  a  total  number 
of  40,577  men  were  affected  by  the  strike  for  an 
average  of  159  days.  In  other  States  the  wage 
agreements  were  effected  without  serious  loss  of 
time.  The  coal  strike  was  in  effect  from  Sep- 
tember, 1913,  in  Colorado,  until  December,  1914. 
Labor  troubles  in  the  anthracite  regions  were 
numerous,  but  not  long  continued. 

Accidents.  The  record  of  fatal  accidents  in 
the  coal  mines  in  1914  showed  a  decrease  from 
2785  in  1913,  to  2454  in  1914.  Of  the  total  num- 
ber of  fatal  accidents  in  1014,  505  occurred  in  the 
anthracite  mines  of  Pennsylvania,  and  1870  in 
the  bituminous  mines  and  lignite  mines.  As 
usual,  the  most  prolific  cause  of  deaths  was  the 
falling  of  roof  and  coal,  which  killed  1131  miners 
— 46  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  deaths. 
The  death  rate  per  thousand  employees  in  the 
anthracite  region  was  3.31  in  1014,  against  3.52 
in  1013.  In  the  bituminous  regions  the  death 
rate  per  thousand  was  3.10  in  1014,  against  3.70 
in  1013,  and  the  death  rate  for  the  entire  coun- 
try in  1014  was  3.22,  against  3.73  in  1013. 

Consumption.  More  than  05  per  cent  of  the 
anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  produced  in  the 
United  States  is  consumed  in  the  country,  al- 
though efforts  to  build  up  an  export  trade,  par- 
ticularlv  with  high  grade  bituminous  coal,  have 
resultedi  in  a  considerable  expansion  of  business 
done  with  foreign  countries.  The  quantity  of 
coal  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  coke  in 
1014  was  34,701,656  short  tons,  compared  with 
40,458,320  tons  in  1013. 

Exports  and  Imports.  The  European  war, 
which  for  the  time  being  has  eliminated  Oermany 
as  an  exporter  of  coal,  was  expected  so  to  re- 


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COAL 


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COINS 


strict  Great  Britain's  coal  exports,  that  the 
United  States  would  be  able  to  capture  a  large 
number  of  the  foreign  markets  and  build  up  a 
permanent  export  trade  in  coal.  Beginning  in 
August,  when  war  was  declared,  exports  of  coal 
in  the  Atlantic  seaboard  increased,  but  not  to 
the  extent  anticipated,  for  the  reason  that  up  to 
the  end  of  1014  England  had  not  found  it  neces- 
sary to  restrict  the  export  of  coal,  and  for  the 
further  reason  that  a  large  number  of  foreign 
coal  users  were  temporarily  out  of  the  market. 
Shipments  to  South  America  and  other  coun- 
tries increased  about  40  per  cent  in  1914,  but 
the  exports  to  Canada,  which  is  the  largest  user 
of  United  States  coal,  fell  off  30  per  cent.  The 
result  was  that  the  total  exports  of  anthracite 
and  bituminous  coal  from  the  United  States  de- 
creased from  22,141,143  long  tons  in  1013,  to 
17,632,094  in  1914.  The  imports  of  both  an- 
thracite and  bituminous  coal  were  unimpor- 
tant. 

World's  Production.  The  following  figures 
were  furnished  to  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  by  William  G.  Gray,  statistician  of  the 
American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  and  Prof. 
G.  A.  Roush,  editor  of  Mineral  Industry, 

Thi  World's  Pboduotiok  or  Coal,  im  Shobt  Toks 


OoufUry 

United    States    

Great   Britain    

Germany     

Austria-Hungary    

France    

Russia 

Belgium    

Japan    

India    

China    

Canada     

New  South  Wales 

TransTaal    

Spain    

NaUl     

New    Zealand     

Holland     

Chile    

Queensland     

Mexico     

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 

Turkey    

Italy    

Victoria     

Orange  Free  State  (Orange 

River  Colony)    .... 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Indo-China    

Serbia   

Sweden   

Western  Australia 

Peru     

Formosa    

Bulgaria   

Rhodesia     

Rumania     

Cape    Colony     (Cape    of 

Good  Mope)    

Korea    

Tasmania    

British   Borneo    

Spitzbergen   

Brazil    

Portugal    

Venezuela     

Switzerland     

Philippine  Islanda 

Unspecified     


1918 

569,960,219 

821.922.180 

806,714.664 

59,647,957 

45,108.544 

85,500.674 

25,196,869 

28,988.292 

18.163,856 

al5,482,200 

15.115,089 

11.668,865 

5.225,086 

4,781.647 

2,898,726 

2,115,884 

2,064,608 

1,862,834 

1.162,497 


1914 
618.526,477 
297,698.617 
270,595.952 


21,700.572 


18.697,982 
11.644,476 


1.180.825 


927,244 

772.802 
668,524 

609.978 
458.136 


401.199 
851,687 
801,970 


237,728 
67,481 


61.648 
49,762 


27,653 
13,355 


68.180 


Total    b  1,478.000,000  b  1,846.000,000 

a  Estimated,     b  Approximate. 

See  also  Gex)loot. 

COAST   AND    GEODETIC   SURVEY.    See 
Exploration,  Oceanic. 
COAST    DEFENSES.    See    Military    Pboo- 

RE88. 


COCHXJN  -CHINA.  A  French  colony,  the 
southernmost  division  of  French  Indo-China 
(q.Y.).  SaTgon  is  the  capital,  with  about  68,000 
inhabitants;  Cholon  has  about  182,000.  River 
and  coast  fishing,  stock  raising,  and  agriculture 
are  carried  on. 

COCKSOACHES.  See  Insects,  Pbofaqa- 
TioN  OF  Disease  by. 

COCXBELL,  Fbancis  Mabion.  United 
States  Senator  from  Missouri,  died  Dec.  13,  1915. 
He  was  bom  in  Johnson  Co.,  Mo.,  in  1834;  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools;  studied  law;  and 
was  practicing  in  this  profession  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  entered  the  Confeder- 
ate army.  He  rose  from  the  rank  of  captain  to 
that  of  brigadier-general.  Several  times  he  was 
wounded  during  the  war.  At  the  siege  of  Vicks-- 
burg  he  was  in  command  of  one  of  the  forts,  and 
he  commanded  the  Confederate  forces  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Long  Jack,  Mo.,  which,  for  the  numbers 
engaged,  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  conflicts  of  the 
war.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  practice 
law,  and  in  1876  was  elected  to  the  Senate,  suc- 
ceeding Carl  Schurz,  and  served  five  terms,  or 
until  1905.  General  Cockrell  was  defeated  for 
the  Senate  at  the  time  of  the  Republican  land- 
slide, which  resulted  in  the  election  of  Roosevelt. 
A  Republican  Legislature  was  elected  in  Mis- 
souri. Many  prominent  men  were  candidates 
for  Senator,  and  Elihu  Root,  then  Secretary  of 
State,  suggested  that  General  Cockrell  should  be 
continued  m  the  oflSce  by  the  Legislature.  This 
the  Republican  members  of  the  Legislature  re- 
fused to  do,  and  President  Roosevelt  appointed 
him  a  member  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. He  was  one  of  the  most  useful  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate  during  his  term  of  office,  and 
for  a  time  a  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Ap- 
propriations. 

CODMAN,  RoBEBT.  American  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  died  Oct.  7,  1915. 
He  was  bom  in  Boston  in  1859;  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1882;  three  years  later  from  the 
Harvard  Law  School;  and  in  1886  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  For  several  years  he  was  associated 
witii  his  father  in  the  practice  of  law,  but  after 
the  death  of  his  brother  Archibald,  an  Episcopal 
clergyman,  he  decided  to  take  up  the  work  of  a 
missionary  priest.  He  became  a  student  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  and,  following 
three  years'  study,  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood. He  acted  as  assistant  in  Philadelphia, 
and  was  then  chosen  rector  of  All  Souls  Church 
in  Ashmark,  Mass.  He  afterwards  became  rec- 
tor of  St.  John's  Church  in  Roxbury.  He  was 
elected  Bishop  of  Maine  in  1899,  and  was  or- 
dained in  the  following  year. 

COFFEE.-    See  Aqbicultube. 

COFFIN,  Selde??  Jennings.  American  as- 
tronomer and  educator,  died  March  15,  1015. 
He  was  born  in  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  in  1838; 
graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in  1858,  and 
from  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1864. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  ministry,  but  did  not, 
however,  preach.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  ad- 
junct professor  of  mathematics,  a  professor  in 
1876,  registrar  in  1886,  and  professor  of  as- 
tronomy since  1873,  at  Lafayette  College.  He 
was  the  author  of  Conic  Sections  (1878) ;  Record 
of  the  Men  of  Lafayette  (1891).  He  revised  the 
astronomy  of  Olmsted,  and  other  astronomical 
works. 

COINAGE.     See  Coins,  Value  of. 

COINS,  Value  of.    The  following  table  gives 


Digitized  by 


Google 


COIKS 


156 


COKE 


the  value,  aa  proclaimed  by  the  United  States 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  on  Oct.  1,  1915,  of 
foreign  coins  in  the  currency  of  the  United 
States. 


Of  the  total  amount  of  coke  made  in  1014,  23,- 
335,971  tons  were  beehived  or  oven  coke,  and 
11,219,943  tons  were  by-product  or  retort  coke. 
The   decline  in   general   resulted   from   the   de- 


OowUry 
A.rgeiiiiii»    Gold. 


ToIiM  in 
Standard       Monetary  Unit     XJ.S.Oold 
Dollar 
Peso    $0.9648 


Austria-Hung'y    . .  Oold . . 

Belffiam    Gold. . 

Bolivia    Gold.. 

Brazil   Gold.. 

British  Colonies  in 
Anstralia   and 

Africa Gold.. 

Canada Gold. . 

Central     American 
SUtea: 
Brit.  Hondvraa.  Gold.. 
Costa  Uiea  ....  Gold. . 
Guatemala    ....  Silver. 

Honduras Silver. 

Nicaragua    ....  Gold .  . 

Salvador     Silver . 

Chile    Gold.. 


China    Silver . 

Colombia    Gold . . 

Cuba     Gold. . 

Denmark    Gold .  . 

Ecuador   Gold . . 

Bgypt    Gold. . 


Finland    Gtold . . 

France    Gold . . 

Germany    Gold . . 

Great  Britain    . . .  Gold . . 

Greece    Gold . . 

Haiti    Gold.. 

India    Gold.. 

Italy     Gold.. 

Japan     Gold . . 

Liberia     Gold.. 


Mexico 


Gold. 


Netherlands    Gold.. 

Newfoundland    . . .  Gold. . 

Norway    Gold. . 

Panama    Gold. . 

Paraguay     Silver . 

Persia    Gold. . 


Peru    Gold. 

Philippine    Islands  Gold. 

Portugal     Gold. 

Rumania    Gold . 

Russia    (}old. 

San    Domingo ....  Gold . 

Serbia   Gold. 

Biam Gold. 

Spain    Gold . 


Straita    Settlem'ts.  Gold. 

Sweden   Gold . 

Switierland Gold . 

Turkey     Gold. 

Uruguay Gold. 

Venezuda Gold . 


Crown 2026 

Franc 1980 

Boliviano 8898 

Ifilreis    6462 


Pound  sterling    . . .   4.8666 
Dollar     1.0000 


Dollar     1.0000 

Colon    4668 

Peso    8587 

Peso    8687 

Cordoba    1.0000 

Peso 8687 

Peso 8660 

rShanghai  .6296 
Tael    ...-{Haikwan     .6899 

LCanton  .6780 
DoDar     1.0000 

Peso    1.0000 

Crown     2680 

Sucre    4867 

Pound    (100 

piasters)    4.0481 

Mark    1980 

Franc 1980 

Mark     2882 

Pound    sterling 4.8665 

Drachma    1930 

Gourde     9647 

Rupee     8244 

Lira    1980 

Yen     4985 

Dollar     1.0000 

Peso 4985 

Florin 4020 

Dollar     1.0189 

Crown     2680 

Balboa    1.0000 

Peso 8687 


Kran 


.1700 


Libra    4.8666 

Peso 6000 

Escudo 1.0806 

Leu     1980 

Ruble 5146 

Dollar     1.0000 

Dinar 1930 

Tical     8709 

Peseta     1930 


Dollar     5678 

Crown    2680 

Franc 1980 

Piaster 0440 

Peso    1.0842 

Bolivar    1980 


Bemarkt.     (•) 

Currency:    depreciated  paper,    convertible   at   44   per 
cent  of  face  value. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  Is  the  actual  standard. 
12  ^  bolivianos  equal  1  pound  sterling. 
Currency:   Government  paper.     Exchange  rate  about 
$0.25  to  the  milreis. 


Currency:  inconvertible  paper,  exchange  rate  40  pesos 

Currency:  bank  notea. 

Currency:  convertible  into  silver  on  demand. 
Currencv:  inconvertible  paper;  exchange  rate  approx- 
imately, $0.14. 


Currency:    inconvertible    paper;    exchange    rate,    ap* 
proximately,  $105  paper  to  $1  gold. 


The   actual   standard   is   the   British   pound   sterling, 
which  is  legal  tender  for  97^  piasters. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual  standard. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual  standard. 
Currency:  inconvertible  paper;  exchange  rate,  approx- 
imately, $0.16. 
(15  rupees  equal  1  pound  sterling.) 
Member  of  Latin  Union ;  gold  is  the  actual  standard. 

Currency:    depreciated    silver    token    eoins;    customs 

duties  are  collected  in  gold. 
Mexican    exchange    rate    fluctuating,     approximately, 

$0.15. 


(Currency:  depreciated  paper:  exchange  rate  1.550  per 
cent. 

rhis  is  the  value  of  the  gold  kran.  Currency  is  silver 
eirculatiuff  above  its  metallic  value:  exchange  value 
of  silver  xran,  approximately,  $0.0875. 

Currency:  inconvertible  paper;  exchange  rate,  approx- 
imately, $0.70^. 


Valuation  is  for  the  gold  peseta;  currency  is  silver 
circulating  above  its  metallic  value;  exchange  value, 
approximately,  $0.20. 


Member  Latin  Union;  gold  is  actual  standard. 
100  piasters  equal  to  the  Turkish  £. 


(a)  The  exchange  rates  showii  under  this  heading  are  recent  quotations^  and  given  as  an  indication  of 


the  values  of  currencies  which  are  fluctuating  in  their  relation  to  the  legal  standard, 
place  of  the  Consular  certiflcate  where  it  is  available. 


are  not  to  take  the 


COKE.  The  production  of  coke  in  1914  was 
the  smallest,  except  in  1908,  since  1905.  It 
amounted  to  34,550,914  short  tons,  valued  at 
$88,334,217^  The  production  in  1913  was  46,- 
209,530  short  tons,  valued  at  $128,922,273.  As 
the  value  of  coke  has  a  tendency  to  follow  the 
rate  of  production,  the  prices  in  1914  declined. 


creased  amount  of  iron  produced,  as  practically 
all  the  coke  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron.    See  Ibon  and  Steel. 

The  total  amount  of  coal  consumed  in  the 
manufacture  of  coke  in  1914  was  51,623,650 
short  tons,  valued  at  $74,949,565.  The  total 
number  of  ovens  and  retorts  in  operation   de- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


COKE 


156 


COLOMBIA 


creased  in  1014  from  102,650  to  99J65.  The 
tendency  to  consolidate  into  large  units  is  shown 
in  the  manufacture  of  coke  as  in  the  other 
branches  of  industry,  and  the  number  of  coke- 
making  establishments  has  shown  a  steady  de- 
crease since  1900.  The  total  number  of  estab- 
lifi^ments  in  1914  was  536.  Pennsylvania  is  the 
chief  producer  of  coke,  and  is  followed  by  Ala- 
bama and  Illinois.  Nearly  all  the  coal  produc- 
ing States  produce  coke  in  some  quantities. 
The  imports  of  coke  in  1914  amounted  to  133,- 
266  short  tons,  valued  at  $551,104.  The  exports 
amounted  to  663,585  short  tons,  valued  at  $12,- 
233,686. 

COLD  STOBAGE.  See  Food  and  Nutbition; 
Stock  Raising  and  Meat  Production. 

COLGATE  TJNIVEBSITT.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  Hamilton,  N. 
Y.,  in  1819.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  about  600. 
The  faculty  numbered  48.  There  were  no  note- 
worthy benefactions  received  during  the  year. 
John  F.  Vichert  was  appointed  professor  of 
pastoral  theology  and  dean  of  the  seminary 
to  take  the  place  of  Prof.  William  H.  Allison, 
who  had  resigned.  The  productive  funds  at  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year  1915  were  $180,974.  The 
library  contained  over  75,000  volumes. 

COLLEGES.  See  Univebsities  and  Col- 
leges. 

COLLEGES,  AoBicuLTURAL.  See  AGBicin*- 
tuilal  Education. 

COLLISIONS.    See  Railway  Accidents. 

COLOMBIA.  A  republic  of  northwestern 
South  America,  bordering  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean.     The  capital  is  Bogot&. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  boundary  with 
Brazil  is  undefined,  and  a  large  extent  of  terri- 
tory claimed  by  Colombia  is  also  claimed  by 
both  Peru  and  Ecuador.  Estimates  of  area, 
therefore,  differ  widely.  One  estimate  is  465,- 
700  square  miles;  another,  which  probably  more 
nearly  approximates  the  eventual  area  of  the 
republic,  is  435,100  square  miles.  In  1835  the 
population  was  supposed  to  be  about  1,686,000; 
in  1851,  about  2,243,000;  in  1871,  about  2,951,- 
000;  in  1906,  4,533,777;  in  1912  (census  of 
March  6),  5,472,604.  All  of  these  figures  in- 
clude the  population  of  Panama,  which  appears 
in  the  1912  census  with  an  estimated  400,000. 
With  this  figure  deducted,  the  population  of  the 
republic  becomes  5,072,604.  But  even  the  latter 
figures  include  some  estimates.  Thus  the  terri- 
tories ( intendencies  and  commissaries)  of  the 
republic  are  credited  with  231,522  inhabitants, 
but  this  number  includes  estimates  aggregating 
94,000,  mostly  uncivilized  Indians. 

The  population  of  the  larger  towns  in  1912  was 
as  follows  (the  figures  relate  to  municipio8y  that 
is,  districts  which  are  organized  for  municipal 
purposes  and  which  usually  comprise  rather 
extended  areas):  BogotA,  121,257;  Medellfn, 
71,004;  Barranquilla,  48,907;  Cartagena,  36,- 
632;  Manizales,  34,720;  Sonr6n,  29,346;  Pasto, 
27,760;  Cali,  27,747;  Aguadas,  26,423;  Ibagu6, 
24,693;  Palmira,  24,312;  Neiva,  21,852;  Mon- 
terfa,  21,521;  Yarumal,  21,250;  Cticuta,  20,364; 
Bucaramanga,  19,735;  Mirafiores  (Boyacft),  19,- 
150;  Lorica,  19,005;  PopayAn,  18,724;  Cartago, 
18,618;  Pereira,  18,428;  Andes,  18,391;  Sala- 
mina,  18,195;  Fredonia,  18,176;  Bolfvar 
(Cauca),  17,738;  Abejorral,  17,508;  Santa  Rosa 
de  Cabal,  17,009. 

Education.    Illiteracy  is  prevalent,  and  pri- 


mary instruction,  though  free,  is  not  compul- 
sory. The  number  of  primary  schools  reported 
for  1914  is  4184,  with  280,367  pupils.  Second- 
ary schools  in  1914  numbered  68  public  and  246 
private,  with  6283  and  18,095  students,  respec- 
tively. Most  of  the  secondary  schools  are  under 
the  management  of  Roman  Catholic  orders. 
Normal  schools  in  1914  numbered  28,  with  1728 
students  (649  male,  1079  female).  There  are  a 
few  schools  for  special  or  professional  instruc- 
tion. Bogot&  has  long  been  a  conspicuous  seat 
of  Roman  Catholic  scholasticism.  Its  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1572,  has  faculties  of  letters 
and  philosophy,  jurisprudence  and  political  sci- 
ence, medicine  and  natural  science,  and  mathe- 
matics and  engineering.  The  University  of 
Bogot&  and  the  School  of  Mines  at  Medellfn  are 
national  institutions.  Besides  Bogot&,  there  are 
several  other  universities  so-called,  as  the  Uni- 
versity of  Medellfn,  the  University  of  Cauca,  at 
Popay&n,  founded  1910,  and  the  University  of 
Maigdalena,  at  Santa  Marta,  founded  1913.  The 
state  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 

Production.  In  the  economic  development  of 
the  country,  both  agriculture  and  mining  are  im- 

{)ortant,  and  in  some  sections  cattle  raising  is  a 
arge  and  profitable  industry.  The  republic  has 
a  vast  amount  of  fertile  soil,  but  only  a  small 
proportion  has  been  brought  under  cultivation. 
Industrial  progress  is  handicapped  by  inade- 
quate means  of  transportation.  The  leading 
crop  commercially  is  coffee.  Other  leading  prod- 
ucts are  bananas,  ivory,  nuts,  cacao,  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  cereals.  The  mineral  re- 
sources are  of  exceptional  importance,  especially 
in  the  department  of  Antioquia,  and  include 
gold,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  mercury,  iron,  platinum, 
salt,  and  emeralds.  Manufactures,  except  Pan- 
ama hate,  are  little  developed. 

Commerce.  Imports  and  exporte  have  been 
valued  as  follows: 

2021         191»  1918  1914 

Imports — 
$18,108,863   $28,964,628   $28,586,800   $20,979,229 
Exports — 
22,875,899    82,221,746    84,815.800    82.682,884 

In  1912  and  1913,  respectively,  leading  im- 
porte  were  as  follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 
textiles,  10,547  and  11,465;  metels,  2917  and 
3164;  foodstuffs  and  condimente,  3055  and  2817; 
railway  cars  and  vehicles,  1032  and  1164;  bev- 
erages, 836  and  1051;  drugs  and  medicines,  838 
and  947.  Quantity  of  leading  exports,  in  metric 
tons,  in  1912:  coffee,  559,993;  bananas,  105,263; 
ivory  nute,  11,600;  cattle  hides,  5168;  leaf 
tobacco,  3262.  The  rubber  export  in  1912 
amounted  to  503  metric  tens.  Value  of  leading 
exporte  in  1912  and  1913,  respectively,  in  thou- 
sands of  dollars:  coffee,  16,778  and  18,270;  gold, 
4610  and  4100;  cattle  hides,  2262  and  3181; 
bananas,  1997  and  3060;  Panama  hate,  1175  and 
960;  tobacco,  442  and  921;  ivory  nute,  755  and 
819;  platinum,  594  and  584;  rubber,  736  and  378. 

Trade  by  countries,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

ImportB  Exports 

1918  1918  1919       1918 

United    SUtes    7,612  7.630  15,883  18,862 

United  Kingdom    7,839  6,837  4.876     5,566 

Germany     4.201  4,012  1.854     8,216 

Prance     2,012  4,409  625         798 

Belgium     571  499       594 

ToUl,    including    other. 28.965  28.536  32,222  84.816 


Digitized  by 


Google 


COLOMBIA 


157 


COLORADO 


CoicMUKiCATiONS.  The  development  of  Co- 
lombia's natural  resources  is  greatly  impeded 
by  the  lack  of  adequate  transportation  facili- 
ties. Roads  in  general  are  merely  mule  tracks, 
though  some  of  the  main  thoroughfares  have 
been  made,  by  the  government,  usable  for  ordi- 
nary vehicles  and  automobiles.  To  a  consider- 
able extent  inland  traffic  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  the  Magdalena  River  and  its  tributaries. 
The  railways  form  no  continuous  system,  but 
consist  of  various  short  lines  engaged  in  local 
traffic.  The  length  of  railway  in  operation  in 
1914  is  reported  at  708  miles,  belonging  to  two 
States  and  nine  companies.  Report^  length  of 
telegraph  lines,  over  19,000  kilometers  (over  11,- 
800  miles).     Post  offices,  over  600. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  peso, 
equivalent  to  the  American  dollar.  Silver  coins 
fluctuate  in  value  with  the  price  of  silver.  The 
legal  value  of  the  paper  peso  is  one  one-hun- 
dredth of  the  monetary  unit,  but  its  actual  pur- 
chasing power  is  somewhat  variable.  Exact  re- 
ports of  receipts  and  disbursements  are  not 
available.  For  1914,  the  estimated  revenue  was 
16,500,000  pesos  gold;  estimated  expoiditure  for 
1915,  18,500,000  pesos  gold.  The  estimates  sub- 
mitted to  the  congress  for  the  fiscal  year  1916 
were  11,900,000  pesos  gold  revenue,  and  16,389,- 
000  pesos  gold  expenditure.  Customs  revenue  in 
1914  amounted  to  9,498,683  pesos  gold. 

Foreign  debt,  Jan.  1,  1915:  consolidated,  £2,- 
174,600;  other,  £1,753,528  (including  the  1913 
loan  of  £1,182,248);  total,  £3,928,128.  Internal 
debt,  July  1,  1914,  2,365,684  pesos  gold.  There 
is,  besides,  an  enormous  outstanding  paper  cur- 
rency. 

Abmt.  The  national  army  of  Colombia  was 
being  developed  by  the  government  supported  by 
the  good  will  of  the  citizens.  Military  service 
is  compulsory,  but  the  quota  of  recruits  is  drawn 
upon  only  to  provide  a  force  of  about  6000  or 
7000  men,  though  on  a  war  basis  these  troops 
could  be  increased  in  number  to  about  50,000. 
Colombia  received  her  first  military  instruction 
from  Chile  in  1907,  when  a  military  school  wa4 
founded,  and  successively  the  government 
founded  a  school  for  officers,  a  course  of  appli- 
cation, a  war  college,  and  in  1911  a  general  staff, 
by  which  plans  for  compulsory  service  were  pre- 
pared. 

Government.  The  President  is  elected  by  di- 
rect vote  for  four  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
cabinet  of  eight  members.  There  is  no  vice- 
president,  but  two  designadoa,  first  and  second, 
are  elected  by  the  Congress  to  succeed  to  the  pres- 
idency, respectively,  m  case  of  the  chief  execu- 
tive's death  or  disability.  The  Congress  consists 
of  the  Senate  (35  members,  elected  indirectly 
for  four  years)  and  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives (92  members,  elected  by  direct  vote  for 
four  years).  For  the  term  ended  Aug.  7,  1914, 
the  President  was  Carlos  E.  Restrepo.  For  the 
following  term  Jos6  Vicente  Concha  was  elected. 
First  designadOf  Marco  Fidel  Suflrez;  second 
deaignado,  Jorge  Holgufn. 

HiSTOBT.  Relaiian8  toiih  the  United  States. 
Early  in  January  the  proposed  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Colombia  caine  up  for 
consideration  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
There  was  much  opposition  to  it  because  it  con- 
tained provisions  for  the  payment  of  $25,000,000 
to  the  southern  republic  to  indemnify  it  for  its 
claims  to  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  and  for  an 
apology  for  the  method  which  was  used  in  se- 


curing the  Canal  Zone  territory.  Ex-President 
Roosevelt  was  loud  in  his  denunciations  of  the 
proposed  treaty.  In  February,  Colonel  Roose- 
velt published  several  articles  on  the  subject 
which  caused  the  Colombia  legation  in  Washing- 
ton to  publish  an  answer  to  them  and  the  lega- 
tion in  Paris  to  demand  an  apology  from  Le 
Temps  for  having  republished  them  with  com- 
ments. Notwithstandmff  the  fact  that  popular 
sentiment  in  the  United  States  appeared  to  fa- 
vor the  adoption  of  the  treaty  and  76  importing 
houses  in  New  York  City  petitioned  for  favor- 
able action,  the  Colombian  treaty  was  allowed 
to  die  in  the  Senate  Committee. 

Internal  Conditions,  Advices  from  BogotA  in 
March  stated  that  the  President  of  Colombia, 
acting  under  a  new  law  giving  him  extraordi- 
nary fiscal  powers  to  meet  the  situation  caused 
by  the  falling  off  in  the  customs  receipts  since 
the  war  began,  had  doubled  the  duty  on  stamped 
paper,  doiibled  the  inland  revenue  stamp  tax, 
decreed  the  coinage  of  2,000,000  pesos  in  silver, 
reduced  the  salaries  of  public  officials  5  per  cent, 
and  taxed  the  exports  of  sold  and  valuable 
woods.  In  June,  Colombia  adopted  a  gold  basis, 
giving  up  the  silver  standard  which  had  been  in 
operation  for  21  years.  In  July,  the  National 
Congress  met,  selecting  Jos^  Marfa  Gonzales 
Valencia  president  of  the  Senate,  and  Rafael 
Quizano  G6mez  president  of  the  House. 

COLORADO.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was, 
according  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  935,799. 

A0KICUL.TUSE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn     1916 

1914 
VihetLt    1915 

1914 
Gate     1915 

1914 
Bye    1915 

1914 
Barley    1915 

1914 
Potatoei     1915 

1914 
Hay    1915 

1914 


Aereage 

470,000 

462,000 

560.000 

475,000 

800,000 

825,000 

80,000 

21,000 

180.000 

103.000 

58,000 

73,000 

970,000 

970.000 


Prod.  Bu. 

11,280,000 

10.626.000 

18,810,000 

11,812,000 

11.700,000 

18,000,000 

525,000 

868.000 

4,680,000 

8,966,000 

7,155.000 

8,760,000 

2,184,000 

2.828,000 


Ydltu 

$6,204,000 

6.876,000 

10.648.000 

9,842.000 

4,797.000 

5,850.000 

868,000 

239,000 

2.246.000 

2.181,000 

8,985.000 

4,880,000 

16,218.000 

17.227.000 


Mineral  Pboducjtion.  The  total  value  of  the 
output  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  in 
1914  was  $33,460,126,  compared  with  $35,450,- 
585  in  1913.  The  gold  produced  was  valued  at 
$19,883,105.  There  were  produced  8,796,065 
ounces  of  silver;  74,211,898  pounds  of  lead;  6,- 
639,173  pounds  of  copper;  and  96,774,954  pounds 
of  zinc.  There  was  an  increase  of  $1,176,189  in 
gold;  and  there  was  a  decrease  of  529,190  ounces 
in  silver;  13,685,875  pounds  in  lead;  588,653 
pounds  in  copper;  and  22,571,465  pounds  in  zinc. 
In  addition  to  the  decrease  in  quantities  of  silver 
and  the  base  metals,  the  falling  off  in  the  average 
value  of  these  materials  caused  a  decrease  in  value 
of  $768,270  for  silver,  $973,238  for  lead,  and  $1,- 
747,877  for  zinc.  Cripple  Creek  produced  6  per 
cent  of  the  total  gold  of  the  State,  with  a  total 
of  $11,996,116,  as  compared  with  $10,905,083  in 

1913.  This  is  the  largest  production  for  any 
year  since  1908.     Cripple  Creek,  to  the  end  of 

1914,  has  produced  $258,786,653  in  gold. 

Lake  County,  which  includes  Leadville,  pro- 


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duced  3,810,830  ounces  of  silver.  The  produc- 
tion of  copper  in  the  State  was  derived  from 
the  treatment  of  mixed  ores  in  which  copper  was 
of  minor  importance.  The  total  production  of 
coal  in  1914  was  8,170,559  short  tons,  valued  at 
$13,601,718.  Compared  with  the  production  of 
1913,  this  is  a  decrease  of  1,061,951  tons,  or  11.5 
per  cent  in  quantity,  and  $433,372  in  value.  The 
small  production  was  largely  due  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  strike  which  began  in  September, 
1913,  and  prevailed  through  most  of  1914. 

Transpobtation.  The  railway  mileage  of  the 
State,  on  Jan.  1,  1915,  was  5579.  Of  this,  4255 
was  standard  gauge,  and  1323  was  narrow  gauge. 
The  roads  having  the  longest  mileage  were  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  986;  Union  Pacific,  687; 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6,  512. 

Education.  The  latest  statistics  available 
for  education  are  for  1912.  In  that  year  the 
total  school  population  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  21  was  227,187.  The  total  enrollment  in 
the  graded  schools  below  high  school  was  109,- 
274.  The  enrollment  in  rural  schools  was  48,- 
614,  and  in  the  high  schools,  11,241,  making  a 
total  enrollment  of  173,129.  Teachers  in  the 
graded  schools  below  high  schools  numbered 
6383,  and  in  rural  schools  2042.  The  average 
yearly  salary  of  female  teachers  was  $656.19, 
and  of  male  teachers,  $661.63. 

Charities  and  Cobbections.  The  charities 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  in- 
clude: The  State  Home  for  Dependent  and 
Neglected  Children,  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home, 
Industrial  Workshop  for  the  Adult  Blind,  The 
State  Home  and  Training  School  for  Mental  De- 
fectives, State  Insane  Asylum,  Industrial  School 
for  Boys,  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  State  Peni- 
tentiary, and  State  Reformatory.  The  total 
population  of  these  institutions  on  Oct.  30,  1915, 
was  3112.  The  total  expenditures  for  their 
maintenance  for  the  twelve  months  ending  June 
30,  1915,  was  $672,884.  The  Legislature  of  1915 
passed  a  measure  providing  for  a  lunacy  com- 
mission in  each  county,  to  investigate  and  re- 
port to  the  County  Court  all  cases  of  insanity. 
This  Legislature  appropriated  $450,000  for  the 
maintenance  and  erection  of  buildings.  A  State 
board  of  corrections  was  created,  in  which  was 
vested  the  control  of  the  penitentiary,  reforma- 
tory, and  insane  asylum. 

Politics  and  Govebnment.  Prohibition  un- 
der the  constitutional  amendment  adopted  on 
Nov.  3,  1914,  was  to  become  effective  Jan.  1, 
1916.  The  State-wide  prohibition  bill  contains 
provision  for  the  enforcement  of  the  prohibition 
constitutional  amendment.  It  prohibits  inter- 
state and  intrastate  shipment  of  liquor  for  sale 
or  gift  except  for  medicinal  and  sacramental  pur- 
poses. A  workman's  compensation  law  was 
passed  by  the  Legislature.  See  Workmen's 
Compensation. 

The  House  of  Representatives  on  March  10th 
passed  three  bills,  the  effect  of  which  would 
have  been  to  abolish  the  juvenile  court  at  Den- 
ver, and  remove  from  office  Judge  Ben  Lindsey, 
who  for  many  years  presided  over  that  court, 
and  had  a  national  reputation  for  his  method  of 
dealing  with  juvenile  offenders.  The  ostensible 
purpose  of  the  bill  was  economy,  but  it  was  com- 
monly known  that  the  real  object  was  to  remove 
Judge  Lindsey  from  office.  The  latter's  term 
had  two  more  years  to  run.  The  bill  passed 
both  houses,  but  the  Governor  vetoed  it.  On 
March  13th,  Judge  Lindsey  asked  the  district 


court  for  warrants  of  arrest  against  Dr.  Mary 
Elizabeth  Bates;  E.  R.  Whitehead,  secretary  of 
the  State  Humane  Society;  Frank  Rose,  a 
lawyer;  and  R.  P.  Rawlings.  He  charged  them 
with  a  conspiracy  to  defame  his  character.  The 
House  of  Representatives  on  March  15th  ex- 
pelled Representative  W.  W.  Rowland  on  charges 
of  perjury.  This  action  followed  an  investiga- 
tion by  a  special  committee,  which  found  that 
Howland  had  received  a  sum  of  money  which  he 
admitted  came  from  Dr.  Mary  Elizabeth  Bates, 
and  was  to  pay  a  woman  detective  for  work  in 
shadowing  the  probation  officer  of  the  juvenile 
court.  cSi  April  12th,  report  of  the  grand  jury 
exonerated  Judge  Lindsey  from  charges  of  mis> 
conduct,  which  had  been  brought  against  him. 
Frank  Rose  was  indicted  on  a  charge  of  crimi- 
nal libel  in  connection  with  affidavits  reflecting 
upon  the  character  of  Judge  Lindsey.  On  Janu- 
ary 12th,  the  latter  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of 
contempt  of  court,  and  connivance  in  the  com- 
mission of  perjury.  This  charge  grew  out  of  the 
refusal  of  Judge  Lindsey,  on  January  8th,  to 
divulge  on  the  witness  stand  in  the  trial  of 
Berta  Wright,  accused  of  murder,  a  confidential 
conversation  with  Neal  Wright,  a  twelve  year 
old  son  of  the  defendant.  Judge  Lindsey  said 
that  the  whole  juvenilo  court  work  was  founded 
upon  the  protection  of  children  in  giving  confi- 
dence to  him,  and  that  what  he  had  learnt  from 
Neal  Wright  came  to  him  as  a  privileged  com- 
munication. Judge  Lindsey  was  held  guilty  for 
contempt  of  court,  and  was  fined  $500  and  costs 
on  November  16th.  Wards  of  the  juvenile 
court,  over  which  he  presided,  at  once  started 
a  movement  to  collect  50,000  pennies  from  the 
children  of  Denver  with  which  to  pay  the  fine. 

W.  W.  Rowland,  who,  as  noted  above,  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  House  of  Representatives  on  a 
charge  of  perjury,  was  acquitted  on  July  2nd. 
Judge  Perry  of  the  District  Court  upheld  the 
contention  of  his  attorneys  that  alleged  false 
statements  of  the  defendant  before  a  grand  jury 
did  not  constitute  perjury  under  the  statute  of 
the  State. 

State  Officers.  Governor,  George  A.  Carl- 
son; Lieutenant-Governor,  Moses  E.  Lewis;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  John  E.  Ramer;  Auditor,  Harry 
E.  Mulnix;  Treasurer,  Allison  E.  Stocker;  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction,  Mary  C.  C. 
Bradford;  Attorney -General,  Fred  Farrar. 

Supreme  Court.  Chief  Justice,  William  H. 
Gabbert;  Associate  Justices,  S.  Harrison  White, 
William  A.  Hill,  James  C.  Garrigues,  Morton  S. 
Bailey,  and  Tully  Scott. 

COLOBADO,  University  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  education,  founded  in  1876 
at  Boulder,  Colo.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1400. 
This  does  not  include  the  enrollment  in  the  sum- 
mer session,  extension  division,  or  the  pupils  in 
the  training  school.  The  faculty  numbered 
about  200.  William  R.  Arthur,  LL.B.,  and  Fred 
G.  Filson,  LL.B.,  were  appointed  professors  of 
law.  The  university  is  supported  chiefly  by 
legislative  appropriations.  The  annual  income 
from  this  source  is  about  $321,000.  Other  pro- 
ductive funds  amount  to  about  $75,000.  The  li- 
brary contained  80,000  volumes. 

COLOBADO  INDUSTRIAL  DISPUTEa 
See  Arbitration  and  Conciliation,  Colorado 
Industrial  Disputes  Investigation  Act. 

COLORED  METHODISTS.  See  Metho- 
dists, Colored. 


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COLTON'y  Charles  Henbt.  American  Roman 
Catholic  bishop,  died  May  9,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1848;  pfraduated  from 
St.  Francis  Xavler  College  in  1872;  afterwards 
studied  at  St.  Joseph's  Seminary  at  Toledo;  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1876.  From  that  year 
until  1903  he  served  as  assistant  and  pastor  at 
St.  Joseph's  Church,  New  York.  During  the  same 
period  he  was  also  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of 
New  York.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Buffalo, 
Aug.  5,  1903.  He  was  the  author  of:  Seedlings 
(1906);  My  Trip  through  Rome  and  the  Holy 
Land  (1906) ;  and  Buds  and  Blossoms  (1910). 

COIiinCBIA  XTNIVEBSITT.  An  institu- 
tion for  higher  learning,  founded  in  1754  in  New 
York  City.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  16,494.  The 
faculty  numbered  981.  The  most  notable  bene- 
factions received  during  the  year  were  those 
from  Mr.  William  K.  Vanderbilt  for  tiie  new 
medical  site,  $113,750;  from  the  estate  of  Joseph 
Pulitzer  for  the  endowment  fund  of  the  School 
of  Journalism,  $50,000;  from  an  anonymous 
donor  for  the  better  equipment  of  the  chemical 
laboratories  in  Havemeyer  Hall,  $30,000;  from 
Mrs.  Samuel  W.  Bridgham  to  establish  a  fund 
for  the  endowment  of  a  research  fellowship,  $20,- 
000.  The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  amounted  to  $30,260,903,  and  the  in- 
come to  $1,206,324.  The  library  contained  about 
550,000  volumes. 

COMAN,  Kathebine.  American  educator, 
died  Jan.  11,  1915.  She  was  bom  in  Newark, 
Ohio,  in  1857,  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1880;  was  professor  of  history  at 
Wellesley  College,  1883-1900;  and,  from  1900-13, 
professor  of  economics  in  the  same  college.  She 
retired  as  professor  emeritus  in  1913.  Her  pub- 
lished writings  include:  The  Growth  of  the  Eng- 
lish Nation  (1895) ;  History  of  England  (1890)  ; 
History  of  England  for  Beginners  ( 1901 ) ;  In- 
dustrial History  of  the  United  States  (1905); 
Economic  Beginnings  of  the  Far  West  ( 1911 ) . 

COMETS.    See  Astbonomt. 

COMMENCE.  For  foreign  trade,  see  United 
States,  and  articles  on  foreign  countries;  for 
internal  trade,  see  United  States,  and  articles 
on  various  industries;  and  Financial  Review. 

COKMEBCE  COMMISSION,  Interstate. 
See  Railways,  pttssim, 

COMMISSION  ON  INBTTSTBIAL  RELA- 
TIONS. See  Employers'  Associations;  and 
Industrial  Relations  Commission. 

COMMISSION  PLAN.  See  Municipal 
Government. 

COMMITTEE  ON  INDTTSTKEAL  RELA- 
TIONS. See  Industrial  Relations,  Commit- 
tee ON. 

COMORO  ISLANDS.  See  Mayotte  and  the 
Comoro  Islands. 

COMPENSATION  FOB  WORKMEN.  See 
Workmen's  Compensation. 

COMSTOCKy  Anthony.  American  public  of- 
ficial, died  Sept.  21,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  New 
Canaan,  Conn.,  in  1844,  and  received  an  aca- 
demic education.  In  1863  he  joined  the  Seven- 
teenth Connecticut  Volunteers,  and  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War,  receiving  an  honor- 
able discharge  in  1865.  He  returned  to  New 
York  in  1867,  and  for  a  time  worlced  in  various 
capacities  in  wholesale  business  houses.  On 
March  5,  1873,  as  special  agent  for  the  recently 
organized  Society  for  the  Suppression  of  Vice — 
a  position  he  held  for  the  rest  of  his  life — ^he 


caused  the  arrest  of  venders  of  obscene  books, 
and  shortly  afterwards  gave  most  of  his  time 
to  investigating  the  sale  of  such  books  in  New 
York  City.  He  was,  in  addition,  appointed  spe- 
cial agent  in  the  Post  Office  Department,  and 
served  the  United  States  government  without 
pay  in  that  capacity  until  January,  1907.  Dur- 
ing that  time  he  made  more  than  3600  arrests, 
and  seized  more  than  155  tons  of  obscene  litera- 
ture, and  other  printed  matter.  His  efforts  were 
also  directed  toward  the  suppression  of  policy 
sharks,  and  lotteries,  and  other  gambling  de- 
vices. He  succeeded  in  placing  upon  the  statute 
books  many  laws  for  the  suppression  and  con- 
trol of  these  and  other  iniquities.  The  act  of 
Congress  in  1873,  with  the  amendment  of  1876, 
making  it  a  felony  to  send  obscene  matter 
throu^  the  mail,  was  drafted  by  him.  He  also 
drew  up  the  act  which  drove  public  lotteries  out 
of  the  United  States.  His  zeal  in  suppressing 
the  exhibition  of  what  he  considered  to  be  im- 
modest paintings  brought  him  much  notoriety 
and  abuse;  but  the  value  of  his  work  as  a  whole 
is  beyond  question.  He  was  the  author  of: 
Frauds  Exposed  (1880);  Oamhling  Outrage 
(1887);  Morals  vs.  Art  (1887);  and  Traps  for 
the  Young  (1890). 

CON  ANT,  Alb  AN  Jaspeb.  American  artist, 
died  Feb.  3,  1915.  Born  in  Chelsea,  Vt.,  in  1821, 
and  graduated  from  the  Gouverneur  Wesleyan 
Seminary  in  1844,  he  removed  to  Missouri,  and 
for  eight  years  was  curator  at  the  University  of 
Missouri.  He  founded  the  school  of  mines  and 
metallurgy,  of  which  for  three  years  he  was  su- 
pervisor. His  distinction,  however,  lies  in  his 
portrait  painting.  "The  Smiling  Lincoln''  was 
from  his  brush,  as  were  also  portraits  of  Major 
Anderson,  who  commanded  Fort  Sumter,  of  (gen- 
eral Sherman  of  members  of  Lincoln's  cabinet, 
and  of  other  noted  men  of  his  day.  His  portrait 
of  James  McCosh  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art  in  New  York  City.  In  addition  to  his 
portraits,  he  painted  a  number  of  historical 
scenes,  tiie  best  known  of  which  is  perhaps  "The 
Burial  of  De  Soto."  He  wrote  several  books, 
among  them:  The  Archeology  of  the  Missouri 
Valley;  Footprints  of  Vanished  Races  in  the 
Missouri  Valley;  and  My  Acquaintance  with 
Lincoln.  He  received  degrees  from  Madison  Uni- 
versity and  the  University  of  Missouri. 

CONANT,  Charles  Abthub.  An  American 
economist  and  writer,  died  July  6,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Winston,  Mass.,  in  1861,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  public  and  private  schools.  In  1887  he 
became  a  Washington  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  Journal  of  Commerce,  the  Springfield  Re- 
publican, and  other  papers.  Until  1901  he  con- 
tinued in  newspaper  work,  establishing  a  na- 
tional reputation  as  an  expert  on  financial  and 
monetary  matters.  In  1901  he  was  appointed 
special  commissioner  of  the  War  Department  in 
the  Philippines,  and  in  this  capacity  made  a  re- 
port on  the  monetary  and  financial  conditions  in 
the  islands  on  which  the  government  based  the 
remodeling  of  the  currencv  system  in  the  Philip- 
pines. Two  years  later  he  went  to  Mexico,  to 
aid  in  the  plans  for  the  monetary  reform  of  that 
country.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Commis- 
sion of  International  Exchange  of  the  United 
States  in  the  same  year.  He  was,  in  1906,  a 
member  of  the  special  committee  of  the  New 
York  Chamber  of  Commerce  on  currency  reform ; 
and  was  an  officer  and  director  in  several  large 
financial  institutions.    He  took  an  active  inter- 


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est  in  politics,  and  in  1894  was  Democratic  can- 
didate for  Congress.  He  left  the  Democratic 
party  as  a  result  of  the  silver  issue  in  1896,  and 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Gold  Democratic  conven- 
tion in  that  year.  His  published  writings  in- 
clude: The  United  States  in  the  OHent  (1900)  ; 
Alettander  Hamilton  (1901);  Wall  Street  and 
the  Country  (1904);  The  Principles  of  Money 
and  Banking  (1906) ;  History  of  Modem  Banks 
of  Issue  (1909).  He  also  contributed  financial 
and  economic  articles  to  the  important  maga- 
zines.        

CONATYy  Thomas  James.  American  Roman 
Catholic  bishop,  died  Sept.  18,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  Ireland,  in  1847,  but  removed  to  Canada, 
and  from  1863  to  1867  studied  at  Montreal  Col- 
lege. Graduated  from  the  Holy  Cross  College 
in  1867,  and  from  the  Theological  School  in 
1872,  in  the  last-named  year  he  was  ordained  a 
priest.  From  1880  to  1897  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
and  in  1896  succeeded  Bishop  Keane  as  rector  of 
the  Catholic  University  at  Washington.  In  the 
following  year  Pope  Leo  XIII  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  domestic  prelate,  and  in  1901  nomi- 
nated him  titular  bishop  of  Samose.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Monterey  and  Los  Ange- 
les, Cal.,  in  1903.  Bishop  Conaty  was  identified 
with  many  important  educational  and  social 
movements.  He  founded,  and  for  four  years 
edited,  the  Catholic  School  and  Home  Magagfine. 
In  1887-88  he  was  president  of  the  Catholic 
Total  Abstinence  League  of  North  America,  and 
was  one  of  the  organizers,  and  was  president 
from  1893  to  1897,  of  the  Catholic  Summer 
School  at  Plattsburgh,  N.  Y.  He  was  the  author 
of  Bible  Studies  for  Use  in  Schools  and  Col- 
leges (1898). 

CONCILIATION^  Industbiai,.  See  Abbitba- 
•noN  AND  Conciliation,  Industbial;  and 
Stbikes  and  Lockouts. 

CONCBETE.  The  various  problems  con- 
nected with  the  mixing  and  handling  of  concrete 
were  under  discussion  during  1916,  and  it  was 
realized  by  many  engineers  that  their  mixing 
periods,  spouting  of  wet  cement,  carting  over 
long  distances,  and  other  like  practices,  tended 
toward  a  non-uniform  and  unsatisfactory  con- 
crete. There  was  a  tendency  manifested  during 
the  year  in  favor  of  longer  mixing  and  more 
care  in  preparing  the  concrete,  and  engineers 
were  paying  more  attention  to  the  work  of  con- 
tractors in  depositing  the  concrete  in  place. 
Tests  made  at  the  United  States  government 
laboratory  at  Pittsburgh  during  the  year,  where 
concrete  was  made  with  gravel,  limestone,  and 
broken  slag  for  coarse  aggregate,  showed  the  re- 
spective merits  of  these  materials.  Using  stand- 
ard 8  X  16-inch  cylinders  of  1:2:4  concrete  and 
testing  at  the  end  of  7  days,  28  days,  90  days, 
and  6  months,  it  was  found  that  the  concrete 
with  slag  aggregate  was  practically  the  same 
strength  as  the  limestone  concrete,  and  both 
averaged  much  higher  at  all  stages  than  the 
gravel  concrete. 

On  Nov.  13,  1915,  Judge  Robert  E.  Lewis,  of 
the  Colorado  Federal  District  Court,  rendered  a 
decision  declaring  six  concrete  bridge  patterns 
void,  on  the  ground  that  the  alleged  inventions 
were  non-patentable  at  the  time  of  application. 
This  was  in  a  suit  of  Daniel  B.  Luten  against 
Well  County,  Colo.,  and  the  principle  laid  down 
was  that  the  arrangement  of  metal  parts  in  a 
body  of  reinforced  concrete  to  resist  stresses  in- 


volved merely  mechanical  design  and  not  inven- 
tion. Tliis  decision  was  of  interest  on  account  of 
its  broad  application,  and  the  number  of  re- 
enforced  concrete  patents  on  which  royalties 
were  being  paid  that  necessarily  would  be  in- 
volved. It  also  was  considered  as  having  a  bear- 
ing on  structural  patents  generally,  so  that  the 
question  of  whether  the  decision  would  be  up- 
held in  the  higher  courts  was  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable interest. 

Reenfobced  Concbete.  During  the  year 
progress  was  being  made  on  the  no&ble  group  of 
buildings  for  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  on  the  banks  of  the  Charles  River, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  which  reinforced  concrete 
plays  an  important  part.  The  central  building 
of  the  group  is  surmounted  b^  a  large  dome,  and 
while  Sie  external  construction  is  of  limestone 
the  structure  itself  is  of  reinforced  concrete. 
The  dome  rises  to  a  height  of  147^  feet  above 
the  general  level,  and  66  feet  above  the  parapets 
of  the  surrounding  buildings.  The  concrete  was 
poured  from  a  tower  190  feet  high,  about  100 
feet  away  from  the  dome  centre,  with  a  chute 
supported  by  an  intermediate  tower.  The  com- 
pletion of  various  stadiums  for  universities 
showed  a  development  in  design  as  well  as  in 
construction  for  these  great  amphitheatres. 
That  for  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
for  example,  supplied  facilities  not  only  for  ath- 
letic contests,  but  for  pageants  and  open  air 
dramatic  or  musical  functions.  For  these  sta- 
diums increased  decorative  effects  were  being 
secured. 

In  a  six-story  reinforced  concrete  structure 
completed  during  the  year  for ''the  Youth's  Com- 
panion, Commonwealth  Avenue,  Boston,  Mass., 
a  new  type  of  slab  reinforcement  was  employed, 
which  was  claimed  to  result  in  a  saving  of  from 
20  to  40  per  cent  in  the  steel  required,  as  com- 
pared with  ordinary  types.  This  building,  which 
was  to  be  used  for  the  printing,  editorial,  and 
business  departments  of  the  weekly  paper,  was 
166  X  100  feet,  with  columns  so  spaced  that  the 
floor  slabs  were  14  feet  9  inches  by  20  feet  6 
inches.  The  floor  reinforcement  consisted  of 
three  separate  units:  a  series  of  short  rods  at 
the  bottom  of  the  slab  which  formed  the  cross 
bands,  the  bottom  steel  at  the  centre  of  the 
panel,  and  the  top  steel  over  the  column  head,  a 
patented  arrangement  which  served  to  give 
strength  and  economy  of  material.  Three  stand- 
ard thicknesses  of  floor  slab  were  used — one  9 
inches  thick  for  the  second  floor,  which  carried 
the  heavy  printing  presses,  with  a  live  load  of 
300  pounds  per  square  foot;  an  8-inch  slab  for 
the  basement  over  the  sub-basement,  and  for  the 
first,  third,  and  fourth  floors,  used  as  storage 
rooms,  and  the  remainder  of  the  printing  plant, 
designed  for  a  200-pound  per  square  foot  live 
load;  and  a  7-inch  slab  for  the  fifth  and  sixth 
floors  and  the  roof,  designed  for  a  live  load  of 
100  pounds  per  square  foot. 
CONDENSED  MILK.  See  Daibyino. 
CONDON,  Edwabd  O'Meagheb.  Irish  patriot, 
died  Dec.  16,  1916.  Bom  in  Ireland,  he  removed 
to  New  York  City,  prior  to  1861,  and  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War.  After  the  war  he  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  and  was  prominent  in  the 
Fenian  movement.  On  account  of  his  activities 
in  obtaining  the  release  of  Kelley  and  Deasey, 
he  was  condemned  to  die,  but  because  he  was  an 
American  citizen  this  sentence  was  commuted  to 
life  imprisonment.    At  the  close  of  twelve  years 


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CONOBEGATIONAIilSH 


in  British  prisons,  he  was  pardoned,  but  exiled. 
He  came  to  the  United  States,  and  obtained  a 
position  as  supervising  architect  in  Washington, 
which  position  he  filled  until  a  short  time  prior 
to  his  death. 

CONFEBENCES  OF  CHABITABLE  AND 
SOCIAL  OBGANIZATIONS.  See  Chabities, 
passim. 

CONOO,  Belgian.  A  central  African  colony 
of  Belgium  (the  former  Congo  Tree  State).  The 
capital  is  Boma.  All  the  statistics  nven  below 
are  from  the  official  report  of  the  Belgian  co- 
lonial minister. 

Abba  and  Population.  The  colony  covers  an 
area  of  2,365,000  square  kilometers  (913,127 
square  miles) ;  white  population  (Jan.  1,  1912), 
5465.  No  official  estimate  of  native  population 
is  given;  other  sources  vary  from  9  to  20  mil- 
lions. Besides  Boma,  important  towns  are  Ma- 
tadi.  Banana,  Leopoldville,  Stanleyville,  Kam- 
bove,  Niangara,  Bandundu,  etc. 

Pboduction.  The  chief  products  of  the  coun- 
try are  shown  in  the  list  of  exports,  rubber  lead- 
ing in  importance.  The  Kilo  gold  mine,  in  the 
Ituri  basin,  not  far  from  Lake  Albert,  has  8  ex- 
perts and  1750  negro  workers,  and  produced 
(1910)  867  kgs.  of  gold.  Gold  is  also  found 
in  the  Katanga  district. 

Sale  of  crown  lands  in  1910,  about  14  hec- 
tares, at  a  total  price  of  241,528  francs;  crown 
lands  rented  in  1910^  4062  hectares,  rental,  18,- 
345  francs.  A  large  proportion  of  these  lands 
is  in  the  Katanga  district. 

CoMMEBCE.  Total  imports  (general  trade)  in 
1910,  43,979,000  francs;  exports,  96,599,000 
francs.  In  1911,  58,385,000  and  78,955,000 
francs.  In  1912,  61,864,000  and  83,465,000.  Ex- 
ports, details,  and  totals  (general  trade),  are 
shown  below,  values  in  thousands  of  francs: 

AmcUM                                  1907  1908  1909  1910 

Robber    57.880  40,144  60,171  76,030 

Palm    oil    1,741  1,876  1,095  2,016 

Palm  nute    2,522  2,056  2,199  8,101 

Ivory     11,084  9,697  10,854  9,861 

Various     4,914  8,694  4,195  5,091 

Tbtal  ezporto 77,541  56,867  78,014  95,599 

Exports  of  the  principal  products  in  the  spe- 
cial &ade  are  shown  in  the  table  below  for  com- 
parative years,  1901-05  yearly  average  for  the 
period,  in  thousands  of  francs: 

1901-05    1910  1911  1919 

Rubber     44,056  51,016  84,427  84,519 

White  eopal   789     8,848  1,814  6.886 

Ivory    4,284     6,056  5.688  5,652 

Copper    1,884  4,112 

oSi    140     2,516  8,119  8,882 

Pabn   nuts    1,489     2,657  2,879  2,771 

Pabn  oil   986     1,798  1,782  1,268 

Caeao    160     1,071  896  1,115 

Imports  in  1912  to  the  value  of  35,785,348 
francs  came  from  Belgium,  and  exports  valued 
at  53,883,269  francs  went  to  Belgium;  United 
Kingdom,  5,670,133  francs  imports,  and  557,920 
francs  exports;  Germany,  4,078,710  imports; 
France,  1,143,738  imports;  Netherlands,  1,113,- 
487  imports,  and  1,172,346  exports;  etc.  There 
were  entered  at  the  ports  in  the  1912  trade,  705 
vessels  of  1,044,864  tons. 

Railways.  On  Jan.  1,  1912,  the  various  rail- 
wav  lines  with  holdings,  were  as  follows:  Congo 
Railway  Company,  400  kilometers;  Stanley ville- 
Ponthierville,    125;    Kindu-Kongolo,   355;    Lua- 

Y.  B.— C 


laba-Tanganyika,  300  (approximate  length  under 
construction) ;  Rhodesian  frontier-Elisabethville 
and  Elisabethville-Bukama,  275  in  operation  and 
168  under  construction;  Boma-La  Lukula,  80. 
In  1914  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway  reached  the 
copper  district  in  the  centre  of  the  colony. 

The  construction  of  the  railway  north  from 
Kambove  to  Bukama  was  actively  continued  dur- 
ing 1915.  The  total  distance  was  204  miles,  and 
December  31st  the  rails  were  laid  for  69  miles, 
and  in  March,  1915,  86  miles  had  been  finished 
and  the  roadbed  completed  over  96  miles.  The 
railway  had  reached  the  high  Biano  plateau, 
which  was  free  from  tsetse  fly,  making  it  possi- 
ble to  land  breeding  stock  there  by  rail.  The 
headquarters  of  the  construction  was  then  moved 
from  Kambove  to  66  miles  beyond,  and  this  sec- 
tion of  the  road  was  used  for  the  regular  trans- 
port of  passengers  and  merchandise.  Kambove 
is  connected  by  rail  with  South  Africa  via  Elisa- 
bethville,  and,  once  Bukama  is  reached,  there 
will  be  complete  rail  and  water  connection  be- 
tween South  Africa  and  Boma.  The  railway 
under  construction  between  Kabalo,  on  the  Lua- 
laba  River,  and  Lukuga,  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  a 
distance  of  about  250  miles,  was  practically  com- 
pleted, but  had  not  been  push^  quite  to  the 
shore  of  the  lake,  where  the  Germans  were  mas- 
ters for  a  time.  The  final  link  in  the  line  of 
communication  between  the  mouth  of  the  Congo 
and  Lake  Tanganyika  was  completed  during  the 
year.  Ocean  goinff  vessels  could  go  as  far  as 
Matadi,  85  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river; 
thence  a  railway  of  260  miles  runs  to  Stanley 
Pool,  the  river  from  that  point  being  again  navi- 
gable to  Stanleyville,  a  distance  of  1000  miles. 

Finance  and  Government.  Financial  statis- 
tics appear  in  the  table  below  in  thousands  of 
francs  for  four  years  (1913  and  1914  budgets) : 

1911        1919        1918       1914 

Revenue    40,870     46,868  40,418     80.451 

Expenditure    *o9,658  t66.689  50,988  ^68,076 

*  Including  12,222,448  francs  extreordinarr.  t  In- 
cluding 16,818,660  francs  extraordinary.  |  including 
11,180,578  francs  extraordinary. 

The  total  debt  amounts  to  278,747,200  francs. 

A   Governor-General   administers   the   colony. 

CONOO,  French.  The  former  name  of 
French  Equatorial  Africa  (q.v.).  The  name 
was  changed  in  1910. 

CONOO  FBEE  STATE.  See  Congo,  Bel- 
gian. 

CONGBEGATIONAIilSM.  According  to  of- 
ficial statements  the  total  membership  of  this 
denomination  in  1915  was  763,182.  There  were 
6093  churches;  5923  ministers,  of  whom  4095 
were  pastors  and  1828  were  without  charge; 
Sunday  School  pupils,  757,873.  There  were 
3120  Young  People's  Societies  of  Christian  En- 
deavor, with  133,474  members;  1527  men's  or- 
ganizations, with  85,811  members.  The  total 
contributions  to  all  branches  of  the  work  of  the 
denomination  in  1915  amounted  to  $2,272,040, 
and  the  total  expenditures,  $10,716,311.  The 
average  salary  of  4693  churches  was  $968;  the 
value  of  church  property  was  $84,565,377. 

The  national  societies  include  the  Congrega- 
tional Educational  Society,  the  American  Con- 
gregational Association,  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  the  Con- 
gregational Home  Missionary  Society,  the 
American    Missionary    Society,    the    Congrega- 


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162 


COPPEB 


tional  Church  Building  Society,  the  Congrega- 
tional Board  of  Ministerial  Relief,  the  Congre- 
gational Sunday  School  and  Publishing  Society, 
the  Woman's  Home  Missionary  Federation,  and 
the  Woman's  Board  of  Missions.  Foreign  mis- 
sions are  under  the  control  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
to  which  Congregationalists  contributed  $313,- 
627  in  1915.  Home  missions  are  carried  on  by 
the  Congregational  Home  Missionary  Society, 
in  26  States  and  Territories,  the  total  receipts 
for  home  missions  in  1915  amounting  to  $325,- 
477.  In  1915  there  were  about  1700  mission- 
aries under  conunission  for  a  whole  or  a  part 
of  the  year.  The  theological  seminaries  are 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.  (Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary), Atlanta,  Banffor,  Hartford,  Chicago, 
Oberlin,  Talladega,  Berkeley,  and  Yale.  The  so- 
cial work  of  the  Church  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Social  Service  Commission  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church,  which  is  a  development  from  the 
work  of  the  Department  of  Labor  and  Social 
Service  of  the  Congregational  Brotherhood  of 
America.  The  general  administration  of  the 
Church  is  under  the  control  of  the  National 
Council.  The  latter 's  session  for  1915  was  held 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.  The  officers  elected  were: 
Moderator,  Hon.  H.  M.  Beardsley;  assistant 
moderator.  Rev.  A.  C.  Gamer;  secretaiy.  Rev. 
Hubert  C.  Herring;  treasurer,  John  J.  Walker. 

CONGBEGATIONAL  METHODIST 
CHTTBCH.  The  denomination  has  the  larger 
part  of  its  membership  in  the  Southern  States. 
It  has  a  publishing  house  at  EUisville,  Miss. 
The  only  cKlucational  institution  under  its  con- 
trol is  the  Atlanta  Bible  School,  and  in  that 
city  is  published  its  official  journal,  The  Mea- 
aenger.  There  were  in  this  denomination  in 
1914,  15,529  oonununicants,  333  churches,  and 
337  ministers. 

CONGBESS.    See  United  States. 

CONNECTICTTT.  Population.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  State,  as  estimated  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  the  Census,  on  July  1,  1915, 
was  1,223,583. 

AoBicuLTUBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows  : 


VaJw 

$2,762,000 

2,497.000 

282,000 

176.000 

158,000 

180.000 

2.189.000 

2.184.000 

9,800,000 

9,146,000 

5.095.000 

6.614,000 


Transfobtation.  The  total  length  of  track 
operated  in  Connecticut  in  1915  was  2725. 
In  addition  there  were  915  miles  of  second 
track,  129  miles  of  third  track,  and  128  miles 
of  fourth  track.  The  longest  mileage  was  that 
of  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford — 
2004;  the  Central  New  England  Railway— 303; 
the  Central  Vermont — 411.  For  developments 
in  regard  to  the  suit  against  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railway  in  1915  see 
Railways. 


Aersage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Corn    . . . 

...1916 

65,000 

8,250,000 

1914 

61,000 

2,d06,000 

Oats    ... 

...1915 

18,000 

422.000 

1914 

11,000 

819.000 

Rye   .... 

...1915 

7,000 

150.000 

1914 

7,000 

188.000 

Potatoes 

...1915 

24.000 

2.280,000 

1914 

24.000 

8.360.000 

Hay    .... 

..1915 

865,000 

a498.000 

1914 

875.000 

469.000 

Tobacco    . 

..1915 

22,200 

^29.970,000 

1914 

20,200 

85,764.000 

a  Tons. 

b  Pounds. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1915  was  276,349.  The  total  number  in  public 
schools  was  211,975,  with  an  average  daily  at* 
tendance  of  168,060.  The  teachers  male  and 
female  numbered  5857.  The  total  school  expen- 
ditures amounted  to  $8,112,003. 

Chabities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  in- 
clude the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home  at  Noroton 
Heights,  Connecticut  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at 
Middletown,  Norwich  State  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, Connecticut  State  Prison  at  Wethersfield, 
Connecticut  School  for  Boys  at  Meriden,  Con- 
necticut Industrial  School  for  Girls  at  Middle- 
town,  Connecticut  Colony  for  Epileptics  at 
Mansfield,  and  Connecticut  School  for  Imbeciles 
at  Lakeville. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  but  passed  measures  chiefly  local 
and  unimportant.  A  woman's  suffrage  bill  was 
killed  in  the  House  of  Representatives  by  a 
unanimous  vote  and  without  comment  from  any 
member.  It  is  now  necessary  for  advocates  of 
the  measure  to  wait  two  years  before  bringing 
it  again  to  the  attention  of  the  Legislature. 
The  Connecticut  Legislature  authorizes  a  voter 
to  retain  for  six  months,  for  the  purpose  of 
voting,  residence  in  the  town  from  which  he 
moved,  and  meanwhile  he  is  regarded  as  a  resi- 
dent of  the  town  to  which  he  removes,  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  a  voter  there. 

State  Officers,  1915.  Governor,  Marcus  H. 
Holcomb;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Clifford  B.  Wil- 
son; Secretary  of  State,  Charles  D.  Bumes; 
Treasurer,  Frederick  S.  Chamberlain;  Comp- 
troller, Morris  C.  Webster;  Attorney-General, 
George  E.  Hinman;  Adjutant-General,  Brig.-Gen. 
George  M.  Cole;  Commissioner  of  Insurance, 
Burton  Mansfield — all  Republicans. 

JuDioiART.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Samuel  O.  Prentice;  Associate  Justices,  George 
W.  Wheeler,  John  M.  Thayer,  Alberto  T.  Rora- 
back,  John  K.  Beach;  Clerk,  Geo.  A.  Conant. 

State  Legislature: 


Senate 

Republicans    80 

Democrata     5 

Republican  majority. .     25 


Hotae 

Joint  Bottot 

197 

227 

60 

65 

187 


162 


COK&AD,  Joseph.  See  Literature,  Eng- 
lish AND  American,  Fiction. 

CONSEBVATION.  See  Drainage;  For- 
estry; Irrigation;  Lands,  Public. 

CONSEBVATIOK  OF  FOOD.  See  Agricul- 
ture. 

CONSTANTINEy  King  of  Greece.  See 
Greece,  History,  passim. 

CONSULAB  SERVICE.    See  Civil  Service. 

CONSUMPTION.    See  Tuberculosis. 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES.    See  Vital  Sta- 

TISTICS 

CONTINENTAL  ARMY.  See  Military 
Progress. 

.CONTBABAND.  See  United  States  and 
the  War. 

COPPEB.  The  smelted  production  of  copper 
in  1914  showed  a  considerable  decrease  from 
that  of  1913.  This  was  due  to  the  unfavorable 
market  conditions,  brought  about  by  the  Euro- 
pean war,  and  prevailing  during  the  last  five 
months  of  the  year.  The  refinery  production 
also  showed  a  reduction  due  to  the  same  causes. 


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COPPEB  163  CORN 

The  total  production  by  smelters  from  copper-  they  are  separate  and  distinct.  These  two  con- 
bearing  materials  in  1914  was  1,160,137,192  tentions  are  yet  judicially  undecided;  but  the 
pounds,  valued  at  $162,968,246,  compared  with  indications  of  recent  cases  before  the  courts  are 
1,224,484,098  pounds  valued  at  $189,795,035  in  in  favor  of  the  second.  The  copyright  amend- 
1913.  The  mme  production  in  1914  was  1,148,-  ment  act  of  1912  recognizes  the  distinction  be- 
431,437  pounds.  Copper  was  mined  in  22  States  tween  moving  picture  and  dramatic  rights;  but 
and  Territories  during  the  year.  The  four  lead-  this  lacks  the  force  of  a  judicial  pronouncement, 
ing  States  are  Arizona,  Montana,  Utah,  and  So  far  as  the  litigation  is  concerned  the  bigger 
Michigan,  producing  82  per  cent  of  the  total  feature  productions  are  conspicuous  by  reason 
output  in  1914.  Montana,  Michigan,  and  Ari-  of  the  large  amounts  of  money  involved, 
zona  are  the  three  great  copper  producing  States.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Congressional  session, 
Montana  ranks  first,  with  nearly  one-third  of  Senator  Penrose  introduced  a  bill  to  provide  for 
the  entire  output  of  the  country;  Michigan  copyright  protection  for  motion  picture  scena- 
ranks  second  with  more  than  28  per  cent;  and  rios.  These  were  not  copyrightable  hitherto  any 
Arizona  third,  with  more  than  one-fifth.  more  than   book    or   short    story   manuscripts. 

The  following  table  gives  the  production  of  ITiey  are  protected  under  the  common  law  rights 

copper  in  the  various  States  in  1913-14.  of  literary  property;  but  a  great  many  scenario 

, writers  have  been  agitating  for  copyright  pro- 

gtfgi^  2918  1914  tection.    Expert  opinion  on  the  subject  seems  to 

Alaslu^  28,428,070       24.986,847  be  that  one  decided  benefit  of  this   protection 

Arixona  ':..*. 404,278,809     8g2,449,922  would  be  the  record  of  the  date  when  the  author 

gjlS'  ^I'SsllfSS       ''7;8lS;066  »»ad  the  completed  manuscript  in  his  possession. 

Idaho      .'.!'.'.'.!*.!!!!....       8)711,490         5,875,205  In  an  infringement  suit  it  is  important,  if  not 

Michigan    "/,'/.'.','. 155,716,286     158,009,748  essential,  to  prove  the  priority  of  the  plaintifTs 

Montana     285,719,918      286,805,845  m-i-p-:-!   «vpr   that  of  th**  nllpacHl    infrinfrpmont 

New  Mexico 50,196.881       64,204,703  S'*^®"*!^^^^®^  J"**  ®'  tJie  aiie^eu  intringemont. 

Nevada  85,209,686       60,122.904  "he  Authors    League  of  America  has  made  an 

Oregon 77,812  6.599  attempt  to  assist  authors  in  providing  proof  of 

South  Dakota  ...........    ^^       *.j49      •••  —  •••  such  priority  by  establishing  a  registration  bu- 

Washington    782.742  688,602  reau    where   members    and    non-members,    upon 

Wyoming    862i286  17,082  complying  with  the  rules,  may  register  their  see- 

*'^'?S'on?d**.'"^°."f:.     20.449.951       19.28«,88«  narios     f hey  receive  a  receipt  card,  bearing  the 

*^                                   ! date  of  the  deposit,  title,  author's  name,  num- 

Totol  1,224,484,098  1,150.187,192  ber,  etc. ;  and  a  record  of  the  deposit  is  made  in 

• the  books  of  the  Authors'  League. 

The  exports  of  metallic  copper  from  the  The  convention  on  literary  and  artistic  prop- 
United  States  amounted  to  840,080,922  pounds,  erty  signed  at  Buenos  Aires,  on  August  11,  1910, 
valued  at  $117,633,145.  The  imports  amounted  was  between  the  United  States  and  19  Central 
to  306,350,827  pounds.    See  Metallurgy.  and  South  American  governments.    On  July  13, 

COFYBIGHT.    According   to   the   report   of  1914,  the  President  of  the  United  States  pro- 

the   register   of   copyrights   for   the   fiscal   year  claimed  this  convention  as  effective  between  the 

1914-15  the  registrations  numbered  115,193,  as  United    States    and    the    Dominican    Republic, 

compared  with  123,154  for  the  preceding  year.  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 

Of  the  registrations  for  1916,  104,420  were  for  Panama.    Bolivia  has  recently  signified  its  ad- 

$1  each,  including  a  certificate,  and  9447  were  herence  to  the  convention. 

for  photography  without  certificates.  The  regis-  A  British  order-in-council  was  signed  on  Feb. 
trations  included  chiefly  books,  periodicals,  (£ra-  3,  1915,  to  protect  within  the  British  dominions, 
matic  and  musical  compositions,  works  of  art  excepting  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Australia, 
and  reproductions  thereof,  photographs,  and  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa,  the  unpublished 
prints.  There  were  1326  registrations  of  re-  works  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States.  It 
newals.  The  applied  fees  for  the  year  were  ordered  that  the  British  Copyright  Act  of  1911 
$111,922.75,  more  than  double  those  for  1897-98.  should  apply  from  Jan.  1,  1915;  but  that  enjoy- 
The  copyright  registrations  are  indexed  upon  ment  of  rights  conferred  by  the  order  should  be 
cards.  The  temporary  cards  made  for  the  in-  subject  to  the  accomplishment  of  conditions  and 
dexes  to  the  printed  catalogue,  numbering  87,227  formalities  prescribed  by  the  laws  of  the  United 
during  1914-15,  have  been  eliminated  and  the  States.  The  order  was  made  upon  the  under- 
remaining  cards,  107,337  for  the  fiscal  year,  were  standing  that  a  proclamation  would  be  issued  by 
added  to  the  permanent  card  indexes,  now  num-  the  President  of  the  United  States  extending 
bering  over  2,825,000  cards.  certain  copyright  protection  to  the  subjects  of 

There  was  no  new  copyright  legislation  in  Great  Britain. 
1915.  Several  bills  were  introduced,  but  they  COBAL  BEEFS.  See  Geologt. 
failed  to  pass.  Conspicuous  among  these  was  COBN.  Data  pertaining  to  the  world's  corn 
the  Levy  Bill  for  depriving  publishers  or  authors  crop  of  1915  were  much  less  complete  than  those 
of  the  secondary  meaning  right  in  material  on  regarding  the  crops  of  preceding  years.  For  the 
which  copyright  had  expired.  The  secondary  calendar  year  1915  the  world's  production  was 
meaning  right  is  practically  the  trade  right  in  estimated  at  3,921,000,000  bushels,  including  the 
the  title  of  a  work,  and  is  somewhat  of  the  na-  harvest  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  which  cou- 
ture of  a  trade  mark  right.  There  was  a  large  stitutes  from  93  to  94  per  cent  of  the  world's 
amount  of  moving  picture  litigation,  but  it  was  corn  crop,  together  with  the  yield  of  the  South- 
not  conclusive,  as  final  decisions  were  not  handed  em  Hemisphere  which  was  harvested  early  in 
down  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  the  year.  The  crop  in  the  principal  corn-pro- 
The  whole  question  of  moving  picture  rights  and  ducing  countries  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  to 
their  relation  to  dramatic  rights  is  yet  to  be  be  harvested  early  in  1916  was  reported  as  prom- 
settled.  There  are  two  contentions:  (1)  moving  ising  a  satisfactory  yield.  The  1915  production 
picture  and  dramatic  rights  are  identical;    (2)  in  &e  Northern  Hemisphere  according  to  an  es- 

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timate  of  the  International  Institute  of  Agri- 
culture based  on  returns  received  from  most  of 
the  principal  corn  growing  countries  north  of 
the  equator  was  placed  at  3,596,000,000  bushels, 
this  output  being  greater  by  about  14  per  cent 
than  the  total  of  the  yields  in  1914  for  the 
countries  concerned.  A  calculation  based  on  the 
records  of  the  world's  com  consumption  for  the 
preceding  five  years  pointed  out  that  the 
world's  requirements  for  1916-16  could  be  met 
adequately  by  the  visible  supply  made  up  of  the 
new  crop  harvested  and  the  quantities  carried 
over  from  the  preceding  year.  The  quantity  of 
corn  from  the  crop  of  the  preceding  year  on 
hand  in  the  United  States  on  Nov.  I,  1915,  was 
estimated  at  almost  90,000,000  bushels,  or  about 
50  per  cent  more  than  on  Nov.  1,  1914.  The 
average  annual  value  of  com  and  corn  meal 
carri^  in  international  trade  is  placed  at  $210,- 
000,000. 

The  1916  com  crop  of  the  United  States  as 
estimated  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
amounted  to  3,054,536,000  bushels,  second  in 
quantity  only  to  the  crop  of  1912.  The  crop 
area  was  108,321,000  acres  which  was  surpassed 
by  the  acreage  of  1909.  The  average  yield  per 
acre,  28.2  bushels,  had  been  reached  and  sur- 
passed a  number  of  times.  The  total  value  of 
the  crop  based  on  the  average  price  of  57.5 
cents  per  bushel  to  farmers  on  December  1st  of 
the  year  was  placed  at  $1,755,859,000,  a  total 
value  that  had  never  been  reached  and  which 
stood  over  $33,500,000  above  the  total  value  of 
the  preceding  year  which  ranked  next.  While 
the  crop  of  1915  ranked  high  in  production  and 
cash  value  it  was  considered  doubtful  that  its 
feeding  value  was  as  great  as  that  of  the  crop 
of  1914.  Weather  conditions  were  unfavorable 
and  the  quality  of  the  crop  was  much  reduced. 
Low  temperature  in  August  together  with  a 
high  rainfall  during  the  growing  season  in  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  com  belt  retarded 
the  growth  of  the  crop,  and  frosts  early  in  Oc- 
tober which  in  a  normal  year  would  have  done 
no  harm  injured  the  immature  com  and  pre- 
vented the  proper  ripening  of  a  large  percentage 
of  the  crop.  These  conditions  were  most  pro- 
nounced in  Iowa  and  the  northern  part  of  Il- 
linois. The  earlier  varieties  generally  planted 
in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  proved  an  advan- 
tage to  these  States,  and  the  season  was  also 
more  favorable  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  where 
enough  but  less  rain  fell  than  in  Iowa  and  parts 
of  Illinois.  A  large  percentage  of  the  ears  in 
these  sections  were  light  and  soft,  which  led  to 
an  early  feeding  of  stock  in  order  to  use  as 
much  as  possible  of  the  soft  com  before  spoil- 
ing. As  a  result  there  was  a  much  heavier 
market  movement  of  cattle  and  hogs  early  in 
the  season  than  is  usual  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions. The  immaturity  of  the  crop  also  made 
seed  corn  selection  difficult  and  in  some  local- 
ities corn  of  the  previous  year  was  retained  for 
seed.  Owing  to  the  condition  of  the  crop  it  was 
estimated  that  more  silage  was  put  up  in  1915 
than  would  otherwise  have  been  the  case.  It  is 
of  interest  to  mention  here  that  an  inquiry  made 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  indicated  that 
about  8  per  cent  of  the  com  acreage  of  1914  was 
cut  for  silos,  11  per  cent  cut  green  for  feed,  and 
81  per  cent  was  matured  for  the  grain;  or,  ap- 
plied to  the  acreage,  about  8,364,000  acres  were 
used  for  silage,  11,282,000  cut  for  green  feed, 
and  83,789,000  allowed  to  mature.    It  was  fur- 


ther reported  that  in  the  New  England  States 
more  than  half  the  crop  is  cut  for  silage;  in 
Wisconsin,  36  per  cent  for  silage  and  18  per 
cent  for  green  feed;  Michigan,  28  per  cent  for 
silage  and  13  per  cent  for  green  feed;  and  Illi- 
nois, 9  and  10  per  cent  respectively.  The  States 
leading  in  grain  production  in  1915  and  their 
yields  were  as  follows:  Illinois,  376,164,000; 
Iowa,  303,000,000;  Nebraska,  213,000,000;  Mis- 
souri, 209,450,000;  Indiana,  190,960,000;  Texas, 
175,075,000;  and  Kansas,  172,050,000  bushels. 
The  highest  average  yield  per  acre,  50  bushels, 
was  reported  for  Connecticut.  The  production 
of  Canada  was  placed  at  14,594,000  bushels  from 
253,300  acres,  or  at  the  rate  of  57.62  bushels  per 
acre.  

COBNELL  UNIVEBSITY.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1865  at  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
on  Nov.  1,  1915,  exclusive  of  duplicates,  was 
5392.  There  were  750  members  of  the  faculty. 
Notable  gifts  received  by  the  university  during 
1915  were  the  following:  $150,000  from  George 
F.  Bailey  of  New  York  City  for  a  residential 
hall;  $20,000  from  an  unnamed  donor  for  the 
university  dining  halls;  $7500  from  the  execu- 
tors of  the  Fiske  Estate,  an  addition  to  the  Li- 
brary Endowment  Fund;  $6000  from  J.  G. 
White,  an  engineering  contractor  of  New  York 
City,  for  the  endowment  of  prizes  in  Spanisli; 
$3000  from  Hiram  W.  Sibley  for  additional 
equipment  for  Sibley  College;  $3800  for  the 
Luana  L.  Messenger  Prize  fund,  under  the  will 
of  Hiram  John  Messenger,  of  the  class  of  1880. 
The  donations  received  by  the  university 
amounted  in  all  to  $202,632.  The  productive 
funds  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  of  1915 
amounted  to  $14,057,115,  and  the  annual  income 
for  the  fiscal  year,  to  $1,644,516.  The  library 
contained  455,129  volumes. 

COBPOBATION,  American  Intebnational. 
See  Financial  Review. 

COBPOBATIONS.  See  Tbusts  and  Taxa- 
tion. 

COBFOBATION  TAX.    See  Taxation. 

COBBECnON.  For  matters  connected  with 
this  subiect,  see  Charities. 

COSTA,  Affonro.  A  Portuguese  statesman, 
died  July,  1915.  He  was  for  many  years  one  of 
the  strongest  political  leaders  in  Portugal,  and 
at  various  times  premier,  minister  of  finance, 
and  minister  of  justice.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  law  providing  for  the  separation  of  the 
Church  and  State  in  Portugal.  An  advocate 
of  revolution,  he  was  several  times  sent  to  exile 
for  attempted  uprisings,  and  was  imprisoned 
as  ringleader  of  the  attempted  revolution  in 
January,  1908. 

COSTA  BICA.  A  Central  American  republic 
situated  between  Nicaragua  and  Panama  and 
bordering  both  the  Caribbean  and  the  Pacific 
coast.    Capital,  San  Jos6. 

Area,  Popui^tion,  etc.  The  area  is  esti- 
mated at  48,110  square  kilometers  (18,691 
square  miles).  The  estimated  population  in 
1884  was  195,906;  at  the  end  of  1912,  399,424; 
1913,  410,981;  1914,  420,179.  Births  in  1913 
and  1914,  17,746  and  18,633;  deaths,  9382  and 
9482.  The  population  of  San  Jos^  at  the  end 
of  1913  was  stated  at  33,900;  Heredia,  8000; 
Cartago,  7000;  Lim6n,  7000;  Alajuela,  6260; 
Puntarenas,  4850.  The  white  population  dwells 
largely  in  these  towns.  In  1913  there  were  414 
public  elementary  schools,  with   1306  teMhers, 


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33,084  pupils,  and  an  average  attendance  of 
28,690.  There  are  a  few  secondary  schools  and 
faculties  for  professional  education.  The  state 
religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 

Production  aivd  Comicebce.  According  to 
figures  published  in  1016  by  the  Pan-American 
Union,  there  were  in  1014,  323,680  hectares 
under  cultivation,  of  which  28,681  hectares  in 
coffee,  24,127  in  bananas,  11,028  in  sugar  cane, 
and  2604  in  cacao.  Other  important  crops  are 
com,  beans,  potatoes,  and  rice.  Cattle  raising 
is  a  profitable  industry,  especially  in  the  west 
and  in  the  districts  adjoining  Nicaragua.  The 
number  of  cattle  reported  in  1916  is  337,061. 
Horses  number  about  60,000.  Gold  and  silver 
are  mined. 

Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as  fol- 
lows, in  thousands  of  colones: 

2910       2921       1918       1918       1914 

Imports     16,084  19.080  21,676  18,678  16,240 

EzporU     18,009  19,192  21.428  22,197  28,869 

The  principal  imports  are  cotton  goods,  struc- 
tural iron  and  steel  and  railway  material,  coal, 
flour,  and  lard.  The  bulk  of  the  exports  con- 
sist of  bananas  and  coffee.  In  1912,  10,647,702 
bunches  of  bananas  were  exported;  in  1913,  11,- 
170,812  (of  which,  to  the  United  States,  8,362,- 
722,  and  to  the  United  Kingdom,  2,713,111). 
The  coffee  export  in  the  crop  year  ended  Sept. 
30,  1912,  was  12,238  metric  tons;  in  1913,  13,- 
019  (of  which  82  per  cent  to  the  United  States). 
The  banana  and  coffee  exports  in  1912  were 
valued  at  10,647,702  and  7,623,661  colones  re- 
spectively; in  1913,  11,170,812  and  7,752,750; 
in  1914,  10,163,000  and  10,029,000.  Other  ex- 
port values  in  1914:  Gold  and  silver,  1,443,000 
colones;  woods,  266,000;  hides,  256,000;  cacao, 
181,000;  rubber,  26,000.  Imports  from  and  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States  in  1914,  8,650,000 
and  10,523,000  colones  respectivelv ;  United  King- 
dom, 2,341,000  and  11,166,000;  Germany,  2,291,- 
000  and  1,014,000;  France,  646,000  and  266,000. 
In  1914  tiiere  were  entered  at  Lim6n  438  ves- 
sels, of  967,668  tons;  at  Puntarenas,  80,  of  185,- 
646  tons. 

Communications.  In  1914  Costa  Rica  had 
in  operation  687  kilometers  (431  miles)  of  rail- 
way, including  branches  and  sidings,  all  of 
3-foot  6-inch  gauge.  Of  this  mileage  69  miles 
(111  kilometers)  is  the  property  of  the  govern- 
ment, 141  miles  (227  kilometers)  belong  to  the 
Northern  Railway  Co.,  and  217  miles  (349  kilo- 
meters) to  the  Costa  Rica  Railway.  The  Costa 
Rica  Railway,  however,  is  leased  to  the  North- 
ern, so  that  the  whole  system  of  some  368 
miles  (576  kilometers),  having  its  focal  point  at 
Lim6n,  is  under  one  general  management.  Both 
these  roads  are  well  constructed,  with  steel  and 
iron  bridges,  suitable  stations,  and  sidetracks, 
and  are  maintained  in  good  condition.  Various 
branch  lines  have  been  extended  up  and  down 
the  coast  for  the  service  of  the  banana  industry. 
The  main  line  leaves  Lim6n,  passing  through 
Matina,  Siquirres,  Turrialba,  and  Cartago,  and 
reaching  San  Jos^,  at  a  distance  of  103  miles 
(166  kilometers).  The  system  is  continued  to 
Alahuela,  14  miles  (23  kilometers)  north  of 
San  Jos^. 

The  Pacific  Railway  extends  from  San  Jostf  to 
Puntarenas,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a  distance  of 
69  miles  (111  kilometers).  The  connecting  link 
between  Cascajal  and  £1  Roble,  a  distance  of  12 


miles   (20  kilometers),  was  completed  in  1910. 

Telegraphs  in  1914:  Offices,  126,  with  2447 
kilometers  of  wire.  A  radiotelegraph  station  is 
in  operation  at  Lim6n.    Post  offices,  204. 

Finance.  The  standard  of  value  is  gold. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  colon,  whose  par  value 
is  46.636  cents.  Revenue  and  expenditure  have 
been  as  follows,  in  colones: 

1911  1918  1918  1914 

Revenue     9,707.269     9.950.672     9.612,584     8.601,690 
Expend.      9,801.966     9.810,719   10,184,261     9,747,246 

The  budget  for  1915  showed  estimated  rev- 
enue of  9,662,000  colones;  estimated  expendi- 
ture, 9,661,089.  The  largest  estimated  receipts 
were:  Customs,  5,600,000  colones;  liquor  tax, 
2,438,000.  The  largest  expenditures  are  for  the 
public  debt,  public  instruction,  and  war  and  po- 
lice. Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1914,  £1,686,660  and 
30,000,000  francs. 

Government.  The  President  is  elected  for 
four  years  by  indirect  vote  and  is  ineligible  for 
the  succeeding  term.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Cabi- 
net of  six  members.  The  Congress  consists  of  a 
single  chamber  of  43  deputies,  also  elected  in- 
directly. President  in  1916,  for  the  term  be- 
ginning May  8,  1914,  Alfredo  Gonzfllez  Flores. 
Vice-President,  Domingo  GonzAlez. 

HiBTOBT.  Foreign  Relations.  The  republic 
of  Panama  early  in  January  repudiated  the 
award  of  Chief  Justice  White  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  on  the  question  of  the 
boundary  between  Panama  and  Costa  Rica. 
The  award  was  made  under  the  Porras- Anderson 
convention  of  March  10,  1910.  Late  in  January 
the  United  States  began  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
to  compensate  Costa  Rica  for  its  rights  in  the 
interoceanic  canal  route  in  Nicaragua  over 
which  the  United  States  is  trying  to  gain  con- 
trol. It  is  understood  that  the  United  States 
will  pay  $1,600,000  for  an  option  on  Costa 
Rica's  rights.  The  United  States  has  main- 
tained since  President  Taft  first  broached  the 
idea  that  the  San  Juan  River,  which  would 
form  the  first  part  of  the  canal  across  Nica- 
ragua, is  one  of  the  natural  boundaries  of  Costa 
Rica,  and,  according  to  the  protocols  to  which 
Nicaragua  pledged  itself  at  the  time  that  the 
boundary  line  was  fixed,  Costa  Rica  must  be 
consulted  before  any  rights  are  surrendered. 
In  August  the  government  made  arrangements 
with  the  Bankers  Trust  Company  and  the  Irv- 
ing National  Bank,  both  of  New  York  City,  to 
open  a  credit  account  for  nine  months,  such 
funds  to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  payment  of 
merchandise  imported  or  to  be  imported  into 
Uruguay.  This  arrangement  was  the  first  prac- 
tical result  of  the  Pan-American  Financial  Con- 
gress. 

Internal  Conditions.  Early  in  May  the  gov- 
ernment passed  a  law  affording  protection 
against  injury  to  workmen  in  factories,  shops, 
industrial  establishments,  mines,  smelters,  build- 
ings, excavations,  and  agricultural  industries. 
Sefior  Julio  Acosta  Garcia  was  made  secretary 
of  foreign  relations  in  July  to  succeed  Sefior 
Manuel  Castro  Quesada,  who  resigned  to  become 
minister  to  Washington.  See  International 
Peace  and  Abbitbation. 

COST  OF  LIVING.     See  Pbioes. 

COTTON.  The  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States  for  1915  was  about  69  per  cent  of  the 
record  crop  of   1914,  when   16,134,930  bales  of 


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600  pounds  each  were  produced.  On  Dec.  10, 
1915,  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  esti- 
mated the  crop  for  1915  at  11,161,000  bales, 
exclusive  of  linters,  as  compared  with  a  five- 
year  average  (1909-18)  of  13,033,235  bales. 
Shepperson's  estimate  of  the  crop  of  1915  for 
the  United  States  is  11,750,000  bales,  including 
linters.  The  area  planted  to  cotton  in  1015  was 
31,535,000  acres,  or  15.7  per  cent  less  than  in 
1914.  The  principal  reason  for  the  greatly  re- 
duced production  was  the  demoralized  condi- 
tion of  the  cotton  market  following  the  outbreidc 
of  the  war  in  Europe.  The  average  price  of  cot- 
ton on  Dec.  1,  1914,  was  only  6.8  cents  per 
pound,  and  the  seed  brought  about  $4.50  per 
ton  less  than  the  previous  year.  These  condi- 
tions were  quite  general  and  resulted  in  a  re- 
duced planting  in  nearly  all  the  important  cot- 
ton-growing countries.  The  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  the  Census  reported  10,643,783  running 
bales  as  already  ginned  to  the  end  of  1915.  This 
total  includes  105,779  round  bales  and  88,921 
bales  of  Sea  Island  cotton  which,  on  account  of 
their  lighter  weight,  are  counted  as  half  bales. 
The  Sea  Island  crop,  which  will  probably  nearly 
equal  that  of  1914,  was  ginned  as  follows: 
Florida,  27,803;  Georgia,  55,531;  and  South 
Carolina,  5587  bales. 

According  to  the  United  States  Consular  Re- 
ports, the  Egyptian  crop  on  Nov.  19,  1915,  was 
estimated  at  967,750  bales  of  500  pounds. 
From  the  same  source,  a  greatly  reduced  area 
planted  to  cotton  in  India  is  reported.  The 
Russian  crop  was  estimated  to  be  1,228,000  bales 
of  500  pounds  each.  An  estimated  crop  of  2800 
bales  is  reported  in  Japan. 

The  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1914,  the  es- 
timated crop  for  1915,  and  the  amount  reported 
ginned  to  the  end  of  1915,  exclusive  of  linters, 
by  States  were: 


Reported 

BsHmated 

Statet 

Crop,  1914 

crop,  1915 

Jan,  1, 1916 

500  pound 

600  pound 

Running 

half 

haUt 

bales 

United  States  . . 

16.184.930 

11,161,000 

10,648.788 

Alabama    

1,751,875 

1.050,000 

l,007,40a 

ArkanBas     

1,016,170 

786,000 

754.442 

Florida    

81,266 

50,000 

54,775 

Georcfia    

2,718,087 

1.900,000 

1,907.098 

Louisiana    

449,468 

860,000 

822.575 

Mississippi    

1,245,585 

940.000 

800,646 

North    Carolina . 

930,681 

708,000 

697,072 

Oklahoma    

,    1,262,176 

680,000 

661,482 

South    Carolina. 

.    1,533,810 

1,160,000 

1,184,059 

Tennessee    

388,517 

295.000 

281.898 

Texas     

4,592.112 

8,175,000 

2.938.622 

All  other  States. 

170,864 

108,000 

84,711 

Of  the  States  listed  as  "all  others,"  Missouri 
in  1914  produced  81,752;  Virginia,  25,222;  and 
California,  49,835  bales.  In  1915  these  States 
are  estimated  to  produce  52,000,  16,000,  and  34,- 
000  bales  respectively.  Tlie  crop  of  Arizona, 
where  locally  produced  strains  of  Egyptian  cot- 
ton are  grown,  was  not  expected  to  much  ex- 
ceed 2000  bales,  owing  to  reduced  acreage  and 
unfavorable  weather  conditions  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  crop  year. 

The  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1914, 
as  finally  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Cen- 
sus, was  16,134,930  gross  bales  of  500  pounds 
each,  of  which  81,054  bales  were  Sea  Island,  the 
remainder  various  types  of  upland  cotton.  In 
addition  there  were  produced  856,900  bales  of 
linters,  and  7,186,000  tons  of  seed,  of  which  5,- 


779,665  tons  were  crushed  for  oil,  cake,  etc. 
The  total  value  of  the  1914  crop  of  the  United 
States  was  $720,080,000,  as  compared  with  $1,- 
026,700,000  for  1913.  The  Sea  Island  cotton 
production  in  1914  was  somewhat  larger  than 
the  two  preceding  crops,  and,  from  the  prelim- 
inary announcements,  that  for  1915  will  not 
show  as  great  a  reduction  as  the  upland  crop. 

By  agreement  between  cotton  exchanges  and 
statistical  bodies  at  home  and  abroad,  the  cot- 
ton statistical  year  has  been  changed  to  end 
with  July  31st,  instead  of  August  31st,  as  for- 
merly. On  this  account,  data  for  different  years 
are  not  strictly  comparable. 

The  world's  production  of  conunercial  cotton 
in  1914,  that  is  the  amount  available  for  mill 
purposes,  was  approximately  24,764,000  bales 
of  500  pounds  net  weight,  an  increase  of  more 
than  2,600,000  bales  over  that  of  1913.  The 
contributions  of  the  leading  countries  to  the 
world's  mill  supply  of  cotton  for  1913  and  1914, 
according  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census  Bulletin  131,  were: 


2924  1918 

Country                       500  pound  bales  500  pound  hales 

United  €totea 16,488.000  18,546,000 

India     8.826.000  8.692.000 

Egypt    1,884.000  1.496,000 

China    1.760.000  1.200.000 

Russia     1.126.000  1.080.000 

Brasil    440.000  420,000 

Mexico     125.000  150.000 

Peru    108.000  110.000 

Persia   127,000  140,000 

Turlcey    120,000  180,000 

All  other  countries.  ...  826,000  285.000 

Total     24.764,000  22.198,000 


Reduced  to  percentages,  the  contributions  of  the 
leading  countries  to  the  mill  supply  in  1914 
were:  United  States,  62.3;  India,  15.4;  China, 
7.1;  Egypt,  5.6;  and  Russia,  4.6  per  cent. 

The  world's  consumption  of  cotton  for 
1914-15  is  estimated  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Cen- 
sus as  19,761,000  bales  of  500  pounds  net  weight, 
of  which  the  United  States  took  5,429,000,  the 
United  Kingdom  3,890,000,  and  Continental  Eu- 
rope 625,000  bales.  In  the  United  States,  the 
cotton-growing  States  took  2,938,000  bales  and 
the  other  States  2,491,000  bales.  There  were 
141,500,000  active  and  idle  spindles  in  the  world 
in  1915,  of  which  there  were  in  the  United 
States  during  November,  31,497,436  active  spin- 
dles. There  were  located  in  the  cotton-growing 
States  at  that  time  12,801,204  active  spindles, 
and  in  the  other  States,  18,696,231. 

The  estimated  cotton  supply  of  the  United 
States  for  the  year  ending  July  31,  1915,  was 
17,891,154  bales.  Of  this  amount,  there  were 
exported,  8,322,688  bales;  consumed  by  mills, 
5,597,362  bales;  and  destroyed  by  fire,  35,000 
bales,  leaving  3,936,104  bales  on  hand  at  the  end 
of  the  crop  year.  The  greatest  consumption  of 
cotton  in  the  United  States  was  in  Massachu- 
setts, where  1,282,937  bales  were  used,  with 
North  Carolina  second,  taking  910,154  bales. 
The  imports  of  cotton  to  this  country  for  the 
year  ending  July  31,  1915,  were  382,286  bales, 
the  most  of  which  was  Egyptian  cotton  used 
for  mercerizing  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
thread,  knit  goods,  and  laces.  During  the  same 
period  10,363  bales  were  imported  from  Peru, 
nearly  all  of  which  was  rough  Peruvian  used  for 
mixing  with  wool.    The  reexports  were  18,691 


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bales,  making  the  net  importations  363,695 
bales. 

Detailed  information  r^arding  the  crop  of 
1915  is  meagre  except  for  the  United  States. 
In  India  a  r^nction  of  about  22  per  cent  in  the 
area  planted  is  reported.  An  attempt  is  being 
made  by  the  government  and  various  codperat- 
ing  agencies  to  improve  the  quality  and  yield  of 
the  Indian  crop  through  the  distribution  of  bet-, 
ter  seed  and  by  demonstration  experiments  in 
many  localities.  In  Egypt  legislative  restric- 
tions resulted  in  the  planting  of  about  1,230,000 
acres,  a  reduction  of  over  400,000  acres.  The 
pink  bollworm  is  reported  to  have  caused  con- 
siderable loss  in  some  localities.  The  Russian 
crop  is  reported  as  being  quite  satisfactory,  in- 
creased plantings  having  been  made  in  most  of 
the  larger  producing  provinces.  The  West  In- 
dian production  does  not  appear  to  be  increas- 
ing and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  crop  of  1915 
will  show  a  reduction.  In  Africa,  the  purchases 
of  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  were 
less  than  in  1914.  The  purchases  in  Lagos  to 
Sept.  30,  1915,  were  5974  bales,  as  compared 
with  13,486  in  the  previous  year.  Kyassaland 
reports  an  increase  in  the  value  of  exports 
amounting  to  $32,816.  The  Uganda  crop  of 
1914  was  21,428  bales,  and  the  estimated  crop 
in  the  Sudan  for  1915  is  placed  at  24,000  bales. 
Production  in  Northern  Nigeria  has  fallen  off, 
only  497  bales  having  been  purchased  to  the 
end  of  September,  1915.  It  has  been  decided 
to  suspend  the  operations  of  the  Association  in 
the  Gold  Coast,  Illushi,  and  Southern  Nigeria. 
Successful  efforts  have  been  made  to  grow 
Egyptian  cotton  in  Greece,  especially  in  Messina 
and  Thessaly.  A  rather  extensive  experiment 
in  growing  American  upland  cotton  has  been  be- 
gun in  Sicily.  In  Brazil,  there  has  been  organ- 
ized a  Cotton  Service  as  a  branch  of  the  Min- 
istry of  Agriculture,  and  Dr.  E.  C.  Green,  for 
some  years  with  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  has  been  placed  in  charge  of  the 
work.  In  Grenada,  the  destruction  by  fire  of 
all  cotton  plants  before  the  beginning  of  the 
next  cotton  season  is  required  by  recent  enact- 
ment, on  account  of  the  presence  of  various 
pests. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  agricultural  experiment  stations 
throughout  the  cotton-producinff  section  are  con- 
tinuing their  efforts  to  bring  about  larger  aver- 
age yields  and  a  better  quality  of  staple,  and 
some  very  suggestive  results  have  been  obtained. 
The  new  single-stalk  system  of  cotton  culture 
is  said  to  be  giving  increased  yields  of  from  40 
to  121  per  cent,  as  compared  with  common 
methods.  The  Durango  cotton,  which  has  been 
recently  acclimatized  from  Mexico,  is  proving 
its  superiority  over  other  cottons  in  the  South- 
west, and  recent  investigations  have  shown  its 
earlier  character  and  other  desirable  qualities 
over  Columbia  for  eastern  cultivation.  Through 
cooperative  agreement  between  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  experiment  stations  of 
South  Carolina,  Alabama,  and  Georgia,  seed  of 
valuable  varieties  of  cotton  resistant  to  root 
knot  is  being  grown  for  distribution  for  1916 
planting.  From  extensive  observations,  it  has 
been  learned  that  run  of  the  gin  seed  should 
not  be  used  for  planting  where  it  is  desired  to 
perpetuate  any  particular  variety  of  cotton. 

llie  cotton  boll  weevil  advance  into  new  terri- 
tory has  been  greater  than  for  several  years. 


The  average  advance  has  been  at  the  rate  of 
about  50  miles  per  year,  but  in  1915  it  spread 
in  a  northeasterly  direction  more  than  100 
miles,  and  it  has  finally  reached  the  region  of 
Sea  Island  cotton  production.  Most  of  the  ad- 
viLnoe  took  place  in  the  period  from  August  15th 
to  August  31st,  when  a  series  of  high  winds  pre- 
vailed. The  pest  was  reported  in  Georgia  in 
1915  for  the  first  time,  25  counties  being  in- 
fested.  In  Florida,  8  additional  counties  and 
20  additional  ones  in  Alabama  were  invaded. 
Owing  to  favorable  weather  conditions,  boll  wee- 
vils were  more  numerous  in  Texas  in  1915  than 
for  several  years.  On  account  of  the  discovery 
of  living  larve  of  the  pink  bollworm  {Oelechia 
goasypidla)  in  cotton  from  Egypt,  and  the 
known  occurrence  of  this  and  other  pests  in  va- 
rious countries,  a  quarantine  has  been  estab- 
lished against  the  admission  of  cotton  or  cotton 
seed  except  imder  limitations.  The  shipment  of 
cotton  samples  through  the  mails  has  been  pro- 
hibited. After  Feb.  1,  1916,  the  fumigation  of 
all  imported  cotton  will  be  required. 

Cotton  Futures  Act.  The  newly  established 
Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organization  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
charged  with  the  administration  of  the  Cotton 
Futures  Act  and  various  investigations  arising 
under  it.  This  law,  known  also  as  the  Smith- 
Lever  Law,  was  passed  in  August,  1914,  and 
became  effective  February  18,  1915.  While  its 
operation  included  all  cotton  exchanges  it  was 
aimed  primarily  at  the  New  York  Cotton  Ex- 
change. It  was  the  culmination  of  several 
years  of  agitation  which  became  of  public  in- 
terest in  1907,  when  Congress  requested  the 
Commissioner  of  Corporations,  Herbert  Knox 
Smith,  to  investigate  the  causes  of  fluctua- 
tions in  the  prices  of  cotton  and  differences 
in  the  values  of  various  grades.  During  the 
four  years  1909-13  members  of  the  New  York 
Exchange  had  vigorously  opposed  the  growing 
sentiment  in  Congress  in  favor  of  regulation; 
but  in  1915  their  attitude  changed  rather  de- 
cisively so  that  even  preceding  the  passage  of 
the  Smith-Lever  Law  tiiey  had  decided  to  adopt 
government  standards  and  monthly  revision  of 
grade  differences.  This  action  bv  the  Exchange 
was  taken  November  17th  and  became  effective 
on  contracts  maturing  on  and  after  April  1, 
1915.  The  Cotton  Futures  Act  imposed  a  tax 
of  two  cents  per  pound  on  all  cotton  sold  on 
any  exchange  which  did  not  conform  to  two 
essential  conditions:  (1)  the  cotton  dealt  in 
must  be  graded  according  to  ofiicial  standards 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  and  (2)  the 
relative  difference  in  the  value  of  various  grades 
must  be  determined  by  averaging  the  quotations 
of  actiuil  transactions  in  each  grade  in  various 
markets.  The  law  further  specified  in  detail 
certain  requirements  as  to  certificates  of  sale. 
An  especially  noteworthy  provision  was  a  tax 
of  two  cents  a  pound  on  all  cablegrams  to  for- 
eign exchanges  unless  such  exchanges  conformed 
as  regards  standard  grades  and  rules  of  opera- 
tion to  the  requirements  of  the  law.  This  tax 
virtually  prohioited  transactions  by  Americans 
on  the  exchanges  at  Liverpool,  Havre,  and  Bre- 
men. The  constitutionality  of  the  law  was  con- 
tested in  the  Federal  District  Court  at  New 
York,  with  the  result  that  on  October  13th  Judge 
Hough  declared  it  unconstitutional.  His  con- 
tention was  that  the  act  was  a  revenue  measure 
and  hence  should  have  originated  in  the  House, 


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CBOVFUT 


whereas  it  was  first  presented  in  the  Senate. 
The  government  contended  that  it  was  not  in- 
tended as  a  revenue  act,  and  further  that  the 
tax  features,  which  were  purely  incidental  to 
the  regulations  which  the  act  sought  to  impose, 
were  added  as  an  amendment  in  the  House. 
Notice  of  appeal  was  given,  as  also  notice  that 
pending  decision  by  the  Supreme  Court  the  act 
would  be  strictly  enforced.  The  preparation 
and  distribution  of  the  new  official  standards  of 
cotton  for  the  United  States,  provided  in  the 
Futures  Act,  have  been  actively  pursued,  and 
380  sets  were  distributed  to  June  30,  1915.  The 
New  York  and  New  Orleans  cotton  exchanges 
adopted  these  standards  for  all  transactions 
subsequent  to  Feb.  18,  1915.  By  June  30,  1915, 
21  other  organizations  were  using  them. 

COTTON  SUBSTITUTES.  See  Chemibtbt, 
Industbial. 

COUBT  TENNIS.  See  Racquets  and  Coubt 
Tennis. 

COWS.  See  Daibtino;  Stock  Raising  and 
Meat  Pboduction. 

CBANE,  Walteb.  English  painter,  de- 
signer, illustrator,  and  writer,  dicii  March  15, 
1915.  Bom  in  1845,  he  was  privately  educated. 
He  served  an  apprenticeship  with  W.  D.  Lin- 
ton, and  in  1863  illustrated  for  his  first  book, 
The  New  Forest.  He  had  previously  exhibited 
in  the  Royal  Academy.  His  talents  as  an  il- 
lustrator and  painter  won  him  quick  recogni- 
tion, and  from  1882  to  1886,  when  he  resigned, 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  oils 
and  water  color.  He  received  numerous  medals 
for  illustrations,  designs,  and  rural  work.  He 
illustrated  many  well-known  children's  books 
as  well  as  several  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and 
he  designed  the  panels  for  the  Women's  Tem- 
perance Union  building  in  Chicago,  and  the 
friezes  for  the  gallery  of  the  British  Art  Sec- 
tion at  the  St.  Louis  World's  Fair.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  work  as  an  artist,  he  was  an  ag- 
gressive Socialist.  Among  his  writings  are: 
An  ArtisVs  Reminiscences  (1907);  Indian  Im- 
pressions (1907);  and  William  Morris  and 
Whistler  (1911).  His  work  is  represented  in 
the  principal  'mlleries  of  London  and  elsewhere. 

CBEDIT.  See  Aobicultubal  Cbedit;  and 
Banks  and  Banking. 

CBEDIT  BANKS.  See  Agbigultubal 
Cbedit. 

CBEDIT  UNIONS.  See  Agsigultubal 
Cbedit  ;  and  Aobicultubal  Legislation. 

CBEELMAN,  James.  American  editor  and 
journalist,  died  Feb.  12,  1916.  He  was  born 
in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1859,  and  was  educated 
in  the  Canadian  schools  and  at  Talmage's  Lay 
Theological  College.  In  1857  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  staff  of  the  New  York  Herald,  and 
acted  as  reporter,  correspondent,  and  editorial 
writer  for  that  paper.  He  was  the  editor  of  the 
London  edition  in  1890,  and  of  the  Paris  edi- 
tion 1891-92.  In  1893  he  was  British  editor  of 
the  Cosmopolitan  Magazine,  He  acted  as  a  cor- 
respondent for  the  New  York  World  in  the  Jap- 
anese War  of  1894.  For  the  New  York  Journal 
he  reported  the  Grieco-Turkish  War,  1897,  the 
Cuban  War,  1898,  and  the  war  in  the  Philip- 
pines in  1899,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
In  1900-06  he  did  editorial  work  for  the 
New  York  Journal  and  the  New  York  World, 
and  in  1906-10  was  associate  editor  of  Pear- 
son's Magazine.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Municipal  Civil  Service  Commission  of 


New  York  City  in  1911-12.  In  the  latter  year 
he  became  associate  editor  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Mail.  He  was  a  member  of  many  socie- 
ties, and  wrote:  On  the  Great  Highway  (1901) ; 
Eagle  Blood  (1902);  Why  We  Love  Lincoln 
(1908) ;  and  Diaz,  Master  of  Mexico  (1911). 

CBETE  (Candla).  An  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea;  an  autonomous  state  under  the 
suzerainty  of  Turkey  until  May  31,  1913,  when 
it  was  ceded  to  the  Balkan  powers,  which  for- 
mally recognized  its  union  with  Greece  by  the 
treaty  of  Bucharest,  Aug.  10,  1913.  Area,  3327 
square  miles;  population  (census  of  April  17, 
1911),  344,001.  Canea,  the  capital,  has  25,186 
inhabitants.  Greek  is  the  language  of  the  peo- 
ple, a  large  majority  of  whom  are  Christians. 
The  chief  products  for  export  are  wheat  and 
fruit,  wool,  soap,  olive  oil,  carobs,  vallonea,  and 
cheese.  The  trade  (mostly  with  Greece  and 
Turkey)  amounted  in  1910  to  19,650,000  drach- 
mas iinports  and  17,477,000  drachmas  exports; 
in  1911,  21,359,000  and  15,631,000.  Revenue 
and  expenditure  in  1910,  6,465,760  and  7,308,632 
drachmas;  in  1911,  6,518,594  and  6,792,829. 
Debt  in  1912,  4,615,709  drachmas.  A  Governor- 
General  (Loukas  Roufos  Kanakaris)  was  ap- 
pointed Oct.  12,  1914. 

CBICKET.  The  European  war  for  the  sec- 
ond year  in  succession  prevented  any  inter- 
national cricket  matches.  The  sport  in  the 
United  States,  however,  gained  greatly  in  pop- 
ularity. The  Germantown  Club  carried  off  the 
honors  by  capturing  the  Halifax  Cup  after  a 
close  struggle  with  the  New  York  team,  which 
for  the  first  time  was  a  competitor.  F.  Greene 
of  the  Germantown  Club  won  the  Childs  Bowl- 
ing Cup  with  a  record  of  28  wickets  at  an  aver- 
age of  11.71.  The  Childs  Batting  Cup  went  to 
B.  Kortlang  of  New  York  with  an  average  of 
65.16  for  eight  innings. 

The  Metropolitan  League  pennant  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Manhattan  Club  which  scored  10 
victories  in  as  many  matches.  L.  Miller  of  the 
Manhattans  won  the  league  batting  prize,  his 
average  being  44,  and  F.  S.  Hall  of  the  same 
club  proved  to  be  the  best  league  bowler.  Ben- 
sonhurst  took  the  championship  of  the  New 
York  and  New  Jersev  Cricket  Association, 
conquering  Manor  Field  in  the  last  contest  of 
the  season.  The  batting  crown  of  the  associa- 
tion went  to  R.  Comacho  of  Manor  Field  and 
the  bowling  laurels  to  H.  B.  H.  Boyce  of  Ben- 
sonhurst. 

The  death  of  William  Gilbert  Grace,  known 
throughout  the  world  as  the  king  of  cricket,  oc- 
curred during  the  year. 

CBIME.     See  Penology. 

CBIMINOLOOY.    See  Penology. 

CBITICISM.    See  Literature. 

CBOATIA  AND  SLAVONIA.  See  Aus- 
tria-Hungary. 

CBOFFTTTy  Wiluam  Augustus.  American 
author,  died  July  31,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Reading,  Conn.,  in  1835;  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools;  and  in  1852  engaged  in  news- 
paper work,  leaving  this  to  enlist  in  the  Union 
army,  in  which  he  served  throughout  the  Civil 
War.  At  its  close  he  became  a  reporter  and 
correspondent  for  newspapers.  At  different 
times  he  was  editor  of  the  Minneapolis  Tribune, 
the  New  York  American,  and  other  papers. 
From  1888-94  he  was  executive  officer  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  He  organized 
and  became  secretary  of  the  Anti-imperialistic 


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League  in  1899.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
books,  including:  War  History  of  Connecticut, 
The  Open  Door  of  DreanUandy  Fifty  Years  in 
Camp  and  Field,  and  the  Crimson  Wall,  a  novel. 
He  also  published  several  volumes  of  verse,  and 
wrote  the  Opening  Ode  for  the  Chicago  Exposi- 
tion in  1893. 

CHOPS.  -See  article  Aobigultube,  and  section 
Agriculture  under  various  countries  and  States 
of  the  United  States. 

CBOSBYy  Frances  Jane  Van  Alsttne,  bet- 
ter known  as  "Fanny"  Crosby.  American  hymn 
writer,  died  Feb.  12,  1916.  She  was  born  at 
Southeast,  N.  Y.,  in  1820.  When  she  was  six 
}'ears  of  age  she  became  blind  from  an  illness. 
Some  years  later  she  entered  an  institution  for 
the  blind  in  New  York  City,  and  was  a  teacher 
of  English  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  literature 
in  that  institution  from  1847-58.  She  wrote 
the  words  for  many  songs  of  George  F.  Root. 
Her  first  hymn  was  written  for  William  B. 
Bradbury.  She  wrote  in  all  more  than  6000 
hymns,  several  of  which  are  well  known.  She 
also  wrote  secular  songs,  including  There^s 
Music  in  the  Air,  and  Htizel  Dell,  and  was  the 
author  of  the  Blind  Oirl  and  Other  Poems 
(1S44),  Monterey  and  Other  Poems  (1849), 
Bells  at  Evening  and  Other  Poems  (1898),  and 
Memories  of  Eighty  Years  (1906). 

CBOSS  COUNTBY  BTJNNINa.  See  Ath- 
letics, Track  and  Field. 

CBOWN  PBINCE  WILHELM,  Internment 
OF.    See  United  States  and  the  War. 

CBUISEBS.  See  Battleships;  and  Naval 
Progress. 

CBUSTACEA.     See  ZodLOOT. 

CTJBA.  An  island  republic  of  the  West  In- 
dies.    The  capital  is  Havana. 

Area,  Population,  etc.  The  following  table 
shows  the  area  by  provinces  and  the  population 
acording  to  tlie  census  of  Sept.  30,  1907,  and  the 
estimate  of  June,  1913: 

Square  Poptdation 

miUs  1907  1918 

Pinar  del  Bfo 5,164  240,872  257.898 

Havana    2,772  688,010  651.266 

Matanzaa    3,700  239,812  270,488 

Santa  Clara 9,560  457.481  567,277 

Gamaffliey     10,500  118,260  154,567 

Oriente     12,468  455,086  567,664 

Total     44,164     2,048,980     2,469,579 

Population  according  to  race  in  1907:  Na- 
tive whites,  1,224,539;  foreign  whites,  203,637; 
colored,  620,804  (of  whom,  274,272  negroes, 
334,695  mulattoes,  11,837  Chinese).  Immigra- 
tion during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1913,  58,- 
036;  1914,  40,530  (32,576  males,  7954  females) ; 
of  the  total  in  the  latter  year,  there  were  31,- 
821  Spaniards,  2515  Jamaicans,  and  1152  North 
Americans.  Ilie  larger  cities,  with  population 
in  1907,  are:  Havana,  297,159;  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  45,470;  Matanzas,  36,009;  Cienfuegos, 
26,616;  C&rdenas,  24,280. 

According  to  the  1907  census,  about  31  per 
cent  of  the  population  could  not  read.  As  re- 
ported for  1914,  there  were  2344  public  school 
houses,  with  4333  teachers,  and  277,013  pupils 
enroll^;  average  attendance,  129,263.  The 
government  maintains  a  secondary  school  in 
each  province;  total  students  in  1914,  about 
1500.  There  is  a  State  university  at  Havana, 
with   about    1300  students. 

Production  and  Commerce.    The  staple  ag- 


ricultural products  are  sugar  and  tobacco. 
Other  crops  are  cacao,  potatoes  and  other  v«e- 
tables,  cereals,  and  fruits,  especially  pineapples, 
bananas,  oranges,  and  coconuts.  Cuba  and  Brit- 
ish India  are  the  two  most  important  producers 
of  cane  sugar  in  the  world.  Cuba's  production 
of  tobacco  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  some  other 
countries,  but  it  leads  all  others  in  the  output 
of  tobacco  which  is  ^  suitable  for  fine  cigars. 
Stock  raising  is  important.  There  are  large 
mineral  resources,  especially  in  Oriente,  includ- 
ing iron,  manganese,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  gold, 
and  salt. 

Imports  and  exports  respectively  have  been 
valued  as  follows  in  fiscal  years  ended  June  30, 
1910,  $163,446,127  and  $144,039,483;  in  1911, 
$108,098,000  and  $129,179,000;  in  1912,  $120,- 
229,317  and  $146,787,295;  in  1913,  $135,810,000 
and  $165,208,000;  in  1914,  $134,008,138  and 
$170,796,851.  The  leading  imports  include 
breadstuffs,  meats,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel, 
and  machinery.  The  following  table  shows  the 
principal  exports: 

19111$  191918  191814 
Sanr,    raw.  .  .$101,642,170  $110,856,716  $119,742,942 

Tobacco,  unmfd.  17,895,525  21,649,898  19.007,218 

Tobacco.,    mfd.  18.061,862  18,918,650      18,775,202 

Iron    ore 8,174,648  4.288,821  8,897.159 

Cattle    hidei..  1,654.459  2,882,790  2.580.182 

Molaesei    1,387.898  1,977,082  2,429,861 

Pineapplei     ..  1,117,709  1,817,687  1,286.508 

Bananas     873.092  817,028  1,026.825 

Copper    ore...  576,870  599,477  865,662 

Spirits    554,922  665,478  582.108 

Honey     476,407  509,225  517,778 

Cacao    294.242  585,077  507,011 

Bees*     wax...  845.658  346,819  856.680 

Sponges .  800,278  295.584  808,782 

The  quantity  of  raw  sugar  exported  in  the 
fiscal  year  1914  is  reported  at  4,896,430,626 
pounds;  molasses,  54,734,060  gallons;  refined 
sugar,  38,991,048  pounds;  unmanufactured  to- 
bacco, 42,784,831  pounds.  Trade  by  countries, 
in  thousands  of  dollars: 

191818  101814  101818  101814 

ImporU  Bsportt 

United  States  .  .   $71,764  $71,420  $182,581  $186,986 

U.     Kingdom...      17,411  15,619  15,668  18,245 

Spain   10,228  10,588  692  1,100 

Oermany 9,515  8,276  6.498  4,486 

France    8,287  8,267  1,826  2,652 

Porto  Rico 2,988           49 

British  India 2,897  ....  2 

Belgium 2,687  ....  562 

Uruguay 1,714           848 

Canada    1,499  1,665  2,920  2,066 

Argentina 1.458  ....  972 

Norway 1,420  ....  927 

Total,  including 

other $185,810  $184,008  $165,208  $170,797 

•  CoMMUNioATioNS.  The  length  of  railway  in 
operation  in  1913  is  stated  at  3806  kilometers 
(2365  miles).  Telegraphs  in  1912:  215  offices, 
8151  kilometers  of  line,  9952  kilometers  of  wire. 
The  government  operates  nine  radiotelegraph 
stations.     Post  offices  in  1912,  574. 

Finance.  Under  a  law  of  Nov.  7,  1914,  a 
new  coinage  was  introduced  Dec.  1,  1915.  The 
monetary  unit  is  the  gold  peso  of  1.6718  grams 
(1.5046  grams  fine),  equivalent  to  the  American 
dollar.  Gold  coins  minted  are  the  20,  10,  5,  4, 
2,  and  1  peso  pieces.  Silver  coins  are  the  10, 
20,  and  40  centavo  pieces  and  the  peso.  Nickel 
coins  are  1,  2,  and  5  centavo  pieces.  Gold  coin- 
age is  unlimited.  The  American  coinage  con- 
tinues to  be  a  legal  tender. 

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For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  the 
budget  showed  estimated  revenue  of  $41,828,680 
and  estimated  expenditure  of  $40,262,906.  This 
budget  was  continued  for  the  ensuing  fiscal  year. 
Estimated  customs  receipts  were  $29,100,000; 
consular  dues,  $670,000;  receipts  from  posts 
and  telegraphs,  $1,000,000;  direct  taxes,  $l,113r 
000;  excise,  $3,600,000;  lottery,  $3,200,000; 
other  receipts,  $3,146,680.  The  larger  estimated 
disbursements:  administration  (interior),  $11,- 
042,249;  public  instruction,  $6,196,421;  pub- 
lic debt,  $4,467,963;  sanitary  service,  $4,264,- 
388;  finance,  $3,280,318.  The  actual  customs 
receipts  reported  for  the  year  1913-14  were  $27,- 
666,106,  as  compared  with  $28,174,123  in 
1912-13  and  $26,608,896  in  1911-12.  Public 
debt,  Jan.  1,  1914:  Foreign,  $67,420,000;  in- 
ternal, $10,408,000;  total,  $67,828,000. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  President,  who,  with  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent, is  elected  by  indirect  vote  for  four  years. 
There  is  a  Congress  of  two  houses:  the  Senate 
consists  of  24  members  (four  from  each  prov- 
ince), elected  indirectly  for  eight  years;  the 
House  of  Representatives  consists  of  83  mem- 
bers, elected  by  direct  vote  for  four  years.  The 
President  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  eight  mem- 
bers. On  Mav  20,1913,  Qen.  Jos^  Miffuel  G6mez 
was  succeeded  as  President  by  Gen.  Mario  Gar- 
cia Menocal  for  the  four-year  term.  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Dr.  Enrique  Jos^  Varona. 

HiBTOBY.  PAitioal  CanditionB  in  Cuba,  Early 
in  January  members  of  the  lower  house  of  the 
Cuban  Congress  brought  charges  of  misappro- 
priation of  public  funds  against  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  Cancio.  The  members  claimed 
that  the  loan  which  Cuba  had  negotiated 
through  J.  P.  Morgan  and  Co.  of  New  York 
would  amount  to  $10,260,000,  whereas  the  loan 
bill  passed  by  Congress  allowed  for  a  total  of 
only  $10,000,000.  The  legislative  branch  of  the 
government  won  a  victory  over  President  Meno- 
cal early  in  February  when  they  repassed  the 
Amnesty  Bill  over  the  chief  executive's  veto. 
The  Anmesty  Bill  provided  specially  for  the  re- 
lease of  Gen.  Ernesto  Asbert,  former  Governor 
of  Havana  Province,  convicted  in  June,  1914,  of 
killing  Gen.  Armando  Riva,  chief  of  the  Na- 
tional Police.  There  were  great  celebrations 
throughout  Havana  when  it  was  known  that 
Asbert  would  be  released.  On  February  16th — 
the  17th  anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  the 
Maine  in  Havana  harbor — ^President  Menocal 
asked  Congress  for  an  appropriation  of  $23,000 
with  which  to  build  a  commemorative  monu- 
ment to  the  victims  of  the  disaster.  The  United 
States  Department  of  Commerce  announced  on 
March  18th  that  the  Cuban  decree,  promulgated 
on  Nov.  7,  1914,  which  authorized  the  granting 
of  a  bounty  on  raw  tobacco  and  on  cigars  manu- 
factured in  Cuba  and  shipped  direct  to  foreign 
countries,  had  not  been  enforced  and  would  not 
be  put  into  effect.  SefLor  Enrique  Mazas,  editor 
of  La  Trihuna,  was  arrested  in  May,  charged 
with  having  libeled  the  President  of  the  re- 
public in  an  article  demanding  that  Menocal 
resign  either  as  general  inspector  of  the  Chap- 
para  Sugar  Company  or  as  President  of  the  re- 
public. An  executive  decree  in  July  extended 
the  budget  for  1914-16  for  another  year.  Con- 
gress having  taken  no  action  on  the  matter,  and 
another  decree  in  August  lengthened  for  four 
years  the  contract  between  the  government  and 
the  National  Bank  of  Cuba,  at  the  same  time 


reducing  the  bank's  commission  to  one-eighth  of 
1  per  cent. 

Foreign  Relatione.  On  May  20th,  the  13th 
anniversary  of  the  independence  of  Cuba,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  sent  a  congratulatory  message  to 
President  Menocal  of  Cuba.  The  message  read: 
''It  fives  me  great  pleasure  to  extend  to  your 
Excellency  and  to  the  Cuban  people  cordial 
greetings  on  this  anniversary  of  the  independ- 
ence of  Cuba."  Cuba  appointed  on  May  21st 
Sefior  Octavie  A.  Zayas,  a  private  banker,  to 
represent  the  republic  at  the  Pan-American  Fi- 
nancial Congress  which  convened  on  May  24th. 
In  June  the  Department  of  Foreign  Relations  of 
the  Cuban  Republic  announced  that  it  proposed 
to  secure  the  authorization  by  Congress  of  the 
erection  of  a  magnificent  legation  building  in 
Washington. 

CUMBEBLAKB  PBBSBYTESIAN 
CHTJBCH.  The  work  of  this  denomination  in 
1916  steadily  progressed,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  of  litigation  which  resulted  in  1913  in  the 
surrender  of  the  Church's  publishing  house  in 
Nashville  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States.  The  books,  plates,  and  period- 
icals were  saved,  and  shortly  afterward  the 
members  of  the  denomination  subscribed  $12,600 
to  purchase  machinery  for  a  new  publishing 
plant.  As  a  result  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian, the  denomination's  weekly  journal,  was 
continued,  and  also  the  issue  of  its  Sunday 
school  periodicals  and  literature.  There  was 
nothing  notable  in  litigation  during  1916.  The 
Church  increased  in  membership.  The  greatest 
enterprise  before  it  in  that  year  was  the  conduct 
of  a  campaign  for  placing  a  Sunday  school  li- 
brary of  the  denomination's  doctrinal  books  in 
every  Simday  school,  and  also  for  the  getting  of 
every  member  of  the  denomination  to  possess 
and  read  the  gift  edition  of  Why  I  Am  a  Cum' 
berland.  The  slogan  of  the  Church  in  1916  was 
''Indoctrinate."  According  to  the  latest  avail- 
able returns  the  denomination  has  122,000  com- 
municants, 929  ministers,  and  1600  churches. 

CTT&AgAO.  A  Dutch  West  Indian  colony, 
436  square  miles,  composed  of  the  islands  of 
Curacao  (212  square  miles),  Bonaire  (Buen 
Ayre),  Aruba,  St.  Eustatius,  and  Saba,  and  part 
of  the  Island  of  St.  Martin.  Total  population, 
Dec.  31,  1910,  64,469  (24,297  males,  30,172  fe- 
males) I  Dec.  31,  1913,  66,183.  Export  of  phos- 
phate in  1911:  Curacao,  3028  cubic  meters; 
Aruba,  27,668  (in  1912,  28,392).  Raw  gold  ex- 
port in  1911  (Aruba)  was  valued  at  113,116 
guilders;  in  1912,  84,661.  Total  imports 
(1910),  3,162,310  guilders,  exports,  1.121,106; 
1912,  3,890,123  and  2,426,641.  Vessels  entered 
1912,  1428  of  2,713,000  cubic  meters  capacity, 
at  Curacao,  and  1746  of  184,000  at  ports  of 
other  islands.  The  budget  for  1914  showed  es- 
timated revenue  of  711,234  guilders;  expendi- 
ture, 1,193,428;  subvention,  482,194;  for  1916, 
revenue,  732,079;  expenditure,  1,162,669;  sub- 
vention, 430,690.  Dr.  Th.  I.  A.  Nuyens  was  Gov- 
ernor in  1914. 

CtTBBBNCY.  See  Banks  and  Banking; 
Coins,  Value  of;  Financial  Review. 

CTTSHING  CASE.  See  United  States  and 
THE  War, 

CYCLINa.  Frank  L.  Kramer  in  1916  won 
the  professional  cycling  championship  for  the 
14th  consecutive  year,  riding  on  the  board  track 
at  Newark,  N.  J.  Alfred  Goullet  of  Australia 
tied  with  Kramer  in  the  season's  point  total. 


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bat  was  defeated  in  two  heats  of  a  series  of 
three  match  races  at  five  miles. 

Kramer  also  distinguished  himself  by  setting 
many  new  records  for  the  shorter  distances. 
The  showing  of  the  Australasian  riders— Goul- 
let,  Grenda,  McNamara,  and  Spears — ^makes  it 
probable  that  when  Kramer  does  relinquish  his 
crown  as  cycling  king  it  will  be  placed  on  the 
brow  of  one  of  these  marvelous  wheelmen. 

Among  the  amateur  riders,  Ernest  Ohrt  was 
in  a  class  by  himself,  winning  the  championship 
competition  and  also  making  the  fastest  time 
ever  made  by  an  amateur  for  the  mile,  starting 
from  scratch.  Ohrt's  time  was  1  minute,  63% 
seconds. 

The  annual  six-day  race  at  Madison  Square 
Garden,  New  York  City,  was  won  by  Alfred 
Grenda  of  Tasmania  and  Fred  Hill  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  a  new  world's  record  of  2770  miles  and 
eight  laps  being  made.  Robert  McNamara  and 
Robert  Spears,  both  of  Australia,  finished  sec- 
ond. GouUet,  who,  teamed  up  with  Grenda,  cap- 
tured  this  event  in  1914,  was  not  entered. 

CYPBTTS.  An  island  in  the  easternmost  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean,  until  1914  nominally  a 
part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  but  ceded  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes  to  Great  Britain  in  1878. 
In  November,  1914,  it  was  annexed  by  Great 
Britain.  It  has  an  area  of  3584  square  miles, 
and  its  population  by  districts  (1911)  is  as  fol- 
lows: Nicosia,  81,497;  Famagusta,  58,530;  Lar- 
naca,  29,737;  Limassol,  46,084;  Paphos,  38,508; 
Kyrenia,  19,752;  total,  274,108.  Estimated  pop- 
ulation at  the  end  of  1913,  about  287,000.  Mo- 
hanunedans  form  about  25.9  per  cent  of  the  pop- 
ulation, the  remainder  being  nearly  all  Chris- 
tians of  the  native  Cypriote  Church.  Nicosia, 
the  capital,  had,  in  1911,  16,052  inhabitants. 
ElementMTY  schools  of  all  classes,  in  1914,  610 
(414  Christian,  196  Mohammedan),  with  739 
teachers  and  an  enrollment  of  33,805  (27,685 
Christians  and  6120  Mohammedans). 

Agriculture,  the  chief  industry,  has  been 
greatly  retarded  by  reason  of  the  lack  of  water; 
the  rivers,  nearly  all  mountain  torrents,  dry  up 
in  summer,  and  the  rainfall  is  deficient.  A  plan 
for  storing  water  for  irrigation  is  in  process  of 
realization.  The  large  numbers  of  goats,  to- 
gether with  frequent  forest  fires,  are  a  hindrance 
to  the  development  of  valuable  forests.  Cereals, 
carobs,  the  famous  Cyprus  wine,  cheese,  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  live  stock  are  exported.  In  1913 
there  were  about  67,700  horses,  mules,  and  asses ; 
60,500  cattle;  265,500  sheep;  255,200  goats;  and 
37,000  swine.  The  imports  in  1913  were  valued, 
exclusive  of  specie,  at  £619,338  (from  Great 
Britain,  £171,712;  from  British  colonies,  £6196; 
from  other  countries,  £441,430) ;  the  exports  at 
£620,591  (to  Great  Britain,  £120,713;  to  British 
colonies,  £6249;  to  other  countries,  £493,629). 
Shipping  entered  and  cleared  (1913),  721,515 
tons.  Revenue  (1913-14),  £341,816;  expendi- 
ture, £296,165.  A  sum  of  £92,800  was  payable 
annually  to  Turkey,  but  this  is  appropriated  to 
the  interest  on  the  guaranteed  loan  of  1855. 
British  high-conunissioner  in  1915,  Sir  John  E. 
Clauson. 

History.  In  reply  to  the  memorial  which  the 
Greek  Cypriotes  had  submitted  to  the  British 
government  in  1914  (see  Year  Book,  1914)  ask- 
ing for  union  with  Greece,  the  High  Commis- 
sioner handed  to  the  Greek  archbishop,  Cyril, 
Jan.  4,  1915,  a  curt  acknowledgment  of  the  re- 
ceipt of  the  memorial,  without  the  slightest  con- 


cession to  the  nationalist  aspirations  of  the  pe- 
titioners. In  delivering  this  brusque  rebuke,  the 
High  Commissioner  explained  orally  that  the 
population  was  not  unanimous  in  desiring  affili- 
ation with  Greece,  and  that  the  Turkish  element 
on  the  island  had  actually  submitted  a  petition 
in  favor  of  the  continuance  of  British  rule.  Lo- 
cal journals,  however,  pointed  out  that  the  de- 
ment of  the  population  favorable  to  British  rule 
constituted  but  a  small  minority;  and  in  some 
quarters  it  was  suggested  that  a  more  favorable 
attitude  towards  the  Hellenic  Cypriotes  would 
have  been  more  in  keeping  with  Great  Britain's 
r6le  as  protector  and  liberator  of  small  nations. 
In  October,  the  British  government  offered  to 
cede  Cyprus  to  Greece  if  the  latter  would  lend 
her  aid  in  the  operations  against  Great  Britain's 
enemies  (see  Greece,  HUtory).  As  Greece  was 
imwilling  to  pay  the  price,  however,  the  offer 
lapsed. 

CYBENAICA.    See  Libta. 

CaSAPLIGAy  Mis8.^EDbs  Eicplorations.  See 
Exploration,  Asia, 

DACIA  CASE.    See  U.  S.  and  the  War. 

DAHOMEY.  A  French  West  African  colony; 
one  of  the  component  parts  of  the  government- 
general  of  French  West  Africa  (q.v.).  A  recent 
estimate  of  population  is  910,902,  of  whom  809,- 
402  fetishist,  75,000  Mohammedan,  20,064  Ro- 
man Catholic,  and  6500  Protestcuit.  Capital, 
Porto  Novo,  with  40,000  inhabitonts;  other 
towns  are:  Abomey  (12,372),  Ouidah,  or  Why- 
dah  (13,000),  Grand  Popo  (2115),  and  Cotonou 
(2456).  The  principal  products  for  export  are 
palm  kernels  (export  in  1912  valued  at  13,398,- 
416  francs,  in  1909  at  8,353,252),  palm  oil  (6,- 
361,320  and  6,452,100),  dried  fish  (304,670  in 
1912),  live  animals  (155,713  and  151,378),  com 
(325,036  and  712,713),  copra  (105,263  and  99,- 
420),  cotton,  kola  nuts,  etc.  Imports  and  ex- 
ports for  1912  were  valued  at  20,310,098  and 
21,451,317  francs,  respectively.  A  railway  (722 
kilometers),  which,  when  completed,  will  connect 
Cotonou  with  the  Niger  at  a  point  near  Kari- 
mana,  is  finished  as  far  as  Sav4  (261  kilome- 
ters). The  line  has  three  main  sections:  Coto- 
nou to  Paouignan,  194  kilometers;  Paouignan 
to  Parakou,  246;  Parakou  to  the  Niger,  250.  A 
branch  from  Cbtonou  (32  kilometers)  runs  to 
Ouidah  and  Segborou^.  Ch.  NoufQard  was  lieu- 
tenant-governor in  1914. 

BAIBY  FABMINO.    See  Dairying. 

DAIBYINO.  Supply  of  Dairy  Products. 
The  increase  in  the  value  of  dairy  products  in 
the  United  States  was  hardly  commensurate 
with  the  increased  consumption  and  export  de- 
mands which  characterized  the  trade  in  1915. 
There  appeared  to  be  a  marked  shortage  of  milk 
in  New  England  and  New  York,  due  probably  to 
a  shortage  of  cows  in  that  section,  while  the 
Middle  West  remained  about  normal.  The  dai- 
rying industry  of  the  coimtry  suffered  by  reason 
of  the  spread  of  the  foot-and-mouth  disease, 
which,  however,  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  under 
control  as  a  result  of  the  vigorous  policy  of 
eradication  followed.  Fortunately,  the  National 
Dairy  Show  herd  of  700  head  were  saved  by  a 
most  thorough  and  complete  quarantine  from 
which  they  were  released  in  May  (see  also  Vet- 
erinary Medicine). 

It  was  estimated  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  that  the  average  per  capita 
milk  consumption  in  cities  of  2500  inhabitants 
or    over    was    112    quarts    per   year,    and    was 


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slightly  higher  in  citiefl  of  26,000  or  over  than  in 
smaller  cities.  There  was  apparently  less  vari- 
ation in  milk  consumption  by  months  in  the 
large  cities  than  in  the  small  ones,  the  fluctu- 
ations beinff  less  than  10  per  cent.  Investiga- 
tions made  by  the  New  York  Cornell  Experiment 
Station  showed  that  milk  was  being  prcduoed  in 
that  section  at  a  net  cost  of  $1.21  per  100 
pounds,  and  butter  fat  at  33.3  cents  per  pound, 
llie  average  profit  realized  was  31  cents  per  100 
pounds,  and  the  net  profit  per  cow  was  $20.39. 
The  average  cost  of  feed  per  cow  was  $51.67,  and 
the  labor  cost  $23.12.  The  profit  from  cows 
yielding  10,000  pounds  per  year  of  milk  was  61 
per  cent  greater  than  from  those  yielding  6000 
pounds. 

The  cow  testing  associations  were  on  a  firmer 
footing  than  they  had  been  in  previous  years. 
Many  new  associations  were  organized  through 
the  efforts  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  extension  divisions  of  the  agricultural  col- 
leges. The  results  of  these  associations  were 
highly  satisfactory,  many  of  the  herds  under 
their  control  making  notable  gains  in  yields,  due 
to  the  elimination  of  inferior  cows  and  the  adop- 
tion of  the  most  approved  methods  of  -feeding 
and  management. 

The  spirit  of  codperation  has  been  especially 
evident  in  Wisconsin  within  recent  years.  There 
were  in  1915  over  1500  farmers'  companies  in 
that  State,  of  which  347  were  creamery  organiza- 
tions, 290  cheese  factories,  and  35  live  stock 
shipping  associations.  In  point  of  number  and 
the  money  handled  the  dairy  enterprises  exceeded 
all  other  cooperative  agencies.  The  Wisconsin 
Station  reported  that  approximately  half  of  the 
cheese  of  the  United  States  was  made  in  that 
State.  Two-thirds  of  this  was  American  and 
the  remaining  one-third  was  Swiss,  brick,  and 
Limburger.  Manv  fancy  varieties  were  produced 
but  they  were  of  little  commercial  importance. 
Since  1909  the  production  had  been  decreasing  in 
other  leading  States  and  increasing  in  Wiscon- 
sin. More  than  half  of  the  cheese  factories  were 
cooperative.  It  appeared  that  a  great  portion  of 
the  middleman's  charges  in  marketing  cheese 
were  legitimate,  and  for  the  present,  necessary. 
Notable  dairy  records  for  the  year  were  as  fol- 
lows: The  Holstein  cow,  Duchess  Skylark 
Ormsby,  completed  a  year's  record  of  27,761 
pounds  of  milk  containing  1205  pounds  of  fat. 
The  Uolstein  cow,  Finderne  Pride  Johanna  Rue, 
made  a  record  of  28,403.7  pounds  of  milk  and 
1176.47  pounds  of  fat  in  one  year.  The  3-year- 
old  Uolstein  Frisian  heifer,  Finderne  Holingen 
Fayne,  produced  24,612.8  pounds  of  milk  con- 
taining 1116.05  pounds  of  fat.  The  10-year-old 
Guernsey  cow,  Murne  Cowan,  completed  a  year's 
record  of  24,008  pounds  of  milk  containing 
1098.18  pounds  of  fat. 

Announcement  was  made  of  the  formation  of 
the  American  Milking  Shorthorn  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, with  headquarters  at  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Animals  will  be  registered  as  foundation  stock 
until  the  end  of  1918  under  certain  conditions. 
Exports  and  Impobts  of  Dairy  Products. 
Cheese,  butter,  and  butter  fats  were  again  be- 
coming important  factors  in  the  United  States 
export  trade  after  a  Ions  period  of  comparative 
inactivity.  Butter  usually  averaging  about  3,- 
500,000  pounds  annually  in  the  export  trade,  in 
the  fiscal  year  1915  went  to  nearly  10,000,000 
pounds.  During  this  period  imports  of  butter 
were  reduced  by  more  than  one-half,  falling  from 


a  little  less  than  8,000,000  pounds  in  1014,  to 
less  than  4,000,000  pounds  in  1915.  American 
cheese,  running  at  about  2,500,000  pounds  a  year, 
went  to  54,000,000  poimds  in  the  fiscal  year 
1915.  Here  also,  as  in  the  case  of  butter,  the 
trade  balance  was  transferred  to  the  export  side, 
for  tke  year's  imports  of  cheese  last  year  totaled 
only  50,000,000  pounds,  a  decrease  of  13,750,000 
poimds  from  the  total  for  1914. 

England  became  the  largest  foreign  market  for 
American  butter,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk, 
having  taken  3,333,000  pounds  of  butter,  48,500,- 
000  pounds  of  cheese,  and  4,000,000  pounds  of 
condensed  milk  from  the  United  States.  Can- 
ada, Cuba,  Panama,  Australia,  and  Venezuela 
also  took  considerable  quantities  of  American 
butter.  Panama  and  the  West  Indies  are  im- 
portant markets  for  dieese.  American  con- 
densed milk  was  being  exported  in  record-break- 
ing amounts,  with  sales  aggregating  37,235,627 
pounds  in  the  fiscal  year  1915,  against  less  than 
one- third  that  amount  in  1911.  Cuba  led  among 
the  foreign  markets  for  this  American  product 
while  very  large  amounts  were  sold  in  the  Orient, 
chiefly  Japan,  China,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  war  has  diverted  large  quantities  of  Ca- 
nadian butter  and  cheese  to  England  that  would 
otherwise  have  sought  a  market  in  the  United 
States,  eleven  months'  imports  of  butter  being 
but  3,721,224  pounds,  against  7,640,995,  and  of 
cheese  46,561,251  pounds,  against  58,778,538 
pounds  last  year.  Italy  and  Switzerland  were 
the  leading  sources  of  the  cheese  imported  into 
the  United  States,  having  supplied  in  1915  26.5 
million  and  22.5  million  poimds,  respectively,  as 
against  nearly  5.5  million  from  France,  3%  mil- 
lion from  the  Netherlands,  3.25  million  from 
Greece,  1  million  pounds  from  Canada,  and 
smaller  amounts  from  Norway,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Austria-Hungary. 

Dairying  in  Foreign  Countries.  Census  re- 
ports of  food  supplies  in  Australia  showed  that 
from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  dairy  cattle  in  that 
country  were  lost  in  consequence  of  drought,  and 
that  with  the  limited  milk  supply  an  output  of 
only  13,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  could  be  ex- 
pected for  1915.  The  annual  consumption  in 
Australia  was  in  excess  of  18,000,000  pounds. 
There  was  likewise  a  serious  shortage  of  butter, 
and  while  there  was  probably  ample  for  home 
consumption,  very  little  butter  would  be  avail- 
able for  export.  Australia  was  forced  to  become 
an  importer  instead  of  an  exporter  of  butter. 
Large  shipments  were  being  made  by  American 
concerns. 

The  dairy  industry  in  New  Zealand  had  be- 
come an  importcmt  factor  in  the  prosperity  of 
that  country.  At  the  close  of  the  year  ended 
April  30,  1915,  there  were  167  public  creameries, 
330  public  cheese  factories,  64  private  creameries, 
and  24  private  cheese  factories  in  operation. 
Large  exports  of  cheese  and  butter  were  being 
made  from  that  country,  Canada  and  the  United 
States  being  the  principal  consumers. 

The  production  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese  by 
dairy  farmers  in  Glasgow  and  the  west  of  Scot- 
land showed  a  decided  increase  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war.  Formerly  the  tendency  was  in 
many  cases  toward  producing  milk  alone.  The 
war,  however,  brought  a  rise  in  the  prices  of 
milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  particularly  of  cheese. 
The  total  value  of  the  exports  of  condensed  milk 
from  Switzerland  increased  in  value  from  $8,' 
529,634   in    1913,   to   $9,151,674   in    1914.     The 


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feaertJ  situation  in  the  condensed  milk  industry 
in  1914  was  comparatively  favorable.  The  re- 
duced production  of  milk  in  Switzerland,  due  to 
a  shortage  of  feed  crops,  and  subsequently  the 
difficulty  in  procuring  sugar,  threatened  to  cur- 
tail the  condensed  milk  and  certain  other  Swiss 
food    products    industries.     See    also    AoBicui^ 

TURE. 

LiTEBATUBE.  Among  the  important  publica- 
tions that  appeared  during  the  year  were  the 
following:  Proceedings  of  the  6th,  7th,  and  8th 
Annual  Conferences  of  the  American  Association 
of  Medical  Milk  Commissions,  1912,  191S,  and 
1914  (Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1916);  W.  A.  G.  Pen- 
lington,  Science  of  Dairying  (London,  1915) ; 
S.  H.  Ayers  and  W.  T.  Johnson,  Jr.,  "Abilitv  of 
Colon  Bacilli  to  Survive  Pasteurization"  {if.  8, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Journal  of  Agricul- 
tural Research,  February,  1915) ;  C.  Thom  and 
R.  H.  Shaw,  "Moldiness  in  Butter"  {U,  8.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Journal  of  Agricultural 
Research,  January,  1915) ;  G.  L.  A.  Ruehle  and 
W.  L.  Kulp,  "Germ  Content  of  Stable  Air  and 
Its  Effect  upon  the  Germ  Content  of  Milk"  {New 
York  State  Station  Bulletin  409)-,  B.  H.  Hib- 
bard  and  A.  Hobson,  "Markets  and  Prices  of 
Wisconsin  Cheese"  {Wisconsin  Station  Bulletin 
SSI);  J.  D.  Brew,  "Milk  (Juality  as  Determined 
by  Present  Day  Score  Cards"  {New  York  State 
Station  Bulletin  S98). 

DAUiES-CELILO  CANAL.    See  Canals. 

BAMS.  One  of  the  most  important  engineer- 
ing questions  under  discussion  in  1915  was  the 
construction  of  dams  for  power  development 
across  rivers  under  the  control  of  the  Federal 
government.  It  was  claimed  that  existing  legis- 
lation seriously  curtailed  hydroelectric  develop- 
ment that  would  be  of  direct  benefit  to  many 
persons,  and  in  his  annual  report  for  1915,  Sec- 
retary of  War  Garrison  pointed  out  that  the 
national  general  dam  act  had  prevented  the  de- 
velopment of  water  power  on  navigable  streams 
and  characterized  the  law  as  a  "makeshift  which 
effectuaUy  prevents  all  development."  Referring 
to  it  specifically,  he  stated: 

'The  general  dam  act  does  not  offer  the  right- 
ful and  necessarv  inducement  for  an  economical 
and  profitable  development,  nor  on  the  other 
hand  would  it  adequately  protect  the  interests 
of  the  public  if  development  were  possible  under 
it.  It  is  a  general  dam  act  in  name  only;  while 
purporting  to  lay  down  general  conditions  to 
cover  development  in  all  cases,  it  nevertheless 
requires  in  each  case  the  further  special  author- 
ization of  Congress,  which  made  of  each  appli- 
cation an  independent  legislative  proposition, 
and  subjected  each  project  to  the  delay  and  haz- 
ard of  congressional  action." 

The  Secretary  also  pointed  out  that  the  usual 
use  of  electric  power,  in  cities  and  in  factories, 
was  not  the  only  outlet  for  hydroelectric  energy, 
and  instanced  the  fact  that  the  fixation  of  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen,  through  the  use  of  the  electric 
furnace,  offers  a  tremendous  field  for  the  use  of 
cheap  power — a  matter  of  particular  importance 
at  a  time  when  nitrogen  for  explosives  is  so  im- 
portant a  factor  in  military  effectiveness.  He 
urged  that  Congress  enact  suitable  legislation 
along  the  lines  of  that  which  failed  to  pass  in  the 
Congress  of  the  previous  year. 

The  ArrowrocK  Dam,  across  the  Boise  River 
just  above  Boise,  Idaho,  the  highest  dam  in  the 
world,  was  officially  dedicated  on  October  4th. 
This  dam  is  348.5  feet  in  height  from  the  lowest 


point  of  the  foundation  to  its  parapet,  and  is 
about  250  feet  above  the  river  bed.  It  is  arched 
in  plan  to  a  662-foot  radius.  The  section  is 
the  normal  gravity  type.  The  length  at  the  top 
is  1100  feet,  and  the  width  at  that  point  16  feet. 
At  the  base  it  is  240  feet  thick.  The  total 
amotmt  of  concrete  reached  610,600  cubic  yards. 
The  excavation  amounted  to  683,000  cubic  yards. 
It  was  completed  nearly  two  years  ahead  of  time 
at  a  saving  of  more  than  $2,600,000  on  the  orig- 
inal estimate.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Boise  project 
of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service,  which 
embraces  an  area  of  240,000  acres. 

Work  continued  during  the  year  on  the  Ele- 

C'  nt  Butte  Dam  described  in  the  1914  Year 
K,  and  on  Sept.  1,  1915,  560,000  cubic  yards 
of  masonry  had  been  placed,  leaving  about  50,000 
cubic  yards  to  complete  the  structure,  which  was 
virtually  finished  by  the  end  of  the  year,  so  that 
sometime  in  1916  it  would  be  ready  for  use. 
This  dam  is  built  of  rubble  concrete  masonry 
with  a  smooth  concrete  face,  and  local  conditions 
introduced  many  interesting  problems. 

During  the  year  further  progress  was  made 
on  the  Calaveras  Earth  Dam  for  the  Spring  Val- 
ley Water  Company,  of  San  Francisco.  This 
dam,  when  completed,  will  be  the  highest  earth 
dam  in  the  world,  with  a  crest  of  240  feet  above 
bedrock,  and  containing  over  3,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  material.  The  dam  was  being  con- 
structed by  the  hydraulic  process  and  by  means 
of  material  placed  on  the  lower  slopes  by  teams 
loaded  by  steam  shovels.  The  dam  is  located 
in  a  narrow  valley  with  steep  hills  on  either 
side,  and  as  the  earth  on  the  slopes  was  not  well 
suited  to  hydraulic  excavation  and  placing,  much 
of  the  material  required  had  to  be  carried  in  a 
pipe  line  for  a  considerable  distance  in  order  to 
reach  suitable  earth.  The  Calaveras  reservoir 
when  completed  was  expected  to  increase  the 
available  water  supply  for  San  Francisco  by  30,- 
000,000  gallons  per  day,  and  would  provide  for 
considerable  growth  of  the  city,  which  now  has 
a  daily  consumption  of  45,000,000  gallons. 

In  1915  progress  was  made  on  the  cyclopean 
masonry  dam  which  was  being  built  near  the 
present  Holden  reservoirs  of  the  city  of  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  to  impound  an  additional  water  sup- 
ply. This  dam  was  to  be  108  feet  in  height, 
from  foundation  to  top,  and  80  feet  wide  at  base, 
and  17  feet  wide  at  the  top,  which  is  850  feet 
long.  The  dam  closes  the  narrow  outlet  of  a 
natural  basin  and  is  built  on  solid  rock,  so  that 
a  certain  amount  of  the  excavated  material  can 
be  used  in  the  dam  masonry,  while  rock  exca- 
vated near  the  dam  site  will  be  used  for  the 
concrete  aggregates,  and  for  making  sand  as  well 
as  the  coarser  concrete,  two  sand  rolls  having 
been  installed.  This  work  was  being  done  by 
municipal  labor,  with  small  annual  appropria- 
tions, and  is  estimated  to  cost  about  $700,000. 

The  reservoir  formed  by  the  Roosevelt  Dam 
across  the  Salt  River  in  Arizona  was  filled  to 
the  dam  crest  for  the  first  time  on  April  14tb, 
and  water  passed  over  the  spillway.  This  dam 
was  280  feet  high  above  bedrock,  1080  feet  long 
(including  spillways),  and  the  reservoir  has  a 
capacity  of  1,400,000  acre  feet. 

The  year  saw  also  the  completion  of  the  La- 
hontan  Dam  of  the  Truckee- Carson  irrigation 
project  in  Nevada.  This  earth  embankment  was 
124  feet  high,  and  supplied  290,000  acre  feet  of 
water  for  irrigation.  It  is  across  the  Carson 
River,  near  Fallon  and  Hazen,  Nev.    Tlie  struc- 


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ture  cost  about  $1,500,000,  and  is  unique  in  pos- 
sessinff  twin  spillways  260  feet  long  at  either 
end  of  the  dam,  with  a  combined  normal  dis- 
charge capacity  of  30,000  second  feet,  which  con- 
verge on  a  circular  pool  230  feet  in  diameter. 
There  is  also  a  reinforced  concrete  outlet  tower 
witii^  two  cylindrical  hydraulically  balanced 
yalves.  In  its  construction  there  was  involved 
an  electrically  operated  plant  and  also  a  sand 
cement  plant.  For  an  earth  embankment  the 
Lahontan  Dam  presents  many  striking  and  in- 
teresting features. 

The  Great  Falls  Dam  on  the  Missouri  River 
near  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  was  dedicated  August 
11th,  when  water  passed  over  the  crest  of  the 
dam.  The  improvement  of  the  Ohio  River  in- 
volves construction  of  a  number  of  dams,  and 
Dam  No.  10,  at  Steuben ville,  Ohio,  was  com- 
pleted November  4th,  and  locks  placed  in  oper- 
ation on  that  date. 

One  of  the  dam  failures  during  the  year  was 
the  Lyman  Dam,  an  earth  dike  across  the  main 
channel  of  the  Little  Colorado  River,  about  12 
miles  south  of  St.  Johns,  Ariz.  This  dike  was 
450  feet  long  on  the  bottom,  and  65  feet  on  the 
crest,  65  feet  high,  with  a  12'foot  crest,  and  a 
slope  of  2.1  on  both  sides,  and  contained  200,- 
000  cubic  feet  of  material.  The  reservoir  which 
it  formed  had  a  capacity  of  about  40,000  acre 
feet,  being  the  next  in  size  in  Arizona  to  the 
Roosevelt  reservoir.  The  dam  failed  on  April 
14th,  and  the  reason  assigned  for  this  was  that  a 
portion  of  the  dike  across  the  channel  below  the 
outlet  conduit  did  not  have  an  opportunity  to 
dry  out  properly  and  therefore  was  materially 
weak. 

As  in  other  States,  Pennsylvania  requires  the 
consent  or  permission  of  the  Water  Supply  Com- 
mission previous  to  the  construction  or  change 
of  any  dam  for  power  or  other  water  obstruction, 
and  during  1915  rules  of  inspection  were  issued 
by  the  commission  to  aid  its  engineering  depart- 
ment and  for  the  guidance  of  those  intending  to 
construct  dams.  With  each  application  plans 
and  specifications  were  required,  including  a  lo- 
cation plan  or  map,  a  general  plan  of  the  dam 
and  reservoir,  a  longitudinal  section,  typical 
cross  section,  detailed  plans  of  the  spillway,  and 
other  works,  diagrams  of  forces,  and  their 
stresses  acting  on  the  structure.  In  Colorado 
also  there  is  State  supervision  of  reservoirs,  and 
detailed  regulations  and  specifications  are  pro- 
vided for  construction.  While  in  Colorado  there 
have  been  a  number  of  failures  of  reservoir  dams, 
it  has  been  found  that  in  practically  every  case 
there  has  been  inadequate  investigation  of  the 
foundation  of  the  dam  and  of  the  materials 
used  in  it. 

DANBUBY   HATTEBS'    CASE.    See   BoT- 

OOTT. 

DANISH  LITEBATT7BE.  See  Scandina- 
vian LiTERATUBE. 

DANISH  WEST  INDIES.  Three  West  In- 
dian islands  (Saint  Croix,  84  square  miles,  15,- 
467  inhabitants  in  1911;  Saint  Thomas,  33  and 
10,678;  Saint  John,  21  and  941),  which  compose 
a  colony  of  Denmark.  Negroes  form  the  ma- 
jority of  the  population,  and  the  cultivation  of 
sugar-cane  is  the  chief  industry.  The  sugar  ex- 
port from  Saint  Croix  in  1911-12  was  10,023 
metric  tons;  in  1912-13,  6063;  in  1913-14,  5825. 
In  1913-14,  the  export  of  rum  from  Saint  Croix 
was  86,957  gallons;  cotton,  161,539  kilo- 
grams; cotton  seed,  277,144  kilograms.    Gover- 


nor,   L.    C.    Helweg-Larsen ;    govamment    seat, 
Charlotte  Amalie  (Saint  Thomas) . 

DABTMOXJTH  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1769  at  Han- 
over, N.  H.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1470.  The 
faculty  numbered  142,  which  includes  also  offi- 
cers of  administration.  During  the  year  Prof. 
James  L.  McConaughy  was  appointed  head  of 
the  department  of  education  and  director  of  the 
summer  session;  Dr.  Philip  Greeley  Class,  di- 
rector of  music;  Henry  T.  Moore,  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  psychology,  in  place  of  Walter  Van 
Dyke  Bingham ;  Herbert  E.  Cushman,  lecturer  in 
philosophy.  No  notable  benefactions  were  re- 
ceived during  1915.  The  productive  funds  at  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $3,861,717, 
and  the  income  to  $392,768.  The  library  con- 
tained 135,000  volumes. 

DEATH  BATE.    See  Vital  Statistics. 

DEFECTIVES.    See  Chabities,  passim, 

DE  OOTJBMONTy  R£my.  See  French  Litee- 
A  TUBE,  Literary  Events. 

DEGREE,  Ph.D.  in  Gebman  Univebsities. 
See  Philology,  Modebn. 

DELAFIELD,  Fbancis.  American  physician, 
died  July  17,  1915.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1844,  and  graduated  from  Illinois  Col- 
lege in  1860.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  received  the 
degree  in  1872.  After  post  graduate  work  in 
London,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  he  began  practice  in 
New  York  City.  His  investigation  of  the  prob- 
lems  of  medicine  soon  gave  him  a  recognized 
place  among  the  original  workers  of  the  day, 
particularly  as  a  pathologist.  He  was  appointed 
surgeon  at  the  New  York  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary, 
and  pathologist  to  the  Roosevelt  Hospital  in  the 
same  year.  In  1871  he  joined  the  staff  of  Belle- 
vue  Hospital,  and  a  year  later  became  adjunct 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons.  Two  years  later  he  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  medicine.  From  1901  until  his  death  he  was 
professor  emeritus.  He  was  the  first  president 
of  the  Association  of  American  Physicians. 
While  professor  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  he  founded  and  himself  supported  for 
some  time  the  first  pathological  laboratory  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  called  to  Buffalo  in 
consultation  after  the  shooting  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley.  He  received  degrees  of  LL.D.  from  Illi- 
nois and  Columbia  universities.  His  writings 
include:  Hand  Book  of  Post  Mortem  Examina- 
tions and  Morbid  Anatomy;  Manual  of  Physical  ' 
Diagnosis;  Diseases  of  the  Kidneys;  and  Hand- 
hook  of  Pathological  Anatomy  and  Histology 
(with  Dr.  T.  M.  Pruden). 

DELAND,  Mabgabet.  See  Litebatube,  Eng- 
lish AND  Amebican,  Fiction. 

DELANY,  John  Joseph.  American  jurist, 
died  July  14,  1915.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1861,  and  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  in  that  city.  In  1888  he 
graduated  from  the  Columbia  Law  School.  Ap- 
pointed assistant  corporation  of  council  of  New 
York  City  in  the  following  year,  in  1904  he  be- 
came corporation  counsel.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  in  1910. 
Delany  was  prominent  in  important  municipal 
litigation,  including  the  fight  for  eighty-cent 
gas. 

DELAWABE.  Population.  The  population 
of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was,  according  to 


Digitized  by 


Google 


DAMS 


ARROWROCK  DAM 
Boise,  Idaho.     Dedicated  October  4,  1915 


ELEPHANT  BUTTE  DAM 
Rio  Grande  Project.  New  Mexico 


TWO  NOTABLE  DAMS  OF  THE  U.  S.  RECLAMATION  SERV!C|tized  by  GOOQlC 


Digitized  by 


Google 


DEULWABB 


176 


DENKABK 


an  estiinate  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
CensuB,  211,598. 

AoBicuLTUBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  prineipid  erope,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 

Acreage  Prod.  Bu,  Value 

Corn     1016  210.000  6,616,000  94.101.000 

1014  197,000  7.092,000  4,897,000 

Wheat     1915  126.000  1.875,000  2,044,000 

1014  114.000  2,887,000  2,647.000 

Oatt    1915  4.000  184.000  68,000 

1914  4,000  108.000  64.000 

Rye 1916  1.000  16.000  16.000 

1914  1.000  18.000  17,000 

Potatoee    1916  11.000  1,046,000  784,000 

1914  11,000  880,000  616,000 

Hay     1916  70.000  a  84.000  1.428.000 

1914  72,000  79,000  1,848,000 

a  Tone. 

Tkanspobtation.  The  railway  mileage  of  the 
State  in  1914  was  about  335.  No  construction 
has  been  undertaken  in  recent  years. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  is 
about  50,000,  with  an  enrollment  of  about  30,- 
000,  and  an  average  daily  attendance  of  23,000. 
There  are  1000  teachers  employed,  of  whom 
about  860  are  women. 

Finance.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
State  Treasurer  for  1914,  the  total  receipts  for 
that  year  amounted  to  $085,273,  and  the  dis- 
bursements to  $716,653.  There  was  a  balance 
on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $45,797, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $14,418. 

Chabities  and  GoRBEonoNS.  The  State  has 
no  board  of  superTision  over  the  charitable  and 
correctional  institutions.  The  Associated  Chari- 
ties of  Wilmington  has  a  director  in  direct  su- 
pervision over  many  philanthropic  institutions. 
These  include  the  Home  for  Friendless  Children, 
The  Home  for  Aged  Women,  St.  Joseph's  School 
for  Orphan  Colored  Boys,  the  Florence  Critten- 
ton  Home,  Delaware  Industrial  School  for  Girls, 
Home  of  Merciful  Rest,  and  the  Layton  Home 
for  Colored  Persons — all  at  Wilmington.  There 
are,  in  addition,  several  institutions  at  Dover 
and  Marshalltown,  the  Delaware  Hospital  for 
the  Insane  at  Farnhurst,  and  Newcastle  County 
Hospital.  The  Delaware  State  Tuberculosis 
Commission  has  general  charge  of  the  work  for 
the  prevention  and  cure  of  this  disease. 

Politics  and  Government.  There  was  little 
of  political  interest  in  the  State  in  1914.  The 
Le^slature  met,  but  the  laws  enacted  were 
merely  local  in  their  significance.  The  most  in- 
teresting feature  of  the  State's  economic  history 
resulted  from  the  operation  of  the  munitions 
plants  at  Wilmington  and  other  cities.  Some 
of  the  largest  powder  and  munition  factories  in 
the  country  are  located  in  Delaware.  The  large 
number  of  war  orders  received  resulted  in  the 
employment  of  large  numbers  of  men,  and  the 
State  received  a  large  amount  of  money.  For 
comments  on  explosions  occurring  in  munition 
factories  during  the  year  1915,  see  United 
States  and  the  War. 

State  Officers.  Governor,  Charles  R.  Mil- 
ler; Lieutenant-Governor,  Colen  Ferguson;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  George  H.  Hall;  Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Josiah  L.  Wolcott;  State  Treasurer,  Wil- 
liam J.  Swain;  Auditor  of  Accounts,  John  W. 
Luff;  Commissioner  of  Insurance  and  Banking, 
William  M.  McCabe. 

Supreme  Court.    Chancellor,  Charles  M.  Cur- 


tis; Chief  Justice,  James  Pennewill;  Associate 
Judge-at-large,  Thomas  B.  Heisel;  Associate 
Judges,  Herbert  L.  Rice,  William  H.  Boyoe, 
Henry  0.  Conrad. 

State  Legislature: 


RepubUeans 
Dcmoerato  . . 


SenaU 
9 
8 


Houee 
10 
16 


JoifU  BaUot 
28 
24 


RepnbUean  majority. . 


DEIXIASSE'SBESiaNATION.  See  France, 
HUtorpt  section  so  entitled. 

DENMABX.  A  constitutional  European 
monarchy  situated  north  of  Germany,  between 
the  North  and  Baltic  seas.  Copenhagen  is  the 
capital. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  and  popula- 
tion by  insular  and  mainland  divisions,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  taken  Feb.  1,  1911,  compared 
with  the  figures  for  population  in  1906,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Islands:                               Sq.in.  Pop.  1906 

Seeland     2,896  1,026,119 

Bornhohn    227  41,081 

LollandFalster    692  108,029 

Fyn     1,841  289,046 

Jatland : 

Southeast  Jutland   . . .   2.827  452,445 

Southwest  Jatland  . . .    4.144  888.224 

North  Jatland   2,920  884,005 

Totol  Denmark  proper.  .15,046  2,588,919 

Faroe  Islands    640  16.848 

Total 15,586  2,605,267 


Pop,  1911 

1,096,897 

42.885 

115,658 

808,179 


482,264 
864,620 
851,578 

2.757,076 
18.000 

2,775,076 


The  population  of  Denmark  proper  increased 
from  929,001  in  1801,  to  1,969,039  in  1886,  and 
2,449,540  in  1901.  Males  (1911),  1,337,900;  fe- 
males, 1,419,176  (1,267,765  and  1,331,154  in 
1906).  The  rural  population  in  1911  numbered 
1,647,360,  as  compared  with  1,665,585,  an  in- 
crease of  81,765;  the  urban,  1,109,726,  as  com- 
pared with  1,023,334,  a  gain  of  86,392.  Copen- 
hagen (K5benhavn),  covering  28  square  miles, 
had  (1911)  462,161  inhabitants;  Frederiksberff, 
97,237;  Aarhus,  61,755;  Odense,  42,237;  Aal- 
borg,  33,449;  Horsens,  23,843;  Randers,  22,970; 
Esbjerg,  18,208;  Vejle,  17,261;  Fredericia,  14,- 
228;  Kolding,  14,219;  Hdsingttr,  13,783;  Svend- 
borg,  12,667;  NykSbing,  11,010;  Viborg,  10,- 
885;  Slagelse,  10,463. 

Marriages  in  1913  numbered  '20,460  (20,533 
in  1912);  living  births  were  72,465  (74,651); 
still  births,  1734  (1754);  and  deaths  35,378 
(36,481). 

Production.  Agriculture  and  dairying  are 
the  principal  industries.  About  80  per  cent  of 
the  total  area  is'  productive;  less  than  one-half 
the  productive  area  is  under  crop,  the  remainder 
being  forest,  pasture,  and  meadow.  The  tables 
below  give  area  (in  hectares)  and  production 
(in  quintals)  of  main  crops,  with  yield  per  hec- 
Ure  in  1913: 


Hectaree 


1919 

Wheat    40.612 

Rye    276,009 

Barley     283.714 

Oata     402,989 

Beeto  *     80.800 

PoUtoea     61,141 


1918 

1914 

54.044 

245,786 

241.409 

428.887 

82.870 

61,141 

54,044 

245.786 

241.409 

428.887 

80.900 

61,141 

Digitized  by 

Go( 

le 


DENXABX 

QidntaU 


176 


DENMABK 


19ia             191S             1914  ha. 

WbMt     1.018,777  1,822,078  1.279,178  88.7 

Rye     4.670,178  4.819,518  4,788,294  17.8 

Barley     5.676,098  5.956,184  4,974,452  24.7 

Oats     7,647,923  8,290,168  6,729,225  19.4 

Beets  *     8.085.279  9.800.077  6,018.861  287.8 

Potatoes     .  .  .    8.265,000  10,697,878  9.456,627  175.0 

*  Sugar  beets. 

Creameries  in  operation  in  1911,  681,  with 
104,667  work  people;  the  milk  employed  was 
from  606,208  cows,  with  an  average  production 
of  2670  kilos  of  milk  per  cow.  'fiie  live  stock 
censuses  of  July  16,  1009,  and  July  16,  1914, 
returned  536,018  horses  and  668,240,  respec- 
tively; cattle,  2,263,982  and  2,462,862  (of  which, 
cows  1,281,674  and  1,310,268);  sheep,  726,879 
and  614,918;  swine,  1,467,822  and  2,496,661; 
goats,  40,267  and  40,670;  fowls,  11,816,783  and 
16,163,999. 

Margarine  factories  (1912),  26,  with  total 
output  of  39,620  metric  tons;  beet-sugar  mills,  9, 
with  total  output  of  134,670  metric  tons.  Fish- 
eries products  (1911)  were  valued  at  16,230,200 
kroner. 

GoMMEBCE,  ETC.  The  general  and  special 
trade  is  shown  below  in  kroner: 

1910  1919  1918 

Imports : 

General    ..   684,407,000  817,512,000  855.851.000 

Special   ...    577,166,000  740,016,000  777,424,000 

Exports : 

General    .  .    548,074.000     682,082,000     721.290.000 
Special   . .  .    485,874,000     596,728,000     687,860.000 

Principal  exports  (1913,  special  trade),  values 
in  thousands  of  kroner:  Provisions,  eggs,  etc., 
469,418;  animals,  68,726;  beverages,  1819;  ce- 
reals, etc.,  13,370;  metals  and  hardware,  8068; 
colonial  goods,  9306;  wood  and  wooden-wares, 
1722;   textile  manufactures,  1074. 

Principal  coimtries  of  origin  and  destination, 
general  trade,  values  in  thousands  of  kroner: 


Imports 

1919  1918 

Germany     814,286  828,808 

United  Kingdom    .  .  .  185,887  184,562 

Sweden 69,060  71,104 

Norway    9,166  8.755 

United  SUtes 69,854  86,979 

Russia 56,179  59,411 

France    19.406  20,985 

Netherlands     20,868  21,208 

Belgium    9,902  10,276 


Vessels  entered  in  the  1913  trade,  41,071,  of 
4,616,800  tons;  cleared,  42,042,  of  1,637,067. 
Merchant  marine  (Jan.  1,  1914),  4386  vessels,  of 
666,727  tons. 

Bailways  in  operation  at  end  of  1918,  2390 
miles  ( 1243  State  owned) ;  State  telegraph  serv- 
ice (1914),  8373  miles;  telephone  wires,  342,622 
miles;  post  offices,  1171. 

Navt.  The  fleet,  maintained  for  purposes  of 
coast  defense,  is  composed  of  3  monitors  carry- 
ing, each,  two  9.4-inch  and  four  6-inch  guns,  and 
1  carrjring  one  9.4  and  three  4.7;  3  torpedo  gun- 
boats; 14  flrst-dass  torpedo  boats;  6  subma- 
rines; besides  an  old  battleship,  a  cruiser,  and 
some  small  craft.  Building:  a  coast-defense  ves- 
sel and  several  submarines. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  the  financial  year 
1914-16  estimated  the  revenue  at  132,626,240 
kroner   (taxes  and  duties,  83,686,400),  and  the 


1919 

1918 

181.646 

178,694 

878.104 

410,418 

88,852 

84,088 

18,541 

19,800 

9.489 

7.858 

16,847 

19.275 

8,802 

8.842 

5.270 

4,128 

1,726 

8.052 

expenditure  at  129,696,706  (war,  17,369,616; 
worship  and  instruction,  16,383,889;  interior, 
19,067,212;  marine,  10,001,636;  debt,  12.370,- 
401;  justice,  10,276,167;  finance,  10,076,647). 
The  debt  stood  (March  31,  1914)  at  368,962,084 
kroner. 

Government.  The  King  is  the  executive,  as- 
sisted by  a  ministry  of  eight  members,  appointed 
by  him  and  responsible  to  the  Parliament,  or 
Rigsdag.  This  body  consists  of  an  upper  house 
of  66  and  a  lower  of  1 14  members.  Justice  is  ad- 
ministered by  judges  of  the  Hundreds  and  by  city 
magistrates,  from  whose  courts  appeals  are  taken 
to  the  superior  courts  at  Viborg  and  Copenhagen. 
There  is  also  a  supreme  court  of  last  recourse  of 
24  judges  at  Copenhagen.  In  case  of  impeach- 
ment of  ministers  the  Upper  House  appoints  4 
judges  to  sit  with  the  Supreme  Court  as  a  joint 
tribunal.  Reigning  sovereign.  Christian  Charles 
Frederick  Albert  Alexander  William,  bom  Sept. 
26,  1870;  married  April  26,  1898,  to  Alexandrine, 
Duchess  of  Mecklenburg  (born  Dec.  24.  1879) ; 
proclaimed  king  (Christian  X)  May  16,  1912, 
upon  the  death  (May  14)  of  his  father,  King 
Frederick  VTII.  Heir-apparent,  Prince  Christian 
Frederick  Francis  Michael  (born  March  11,  1899). 

History 

Constitutional  Reforms.  The  democratic 
constitutional  amendments  which  had  been  de- 
feated by  the  Landsthing  in  1914  (consult 
Year  Book,  1914,  Denmark)  were  again  pro- 
posed by  the  Folkething  in  the  spring  of  1916, 
and  since  changes  in  the  membership  of  the 
Landsthing  had  in  the  interim  created  a  fa- 
vorable majority,  the  amendments  were  now 
finally  passed  and  received  the  King's  assent, 
June  6,  1916.  Under  the  amended  constitution, 
the  property  qualification  which  had  previously 
excluded  the  poorer  classes  from  voting  for  the 
members  of  the  Landsthing  was  abolished;  the 
twelve  members  hitherto  appointed  by  the  Crown 
were  henceforth  to  be  elected;  and  full  political 
status,  implying  both  the  right  to  vote  in  par- 
liamentary elections  and  the  privilege  of  eligi- 
bility to  sit  in  the  Folkething,  were  conferred 
upon  the  women  of  Denmark.  A  fortnight  later 
another  important  constitutional  amendment, 
enfranchising  the  women  of  Iceland,  received  the 
royal  signature.  Shortly  after  the  passing  of 
these  constitutional  reforms,  particularly  vio- 
lent attacks  upon  the  Radical  government  began 
to  appear  in  the  Conservative  press  of  Denmark, 
coupied  with  insistent  demands  for  the  creation 
of  a  coalition  cabinet.  In  reply  to  its  critics, 
the  government  called  a  conference  of  all  parties, 
and  invited  the  Opposition  to  state  its  griev- 
ances. As  the  criticism  of  the  government's  in- 
terpretation of  the  duties  of  neutrality  in  the 
war  had  been  especially  keen,  it  was  expected 
and  freely  predicted  that  the  neutrality  issue 
would  cause  the  overthrow  of  M.  Zahle's  Radical 
cabinet.  By  meeting  frankly  his  antagonists  in 
conference,  however,  M.  Zahle  was  able  to  disarm 
his  critics,  and  maintained  himself  in  office. 
Consequently  the  Conservatives  were  unable  to 
erase  the  constitutional  amendments  from  the 
statute  book,  and  Premier  Zahle  could  confi- 
dently announce,  October  26th,  that  the  forth- 
coming elections  in  the  summer  of  1916  would  be 
conducted  imder  the  new  electoral  laws. 

Effect  of  the  War  upon  Denmark.  Rumors 
that    foodstuffs    and    contraband    commodities 


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were  being  imported  into  Germany  by  way  of 
Denmark  received  wide  credence  and  evoked  caus- 
tic criticism  of  Danish  neutrality  in  the  British 
press.  Trade  statistics,  showing  that  Den- 
mark's imports  from  the  United  States  had  sud- 
denly increased  from  $600,000  in  1913,  to  $7,- 
000,000  in  1914,  were  adduced  as  evidence  that 
Denmark  was  serving  simply  as  a  channel  for 
German  imports.  In  answer  to  this  insinuation, 
the  Danish  foreign  minister,  M.  Scavenius,  on 
January  11th  explained  that  before  the  war  a 
large  part  of  Denmark's  imports  had  come 
through  Germany,  whereas  now  they  were  being 
obtained  direct.  Owing  to  the  delays  and  un- 
certainties of  commerce  during  war-time,  more- 
over, prudent  traders  naturally  desired  to  main- 
tain a  surplus  store  of  imported  merchandise, 
and  ordered  larger  quantities  than  were  actually 
required  for  current  consumption.  In  March, 
Denmark,  in  concert  with  the  other  Scandina- 
vian States,  made  representations  to  Great 
Britain,  protesting  against  the  latter's  policy  of 
interfering  with  neutral  shipping,  as  enunciated 
by  the  British  Order  in  Council  of  March  15th. 
On  May  26th  the  Danish  steamer  Betty  was 
simk  by  a  German  submarine.  In  response  to 
Danish  remonstrances,  Germany  agreed,  August 
23rd,  to  pay  damages  for  the  loss  of  the  steamer. 
Denmark  was  also  forced  to  lodge  a  protest  with 
the  German  government  with  regard  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  British  submarine  E-IS,  which 
had  run  aground  on  the  Danish  island  of  Salt- 
holm.  (For  further  information  concerning  na- 
val events  and  commercial  warfare  in  S<»indi- 
navian  waters,  consult  the  article,  Wab  of  the 
Nations.  ) 

The  Scandinavian  Interpabliamentabt  Un- 
ion. In  September,  representatives  from  the 
three  Scandinavian  countries,  Denmark,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  met  in  the  Northern  Interparlia- 
mentary Union  Congress  at  Copenhagen.  Espe- 
cially interesting  was  the  speech  of  former  Fi- 
nance Minister  Neergard,  chairman  of  the, Dan- 
ish War  Insurance  Institute,  reviewing  the  effect 
of  the  war  upon  Denmark's  economic  life.  "There 
is  no  more  vital  issue  during  the  war,"  said  M. 
Neergard,  ''than  the  security  of  neutral  ship- 
ping." Especially  for  the  Scandinavian  peoples 
he  held  this  to  be  true.  The  planting  of  mines 
in  the  path  of  neutral  commerce  had  heea  one  of 
the  most  injurious  practices  of  tiie  belligerents. 
"At  the  sUrt  [of  the  war]  the  North  Sea  be- 
came a  hotbed  for  mines,  and  it  was  only  after 
repeated  protests  that  such  routes  were  estab- 
lished as  brought  comparative  safety  to  traffic. 
In  most  instances  the  Danish  War  Insurance 
Company  has  been  compelled  to  make  these 
routes  obligatory,  no  matter  what  has  been  the 
inconvenience  to  ship-owners.  Likewise,  in  the 
Baltic  many  mines  have  been  planted,  and  the 
losses  on  this  score  to  date  amount  to  10  ships, 
valued  at  3,700,000  crowns."  The  fact  that  the 
mines  usually  defied  identification,  and  that 
damages  consequently  were  impossible  to  obtain, 
was  particularly  irritating.  Since  May  27th, 
however,  no  losses  had  been  occasioned  by  mines. 
A  new  question  had  since  arisen,  the  question  of 
contraband.  England,  M.  Neergard  admitted, 
observed  the  Declaration  of  London  in  regard  to 
contraband  more  strictly  than  Germany,  for  Ger- 
many considered  the  Declaration  void,  whereas 
"Great  Britain  is  strong  enough  to  secure  its 
prizes  in  a  more  conventional  manner."  In  the 
question  of  neutral  prizes,  "Germany  has  pro- 


ceeded in  the  most  unconcerned  manner  as  re- 
gards formerly  established  regulations.  It  is 
certainly  contrary  to  the  rights  of  nations  that 
Germany  should  destroy  neutral  ships."  M.  Mo- 
vinckel,  a  Norwegian  delegate  at  the  congress, 
gave  out  the  interesting  information  that  al- 
though at  first  Norway's  shipping  interests  had 
suffered  enormously — 100,000  crowns  a  day — and 
although  during  the  first  year  of  the  war  Nor- 
way had  lost  61  ships,  valued  at  18,000,000 
crowns,  either  by  mine  or  by  submarine,  never- 
theless, under  the  protection  of  a  government 
insurance  organization,  Norway's  merchant  ma- 
rine had  increased  in  value  within  the  past  year 
from  400,000,000  crowns  to  600,000,000  crowns. 
A  delegate  from  Sweden  made  a  similar  state- 
ment for  his  country:  that  Swedish  shipping 
had  been  paralyzed  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
but  that  since  the  policy  of  State  insurance  had 
been  adopted,  the  prosperity  of  Swedish  ship- 
ping had  in  large  measure  returned.  Before 
disbanding,  the  Congress  of  the  Interparliamen- 
tary Union  passed  a  resolution  in  favor  of  main- 
taining the  policy  of  neutrality  and  of  close  co- 
operation among  the  three  Scandinavian  States. 
The  Scandinavian  Peace  Congbess  at  Co- 
penhagen. In  September,  a  Peace  Congress 
representing  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  was 
held  in  Copenhagen.  Many  helpful  suggestions 
were  made  for  methods  of  promoting  the  cause  of 
peace.  Historians  should  treat  of  peaceful  prog- 
ress rather  than  of  battles  and  treaties.  A  uni- 
versal language  would  be  a  great  step  forward 
in  the  direction  of  international  solidarity. 
"Children  should  not  be  allowed  to  play  with 
tin  soldiers."  "In  the  universities  the  seed  of 
peace  should  be  firmly  implanted  in  the  mind 
of  youth,"  said  another  delegate.  The  resolu- 
tions finally  adopted  by  the  Congress  were 
chiefly  directed  •  against  compulsory  military 
service,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  only  likely 
to  lead  to  war,  but  also  infringed  the  rights  of 
individuals.  See  Intebnational  Peace  and 
Abbitbation. 

DENTAL  SCHOOLS.  See  Univebsities  and 
Colleges. 

DEPABTMEKT  STORES.  See  Abchiteg- 
tubk. 

DE  PATTW  XJNIVEBSITY.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1837,  at  Green- 
castle,  Ind.  The  total  attendance  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  883.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  40.  There  were  27,725  volumes 
in  the  library.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  membership  of  the  faculty,  and  no  note- 
worthy benefactions  were  received.  The  presi- 
dent is  George  R.  Grose,  A.M.,  D.D. 

BEENBITBO,  Db.  Bebnhabd.  See  United 
States  and  the  Wab. 

DESCLAXJX  O&AFT  case.  See  Fbance, 
HUtory,  section  so  entitled. 

DLABETES.  Fasting  and  a  low  diet  have 
long  been  known  to  benefit  sufferers  from  dia- 
betes mellitus,  but  a  new  method  advocated  by 
Allen,  of  the  Rockefeller  Institute,  puts  the 
treatment  on  a  more  scientific  basis  than  it  has 
hitherto  possessed  and  makes  the  method  almost 
specific  in  uncomplicated  cases.  The  object  of 
treatment  is  to  produce  a  sugar-free  and  acid- 
free  urine.  Experiments  show  that  this  object 
may  be  attained  by  an  initial  fast  of  from  8  to 
10  days.  Hitherto  a  rapid  loss  of  body  weight 
has  been  considered  a  dangerous  risk  in  the  fast- 
ing treatment,  but  this  fear  is  shown  to  have 


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little  basis.  After  the  excretion  of  sugar  has 
been  stopped  and  the  acidosis  controlled,  a  suit- 
able diet  is  advised;  but  instead  of  attempting 
to  increase  the  weight,  the  aim  is  now  to  keep 
the  weight  low  in  the  belief  that  the  reduction 
is  beneficial.  Any  gain  in  weight  which  results 
in  a  return  of  glycosuria  is  harmful.  During 
the  fasting  period  alcohol  may  be  given  until  the 
ketonuria  disappears.  Even  weak  and  emaci- 
ated patients  are  said  to  bear  the  fasting  with- 
out imtoward  results.  Their  behavior  indicates 
that  they  are  suffering  from  a  kind  of  intoxica- 
tion,  rather  than  from  a  lack  of  nutrition. 

As  an  article  of  diet  for  diabetics,  the  soy 
bean  has  been  urged  as  a  nourishing  food.  It  is 
almost  free  from  starch,  and  at  the  same  time 
rich  in  protein  and  fat.  The  soy  bean  (Glycme 
hifffida)  is  an  annual  leguminous  plant,  grown 
extensively  in  Japan  and  China,  and  us^  for 
food  from  time  immemorial.  Over  200  varieties 
of  the  plant  are  known.  It  was  introduced  into 
the  United"  States  on  the  return  of  the  Perry 
expedition  from  Japan,  in  1853,  but  it  was 
known,  both  in  Europe  and  this  country,  before 
this  time,  as  a  botanic  curiosity.  Street  and 
Baily,  of  the  analytical  laboratory  of  the  Con- 
necticut Experiment  Station,  have  analyzed  sev- 
eral varieties  of  soy  bean  grown  on  the  station 
farm,  giving  the  following  average  percentages: 
water,  10;  ash,  5.64;  protein,  38.29;  fibre,  4.64; 
nitrogen-free  extract,  representing  the  total  car- 
bohydrates, 26.64;  and  fat,  14.89.  The  average 
percentages  of  commercial  soy  bean  flours  are: 
water,  5.1;  ash,  4.5;  protein,  42.5;  fibre,  3.7; 
nitrogen-free  extract,  24.3;  and  fat,  19.9.  The 
carbohydrates  consist  of  forms  not  considered 
dangerous  to  diabetics.  The  bean  is  just  begin- 
ning to  tcJce  a  place  as  a  farm  crop.  It  is  a 
palatable  vegetable,  but  is  not  in  general  use  as 
human  food,  being  employed  chiefly  as  a  forage 
plant,  for  ensilage  and  fertilizer.  See  C.  V. 
Piper,  and  T.  H.  Nuelsen,  "Soy  Bean"  {Farmers' 
Bulletin,  S72,  U.  8.  Dept.  Agriculture^  1909) -, 
and  Carleton  R.  Ball,  "Soy  Bean  Varieties" 
{Bureau  of  Plant  Industry y  98,  U,  8.  Dept.  Ag- 
riculture, 1907), 

DIAMONDS.  6ee  Minebalogy,  section  so 
entitled. 

DIAZy  PoBFiBio.  President  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  from  1876  to  1880  and  from  1884  to 
1911,  died  at  Paris,  France,  July  2,  1915.  When 
he  flrst  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  revo- 
lutions and  brigandage  were  rampant,  ignorance, 
poverty,  and  corruption  everywhere  prevailed. 

Diaz  first  of  all  was  a  fighter.  The  revolu- 
tions he  crushed  with  an  iron  hand;  and  was 
successful  in  suppressing  brigandage  and  corrup- 
tion. Turning  his  attention  to  the  development 
of  the  vast  resources  of  his  country,  he  invited 
the  investment  of  foreign  capital,  at  the  same 
time  seeing  to  it  that  no  internal  disorder  and 
lawlessness  should  exist  to  frighten  away  the 
desired  investors. 

Industrial  establishments  of  every  type  sprang 
into  being,  giving  employment  to  thousands. 
The  banking  business  of  the  country  was  put 
on  a  firm  basis  for  the  first  time.  Vast  en- 
gineering works,  including  the  draining  of  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  the  construction  of  15,000 
miles  of  railroad,  and  the  building  of  many  res- 
'  ervoirs,  were  undertaken.  While  all  these  plans 
for  the  betterment  of  his  country  were  being 
carried  out  Diaz  also  found  time  to  swing  his 
energies  into  still  another  channel  of  perhaps 


greater  importance,  that  of  education.  He  es- 
tablished a  public  school  system  and  founded 
normal  schools,  manual  training  schools,  col- 
leges, and  professional  schools.  Nor  were 
women  overlooked  in  Diaz's  educational  schemes, 
and  the  first  of  his  ^rls'  institutions  of  learn- 
ing was  opened  at  his  native  town  of  Oaxaca. 

In  carrying  out  his  programme  of  reforms,  he 
was  frequently  accused  of  arbitrary  conduct. 
He  was,  in  fact,  an  absolute  dictator,  and  the 
history  of  Mexico  prior  and  subsequent  to  his 
regime  would  seem  to  indicate  that  only  a  man 
of  this  strong  type  could  hope  to  attain  similar 
success.  He  knew  his  people,  or  rather  mix- 
ture of  peoples,  and  appreciated  that  a  firm 
hand  was  needed  if  order  and  progress  were  to 
be  obtained. 

Diaz  was  born  in  Oaxaca  on  Sept.  15,  1830. 
His  father  was  a  Spaniard,  and  his  mother  the 
daughter  of  a  Spaniard  and  an  Indian  woman. 
The  death  of  the  father,  when  Porfirio  was  only 
three  years  old,  left  the  family  in  the  throes 
of  poverty.  Friends,  however,  came  to  the  res- 
cue and  young  Diaz  was  enabled  to  study  for 
the  priesthood.  As  he  grew  older,  the  idea  of 
a  church  career  lost  its  appeal  and  he  decided 
to  devote  himself  to  the  law.  In  taking  this 
step  he  followed  the  advice  of  Juarez,  who  was 
later  to  become  president  of  Mexico. 

When  war  broke  out  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States,  Diaz  declared  himself  a^inst 
the  rule  of  Santa  Anna  and  an  order  was  issued 
for  his  arrest.  He  took  refuge  in  the  moun- 
tains and  later  joined  a  band  of  Indian  revolu- 
tionists, of  which  he  became  commander.  At 
first  he  met  with  success  in  combat  with  the 
government  troops,  but  his  band  was  finally  dis- 
persed, and  he  remained  in  hiding  until  1855, 
when  General  Alvarez  overthrew  Santa  Anna. 

Diaz  was  made  sub-prefect  of  Ixtlan  by  Al- 
varez and  immediately  began  to  organize  the 
Indians  in  his  territory  into  an  army.  A  revo- 
lution was  started  in  November,  1855,  which 
forced  Alvarez  to  resign.  Gen.  Jos6  Maria  Gar- 
cia raised  an  arm^  which  he  led  against  Diaz, 
who  with  his  Indian  forces  won  a  signal  vic- 
tory and  induced  Garcia  to  abandon  his  plans. 
An  uprising  in  Tehuantepec  next  demanded  the 
attention  of  Diaz,  who  emerged  a  victor  but 
only  after  being  severely  wounded. 

The  revolution  was  eventually  quelled  and 
Juarez  succeeded  to  the  presidency.  Diaz  was 
appointed  a  lieutenant-colonel,  although  but  28 
years  old,  and  also  was  chosen  deputy  to  the 
national  Congress.  When  Napoleon  III  made 
his  attempt  to  found  an  empire  in  Mexico,  Diaz 
was  put  in  military  command  of  Jalapa,  which 
was  occupied  by  a  French  army.  He  won  much 
praise  for  his  skillful  conduct  of  the  campaign 
in  that  section  and  came  to  be  looked  upon  as 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  patriotic  of  the  Mex- 
ican generals. 

After  the  battle  of  Santa  Ines  he  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French,  but  escaped  and  joined 
President  Juarez  and  his  army  in  Northern 
Mexico,  being  placed  in  command  of  the  native 
troops,  whom  he  reorganized  effectively.  In 
1863  Diaz  was  made  a  general  of  division,  the 
highest  rank  in  the  Mexican  army.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  met  with  reverses  in  battle  and 
was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  French  General 
Bazaine.  Once  more  he  escaped  and  started  his 
third  campaign  against  the  invaders.  The  in- 
terference of  the  United  States  at  this  juncture 


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restored  peace  to  the  country,  Diaz  capturing 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  marching  into  the 
capital  in  1867. 

After  being  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
presidency  against  his  friend  Juarez,  Diaz  re- 
tired for  the  time  from  public  life.  In  1871  he 
organized  a  rebellion  against  the  govemment. 
During  the  fighting  his  brother,  Felix,  was  killed, 
and  Diaz  was  forced  to  fiee.  At  the  death  of 
Juarez  he  pledged  his  support  to  Lerdo  de 
Tejada,  but  in  1874  he  started  an  insurrection, 
^as  defeated  and  took  refuge  in  the  United 
States.  Two  years  later  he  returned  to  Mexico 
and,  raising  an  army,  triumphed  over  Lerdo  at 
Tocoac.  In  1877  he  became  president.  As  the 
constitution  provided  that  no  man  should  hold 
the  office  of  chief  executive  for  two  consecutive 
terms,  Diaz  was  succeeded  in  1880  by  his  dose 
personal  friend,  General  Gonzalez,  while  he  be- 
came governor  of  Oaxaca.  Diaz  was  unani- 
mously elected  president  in  1884  and,  changing 
the  constitution,  continued  in  office  term  after 
term  until  his  resignation  in  May,  1911. 

The  fall  of  Diaz  was  brought  about  by  the  re- 
bellion launched  bv  Francisco  I.  Madero,  one  of 
the  leading  capitalists  of  the  country,  and  rep- 
resenting the  large  and  constantly  growing 
number  of  Mexicans  who  felt  Diaz  was  fla- 
grantly abusing  his  power.  Diaz  left  Mexico 
soon  afterward  and  passed  his  remaining  days 
in  various  European  capitals,  death  coming  to 
him  in  Paris.  See  Mexico. 
DIET.  See  Pellagba. 
DIETETICS.  See  Food  and  NuTBrnoN. 
DIGESTIOy.  See  Food  and  Nutbttion. 
DIPHTHEBIA.  The  control  of  this  disease 
has  been  advanced  by  the  use  of  the  Schick  test, 
which  has  been  extensively  used  during  the  past 
year.  This  test  consists  in  injecting,  beneath 
the  superficial  layers  of  the  skin,  a  diluted  stand- 
ardized diphtheria  toxin  of  such  strength  that 
0.1  C.C.  contains  %o  ^^  ^®  minimum  lethal  dose 
for  a  guinea  pig  weighing  260  grams.  A  posi- 
tive reaction  is  characterized  by  a  steadily  in- 
creasing area  of  reddening  and  induration  about 
the  site  of  the  puncture,  reaching  its  maximum 
in  48  hours  and  lasting  for  about  a  week.  Such 
a  reaction  indicates  that  the  subject  is  suscepti- 
ble to  diphtheria,  i.e.  he  has  not  sufficient  anti- 
toxin in  his  blood  to  resist  an  invasion  of  diph- 
theria bacilli.  When  there  is  no  reaction,  the 
subject  is  immune  and  possesses  sufficient  anti- 
toxin in  his  blood  to  resist  contagion.  The  value 
of  the  Schick  test  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  now 
possible  to  discriminate  between  immune*  and 
non-inunune  persons,  especially  nurses,  children, 
and  others  who  may  be  exposed  to  diphtheria, 
thus  rendering  unnecessary  the  administration 
of  prophylactic  doses  of  antitoxin  in  those  found 
by  the  test  to  be  immune.  It  is  also  of  value  in 
detecting  "carriers"  who  are  always  non-suscept- 
ible and  give  a  negative  reaction;  yet  a  culture 
taken  from  them  will  usually  show  a  growth  of 
diphtheria  germs.  It  has  been  found  bv  Kolmer 
and  Moshage  that  40  to  50  per  cent  oi  children 
under  16  years  of  age  react  positively;  also  that 
immunity  conferred  by  an  injection  of  antitoxin 
begins  to  disappear  in  10  days  and  is  lost  en- 
tirely in  about  four  weeks;  also  that  scarlet 
fever  patients  are  especially  susceptible  to  diph- 
theria. The  immunity  conferred  by  an  attack 
of  diphtheria  is  of  short  duration  or  it  may  be 
entirely  absent.  The  New  York  Health  Depart- 
ment encourages  the  general  use  of  the  Schick 


test  and  supplies  an  outfit  to  physicians  for  its 
applieatioiL 

DIRIGIBLE  BALLOONS.  See  A£bonau- 
TIC8;  and  MiLITABT  Pboobess. 

DISABTEE  AT  SEA.    See  Safety  at  Sea. 

DISCnPLES  OF  CHEIST.  The  total  mem- 
bership in  this  religious  body  in  1914  was  2,- 
283,003.  There  were  17,236  churches,  and  14,- 
184  ministers.  The  sect  has  two  bodies:  The 
Disciples  of  Christ  proper,  with  1,363,163  com- 
municants, 8494  churches,  6161  ministers;  and 
the  Church  of  Christ,  with  about  167,000  com- 
municants, 2700  churches,  and  2100  ministers. 
The  churches  lie  chiefly  in  the  Middle  West  and 
in  the  South,  though  the  denomination  is  repre- 
sented in  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union. 
Churches  are  also  found  in  Australia,  and  other 
provinces  of  Great  Britain,  in  Cuba,  Scandinavia, 
and  the  Philippines.  The  denomination  controls 
26  institutes  of  learning.  Missionary  work  is 
carried  on  in  several  countries.  The  income  of 
the  missionary  societies  in  1914  was  $1,506,716. 
Of  the  general  convention,  which  met  in  October, 
1916,  Dr.  F.  W.  Richardson,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
is  president,  and  Rev.  Robert  G.  Frank,  Liberty, 
Mo.,  is  secretary. 

DISEASE  JLNJ}  FOOD.    See  Food  and  Ku- 

TBITION. 

DISEASE  CAEBIEBS.  See  Insects,  Pbopa- 
OATioN  OF  Disease  bt. 

DISEASES,  OccuPATiONAi..  See  Labob  Leg- 
islation; and  Occupational  Diseases. 

DIVING.  In  the  raising  of  the  United  States 
submarine  F'4,  which  sank  in  the  harbor  of 
Honolulu,  Hawaii,  March  29,  1915,  the  United 
States  made  use  of  experiment  and  training  in 
deep  water  diving  which  had  been  carried  on 
for  two  years  previously.  These  experiments 
carried  much  further  some  that  were  undertaken 
by  the  British  government  in  1906  and  1907, 
where  divers  had  been  able  to  go  down  to  a 
deptii  of  200  feet  in  safety,  the  best  results  be- 
ing secured  by  bringing  the  diver  up  by  stages, 
allowing  a  period  of  from  16  to  30  minutes  at 
eadi  stop  for  him  to  become  used  to  the  altered 
pressure.  In  other  words,  the  trouble  was  due 
to  the  improper  decompression,  and  the  blood 
which  had  taken  up  nitrogoi  from  the  air  did 
not  have  opportunity  to  eliminate  it.  In  the 
American  navy  the  greatest  depth  previously  at- 
tained was  100  feet»  and  accordingly  it  was  de- 
cided to  undertake  a  series  of  tests  in  a  tank 
where  conditions  equivalent  to  a  depth  up  to  215 
feet  could  be  reproduced.  These  experiments 
were  begun  in  February,  1914,  and  continued  for 
a  number  of  months,  checking  the  English  de- 
compression table  and  accustoming  the  divers 
under  training  to  deep  water  work,  and  also 
testing  the  various  features  of  the  equipment, 
sudi  as  suits,  helmets,  and  other  gear,  as  well 
as  modern  self-contained  diving  apparatus 
equipped  with  chemical  and  oxygen  cylinders. 
M  a  result  of  this  work  an  improved  method  of 
feeding  air  to  the  divers  from  compressed-air 
cylinders  instead  of  by  hand  pumps  was  adopted, 
properly  devised  valves,  air  washers,  and  other 
devices  regulating  the  supply  of  air.  A  diver's 
telephone  was  also  devised  so  that  conversation 
was  possible  at  any  time,  where  formerly  the 
diver  depended  on  signals  by  line.  This  work, 
which  was  mainly  under  the  charge  of  Chief 
Gunner  George  D.  Stillson,  United  States  navy, 
was  supplemented  by  actual  tests  in  deep  water, 
the  torpedo  boat  destroyer  Walke  being  equipped 


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DOCKS  AND  HABBOBS 


with  diving  apparatus,  including  a  recompres- 
sion tank  for  the  treatment  of  divers  atfect^  by 
the  bends.  During  these  practical  tests,  Chief 
Gunner's  Mate  Drellishak  made  a  world's  record 
at  274  feet,  remaining  under  water  long  enough 
to  work.  Immediately  upon  receipt  of  the  news 
of  the  disaster  to  the  submarine  F  4,  Chief  Gun- 
ner Stillson  and  five  assistants,  accompanied  by 
a  naval  surgeon,  were  hurried  to  Honolulu,  and 
the  submarine  was  found  covered  by  about  275 
feet  of  water.  The  divers  were  able  to  attach 
lines  to  the  vessel,  and  the  greatest  depth  at- 
tained by  any  diver,  288  feet,  a  world's  record, 
was  made 

DOCKS  AND  HABBOBS.  United  States. 
ffeto  London.  The  State  of  Connecticut  during 
the  year  1915  was  engaged  in  the  construction 
of  a  1000-foot  pier,  200  feet  wide,  at  New  Lon- 
don, at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  The  design 
adopted  under  the  appropriation  made  b^  the 
State  Legislature  in  1911  called  for  a  fill  inside 
of  masonry  bulkheads,  with  outside  deck  made 
up  of  pre- cast  concrete  slabs  resting  on  creo- 
soted  timber  piles.  This  new  pier,  made  for  a 
steamship  terminal,  was  designed  for  a  commer- 
cial life  of  25  years,  this  time  being  selected,  as 
it  was  thought  that  in  the  interval  changes  in 
transportation  would  render  of  doubtful  utility 
any  more  permanent  construction. 

New  Orleans  Improvement.  During  the  year 
work  was  begun  on  an  important  port  improve- 
ment in  New  Orleans,  whereby  a  large  wharf,  six 
large  re^forced  concrete  cotton  warehouses,  and 
a  railway  terminal  covering  approximately  100 
acres  of  ground,  and  costing  $3,500,000,  were  put 
under  way.  The  terminal  wharves,  located  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  were  to  be  two-story  struc- 
tures of  reinforced  concrete,  2000  feet  in  length, 
and  180  feet  wide,  built  on  pine  piles  placed  20 
feet  on  centres  each  way.  On  these  piles  re- 
enforced  concrete  columns  were  to  be  carried  up 
to  the  first  floor  of  the  wharf,  the  two  stories  of 
the  superstructure  being  16  feet  8  inches,  and 
15  feet  8  inches,  respectively.  The  wharf  and 
general  terminal  were  to  be  provided  with  con- 
veyor apparatus  for  handling  cargoes  and  a  com- 
plete system  of  railway  tracks. 

New  York  Docks  and  Piers.  The  construction 
of  the  water  terminal  to  be  connected  with  the 
New  Haven,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York  Cen- 
tral railroads  at  Hunt's  Point,  in  the  Borough 
of  the  Bronx,  was  in  active  progress  during  £e 
year.  This  project  involved  the  construction 
and  filling  in  behind  a  3600-foot  bulkhead  to  re- 
claim 200  acres  of  ground,  and  required  heavy 
pile  driving,  dredging,  the  placing  of  400,000 
tons  of  riprap,  and  extensive  filling  with  other 
materials,  not  to  mention  suction  dredge  work- 
ing. As  much  of  the  work  had  to  be  done  in 
originally  soft  mud  and  varying  types  of  bot- 
tom, practically  every  form  of  construction  was 
involved,  and  a  large  amount  of  stone  from 
Bronx  subway  cuts  was  employed  in  the  filling. 
Work  was  in  progress  during  the  year  on  a  new 
South  Brooklyn  pier  at  35Si  Street,  1740  feet 
in  length,  175  feet  wide,  this  being  the  longest 
pier  yet  built  in  New  York  Harbor.  This  pier 
has  a  railway  track  on  either  side  so  that  there 
can  be  direct  transfer  from  ship  to  cars,  which 
the  steamship  company  owning  the  pier  claims 
is  both  possible  and  essential.  The  shed  of  the 
pier  is  nearly  140  feet  wide,  and  the  tracks  are 
placed  outside  the  shed.  The  floor  slabs  are  of 
reinforced  concrete.    The  pier  will  be  connected 


eventually  with  the  Brooklyn  marnnal  railway. 
Two  other  piers,  at  29th  and  30th  Streets,  South 
Brooklyn,  were  also  under  construction.  The 
pier  construction  was  typical  of  other  New  York 
City  piers,  in  that  pile  bents  spaced  10  feet 
apart  and  trussed  were  employed,  on  which  were 
laid  reinforced  concrete  slabs.  Work  continued 
actively  during  the  year  on  the  new  ocean  steam- 
ship piers  in  the  Hudson  River  at  46th  Street. 

Boston.  During  1916  much  excavation  had 
been  done  for  the  new  South  Boston  dry  dock, 
which  was  to  be  the  largest  in  the  United  States, 
being  1200  x  149  feet  in  over  all  dimensions. 

Philadelphia.  Two  piers,  known  as  the  South- 
wark  piers,  were  completed  during  the  year  at 
Philadelphia.  It  was  part  of  a  scheme  ulti- 
mately to  give  the  city  a  municipally  owned 
waterfront  of  more  than  a  mile.  These  two 
piers  were  the  first  of  such  a  group,  and  repre- 
sented the  best  construction  yet  undertaken  by 
the  city,  being  designed  along  the  lines  of  the 
general  Philadelphia  type  of  construction  with 
re^forced  concrete  substructures  extending 
down  to  low  water  and  carried  on  wooden  piles. 
The  superstructure  was  of  structural  steel  with 
reinforced  concrete  facings.  The  two  new  piers, 
known  as  Nos.  38  and  40,  are  along  the  Dela- 
ware River  at  the  foot  of  Queen  and  Qiristian 
Streets,  550  feet  in  length,  180  feet  wide,  and 
200  feet  apart.  These  piers  are  two-story  struc- 
tures with  numerous  elevators  and  sheds  of  va- 
rious kinds,  while  the  railroad  tracks  down  the 
middle  of  each  pier  connect  with  the  belt  line  on 
Delaware  Avenue.  The  actual  construction  of 
this  work,  which  will  involve  eventually  the  ex- 
penditure of  $24,000,000  for  the  South  Philadel- 
phia Railway  improvement,  began  in  April,  and 
involved  not  only  an  extensive  railway  system  to 
give  access  to  the  piers  and  to  the  various  indus- 
tries along  the  river,  but  also  a  systematic  im- 
provement of  the  water  front. 

Los  Angeles.  The  city  of  Los  Angeles  had 
under  construction  a  large  timber  wharf  and 
shed  on  Mormon  Island  channel  in  the  inner 
harbor  and  a  concrete  wharf  and  steel  shed  on 
the  east  side  of  the  east  channel  in  the  outer 
harbor.  The  latter  was  one  of  the  first  sections 
of  the  outer  harbor  improvement,  and  is  a  dock 
650  feet  wide  and  4000  feet  long,  with  the  main 
ship  channel  on  one  side  and  the  east  channel  on 
the  other. 

Chicago.  In  Chicago  a  municipal  pier  was 
under  construction  for  freight  and  passenger 
steamship  service,  with  a  recreation  space  and 
public  hall  in  addition  located  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Chicago  River  in  line  with  Grand 
Avenue  and  Illinois  street.  It  was  3000  feet 
long  and  292  feet  in  width.  At  the  shore  end 
was  a  head  house  forming  an  ornamental  en- 
trance and  carrying  offices  on  its  upper  floors. 
Two  parallel  double  deck  buildings,  2335  feet  in 
length,  are  used  for  freight  and  passenger  serv- 
ice, and  are  supported  on  a  central  80-foot  drive- 
way. The  remaining  665  feet  of  the  pier  length 
are  devoted  to  recreation  purposes,  with  an  open 
upper  deck  which  forms  a  shelter  for  the  space 
below.  Near  the  end  of  the  pier  is  a  municipal 
hall  for  public  meetings,  concerts,  etc.  Two 
double  track  railways  extend  along  the  sides  of 
the  driveway  adjacent  to  the  sheds,  and  a  dou- 
ble track  incline  will  connect  the  street  railways 
with  tracks  on  the  upper  deck  of  the  pier.  The 
pier  is  an  elaborate  structure  and  the  total  cost 
was  estimated  at  about  $4,000,000. 


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Cleveland.  At  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  new  Ninth 
Street  pier  in  Lake  Erie  was  opened  for  Bervice 
late  in  June,  so  that  the  steamship  companies 
could  use  the  lake  proper  for  docking  instead  of 
the  channel  of  the  Cuyahoga  River,  the  lake 
front  being  protected  b^  an  extended  breakwater. 
This  new  pier  was  built  by  the  steamship  com- 
panies and  is  connected  to  the  trunk  line  rail- 
ways. It  is  720  feet  in  length  and  300  feet  wide, 
being  made  of  a  continuous  line  of  concrete  wall, 
part  of  which  is  founded  on  the  remains  of  an 
old  bulkhead  and  the  rest  on  new  pile  construc- 
tion. 

8t,  Louis,  Plans  for  the  first  section  of  the 
municipal  dock  system  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  were 
approved,  during  1915,  by  the  Board  of  Public 
Service,  and  an  ordinance  authorizing  the  con- 
struction was  introduced  in  the  Board  of  Alder- 
men. The  estimated  cost  of  the  dock  alone  is 
$255,000,  and  of  equipment  $30,000.  The  first 
unit  of  the  dock  was  to  be  300  feet  lonff  out  of 
a  total  length  of  1200  feet,  and  was  to  be  a  re- 
enforced-concrete  structure,  including  both  piling 
and  decks.  The  dock  will  be  open  underneath 
and  riprapped.  A  railroad  track  was  to  extend 
down  the  centre  of  the  dock,  back  of  which  a 
steel  frame  war^ouse  was  to  be  built.  The  dock 
was  to  be  equipped  with  two  traveling  cranes 
for  transferring  material  between  either  boats 
and  cars,  or  between  boats  and  the  warehouse, 
and  the  warehouse  and  platforms  were  to  be 
equipped  with  electric  trucks.  The  estimated 
cost  of  the  other  three  sections  of  the  dock,  sub- 
sequently to  be  put  under  construction,  was 
$156,000. 

Coal  Dock  at  Toledo,  At  the  opening  of  navi- 
gation on  the  Great  Lakes  a  new  coal  handling 
plant,  dock,  and  yard,  containing  one  of  the 
three  largest  car  dumpers  in  the  country,  was 
put  into  use  at  Toledo,  Ohio,  by  the  Cincinnati, 
Hamilton,  and  Dayton  Railway.  This  new  ter- 
minal, which  was  constructed  during  tiie  winter, 
involved  802  feet  of  concrete  d^k,  concrete 
foundations  for  the  unloader,  approach,  and 
run-off  trestles,  the  relaying  of  the  load  and 
empty  yards,  and  the  erection  of  the  unloader 
frame  and  machinery.  The  load  yard  has  a  ca- 
pacity for  140  cars,  and  the  empty  yard  for  96 
cars.  The  new  dock,  except  at  the  unloaders,  is 
of  reinforced  concrete  on  piles  cut  off  18  inches 
below  the  water  line. 

Bajlboa  Dbt  Dock.  The  important  dry  dock 
at  Balboa  for  the  Panama  Canal,  described  in 
the  Year  Book  for  1914,  was  practically  com- 
pleted at  the  end  of  1915.  A  second  dry  dock 
had  been  planned,  but  its  erection  was  not  con- 
templated for  some  years. 

Canada.  Halifaa.  The  largest  harbor  work 
in  progress  during  the  year  in  North  America 
was  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  where  the  Dominion  De- 
partment of  Railways  and  Canals  was  develop- 
ing the  port  as  a  part  of  a  project  to  cost  $30,- 
000,000.  Contracts  in  force  during  the  year 
totaled  over  $7,000,000,  and  the  new  work  in- 
volved the  building  of  a  large  rei^nforced  con- 
crete pier,  as  one  of  six  for  deep  water  vessels, 
as  well  as  a  2000-foot  landing  quay,  and  some 
6  miles  of  railways,  so  as  to  insure  communica- 
tion throughout  the  terminal  and  with  the  rail- 
ways. Halifax  is  a  deep  water,  all  the  year, 
port,  and  the  work  is  being  prosecuted  with  the 
idea  of  making  it  an  important  landing  place 
for  the  commerce  of  Canada.  The  construction 
work  for  the  quay  wall  involved  the  use  of  60- 


ton  concrete  blocks  stacked  up  to  the  required 
height  and  joined  together  laterally  to  form  a 
continuous  wall.  Above  low  water  granite  fac- 
ing is  employed  as  a  protection  against  frost 
and  sea  water.  An  elaborate  system  of  shed  and 
warehouse  structures  has  been  planned,  and  the 
construction  was  actively  in  progress  during  the 
year.  The  plan  for  the  Halifax  port  develop- 
ment was  so  well  worked  out  that  it  was  b^ 
lieved  that  when  completed  the  terminal  costs 
at  this  port  could  be  brought  in  proper  relation 
to  its  operation  costs,  but  it  was  a  problem 
whether,  with  all  its  facilities  and  low  terminal 
charges,  sufficient  commerce  would  be  directed 
to  Halifax  in  preference  to  Montreal  and  Que- 
bec, to  warrant  the  long  railway  hauls  from  the 
interior  to  the  coast. 

Prince  Rupert.  The  official  test  of  the  20,000- 
ton  floating  dry-dock  at  the  ship-repair  plant  of 
the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway  at  Prince 
Rupert,  Canada,  was  made  successfully  during 
the  year,  and  the  plant  was  ready  for  work.  It 
includes  a  carpenter  shop,  shipbuilding  shed, 
launching  platform,  machine  shop,  boiler  and 
blacksmith  shops,  foundry,  and  a  power  plant. 

Victoria,  Progress  was  continued  during  the 
year  at  Victoria,  B.  C,  in  harbor  development 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Works  of  Canada.  The  project  involved  the 
construction  of  2500  feet  of  breakwater  and  two 
large  docks  in  the  outer  harbor,  all  with  rub- 
ber-mound foundations  and  reenforced  concrete 
superstructure.  The  breakwater  affords  a  90- 
acre  area  of  shelter,  within  which  are  the  two 
docks,  which  have  berthing  space  from  800  to 
1000  feet  in  length.  The  improvement  of  the 
channel  was  also  under  way,  and  it  was  intended 
that  the  inner  harbor  should  be  used  by  smaller 
craft. 

Toronto,  During  1916,  $2,000,000  was  being 
spent  on  the  Toronto  harbor  improvement,  being 
devoted  to  the  water  front  between  the  Don  and 
the  Humber  rivers,  and  supplementing  the  $1,- 
400,000  spent  in  1914  in  piles,  cribs,  dredging, 
and  filling.  The  total  estimated  cost  of  the  en- 
tire improvement,  which  is  about  equally  di- 
vided between  the  Harbor  Commission  and  the 
Dominion  government,  is  $24,000,000,  and  con- 
tracts for  nearly  $11,000,000  have  been  let. 

ZuTDEB  Zee.  Chie  effect  of  the  war  was  the 
postponement  of  the  vast  project  for  the  recla- 
mation of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  which  had  been  dis- 
cussed for  a  quarter  of  a  century  previously, 
and  which  latterly  had  been  developed  in  dis- 
tinct plans  whose  consideration  by  the  Dutch 
Parliament  was  desired.  It  was  necessary  first 
to  have  the  various  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment approve  the  plans,  and  this  approval  had 
been  forthcoming  for  all  the  civil  departments, 
but  the  War  Department  had  been  unable  up  to 
1915  to  pass  on  the  military  features  of  the 
reclamation  project,  as  naturally  this  affected 
the  schemes  of  national  defense,  and  was  one 
reason  for  the  delay,  although  financial  consid- 
erations also  applied.  The  proposed  scheme  was 
to  cost  300,000,000  guilders  (a  guilder  equaling 
forty  United  States  cents),  and  would  reclaim 
at  the  same  time  an  area  of  about  47,000,000 
acres.  The  cost  of  the  project  would  be  spread 
over  a  number  of  years,  but  with  the  expense 
for  mobilization,  which  up  to  September  had 
amounted  to  275,000,000  guilders  within  its  Eu- 
ropean limits,  and  65,000,000  in  the  colonies, 
with  a  flotation  of  a  200,000,000  guilder   war 


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loan,  there  was  little  chance  for  expenditure  on 
civic  works.  The  project  was  of  interest,  as  it 
involved  a  vast  mileage  of  dykes,  canals,  with 
locks  connecting  the  canals  with  the  sea,  large 
pumping  stations,  and  various  economic  prob- 
lems, such  as  the  destruction  of  the  salt  water 
fishing  industry  and  its  possible  replacement  by 
a  fresh  water  fishing  industry  of  large  propor- 
tions. Further,  there  would  be  involved  the 
construction  of  an  auxiliary  system  of  canals  to 
preserve  water  communication  facilities  for  the 
towns  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  a  provision  for 
suitable  materials  for  the  levees  and  other  works, 
many  of  these  not  being  native  to  Dutch  soil. 
On  Uie  engineering  side  the  project  was  so  com- 
plete and  mterestmg  that  its  abandonment  even 
temporarily  was  a  source  of  regret.  See  Ca- 
nals. 

DODOEy  Abthub  Puxbbubt.  American  law- 
yer, inventor,  and  publisher,  died  Oct.  12,  1916. 
He  was  bom  in  Enfield,  Mass.,  in  1849;  studied 
law;  and  in  1879  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In 
1886  he  founded  the  New  England  Magazine,  and 
later  the  Bay  State  Monthly,  and  the  Chranite 
State  Monthly.  For  a  time  engaged  in  the  pub- 
lishing business,  he  later  b^same  interested, 
through  his  association  with  George  M.  Pulhnan, 
in  motor  power  for  railways. 

DOLOMITE.    See  Gbologt. 

DOMINICA.  A  presidency  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  colony.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  de- 
scendants of  the  original  French  settlers  and 
speak  a  patois.  Roseau,  the  capital,  had,  at  the 
1911  census,  0577  inhabitants.  The  island  is 
fertile;  coffee,  sugar,  spices,  oils,  timber,  fruits, 
etc.,  are  exported.  Trade  and  finance  statistics 
for  the  years  1907-14  are  given  in  the  following 
Uble: 


1907-8      1909-10      1910-11'    1913-14 

Importa     £121,650  £128,779  £147,882  £175.590 

Exports     124.294     102,889     112,111      190.701 

RoTenue    89,865       89,521       42,188       48,143 

Expenditure    ...      81,486       41.860       89,603       47.572 
Shipping*     508,681     718,227     694,985     672,222 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

See  Leewabd  Islands. 

DOMINICAN  BEPXTBLIC,  Thb.  An  inde- 
pendent state  occupying  the  larger  and  eastern 
part  of  the  Island  of  Haiti.  The  capital  is 
Santo  Domingo. 

Area,  Popuiation,  etc.  The  republic  con- 
sists of  12  provinces,  with  an  estimated  area  of 
48,677  square  kilometers  (18,756  square  miles). 
Estimates  of  population  vary.  A  1913  estimate 
was  724,600.  In  October,  1915,  the  Qaceta 
Oficial  stated  the  population  (as  for  Dec.  31, 
1914)  at  657,270.  The  population  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo was  given  as  26,486;  according  to  an  un- 
official census,  reported  earlier  in  1916,  the  popu- 
lation was  23,624.  Estimated  population  of 
other  towns:  Santiago,  20,000;  Puerto  Plato 
(the  chief  port)  and  San  Pedro  de  MacorXs, 
15,000  to  16,000  each;  Samanfl,  La  Vega,  Sfln- 
chez,  Monte  Cristi,  and  Azua,  4000  to  5000 
each. 

Reported  births  in  1913,  27,332,  and  in  1914, 
24,319;  marriages,  2657  and  2022;  deaths  in 
1914,  6393;  immigration  in  1914,  3930,  and  emi- 
gration, 1687.  Primary  instruction  is  free  and 
nominally  compulsory.  In  1911  there  were  590 
schools,  with  20,453  pupils.  The  stote  religion 
is  Roman  Catholicism. 


Pboduction,  Commsbce,  etc.  Agriculture 
and  cattle  raising  are  virtually  the  only  source 
of  national  weal^,  as  mining  and  manufacturing 
are  little  developed.  Sugar  and  cacao  are  com- 
mercially the  leading  crops.  Others  of  impor- 
tance are  tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  and  bananas 
and  other  fruits. 

Several  different  sets  of  figures  were  published 
in  1915  purporting  to  stote  the  commerce  of 
1914.  The  following  are  taken  from  the  Ouceta 
Oficial  mentioned  above.  Imports  and  exporto 
in  1913,  $9,348,839  and  $10,047,297;  in  1914,  $6,- 
608,112  and  $10,611,228.  Sugar  export  in  1914, 
103,331  metric  tons,  valued  at  $4,973,272;  cacao, 
20,825  metric  tons,  $3,899,102.  Considerably 
more  than  half  the  trade,  both  importotion  and 
exportotion,  is  with  the  United  Stotes. 

The  length  of  railway  in  operation  is  reported 
at  282  kilometers  (175  miles) ;  in  addition  there 
are  private  lines  for  sugar  plantotions  reported 
at  362  kilometers  (225  miles).  Telegraph  of- 
fices, 16,  with  362  miles  of  line.  Post  oflices, 
105. 

Finance.  The  unit  of  value  is  the  American 
dollar.  For  1915,  estimated  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure, $4,485,350  and  $4,490,821,  respec- 
tively. Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  revenue  is  de- 
rived from  customs.  A  treaty  between  the  Dom- 
inican Republic  and  the  United  Stotes  author- 
ized a  loan  of  $20,000,000  for  the  conversion  of 
the  debt,  and  estoblished  an  American  receiver- 
ship of  customs  from  April  1,  1905.  The  sum 
of  only  about  $14,000,000  was  issued,  the  bal- 
ance being  kept  a^nst  certain  disputed  liabili- 
ties and  the  provision  of  a  fund  for  public  works. 
Totol  outotanding,  Dec.  31,  1914,  $13,042,850. 
A  further  loan  of  $1,500,000,  having  no  connec- 
tion with  the  original  loan,  was  issued  in  March, 

1913.  Both  loans  are  guaranteed  by  the  cus- 
toms. By  agreement  between  the  Dominican 
and  American  governmento  in  1914,  an  Ameri- 
can financial  expert  was  appointed  to  control  the 
national  expenditure  and  the  revenues  other 
than  those  derived  from  customs. 

GoVEBNMENT.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  President,  who,  constitutionally,  is 
elected  by  indirect  vote  for  six  years.  The  legis- 
lative power  rests  with  a  Congress  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate  (12  members,  elected  for  six  years) 
and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (24  members, 
elected  for  four  years).  In  1913  Jos«  Bordas 
Vald^s  became  provisional  President,  assuming 
office    April    14th.     After    the    insurrection    of 

1914,  Bordas  Valdds  resigned  (August  27th), 
and  the  Congress  elected  Ram6n  Bflez  as  provi- 
sional President.  At  elections  held  later  in 
1914,  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez  was  chosen  President, 
and  on  December  5th  he  was  inaugurated  for  the 
six-year  term. 

HiSTOBT.  Confusion  in  Financial  Affairs, 
Late  in  January  it  became  known  that  a  short- 
age existed  in  the  San  Domingo  Department  of 
Public  Works.  Under  the  right  which  was  given 
to  the  United  Stotes  by  the  convention  between 
the  two  countries^  Secretary  of  Stoto  Bryan,  on 
January  22nd,  ordered  an  investigation  of  the 
situation.  Three  days  later  the  Stote  Depart- 
ment at  Washington  issued  the  stotement: 
"When  Nolasca,  the  auditor  in  charge  of  the 
Public  Works  Fund,  was  removed  recently,  a  de- 
falcation of  some  $8000  was  discovered.  The 
irregularities  date  back  at  least  two  years.  A 
further  defalcation  of  $1000  is  reported  under 
the  Mann  administration.    Nolasca  is  a  citizen 


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of  Santo  Domingo  and  his  appointment  was 
made  by  the  Santo  Domingo  government.  Full 
information  has  been  asked  for,  and,  in  so  far 
as  the  prosecution  depends  upon  the  actions  of 
this  government,  instructions  will  be  given  when 
the  nusts  are  fully  known."  By  the  terms  of 
the  convention  American  officials  were  in  charge 
of  the  customs  houses  of  the  republic  as  well  as 
several  other  financial  posts.  It  is  the  duty  of 
these  officials'  to  see  that  the  interest  on  the 
American-owned  debt  is  paid  monthly,  that  the 
sinking  fund  is  enlarged,  and  that  the  residue 
of  the  customs,  after  6  per  cent  is  taken  out 
for  expenses,  is  turned  over  to  the  government. 
The  defalcation  of  the  two  sums  of  $8000  and 
$1000  occurred  entirely  in  the  native  administra- 
tion of  affairs,  not  in  any  department  with  which 
Americans  were  connected. 

SuUivan  Inquiry,  On  January  13th,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  ordered  an  investigation  as  to  the 
fitness  of  James  M.  Sullivan,  minister  to  Santo 
Domingo.  This  investigation  was  in  answer  to 
a  letter  sent  to  the  President  by  W.  W.  Vick, 
formerly  connected  with  the  American  admin- 
istration of  Dominican  customs.  Mr.  Vick 
charged  that  Sullivan  owed  his  appointment  to 
a  political  group  representing  the  interests  of 
the  Banco  NaoUmal  of  San  Domingo,  who  had  in 
view  the  control  of  concessions,  government  con- 
tracts, or  deposits  of  government  funds.  The 
names  of  Secretary  of  State  Bryan,  ex-Governor 
Martin  H.  Glynn  of  New  York,  and  Representa- 
tive James  H.  Hamill  were  mentioned  among 
those  alleged  to  share  in  profits  from  the  pros- 
pective contracts.  Witnesses  testified  in  New 
York,  Washington,  and  Philadelphia,  while  offi- 
cials likewise  came  from  the  Banco  Nacional  to 
offer  their  evidence.  It  became  known  in  June 
that  Senator  Phelan,  in  charge  of  the  investiga- 
tion, reported  to  the  President  that  Minister 
Sullivan  had  done  nothing  which  involved  moral 
turpitude,  but  was  temperamentally  unfitted 
for  a  diplomatic  post.  Consequently,  Minister 
Sullivan's  resignation  was  announced  in 
July. 

Jntemid  Affairs,  In  March,  Governor  Zayas 
of  Santo  Domingo  and  two  of  his  children  were 
murdered  at  Azua,  a  small  town  56  miles  south- 
west of  Santo  Domingo.  Zayas  had  gone  to 
Azua  to  assume  the  duties  of  governor,  and 
had  been  in  office  only  two  days.  His  assassina- 
tion was  brought  about  by  political  enemies.  In 
April,  Minister  Sullivan  reported  a  new  revolu- 
tion hi  the  island.  The  cruiser  Des  Moines  was 
ordered  from  Progreso,  Mexico,  to  assist  the 
gunboat  Ifashville  in  maintaining  order.  Three 
commissioners,  Jacinto  Peynardo,  minister  of 
justice,  Frederico  Velasquez,  minister  of  public 
works,  and  Dr.  Henriquez,  were  appointed  in 
May  to  discuss  financial  matters  with  American 
financiers.  In  September,  two  new  appointments 
were  made  in  President  Jimenez's  cabinet.  They 
were  Jos6  Manuel  Francisco  Jimenez,  minister 
of  interior,  and  Francisco  Herrera,  minister  of 
finance.  Jimenez  had  held  the  portfolios  of  in- 
terior and  public  works  in  previous  administra- 
tions. 

DONALDSON,  Sib  James.  English  scholar 
and  educator,  died  March  10,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  1831,  and  was  educated  in  the  Aberdeen 
grammar  school,  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
at  New  College,  London,  and  at  Berlin  Univer- 
sity. In  1854,  appointed  director  of  the  high 
school  in  Stirling,  he  became,  in  1856,  classical 


master  of  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  and 
in  1881  professor  at  Aberdeen  University.  He 
held  this  position  until  1886,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed vice-chancellor  and  principal  of  the  Uni- 
versitv  of  St.  Andrews.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  endorse  simplified  spelling.  He  wrote  widely 
and  authoritatively  on  a  number  of  educational 
subjects.  In  1007  he  was  knighted.  His  pub- 
lished writings  include:  A  Oreek  Grammar 
(1863);  The  Apostolical  Fathers  (1874);  The 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (1005);  and 
Woman:  Her  Position  and  Influence  in  Ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  Among  the  Early  Chris- 
tians (1006). 

D'OOOEy  Martin  Lutheb.  American  scholar 
and  educator,  died  Sept.  13,  1915.  He  was  bom 
at  Zennemaire,  Netherlands,  in  1839,  and  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1862. 
He  afterwards  studied  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  assistant 
professor  of  ancient  languages  at  the  Universitv 
of  Michigan,  becoming  acting  professor  of  Greek 
language  and  literature  there  in  1868,  pro- 
fessor m  1870,  and  professor  emeritus  in  1912. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry 
in  1878,  and  in  the  same  year  became  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  American  School  of  Classi- 
cal Studies,  at  Athens,  and  was  its  director  in 
1886-87.  In  1884  he  was  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Philological  Association.  He  was  an  editor 
of  Greek  classics,  the  author  of  The  Aoropolis  of 
Athens  (1898),  and  a  contributor  to  journals 
and  periodicals,  classical  and  archseolooical.  He 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University 
of  Michigan,  and  D.Litt.  from  Rutgers  (DoUege. 

DOUOHEBTYy  William  Edwasd.  American 
soldier,  died  July  13,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Ireland  in  1841,  and  was  educated  in  private 
schools  there,  in  Germany,  and  in  England.  He 
removed  to  the  United  States,  and  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  enlisted  as  a  private  in 
the  United  States  infantry.  He  served  through- 
out the  war,  rising  to  the  rank  of  first  lieuten- 
ant. He  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  and 
was  retired  at  his  own  request,  after  over  43 
years  of  service,  in  1904.  He  took  part  in  many 
important  actions  in  the  Civil  War,  and  in 
1865-66  was  provost  marshal  in  Louisiana.  He 
served  against  the  Indians  from  1874-82,  in 
Cuba  in  1898,  and  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
1901-02. 

DOUBINE.    See  Vete&inabt  Medioinb. 

DKAINAGE.  The  year  1915  has  been  one  of 
comparative  inactivity  in  the  drainage  of  wet 
lands  for  agricultural  purposes  throughout  the 
world.  The  European  war  practically  stopped 
such  work  in  belligerent  countries  and  their  colo- 
nies, and  this  covers  most  of  the  territory  in 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere  where  such  work  was  in 
progress.  Gn  the  Western  Hemisphere  the  wave 
of  land  reclamation,  by  both  irrigation  and 
drainage,  which  was  so  acute  a  few  years  ago, 
has  subsided  to  a  large  extent  and  attention  is 
being  devoted  principally  to  the  attempts  to 
utilize  the  lands  made  available  in  the  past. 

Uniti!3>  States.  Land  drainage  in  the  United 
States  is  of  two  classes — (1)  the  drainage  or 
protection  from  overflow  of  lands  already  occu- 
pied and  producing  some  crops,  where  drainage 
is  merely  a  means  of  improvement;  and  (2)  the 
reclamation  of  lands  which  are  now  unproductive 
and  waste  by  reason  of  insufficient  drainage  or 
overflow.  Work  of  the  former  class  goes  on 
more  or  less  continuously  throughout  the  United 


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States  without  reference  to  land  settlement  proj- 
ects, and  was  quite  active  during  1915.  Work 
of  the  second  class,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  overdone  in  recent  years,  notably  where 
large  reclamation  schemes  in  North  Carolina, 
Florida,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Missouri  have 
been  undertaken.  These  projects  were  engaged 
in  1915  in  efforts  to  colonize  and  utilize  the 
lands  reclaimed,  and  in  the  meantime  few  new 
projects  were  being  undertaken. 

Drainage  reclamation  work  in  the  United 
States  is  done  very  largely  under  drainage  dis- 
trict organizations — quasi-municipal  corpora- 
tions which  have  the  power  of  eminent  domain, 
the  power  to  issue  bonds  which  are  a  lien  on  the 
lands  reclaimed,  and  the  power  to  levy  and  col- 
lect taxes  for  meeting  the  cost  of  constructing, 
operating,  and  maintiuning  drains.  Most  of  the 
States  have  such  laws.  In  1915  Alabama  passed 
a  drainage  district  law,  and  surveys  for  the  first 
district  to  be  organized  under  this  law  are  in 
progress.  The  drainage  district  laws  of  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina  have  been  passed  upon  and 
declared  constitutional  by  the  Supreme  Courts 
of  those  States  during  the  year,  while  the  Utah 
district  law  is  now  before  the  Supreme  Court  of 
that  State.  The  Colorado  district  law  is  also 
before  the  State  courts. 

The  purpose  of  the  drainage  district  organiza- 
tion is  twofold:  (1)  To  make  it  possible  for 
the  owners  of  wet  lands  to  condemn  rights  of 
way  for  outlet  ditches,  and  (2)  to  raise  funds 
for  the  construction  of  drainage  works.  In  the 
latter  purpose  the  organizations  have  been  only 
partially  successful.  In  the  reclamation  of 
lands  wholly  unproductive,  the  value  of  the 
bonds  issued  depends  upon  the  successful  settle- 
ment of  the  reclaimed  lands,  and  these  bonds  are 
therefore  speculative  in  character,  while  the  laws 
usually  prohibit  their  sale  below  par.  Investors 
are  unwilling  to  assume  the  risk  of  such  devel- 
opment without  the  chance  for  profit  made  pos- 
sible by  buying  the  bonds  below  par,  and  conse- 
quently the  bonds  are  not  readily  marketable. 
This  condition  has  led  to  proposals  that  the 
States  in  some  way  place  their  credit  behind 
drainage  district  bonds,  but  so  far  none  of  the 
States  has  done  this. 

The  most  notable  work  of  the  year  in  drainage 
for  flood  protection  is  that  being  done  under  the 
Ohio  Conservancy  act,  passed  after  the  disas- 
trous floods  in  that  State  in  1913.  This  law  has 
been  tested  in  the  courts  of  the  State  and  de- 
clared constitutional,  and  districts  to  carry  out 
the  objects  of  the  law  have  been  organized,  plans 
have  been  made,  and  assessments  for  defraying 
the  cost  are  being  levied.  Construction  has  not 
begun,  however.  The  large  drainage  enterprises 
in  the  Florida  Everglades  almost  ceased  activity 
because  of  controversies  between  the  State  of 
Florida  and  the  companies  carrying  on  the  work, 
and  because  of  difficulties  of  selling  land  and  of 
utilizing  the  land  which  had  been  sold  but  not 
completely  drained.  The  reclamation  enter- 
prises in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans  were  pro- 
ceeding very  slowly  because  the  lands  were  not 
being  taken  up  and  utilized. 

In  the  arid  region  of  the  United  States  there 
has  been  considerable  activity  in  the  drainage  of 
lands  injured  by  over  irrigation  and  the  rise  of 
the  ground  water  due  to  irrigation  and  seepage 
losses  from  canals.  In  many  of  the  large  irri- 
gation projects  begun  but  a  few  years  ago  the 
ground  water  has  risen  so  rapidly  that  large 


areas  are  already  unproductive,  and  the  con- 
tinued use  of  these  lands  requires  that  the  sur- 
1)lus  water  be  removed  and  the  ground  water 
evel  lowered.  This  is  noticeably  the  case  in 
Western  Colorado,  Southern  Idaho,  Northern 
Wyoming,  and  many  parts  of  Utah.  On  many 
of  the  government  irrigation  projects  draina^ 
has  become  necessary,  and  provision  for  this  is 
being  made.  The  drainage  of  irrigated  luids 
presents  many  new  problems,  and  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  giving  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  solution  of  these  prob- 
lems. During  1915  extensive  observations  and 
experiments  have  been  made  in  the  San  Luis 
Valley  in  Colorado,  and  in  the  Snake  River  Val- 
ley in  Idaho. 

Foreign  Countries.  As  has  been  stated,  the 
European  war  has  brought  drainage  reclamation 
work  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  almost  to  a 
standstill.  In  the  irrigated  sections  of  Egypt 
and  India  the  same  trouble  with  rising  ground 
water  and  the  accumulation  of  harmful  salts,  so 
apparent  in  the  United  States,  is  being  experi- 
enced, and  drainage  works  have  become  neces- 
sary in  connection  with  most  of  the  large  irri- 
gation schemes.  In  Australia,  the  states  of 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales  are  continuing 
their  irrigation  work.  In  New  South  Wales 
this  work  consists  of  continued  construction  on 
the  Burrinjuck  scheme,  while  in  Victoria  the 
state  is  engaged  in  settling  and  reclaiming  the 
lands  suppTi^  with  water  in  former  years. 

In  the  Western  Hemisphere  Argentina  is  be- 
ginning the  reclamation  of  her  wet  lands,  but 
other  than  this  there  is  little  activity  outside  of 
the  United  States. 

DRAMA,  American  and  Enolibh.  The  great 
war  cast  a  shadow  over  the  theatre  season  of 
1915,  not  only  in  England,  but  also  in  America. 
In  England,  creative  activity  in  the  drama  was 
brought  almost  to  a  standstill.  Most  of  the 
London  theatres  remained  open,  but  the  majority 
were  given  up  to  the  lighter  types  of  entertain- 
ment. The  most  popular  plays  of  the  London 
season  were  American  farces  and  melodramas, 
written  cheerfully  in  American  slang,  and  acted 
with  verve  and  gusto  by  companies  imported 
from  America.  With  one  notable  exception,  no 
new  plays  were  brought  out  by  the  acknowledged 
leaders  among  British  dramatists.  The  Big 
Drum,  by  Sir  Arthur  Pinero,  which  had  been 
begun  before  the  war,  was  produced  early  in  the 
autumn  by  Sir  Creorge  Alexander.  It  dealt  sa- 
tirically with  the  means  employed  to  work  up 
artificial  reputations  for  current  novelists  by 
publicity  campaigns  in  the  newspapers.  The 
play,  as  originally  produced,  ended  unhappily; 
but  the  author  soon  substituted  a  different  last 
act,  which  ended  happily.  He  stated,  as  the 
reason  for  the  change,  that  he  had  decided  that 
the  war-time  audience  needed  optimism  in  the 
theatre  even  more  than  logic. 

Several  war  plays  were  produced  in  both  coun- 
tries; but  none  of  them  really  rose  to  the  height 
of  the  occasion.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was 
called  in  England  The  Man  Who  Stayed  at  Home, 
and  in  America  The  White  Feather,  It  was 
written  by  Lechmere  Worrall  and  J.  E.  Harold 
Terry,  and  dealt  with  the  discovery  of  a  nest  of 
German  spies  in  a  seaside  hotel  on  the  east 
coast  of  England.  A  somewhat  better  play  of 
the  same  type  was  Inside  the  Lines,  by  Earl  Derr 
Biggcrs.  The  scene  was  set  at  Gibraltar.  The 
hero,   an   officer  in   British   uniform,  was  bub- 


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THE  MAN  WHO  MARRIED  A  DUMB  WIFE  ' 
Stage-set  designed  by  Robert  L    Jon-^s 


"A  MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM" 
As  produced  by  Granville  Barker 

EXAMPLES  OF   MODERN   STAGECRAFT  IN  1915 


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pected  to  be  a  German  spy,  until  in  the  end  he 
turned  out  to  be  a  BritiBh  spy  who  had  merely 
pretended  to  take  orders  from  the  Wilhelm- 
strasse  in  order  to  controvert  a  German  plot  to 
blow  up  the  British  fleet  in  the  harbor.  More 
entertaining  still  was  Under  Fire,  by  Roi  Cooper 
Megrue,  a  traditional  war  play  of  the  secret 
service  type,  made  alluringly  up  to  date  by  a 
skillful  localization  in  Belgium  and  Northern 
France.  A  one-act  play,  entitled  War  Brides, 
by  Marion  Craig  Wentworth,  which  dealt  tragi- 
cally with  the  misery  inflicted  on  the  women  of 
a  war-ridden  country,  was  acted  with  great  suc- 
cess by  Mme.  Nazimova  throughout  the  leading 
vaudeville  theatres  of  the  country.  A  sombre 
play,  entitled  Moloch,  was  writt^  by  Beulah 
Marie  Dix.  It  depicted,  in  terms  a  little  too 
abstract,  the  horror  and  futility  of  war.  It  set 
forth  a  powerful  appeal  for  peace;  but  it  failed 
in  the  theatre,  both  when  it  was  produced  in 
Chicago  in  the  spring,  and  when  it  was  produced 
in  New  York  in  the  fall.  More  ambitious  still 
was  Armageddon^  an  attempt  by  the  dramatic 
poet,  Stephen  Phillips,  to  deal  with  the  subject 
of  the  war  in  a  large  Miltonic  manner.  This 
piece  was  not  produced  in  America,  but  it  was 
published  in  both  countries.  In  December, 
Stephen  Phillips  died,  at  the  age  of  47,  and  Eng- 
land lost  her  one  poetic  dramatist  of  unques- 
tionable talent.  Early  in  the  spring,  the  Amer- 
ican novelist,  Justus  Miles  Forman,  hastily 
wrote  a  war-play  called  The  Hyphen,  which  dealt 
with  the  menace  of  the  German  spy-system  in 
America.  The  play  was  produced  by  Charles 
Frohman;  but  it  had  been  both  written  and  re- 
hearsed without  sufficient  preparation,  and  it 
failed  in  the  theatre.  Shortly  afterward,  the 
author  and  the  manager  sailed  together  for  Eng- 
land on  the  Liisitania,  accompanied  by  the  well- 
known  dramatist,  Charles  Klein;  and  all  three 
were  killed  when  the  ship  was  destroyed  by  a 
German  submarine  on  May  7th.  The  loss  of 
these  three  men  was  the  greatest  tragedy  of  the 
year  in  the  theatrical  world  of  England  and 
America. 

In  the  American  theatre,  the  most  important 
event  of  the  year  was  the  advent  of  Granville 
Barker  as  a  producing  manager.  Invited  to 
New  York  by  the  Stage  Society,  and  backed  by 
the  founders  of  the  New  Theatre,  Mr.  Barker  in- 
stalled himself  in  Wallack*s  Theatre  in  January 
and  produced  a  repertory  consisting  of  The  Man 
Who  Married  a  Dumb  Wife,  by  Anatole' France, 
A  Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream,  and  Bernard 
Shaw's  Androclea  and  the  Lion  and  The  Doctor's 
Dilemma.  All  four  plays  were  admirably  acted 
and  beautifully  produced;  and  the  repertory  ran 
successfully  until  April  30th,  when  it  became 
necessary  to  vacate  Wallack's  Theatre  because 
arrangements  had  previously  been  made  to  begin 
the  demolition  of  the  building  on  the  following 
day.  The  last  night  at  this  historic  playhouse 
was  celebrated  with  appropriate  ceremonies. 
The  Barker  productions  brought  the  American 
public  face  to  face  with  that  new  stagecraft 
which,  initiated  by  Gordon  Craig,  has  been  grad- 
ually developed,  in  the  last  dozen  years,  in  Rus- 
sia, Germany,  and  England.  The  purpose  of 
this  movement  is  to  make  the  modem  theatre  as 
hospitable  to  romantic  and  poetic  plays  as  it  is 
to  realistic  plays.  The  essential  principles  of 
the  new  stagecraft  are  the  following:  First,  a 
return  to  the  inner  and  outer  stage  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan theatre;    second,  the  abolition  of  foot- 


lights and  the  substitution  of  overhead  lighting; 
and  third,  the  treatment  of  scenic  backgrounds 
in  a  summary  and  decorative  spirit,  instead  of 
in  the  detailed  and  photographic  spirit  of  the 
preceding  period. 

The  leading  American  stage-director,  David 
Belasoo,  was  immediately  influenced  by  these  in- 
novations. In  the  early  spring,  he  produced  a 
romantic  play,  Marie  Odile,  on  an  apron-stage 
devoid  of  footlights;  and  in  the  late  summer,  he 
produced  a  contemporary  comedy,  The  Boom- 
erang, on  a  stage  lighted  wholly  from  the  top 
and  from  the  sides.  These  two  pieces,  inciden- 
tally, must  be  counted  among  the  very  best 
American  plays  of  the  year.  Marie  Odile,  by 
Edward  Knoblauch,  was  a  lovely  and  exquisite 
work  of  pure  poetic  fancy;  and  The  Boomerang, 
a  light  and  slight  comedy  of  love  and  jealousy, 
was  written  with  ajeat  artistic  delicacy  by  Win- 
chell  Smith  and  Victor  Mapes. 

The  beautiful  decorations  designed  for  Gran- 
ville Barker's  productions  by  the  American  art- 
ist, Robert  E.  Jones,  and  the  English  artists, 
Albert  Rothenstein  and  Norman  Wilkinson, 
started  a  new  fashion  in  America,  which  has 
been  continued  by  the  Viennese,  Josef  Urban, 
and  the  American,  Robert  McQuinn.  The  work 
of  the  Chicago  artist,  William  Penhallow  Hen- 
derson, should  also  be  mentioned.  Mr.  Hender- 
son's chief  contribution  was  the  investiture  of 
Alice  Gerstenberg's  charming  dramatization  of 
Alice  in  Wonderland. 

Late  in  the  spring,  Granville  Barker  turned 
his  attention  to  the  production  of  two  plays  by 
Euripides,  The  Trojan  Women  and  Iphigenia 
in  Tauris,  both  translated  by  Gilbert  Murray. 
These  plays  were  given  out  of  doors,  in  the  Yale 
Bowl,  the  Harvard  Stadium,  the  Princeton  Sta- 
dium, the  Stadium  of  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York,  and  in  other  large  open-air  audi- 
toriums. Each  performance  was  attended  by 
from  7000  to  10,000  people;  and  the  enthusiasm 
of  these  enormous  audiences  afforded  ample  proof 
that  Greek  tragedy  is  still  a  living  art.  During 
the  summer,  Margaret  Anglin  was  no  less  suc- 
cessful in  producing  certain  plays  by  both  Eu- 
ripides and  Sophocles  in  the  Greek  Theatre  at 
Berkeley,  Cal. 

Next  to  these  events,  the  most  interesting  un- 
dertakings of  the  year  were  still  of  the  sort  that 
is  usually  called  irregular.  The  eminent  Ger- 
man actor  and  stage-director,  Emanuel  Reicher, 
came  to  New  York  early  in  ttie  year  and  organ- 
ized a  society  called  The  Modern  Stage  for  the 
production  of  several  masterpieces  of  the  mod- 
em drama.  During  the  course  of  the  season,  he 
exhibited  Hauptmann's  Elga,  Ibsen's  John  Ga- 
briel Borkman,  Bj5rnson's  When  the  Young  Vine 
Blooms,  and  Hauptmann's  The  Weavers.  In  act- 
ing the  part  of  Borkman,  Mr.  Reicher  made  his 
first  appearance  in  the  English  language. 

A  very  interesting  movement  was  initiated  at 
the  Bandbox  Theatre  in  New  York  by  an  en- 
thusiastic group  of  amateurs  calling  themselves 
the  Washington  Square  Players.  Their  policy  is 
to  produce  a  repertory  of  one-act  plays,  four 
plays  to  each  bill,  at  the  small  charge  of  fifty 
cents  a  sea#.  Their  plays  are  adequately  acted, 
beautifully  decorated,  and  well  produced;  and 
their  repertory  includes  already  such  interesting 
items  as  Maeterlinck's  Interior,  Schnitzler's 
Literature,  Bracco's  The  Honorable  Lover,  and 
Helena's  Husband,  a  delightful  satire  by  an 
American  author,  Philip  Moeller.    The  work  of 


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the  Washington  Square  Players  is  symptomatic 
of  a  movement  that  is  being  taken  up  in  many 
other  cities  of  America. 

In  the  commercial  theatre,  Grace  George  suc- 
cessfully established  a  repertory  company  at  The 
Playhouse,  in  New  York.  Her  first  two  offer- 
ings were  revivals  of  The  New  York  Idea,  by 
Langdon  Mitchell,  and  The  Liars,  by  Henry  Ar- 
thur Jones.  These  were  followed  by  the  first 
American  production  of  Major  Barbara,  by 
Bernard  Shaw,  a  very  witty  comedy  that  had 
been  written  as  long  ago  as  1905.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  installation  of  a 
Tb^fitre  Fran^ais,  at  the  Berkeley  Theatre  in 
New  York,  where  excellent  performances  of 
standard  French  plays  were  given,  in  the  French 
language,  under  tne  direction  of  Lucien  Bonheur. 

Comparatively  few  new  plays  of  English  au- 
thorship were  presented  in  America  during  the 
course  of  the  year.  The  best  of  these  were  a 
Lancashire  comedy  by  Harold  Brighouse,  en- 
titled Hoh9on*a  Choice,  and  a  comedy  of  York- 
shire character,,  entitled  QuinHeys*,  by  Horace 
Annesley  Vachell.  Both  of  these  were  excellent 
examples  of  that  racy  type  of  realistic  comedy 
that  has  been  growing  up,  in  recent  years,  in  the 
British  provinces.  Alfred  Sutro  was  repre- 
sented by  a  clever  satiric  comedy,  The  Two  Vir- 
tues, developed  from  the  theme  that  charity  is 
no  less  to  be  desired  in  a  woman  than  chastity, 
and  by  a  less  successful  satire,  The  Clever  Ones, 
which  discussed  the  same  theme  as  Les  Femmes 
Savantes  of  Moli^re.  A  new  comedy  by  Henry 
Arthur  Jones,  entitled  Cock  o*  the  Walk,  re- 
ceived its  first  production  in  America.  The  ma- 
terial was  rather  thin,  but  it  was  handled  with 
the  author's  customary  skill.  It  poked  fim,  in 
an  airily  satiric  spirit,  at  the  conduct  of  the 
theatre-system  in  London  at  the  present  time, 
with  special  reference  to  the  coming  tercentenary 
celebration  in  honor  of  Shakespeare. 

The  most  serious,  and  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant, American  play  of  the  year  was  Children 
of  Earth,  by  Alice  Brown,  which  won  the  prize 
of  $10,000  which  had  been  offered  by  Win^rop 
Ames.  It  presented  a  profound  study  of  New 
England  character,  and  was  extremely  searching 
in  its  psychological  analysis;  but  it  failed  to 
interest  the  public,  because  its  atmosphere  was 
rather  gloomy,  and  because  it  lacked  rapidity  of 
action.  The  Shadow,  by  Dario  Niccodemi,  was 
not  of  American  authorship,  but  it  received  its 
first  and  only  production  in  America.  It  was 
made  memorable  by  the  very  impressive  tragic 
acting  of  Ethel  Barrymore.  Louis  K.  An- 
spacher,  in  The  Unchastened  Woman,  presented 
a  very  interesting  study  of  a  woman  of  the 
Hedda  Gabler  type,  who  took  delight  in  devas- 
tating the  lives  of  all  with  whom  she  came  in 
contact.  An  earlier  play  by  the  same  author,  en- 
titled Our  Children,  was  much  less  valuable.  A 
new  writer,  Cleves  Kinkead,  achieved  a  great 
success  with  Common  Clay,  a  play  more  notable 
for  its  evident  sincerity  and  earnestness  than 
for  its  structural  development.  It  discussed  the 
theme  that  society,  in  reference  to  sins  of  sex, 
is  harder  on  the  woman  than  on  the  man,  and 
harder  on  the  poor  than  on  the  ri«h.  In  The 
Eternal  Magdalene,  another  new  writer,  Robert 
McLaughlin,  pleaded  for  greater  sympathy  to- 
ward those  unfortunate  women  who  have  been 
required,  by  the  constitution  of  society,  to  adopt 
the  oldest  profession  in  the  world;  but  his  play 
was    unimaginative    and    was    poorly    written. 


Considerable  delicacy  of  art  was  displayed  by 
Charles  Kenyon  in  Husband  and  Wife;  but  the 
play  failed  because  the  subject-matter  was  lack- 
ing in  novelty.  Hernuin  Sheffauer's  The  New 
Shylock,  which  had  been  previously  produced  by 
Miss  Homim'an  in  Manchester,  was  brought  out 
in  New  York  under  the  title  of  The  Bargain; 
but,  despite  the  fact  that  it  presented  an  inter- 
esting characterization  of  a  patriarchal  Jew,  it 
failed  because  the  plot  was  badly  proportioned. 
Paul  Kester  contributed  a  slight  but  charming 
comedy  called  Beverley's  Balance,  which  was  de- 
lightfully performed  by  Margaret  Anglin.  Ed- 
ward Locke  came  forward  with  two  plays — a 
verv  agreeable  comedy  of  character,  called  The 
Bubble,  and  a  rather  unpleasant  study  of  a  run- 
away wife,  entitled  The  Revolt.  In  Sinners, 
Owen  Davis  returned  to  the  manner  of  the  cheap 
melodramas  of  his  earlier  career.  The  House  of 
Glass,  a  successful  melodrama  by  a  new  author. 
Max  Marcin,  developed  with  considerable  skill 
the  conventional  story  of  an  innocent  woman 
hounded  and  haunted  by  the  police.  Jules  Eck- 
ert  Goodman,  after  failing  with  The  Trap  and 
Just  Outside  the  Door,  came  forward  at  the  close 
of  the  year  with  an  admirable  dramatisation  of 
Treasure  Island.  In  fact,  the  thoroughly  suc- 
cessful transference  of  Stevenson's  great  story  to 
the  stage  was  one  of  the  memorable  events  of  the 
season. 

Among  the  lighter  American  plays  of  the  year, 
the  most  original  was  Young  America,  by  Fred 
Ballard,  a  charming  comedy  of  the  juvenile 
court,  in  which  a  naughty  little  ragamuffin  was 
reclaimed  by  his  love  for  his  dog.  James  Forbes 
displayed  his  usual  humor  in  a  merry  farce 
about  the  theatre,  entitled  The  Show  Shop. 
Somewhat  analogous  was  a  sentimental  comedy 
that  dealt  with  life  in  and  about  a  metropoli- 
tan opera-house:  it  was  entitled  The  Great 
Lover,  and  was  written  by  Leo  Ditrichstein  and 
Frederic  and  Fanny  Hatton.  The  successful 
campaign  of  the  evangelist,  Billy  Sunday,  was 
turned  to  the  uses  of  farce  by  George  M.  Cohan 
in  Hit-the-Trail  Holliday.  In  Rolling  Stones, 
Edgar  Selwyn  added  anotiier  to  the  long  list  of 
American  plays  in  which  a  penniless  hero  makes 
a  fortune  m  two  hours.  Avery  Honwood,  a  deft 
and  witty  writer  of  entertaining  farces,  scored 
a  great  success  with  Fair  and  Warmer,  and  was 
only  a  little  less  successful  with  Sadie  Love.  In 
Abe  and  Mawruss,  Montague  Glass  and  Roi 
Cooper  Megrue  wrote  a  successful  sequel  to  the 
earlier  play  of  Potash  and  Perlmutter,  which 
had  been  written  by  Mr.  Glass  and  the  late 
Charles  Klein.  Abe  and  Mawruss  was  not  only, 
like  its  predecessor,  rich  in  characteri/Ation ;  it 
was  also  a  well-ma4e  play.  So  much,  however, 
could  not  be  said  for  Our  Mrs.  McChesney,  a 
somewhat  analogous  comedy  taking  up  Ameri- 
can business-life,  by  George  V.  Hobart  and  Edna 
Ferber. 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  notable  increase  in 
the  number  of  published  plays:  and  most  of 
these  were  real  plays — ^that  is  to  say,  plays  de- 
vised to  be  presented  by  actors  on  a  stage  before 
an  audience — instead  of  closet-dramas,  merely 
written  to  be  read.  The  institution  of  the 
Drama  League  Series  of  Plays  and  the  Modem 
Drama  Series  appears  to  have  stimulated  the 
further  publication  of  good  translations  of  the 
best  European  dramas,  and  also  of  good  plays  of 
native  authorship.  An  especially  useful  book 
was  Thomas  H.  Dickinson's  collection  of  20  com- 


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m 

1 

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UnderwiKMl  aud  I'nderwiaMl.  N.  Y. 


"THE  TROJAN  WOMEN" 
A  R«hMr«al  In  the  Yale  Bowl 


'IPHIQENIA  IN  TAURIS" 
Pyladtt  prtMntt  the  tablet  to  Oreetee 

REVIVAL  OF  GREEK  TRAGEDY  IN  AMERICA 


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Digitized  by 


Google 


DBAMA 


187 


DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 


plete  plays,  entitled  Chief  Contemporary  Drama- 
tiete. 

The  Btudy  of  the  drama  waa  also  encouraged 
by  the  publication  of  several  very  valuable 
studies  in  contemporary  stagecraft.  Among  these 
new  books,  mention  must  be  made  of:  The 
Theatre  of  To-day,  by  Hiram  Kelly  Moderwell; 
The  New  Movetnent  in  the  Theatre,  by  Sheldon 
Cheney;  The  Modem  Drama,  by  Ludwiff  Lewi- 
sohn ;  Aepecte  of  Modem  Drama,  by  FraiuE  Wad- 
leigh  Chandler;  The  Changing  Drama,  by  Ardii- 
bald  Henderson;  and  How  to  8ee  a  Play,  by 
Richard  Burton. 

DBAMA  IK  EXTBOPB.  See  Fbb50H,  Geb^ 
KAN,    Italian,    Soandznayian,    and    Spanish 

LlTBRATUBlL  

DBEADHOUaHT.    See  Battleships. 

DHEAMS.    See  Pstcholoot. 

DEEISEB,  Theodore.  See  Litebatube,  Enq- 
usH  AND  Amebioan,  Fictum, 

DBY  DOCK.    See  Docks  and  Habbobs. 

DXT  BOISy  Augustus  Jat.  American  civil 
engineer  and  educator,  died  Oct.  19,  1915.  He 
was  bom  in  Newton  Falls,  Ohio,  in  1849,  and 
graduated  from  the  SheflBeld  Scientific  School  in 
1869,  later  studying  mechanics  in  Germany.  In 
1876  he  was  appointed  professor  of  civil  and 
mechanical  engineering  at  Lehigh  University, 
holding  this  position  for  two  years,  when  he  was 
made  professor  of  mechanical  engineering  at 
Sheffield  Scientific  School,  becoming  professor  of 
civil  engineerinsT  at  that  institution  in  1884. 
He  published  several  books  on  engineering  sub- 
jects, including:  Elements  of  Graphical  Btatice 
(1876) ;  and  Slemente  of  Mechanics  (three  vol- 
umes, 1893-96).  He  edited  and  translated  im- 
portuit  engineering  works  from  the  German. 
He  also  contributed  numerous  articles  to  tech- 
nical journals  concerned  with  the  relation  of 
science  to  the  spiritual  and  supernatural. 

DXJMXABDS,  or  DTJNXEBS.  See  Bbeth- 
BEN,  Church  of  the. 

DTTKHOYOf  Peteb  Nikolaievioh.  Russian 
statesman,  died  Sept.  24,  1916.  He  was  of  a 
noble  family  of  the  Province  of  Chernigoff,  and 
first  became  prominent  while  minister  of  the 
interior,  durins  the  repressions  that  followed  the 
"Charter  of  Liberties'^  granted  by  Alexander  III. 
He  entered  the  government  as  an  official  of  the 
interior  department,  later  joining  the  police 
department,  of  which  he  finally  became  head. 
Followinff  scandals  in  the  department,  he  was 
dismissed,  and  for  a  time  disappeared  from 
sight,  emerging  as  governor  of  one  of  the  Volga 
Provinces  under  Nicholas  II.  He  was  made 
head  of  the  department  of  posts  and  telegraphs 
shortly  before  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  When 
Plehve  was  killed,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  department  of  the  interior  to  take  the  lat- 
ter's  place,  resigning  in  May,  1906,  as  a  result 
of  disloyalty  which,  Witte  declared,  Dumovo 
showed  toward  him.  He  later  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  the  Empire,  and  in  March, 

1911,  in  company  with  Trepoff,  was  suspended 
from  all  sittings  of  the  Council  until  January, 

1912,  at  the  instigation  of  Premier  Stolypin. 
DUTCH  BAST  INDIES.    Possessions  of  the 

Netherlands,  lying  between  Australia  and  the 
Asiatic  continent.    Capital,  Batavia. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  Dutch  East  In- 
dies consist  of  two  main  divisions:  (1)  Java  (16 
residencies)  and  Madoera  (1  residency);  and 
(2)  the  outposts  (17  provinces).  Area  and 
population    (for  the  outposts  approximate)    of 


Java,  Madoera,  and  the  outpost  provinces  at  the 
end  of  1905  are  given  in  the  table  below: 

8q.  m.       Pop, 

JaTa 48,686  28.604,719 

Madoera     2.090     1,498,289 

OulpoBtM 
Island  of  damatra: 

Sumatra,   West  Coast    81,788  

Padang    Highlands     408.481 

Padang  Lowlands 905,040 

Tapanoeli 418.801 

Benkoelen    9.487  204.269 

Lampong  Districts    11.888  166,518 

Palambang 58.718  796,854 

Sumatra.  East  Ooast 85,481  568.417 

Atjeh    20,550  582.175 

Biouw*    16,879  112,216 

Banka    4,478  115.189 

Billiton 1,869  86,658 

Borneo.  West  DUtrict 56.061  450.929 

Borneo,  Sontli  and  Bast  Districts. .  .157,587  782,726 
Island  of  Celebes  t 

Celebes   49.600  415.499 

Menado    22,177  486.406 

Amboina  t    19.870  209,004 

Temate  t    176,598  870,902 

Timor     17,782  808.600 

Bali  and  Lombok 4,068  528,585 

Total     789,547  87,979,877 

*  Consists  of  Indragiri  in  Sumatra  and  the  Riouw  and 
Lingga  arehipelagoes.  t  Included  in  Ternate  are  a  part 
of  eastern  Celebes  Island,  Duteh  New  Guinea,  and  a 
part  of  the  Moluccas;  the  rest  of  the  Moluccas  are  in 
Amboina.  Dutch  New  Guinea  extends  to  141*  E..  with 
estimated  area  152,428  square  miles  and  estimated  popu- 
Ution  262,000. 

The  native  population  (exclusive  of  New 
Guinea)  numbered  37,020,460  (Java  and  Ma- 
doera, 20,716,008);  Europeans,  80,010;  Chinese, 
663.440;  Arabs,  20,688;  Orientals,  other  than 
natives,  22,070.  Batavia  had  138,551  inhabi- 
tants; Semarang,  06,600;  Pekalongan,  41,710; 
Djokjakarta,  118,378;  Padang,  01,440;  Palem- 
bang,  60,085;   Bandjermasin,   16,708. 

PaoDUcrnoN.  Area  (1012)  under  rice,  3,342,- 
084  bahoes  (I  baho=l%  acres);  production, 
85,614,014  piculs;  sugar  cane,  281,004  (sugar 
production,  21,562,047  piculs) ;  tobacco,  262,736; 
mdigo,  14,683;  other  cultures,  3,704,660.  Gov- 
ernment coffee  plantations  (Java),  60,526  ba- 
hoes (production,  81,000  piculs) ;  production 
from  emphyteutic  lands,  272,000;  from  private 
estates,  20,000.  Tobacco:  30,673,631  kilos  in 
Java,  and  10,066,806  in  Sumatra.  Tea  (Java), 
20,412,704  kilos;  cacao,  2,272,063  kilos.  Tin 
from  the  government  mines  at  Banka  in  1011-12, 
250,406  piculs;  from  private  mines  (as  Billiton 
and  Riouw),  76,014;  total  tin  production,  1012- 
13,  20,210  tons.  Coal  production  (1012),  673,- 
121  metric  tons;  petroleum,  1,618,044  tons. 
Gold,  silver,  diamonds,  copper,  and  manganese 
are  mined. 

Commerce.  Government  and  private  trade, 
merchandise  and  specie,  are  given  for  three  years 
(in  florins)  : 

Imports              1908  1918  1918 

Oovemment : 

Merchandise..      7,667,549  20,229,755  27,021,000 

Specie     8,850,000  5,170,000  4,419,000 

Private: 

Merchandise..  248,544,983  380,669,597  487,908,000 

Specie    20,499,027  29,553,007  23,998,000 

Total     280,561,559  435,622,359  493,341,000 

Exports              1908  1919  1918 

Government : 

Merchandise..    16,856,649  51,411,500  51,281,000 

Specie    609,072        


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DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 


188      DYNAMO-ELECTBIC  MAOHIHEBT 


BxportB 
PriTate: 
Merchandise. 
Specie    


1908 

452,823.882 
1,084,628 


1918 

588,617,014 
1,410,614 


1918 


620,504,000 
6,211,000 


Total    470,714,604     587,048,200     688,946.000 

The  Netherlands  is  the  important  country  of 
destination  for  exports,  which  consist  mainly  of 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  indigo,  cinchona,  tobacco, 
copra,  and  tin.  A  large  export  of  rice  goes  to 
Borneo  and  China.  There  were  entered  at  the 
ports  in  the  1913  trade,  6263  steamers,  of  5,046,- 
000  tons,  and  2664  sailing  vessels,  of  192,000. 

Railways  in  operation  (1913),  1721  miles; 
government  telegraph  and  cable  lines,  12,319 
miles. 

Finance,  eto.  Estimated  revenue,  1915,  309,- 
429,094  florins  (1914,  295,229,458) ;  expenditure, 
338,440,625  (338,774,555).  A.  W.  F.  Idenburg 
was  appointed  governor-general,  Aug.  20,  1909. 

DTJTCH  OX7IAKA,  or  Surinam.  A  colony 
of  the  Netherlands  (between  46,000  and  49,000 
square  miles)  on  the  northern  coast  of  South 
America.  Population  ( 1910) :  913  Europeans, 
7894  Dutch  East  Indians,  19,683  British  East 
Indians,  62,369  indigenous,  3643  other;  total 
(exclusive  of  negroes  in  interior  forests),  86,- 
233.  Of  these,  36,480  are  classed  without  occu- 
pation. Total  at  the  end  of  1913,  86,134.  Im- 
migrants employed  under  contract  on  planta- 
tions, Dec.  31,  1910,  11,561.  Sugar  production, 
1912,  9,634,400  kilos  (1910,  12,015,100);  mo- 
lasses, 197,100  litres  (164,100);  rum,  989,900 
litres  (797,800);  cacao,  864,000  kilos  (1,683,- 
000) ;  coffee,  196,900  kilos  (202,300) ;  com,  I,- 
290,600  kilos  (1,323,000);  rice,  2,669,300  kilos 
(1,993,700).  Gold  yield,  743,199  grams  (1,081,- 
476),  valued  at  1,081,183  florins  (1,481,622); 
gold  export,  981,588  florins  (1,446,073).  To- 
tal imports,  1912,  7,494,063  florins  (1910,  424,- 
698);  exports,  6,619,937  (8,345,447).  Tonnage 
entered,  211,214.  Revenue  and  expenditure 
(provisional),  in  1914,  6,262,000  and  7,062,000 
florins,  respectively;   subvention,  790,000. 

DUTCH  BEFOBMED  CHXTBCH.  See  Re- 
formed Churoh  in  America. 

DUTCH  WEST  INDIES.  See  CuRAgAO  and 
DirrcH  Guiana. 

DYCHEy  Louis  laNDSAT.  American  zoolo- 
gist, educator,  and  explorer,  died  Jan.  20,  1916. 
He  was  bom  at  Berkeley  Springs,  W.  Va.,  in 
1857,  and  graduated  from  the  University  of  Kan- 
sas in  1884.  After  post-^aduate  studies  at  that 
university,  he  was  appomted  assistant  professor 
of  zoology  in  1886,  becoming  in  the  following 
year  professor  of  comparative  anatomy,  in  1890 
professor  of  zoology  and  curator  of  birds  and 
manunals,  and  in  1900  professor  of  systematic 
zoology  and  taxidermy.  He  made  over  twenty 
scientific  expeditions;  hunted  all  over  North 
America  from  Mexico  to  Alaska;  and  was  a 
nimrod  also,  in  Greenland  and  the  Arctic  re- 
gions. These  activities  resulted  in  one  of  the 
largest  and  finest  collections  of  North  Ameri- 
can mammals  in  the  world.  It  became  the  prop- 
erty of  the  University  of  Kansas.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  articles  on  the  subjects  that 
chiefly  interested  him  in  scientific  publications 
and  other  periodicals. 

DYNAMO-ELECTBIC    MACHINEBY. 


While  there  was  only  a  slight  increase  in  the 
capacity  of  the  largest  electric  generators  built 
in  1915  over  those  constructed  in  the  previous 
years,  large,  hig|h  capacity  machines  were  built  made  for  using  either  24  or  36  poles. 


in  ffreater  quantity.  At  the  close  of  the  year  an 
ortfer  for  a  46,000  K.  V.  A.  turbo-unit  was  an- 
nounced, this  beine  the  largest  ever  oonstracted. 
The  36,000  K.  V.  A.  generating  set  mentioned  in 
the  1914  Year  Book  as  being  installed  by  the 
Philadelphia  Electric  Company  was  put  in  serv- 
ice early  in  1916.  In  New  York  City,  the  sub- 
stitution of  turbine  for  reciprocating  enrane- 
driven  ffenerating  sets  was  continued  by  the  New 
York  Edison  and  Interborough  Rapid  Transit 
Companies,  the  last  named  replacing,  on  the 
same  floor  space,  four  7600  K.  V.  A.  engine- 
driven  units  with  three  turbo  generator  sets, 
each  one  of  which  had  a  rating  equal  to  that  of 
all  four  old  units  combined,  thus  trebling  the 
station  capacity  without  enlarging  the  building. 

Near  Newark,  N.  J.,  the  Public  Service  Cor- 
poration, supplying  light  and  power  throughout 
a  large  territory  in  that  part  of  the  State,  was 
completing  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Tear  a 
power  station  in  which  the  initial  installation 
comprised  two  26,000  kilowatt  sets.  The  De- 
troit, Mich.,  Edison  Company  was  building  a 
power  plant  at  Conners  Creek,  designed  to  com- 
prise six  26,000  kilowatt  units.  In  Toledo,  Ohio, 
the  Toledo  Street  Railways  and  Light  Company 
started  the  operation  of  a  20,000  kilowatt  gen- 
erator in  the  Water  Street  station.  This  com- 
pany also  beffan  the  remodeling  of  its  Detroit 
Avenue  station,  substituting  turbo-generator 
units  for  engine-driven  sets  so  as  to  secure  a 
larger  power  output  from  the  same  floor  space. 
The  Chicago  Edison  Company  ordered  a  turbo- 
generator set  of  36,600  K.  V.  A.  capacity  of  a 
type  similar  to  those  installed  by  this  company 
recently,  consisting  of  a  Parsons  type  steam  tur- 
bine directly  connected  to  a  three-phase  60-cycle 
alternating  current  generator.  At  Detroit, 
Mich.,  the  Ford  Motor  Car  C<»ipan^  put  into 
use  early  in  the  year  the  largest  continuous  cur- 
rent generator  ever  built.  It  had  a  normal 
rating  of  3760  kilowatts  with  a  maximum  ca- 
pacity of  4600  kilowatts.  Its  armature  was 
about  16  feet  in  diameter,  and  weighed  42% 
tons.  The  largest  generators  ever  built  for  op- 
eration by  water  turbines  were  those  installed 
during  the  year  at  Rjukan,  Norway,  and  near 
Spokane,  Wash.,  the  former  being  rated  at  17,- 
000  K.  v.  A.,  and  the  latter  at  13,900  K.  V.  A. 

There  was  little  change  in  the  design  or  size 
of  alternating  current  motors  installed  for  in- 
dustrial uses  during  the  year,  and  while  for  mill 
and  factory  purposes  the  induction  motor  was 
the  commonest  type,  there  were  many  cases 
where  the  synchronous  machine  was  preferred 
by  engineers.  A  new  field  for  the  application  of 
induction  motors  was  opened  by  the  satisfactory 
performance  in  service  of  motors  of  this  kind  for 
the  "split  phase"  system  on  the  Norfolk  and 
Western  Railway  electric  locomotives.  (See 
Eij:cteic  Railways.) 

The  United  States  Navy  Department  began  the 
installation  in  the  superdreadnought  California 
of  two  steam  turbo-generator  units  for  furnish- 
ing energy  to  four  electric  propelling  motors,  the 
largest  electric  ship  propelling  plant  ever  built. 
The  two  generating  sets  were  designed  for  a  ca- 
pacity of  37,000  horse  power  in  order  to  furnish 
energy  for  operating  the  ship  at  22  knots  speed. 
The  propeller  motors  were  rated  normally  at 
7500  horse  power  and  were  to  operate  at  4000 
volts  with  26  cycle,  quarter  phase  alternating 
current,  being  so  wound  that  connection  can  be 

"       "         The  ob- 


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DYNAMO-ELECTBIC  MACHINEBT      189 


EGONOMIG  ASSOCIATION 


ject  of  this  was  to  secure  more  eoonomical  oper- 
ation at  cruising  speeds  of  16  knots  or  less,  as 
under  these  conditions  only  one  generator  will 
be  required  and  the  motors  will  be  on  the  36-pole 
connection,  and  it  was  expected  that  even  under 
these  conditions  the  ship  would  be  able  to  make 
18.5  knots  per  hour.  The  exciting  generator 
imits  of  300  kilowatts  each  were  also  U>  be  tur- 
bine driven.     See  also  Battleshipb. 

DYESTUFF.    See    Chehistet,    Industrial. 

EABTHy  Age  of.    See  Geoloqt. 

EABTHQXTAKES.  Central  Italy  was  vis- 
ited by  a  heavy  earthquake  on  Jan.  13,  1915, 
which  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
occurrences  of  recent  record,  as  measured  by  the 
loss  of  life,  which  was  placed  at  over  30,000. 
The  devastated  region  included  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  the  Abruzzi,  with  the  epicentral  tract 
close  to  the  city  of  Avezzano,  where  about  90 
per  cent  of  the  11,000  inhabitants  were  reported 
to  have  been  killed.  Pescina  had  4500  victims, 
and  some  of  the  villages  in  the  vicinity  were 
literally  wiped  out,  only  piles  of  debris  remain- 
ing to  mark  their  sites.  In  completeness  of 
devastation  the  earthquake  probably  has  had  no 
equal  within  recent  times,  although  the  loss  of 
life  was  not  so  large  by  half  as  in  the  Messina 
disaster.  The  area  of  damage  extended  across 
the  peninsula  from  Rome  on  the  west,  to  Chieti 
on  tiie  Adriatic  side,  a  distance  of  110  miles, 
and  from  Ancona,  Perugia,  and  Grosseto  on  the 
north,  to  Naples  and  Potenza  on  the  south,  in  all 
an  area  of  66,000  square  miles.  The  main  shock 
was  followed  by  two  lighter  ones  in  rapid  suc- 
cession; and  minor  disturbances  were  felt  for 
several  days,  as  many  as  120  having  been  re- 
corded at  Rome  in  the  first  48  hours.  Despite 
its  destructiveness,  the  disturbance  was  not  of 
extraordinary  violence  in  the  estimation  of  seis- 
mologists; the  great  loss  of  life  was  rather  the 
result  of  the  poor  type  of  construction  of  the 
buildings  in  that  part  of  Italy,  the  houses  being 
built  mainly  of  stones  joined  witii  a  little  ce- 
ment. Heavy  shocks  have  not  been  common 
there,  as  the  region  lies  to  the  north  of  the  main 
seismic  zone  in  which  they  usually  originate. 

Otherwise  the  year's  record  was  uneventful, 
although  mention  may  be  made  of  one  or  two 
occurrences  that  possessed  local  interest.  A 
moderate  shock  was  felt  in  Southern  California, 
Western  Arizona,  and  the  adjacent  part  of  Mex- 
ico, arousing  some  apprehension  for  the  safety 
of  the  great  irrigation  system  of  the  Imperial 
Valley,  which,  however,  was  only  slij^tly  dam- 
aged. The  few  fatalities  were  confined  to  the 
Mexican  town  of  Mexicali  and  were  incident  to 
the  collapse  of  buildings.  Current  opinion 
seemed  to  have  connected  &e  disturlwnce  with  a 
reopening  of  the  San  Andreas  fault,  in  tJie  same 
way  as  the  San  Francisco  disaster  may  be  traced 
to  a  slipping  of  the  earth  on  opposite  sides  of 
that  fracture.  There  was  reallv  no  basis  for 
such  a  view,  however,  for  the  faidt,  so  far  as  can 
be  seen,  terminates  in  Ventura  County  and  lies 
close  to  the  coast  throughout  its  extent.  Slight 
tremors  were  reported  on  December  7th  from  va- 
rious parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  Illi- 
nois south  to  Tennessee  and  Arkansas. 

EAST  AFBIGA  PROTEGTOBATE.  The 
territory  lying  between  the  Umba  and  Juba 
rivers,  from  German  East  Africa  to  Italian  So- 
maliland  and  Abyssinia,  and  inland  to  Uganda; 
a  British  dependency.  Estimated  area,  about 
200,000  square  miles,  inclusive  of  coast  territory 


leased  from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar.  The  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  about  4,000,000,  including 
about  26,000  Asiatics  and  3500  Europeans. 
Mombasa,  the  largest  town  and  chief  port,  has  a 
population  of  about  30,000  (230  Europeans). 
Nairobi  (14,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about  800 
are  Europeans,  and  over  3000  Indians)  is  the 
administrative  headquarters  and  the  central  sta- 
tion of  the  Uganda  Railway.  At  Kilindini  im- 
provements are  in  progress  that  will  make  it  the 
finest  harbor  on  the  east  African  coast  and  the 
centre  of  trade  for  equatorial  Africa.  In  1012, 
of  the  338,033  acres  (9844  freehold,  328,189 
lease)  classed  as  productive,  310,145  were  de- 
voted to  gazing,  27,888  to  crops.  Cattle,  sheep, 
and  ostriches  are  raised.  Tlie  crops  include 
grains,  coconuts,  cotton,  sisal,  rubber,  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  fruits.  The  worked  mines  yield  car- 
bonate of  soda,  limestone,  graphite,  and  gold. 
The  cost  of  construction  of  the  Uganda  (Mom- 
basa-Victoria) Railway  (602  miles)  to  March 
31,  1914,  was  approximately  £6,289,917.  Four 
steamers  are  operated  on  Victoria  Nyanza  in 
connection  with  the  railway.  Railway  passen- 
gers carried  (1913-14),  616,197;  tons  of  goods, 
189,556;  revenue,  £546,345;  expenditure,  £322,- 
861.  The  telegraph  system,  exclusive  of  the 
lines  in  Uganda,  has  2302  miles  of  line  (the  rail- 
way line  has  three  wires).  Commercial  and 
financial  figures  follow: 

1908-9  1909-10  1910-11  191314 

Imports    ..£797,158  £775,246  £1,000,846  £2,147,987 

Exports    ..     486.818  590.067  962,911  1,482,876 

Revenue  . .     485,668  503,089  609.585  1,123,789 

Expenditure  703,103  669,404  682,041  1,115,899 

GrU-in-sid.     138,000  183,500  180,000  

Shipping  *.1,888,159  1,914.158  1,864,740  1,791,081 

*  Tonnage  entered  at  Mombasa  and  Kilindini. 

The  import  figures  are  exclusive  of  railway 
material,  government  stores,  and  specie.  The 
United  Kingdom  supplied  imports  to  the  value 
(1913-14)  of  £907,410,  and  received  exports 
valued  at  £686,643;  British  possessions,  £433,- 
337  and  £118,451;  (Germany,  £194,514  and  £219,- 
523;  the  United  States,  £170,864  and  £95,976; 
the  Netherlands,  £101,050  imports;  France, 
£207,414  exports. 

EASTLAND  DISASTEIL  See  Safety  at 
Sba. 

ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION,  Amebican. 
The  twenty-eighth  annual  meeting  of  the  associa- 
tion was  held  at  Washington,  D.  C,  from  Dec. 
27  to  30,  1915.  The  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation, the  American  Statistical  Association,  the 
American  Sociological  Society,  the  American  Po- 
litical Science  Association,  the  American  Associ- 
ation for  Labor  Legislation,  the  Nineteenth  In- 
ternational Congress  of  the  Americanists,  the 
American  Society  of  International  Law,  the  Na- 
val History  Society,  the  American  Folk-Lore  So- 
ciety, the  American  Anthropological  Association, 
the  Archseological  Institute  of  America,  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association  also 
held  their  annual  meetings  at  the  same  place  and 
time.  Among  the  papers  and  addresses  were  the 
following:  'Trobable  Changes  in  the  Foreign 
Trade  of  the  United  States  Resulting  from  the 
European  War,"  by  Emory  R.  Johnson;  "The 
Value  of  Archives  to  the  Student  of  Economics,*' 
by  Frank  W.  Taussig;  "The  Apportionment  of 
Representatives,"  by  Walter  F.  Wilcox;  "The 
Economic  Costs  of  War,"  by  John  Bates  Clark 


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ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION 


100 


ECXTADOB 


and  W.  S.  Rossiter;  ''Economic  Theorizing  and 
Scientific  ProgreBs/'  by  J.  H.  Hollander.  Papers 
or  speeches  were  also  given  by  G.  Hunt,  B.  F. 
Shambaugh,  Waldo  G.  Leland,  Leo  F.  8tock, 
Louis  A.  Simon,  W.  M.  Stephens,  B.  H.  Meyer, 
W.  C.  Mitchell,  Willard  Straight,  and  G.  E.  Rob- 
erts. The  officers  of  the  association  for  1915: 
Walter  F.  Wilcox,  of  Cornell  University,  presi- 
dent, and  Allyn  A.  Young,  of  Cornell  University, 
secretary  and  treasurer. 

ECONOMIGSy  Home.  See  Food  and  Nutri- 
tion. 

ECONOMICS,  Social.  See  Social  Econom- 
ics. 

ECXTADOB.  A  South  American  republic  be- 
tween Colombia  and  Peru.    Capital,  Quito. 

Abba  and  Population.  The  eastern  limits  of 
the  republic  are  not  definitely  established,  but, 
pending  a  settlement  of  the  boundary  disputes 
with  Colombia  and  Peru,  the  area  is  stated  at 
299,600  square  kilometers  (115,676  square 
miles) ;  or,  including  the  Oal&pagos  (about  730 
miles  off  the  coast),  307,243  square  kilometers 
(118,627  square  miles).  The  republic  is  di- 
vided into  17  provinces.  The  population  in  1903 
was  placed  at  1,272,000;  an  estimate  of  1910  is 
1,600,000.  The  majority  of  the  people  are  In- 
dians, and  there  are  perhaps  400,000  mestizos; 
the  proportion  of  pure  white  inhabitants  is  very 
small.  Much  uncertainty  exists  in  respect  of 
urban  population ;  Guayaquil  is  supposed  to  have 
upwards  of  80,(K)0  inhabitants;  <2uito,  about 
70,000;  Cuenca,  over  40,000;  Rfobamba,  about 
18,000;  Puertoviejo,  Ambato,  Loja,  and  Ibarra, 
each  about  10,000. 

Education.  Illiteracy  is  prevalent,  though 
primary  instruction  is  free  and  nominally  com- 
pulsory. A  report  of  the  minister  of  public  in- 
struction, published  in  1915,  gave  the  number  of 
primary  schools  as  1231,  with  an  enrollment  of 
96,019.  State  schools  numbered  1054,  with  72,- 
655  pupils;  mimicipal  schools,  92,  with  12,009 
pupils;  and  private  schools,  85,  with  10,355  pu- 
pils. For  secondary  instruction  there  are  12 
institutes  supported  by  the  government,  be- 
sides commercial  and  technical  schools  at  (^uito 
and  Guayaquil.  For  higher  and  professional 
education  there  are  universities  at  (^uite,  Gmiya- 
quil,  and  Cuenca.  There  is  also  a  law  college  at 
Loja.     The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 

iPBODUCTiON  AND  C/OMMEBCE.  The  most  im- 
portant crop  is  cacao,  for  which  Ecimdor  sup- 
plies a  large  part  of  the  world's  demand,  though 
the  proportion  is  smaller  than  formerly;  i&e 
average  £cuadorean  output  has  not  declined,  but 
that  of  other  countries,  notably  Brazil,  has  in 
recent  years  increased.  In  1913,  85,908,495 
pounds  of  cacao  were  delivered  at  the  port  of 
Guayaquil;  the  quantity  sent  to  other  ports  for 
shipment  is  comparatively  small.  Other  prod- 
ucte  of  account  are  coffee,  rice,  sugar  cane,  to- 
bacco, ivory  nute,  and  rubber.  The  rubber  in- 
dustry has  suffered  from  the  thriftless  exploita- 
tion of  the  trees.  A  large  part  of  the  ivory  nute 
was  taken  b^  Germany,  and  the  export  of  that 
product  declmed  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
German  war.  Ecuador  has  valuable  mineral  re- 
sources, but  they  have  not  been  largely  ex- 
ploited. Manufactures  have  little  commercial 
importence,  except  Panama  hate,  which  are  pro- 
duced in  large  numbers. 

The  reported  value  of  importe  and  exports,  re- 
spectively, in  1911,  was  $11,489,104  and  $12,- 
692,237;   in   1912,  $10,354,564  and  $13,689,696; 


in  1913,  $8,836,689  and  $15,789,367;  in  1914, 
$8,402,767  and  $13,061,566.  The  principal  im- 
porte are  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  foodstuffs, 
hardware,  machinery,  wines  and  liquors,  ready- 
made  clothing,  ete.  The  chief  export  is  cacao; 
other  exporte  of  some  importance  are  Panama 
hate,  ivory  nute,  rubber,  gold,  and  cattle  hides. 
Trade  by  principal  counteies,  in  thousands  of 
dollars: 

Imports  ExportM 

1918       1918  1918       1918 

United   Kingdom 8.058     2,618  2,042     1,620 

United    States 2.687     2.818  8,957     8.834 

Germany    2,105     1,568  1,528     2,627 

France   616        485  4.097     5,882 

Total,  including  other  10,355     8,887  18,690  15.789 

CoicicuNicATioNS.  The  length  of  railway  in 
operation  in  1912  was  about  370  miles;  of  this, 
297  miles  are  comprised  in  the  line  from  Dur&n 
(opposite  Guayaquil)  to  Quito.  This  line  was 
opened  in  June,  1908,  and  since  has  been  worked 
at  a  heavy  loss,  in  fact  not  earning  interest 
upon  ite  bonds,  so  that  the  track  cannot  be  main- 
teined  in  a  proper  s'tete  of  repair,  and  break- 
downs and  serious  accidents  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Eu- 
ropean war  a  German  firm  secured  a  contract 
from  the  government  to  build  a  line  from  Huigra 
to  Cuenca,  and  this  would  have  had  considerable 
effect  on  the  prosperity  of  the  coimtry.  A  rail- 
way (19  miles)  extends  from  Puerto  Bolfvar  to 
Ikfachala,  Pasaje,  and  Guabo.  There  are  under 
construction:  a  line  from  Mante,  on  the  coast,  to 
Sante  Ana;  a  line  from  Bahfa  de  Caraquez  to 
Quito;  a  line  from  Ambato  to  Curraray;  and  a 
coastel  line  from  Guayaquil  to  Salinas.  At  the 
end  of  1912,  there  were  3318  miles  of  telegraph 
line,  with  188  offices.  There  are  six  radiotele- 
graph stetions.    Post  offices,  151. 

Finance.  Gold  is  the  stendard  of  value. 
The  Sucre  is  the  monetery  unit;  it  has  a  par 
value  of  48.665  cente,  being  one-tenth  of  the 
Ecuadorean  condor  or  of  the  British  sovereign. 
Revenue  and  expenditure  are  reported  as  follows, 
in  thousands  of  sucres  (the  figures  for  1915  are 
estimated) : 

1911       1918       1918       1914       1915 

Reyenue    13.264  10,973  20,140  20,996  20.880 

Expenditure 15,886  19,950  21.508  20.760  20,880 

The  chief  items  of  revenue  are  import  duties 
(8,155,620  sucres  in  1912)  and  export  duties 
(4,598,408).  The  larger  disbursements  in  1912 
were:  for  the  public  debt,  6,927,348  sucres;  war 
and  marine,  3,411,810;  public  instruction,  1,- 
844,698;  interior  and  police,  1,561,325.  Public 
debt,  Jan.  1,  1914:  foreign,  28,027,400  sucres; 
internal,  14,114,420;  totel,  42,141,820. 

GovEBNMENT.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  President  elected  by  direct  vote  for 
four  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  five 
ministers.  The  Congress  consists  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate  (32  member,  elected  for  four  years) 
and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (48  members, 
elected  for  two  years).  For  the  term  beginning 
Aug.  31,  1911,  Emilio  Estrada  was  inaugurated 
President  in  succession  to  Gen.  Eloy  Alfaro. 
The  death  of  Estrada,  Dec.  21,  1911,  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  revolutionary  outbreak  headed  ap- 
parently by  friends  of  A&aro  (who  was  killed). 
On  March  31,  1912,  the  commander  of  the  gov- 
ernment forces.  Gen.  Leonidas  Plaza,  was  elected 


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ECXTABOB  101        EDUCATION  IN  UNITED  STATES 

President,  and  on  the  Slet  of  August  following  days  in  California.  The  average  for  the  whole 
was  inaugurated  for  a  four-year  term.  Plaza  country  was  84  days.  All  but  three  States, 
was  President  in  1901-05.  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  now  have 
HiBTOBT.  End  of  the  Revolution,  The  revo-  compulsory  school  attendance  laws.  In  Idaho 
lution  in  Ecuador  which  began  in  December,  the  compulsory  attendance  age  is  from  8  to  17 
1913,  under  the  leadership  of  Col.  Carlos  Concha  years  inclusive.  In  a  few  States  the  limits  are 
was  thought  to  have  reached  an  end  late  in  Feb-  from  7  to  15  years,  in  others  from  8  to  16.  The 
ruary,  when  Colonel  Concha  was  captured  near  minimum  period  of  compulsory  attendance  each 
Esmeraldas.  A  report  to  tiie  State  Department  year  varies  from  24  weeks  to  the  full  school  year, 
in  Washington  stated  that  the  government  ''con-  Of  each  thousand  pupils  in  the  elementary 
siders  this  of  great  importance  and  that  it  means  school  235  were  in  the  first  parade,  150  in  the  see- 
the collapse  of  the  revolutionary  movement."  ond,  139  in  the  third,  133  in  the  fourth,  112  in 
(See  Yeab  Book,  1914.)  the  fifth,  92  in  the  sixth,  76  in  the  seventh,  and 

PolitiotU  and  Economic  Conditions.    Ecuador  63  in  the  eighth.    The  number  registered  in  the 

was  represented  at  the  Pan-American  Financial  first  grade  does  not  represent  the  number  who 

Conference,  in  Washington,  in  May,  by  E.  Gal-  are  beginning  school.    It  is  usually  estimated 

lardo  and  V.  Gk>nzales.    The  principal  duty  of  that  one-half  of  the  first  grade  enrollment  is 

these  delegates  was  to  acquaint  the  members  of  composed  of  those  who  repeat  the  grade  or  are 

the  Conference  with  facts  cmioerning  the  Guaya*  retarded.     Taking  this  assumption  as  the  basis,  it 

quil   and    Quito   Railroad,    an    American-owned  would  seem  that  less  than  one  child  in  four  who 

line,  which  had  failed  to  make  several  payments  enters  the  first  grade  reaches  the  high  school  and 

of  interest  on  bonds.    These  bonds  were  owned  that  only  about  109  out  of  every  thousand  who 

mainly  by  European  investors  who,  as  security,  enter  first  grade  graduate  from  the  high  school, 
held  a  lien  on  the  entire  customs  receipts  of  the        TeacKera    in   Elementary    Sohoola    and    High 

country.    Ecuador  claimed  that  it  was  experi-  Schools.    The    public    elementary    schools    em- 

encing  difficulty  with   the   line   and   could   not  ployed    89,801     men    and    421,944    women    as 

make  it  pay  the  interest.    The  committee  ap-  teachers.    The  public  high  schools  employed  23,- 

pointed  by  the  conference  to  consider  the  mat-  412  men  and  30,326  women.    In  addition  it  is 

ter  accepted  the  report  made  by  the  Ecuadorean  estimated  that  41,831  teachers  were  employed  in 

delegates.    The  war  in  Europe  brought  about  a  private  elementary  schools  and  13,358  in  private 

deficit  in  the  revenues  of  Ecuador  estimated  at  high  schools.    In  three  years — 1910  to   1913 — 

$2,000,000.    In  order  to  make  up  this  deficit  the  the  number  of  public  elementary  school  teachers 

government  endeavored  to  establish  a  market  in  was  increased  6  per  cent.    The  increase  in  num- 

the  Western  Hemisphere  for  Ecuadorean  prod-  ber  of  children  enrolled  was  5  per  cent.     During 

ucts.    In  July  an  effort  was  made  to  encourage  the  same  time  the  niunber  of  high  school  stu- 

trade  between  Chile  and  Ecuador  by  an  exhibit  dents  increased  21  per  cent  but  the  number  of 

of   Chilean  goods  at   Quito.    An   executive  de-  high  school  teachers  increased  29  per  cent, 
cree   convened   Congress   on   August   10th.     The         Coats  of  State   Common  Schools.    The   total 

session  was  chiefiy  concerned  with  measures  to  expenditure  for  the  common  schools  in  1913  was 

improve  the  economic  condition  of  the  country.  $521,546,375,  or  $5.37  per  capita  of  total  popu- 

EDISON    BATTEBY.     See    Electbio    Bat-  lation.    Of  each   $100  secured   for  school  pur- 

TKBIE8.  poses  $4  came  from  income  of  permanent  funds 

EDUCATION.    See  section  so  entitled  under  or  rents,  $15  came  from  State  taxes,  $74  from 

various  foreign  countries  and  under  States  of  local  taxes,  and  $7  from  other  sources.    It  cost 

the  United  States.  an  average  of  $38.31  for  each  pupil  in  average 

EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  attendance.     Of  this  amount  $6.14  was  used  for 

Statistics.    Attendance  in  Elementary  and  Sec-  sites  and  buildings,  $22.36  for  salaries,  and  $9.81 

ondary  Schools.    The  latest  report  of  the  United  for  all  other  purposes.    The  per  capita  cost  for 

States  Commissioner  of  Education  gives  the  sta-  high    school   students   during   the  year    ending 

tistics  for  the  year  1913.    It  shows  that  there  June,  1914,  was  $57.02. 

were  in  the  elementarv  schools,  including  kin-        In   a  recent  report  of  a  survey  of  the  San 

dergarten,  primary,  and  grammar  grades,  a  total  Antonio  school  system  Prof.  J.  F.  Bobbitt  pre- 

of  19,084,787  pupils.     Of  this  number,  17,474,269  sents   as  an   "index   of  community  valuations" 

were  in  public,  and  1,590,518  in  private,  schools,  some   tables   which   give  the   costs   of   teaching 

There  were  1,134,771  secondary  students  in  pub-  various    high    school    subjects.    The    following 

lie  institutions,  and  148,238  in  private  schools,  table  is  compiled  from  data  which  he  presents: 

There  were  also  83,813  secondary  students  in  the  

preparatory  departments  of  higher  institutions.  OoH  of         Coti  of 

In  miscellaneous  schools  of  elementary  and  sec-  in8trw:t\on    instrucHon 

ondary  rank  there  were  839,634  students.    A  to-  por^^nt*     ^"^how 

tal  of  21,271,243   students  received  formal   in-  English   CompoBitlon  and  Lit- 

struction   in   elementary   or   secondary   subjects        erature    20.4  6.7 

during  1913.    Compared  with  the  total  popula-  ^^*>»«  Mathematic. i7,o  e.9 

tion  of  the  country,  in  each  thousand  persons  Histor^^^rnd'civici!  ■.'.*.'.'.*.■.'.'  loie  sia 

196  were  in  the  elementary  school  and  14  were  Modern  Langaages io.3  11.4 

in  the  high  school.     The  public  provided  instruc-  Household  Occupationa   .......     9.7  8.8 

tion  for  180  of  the  196  elementary  pupils  and    ^^ES^wing     *°.    . . .    .*.   *r.       6.8  lo.a 

for  12  of  the  14  high  school  students.  Commercial  Subiects   .    .  5.8  10.8 

The   length   of   school   term   varied    from    91     Latin 5.2  io.3 

days  to  194  days.    Tlie  average  for  all  of  the  S'iVii^  ^^^,    .'''^.: :  i"  i:: '  i: ::       4  So 

States  was   158  days.    The  average  number  of  Physical  Training  .'  .*  !o 

days'  attendance  in  public  schools  for  each  child    Drawing  and  Design  (not  Me- 

between  the  ages  of  5   imd   17   years  inclusive    Tra^^fnTof  Eiei.'  TeachVri ! ! !       iS 

varied  from  41  days  m  South  Carolina  to  112 

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EDtrCATION  IN  TTNITED  STATES 


102 


EDUCATION  IN  UNITED  STATES 


The  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  San  An- 
tonio devotes  20.4  per  cent  of  all  the  expense  of 
instruction  to  English  composition  and  litera- 
ture. For  each  student  it  costs  6.7  cents  for 
each  hour  of  instruction  in  English.  Professor 
Bobbitt  implies  that  because  the  community  is 
willing  to  pay  11.4  cents  per  student  per  hour 
for  instruction  in  modern  languages  and  only 
0.8  cents  for  the  instruction  in  sciences  they 
value  modem  languages  more  highly  than  sci- 
ences. 

BuBEAUS  OF  Reseabch  AND  Effigienct.  In 
the  past  four  years  nine  cities  have  established 
departments  or  bureaus  of  research  and  effi- 
ciency in  connection  with  their  public  schools. 
These  cities  and  the  dates  of  the  establishment 
of  the  bureaus  are  as  follows:  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
1911;  Baltimore,  Md.,  1912;  New  Orleans,  La., 
1912;  New  York  City,  1913;  Boston,  Mass., 
1914;  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1914;  Detroit,  Mich., 
1914;  Oakland,  Cal.,  1914;  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
1914.  In  each  case  the  aim  is  to  have  a  con- 
stant investigation  of  the  school  system.  The 
following  quotation  from  the  annual  report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Kansas  City 
gives  the  aims  and  functions  of  the  bureau  es- 
tablished in  that  city:  "The  purpose  of  this 
bureau  is  to  assist  in  discovering  better  methods 
of  administering  and  supervising  our  schools, 
and  better  methods  of  teaching  the  various  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum.  It  is  hoped  that  such 
plans  and  methods  may  be  discovered  as  will 
secure  the  best  results  from  the  given  factors. 

'The  plan  throughout  will  be  codperative.  .  .  . 
It  shall  be  the  function  of  this  bureau  to  bring 
together  the  results  of  efforts  at  improvements 
and  so  tabulate  and  arrange  the  data  that  those 
interested  may  know  the  facts  that  have  been 
revealed  by  anv  investigations  that  are  under- 
taken and  be  able  to  judge  in  a  better  way  the 
value  of  the  conclusions  reached.  A  further  aim 
will  be  to  so  democratize  the  school  system  and 
so  plan  the  work  that  the  humblest  teacher  in 
any  grade  mav  contribute  the  results  of  her 
work  to  the  advancement  of  the  system.  .  .  . 

''While  ill-advised  and  unorganized  experi- 
mentation will  not  be  undertaken,  much  liberty 
will  be  allowed  in  working  out  problems  along 
safe  and  conservative  lines.  .  .   " 

While  the  above  statement  describes  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  work  of  this  bureau,  we  might 
enumerate  specific  functions  as  follows: 

First:  To  measure  and  tabulate  the  results 
that  are  now  being  secured  in  our  schools.  Dur- 
ing the  first  year  we  hope  to  do  some  work  in 
measuring  the  results  in  writing  and  arithmetic 
and  possibly  also  in  spelling  and  language. 

Second:  To  study  the  results  of  the  work 
of  similar  bureaus  in  other  cities  and  bring  to 
Kansas  City  the  best  conclusions  of  those  bu- 
reaus. 

Third:  To  cooperate  in  the  investigation  of 
any  problem  that  may  confront  the  board  of 
education,  the  superintendents,  the  supervisors, 
the  principals,  the  teachers,  or  the  people. 

Fourth:  To  tabulate  and  analyze  all  sta- 
tistical reports. 

Fifth:  To  study  methods  of  reducing  waste 
in  the  school  system. 

Sixth:  To  study  with  the  principals  and  the 
teachers  plans  for  reducing  elimination  of  pu- 
pils, non-promotion  of  pupils,  and  failures  of 
pupils. 

Seventh:     To  cooperate  with  all  the  depart- 


ments of  the  school  system  in  efforts  to  increase 
efficiency. 

Educational  Investigations  and  Subveys. 
The  Survey  Conunittee  of  the  Cleveland  Founda- 
tion assisted  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation 
conducted  a  very  thorough  survey  of  the  schools 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  report  of  the  survey  is 
contained  in  25  small  volumes  which  may  be  ob- 
tained either  from  Cleveland  Foundation  or  from 
the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York.  Pro- 
fessor John  F.  Bobbitt,  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, investigated  the  schools  of  San  Antonio, 
Texas.  During  December,  1916,  the  city  of  Bos- 
ton employed  a  group  of  educational  experts  to 
investigate  the  management  of  the  city  schools. 
The  report  of  this  investigation  is  not  yet 
printed.  The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Teaching  is  conducting  an  ex- 
haustive siurvey  of  the  teachers'  training  insti- 
tutions of  Missouri.  During  the  month  of  May 
the  public  school  system  of  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, 
was  surveyed  by  a  staff  under  the  direction  of 
Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity. 

There  are  evidences  that  interest  in  investiga- 
tions sudi  as  have  been  conducted  is  decreasing. 
The  recent  investigations  have  failed  to  develop 
any  new  plans  of  procediure  or  to  suggest  specific 
remedies  for  defects  other  than  those  found  in 
certain  administrative  matters.  The  outcome  of 
many  of  the  investigations  has  been  the  creation 
of  a  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  their 
school  officials  and  teachers.  This  may  be  whole- 
some in  the  end  but  the  immediate  results  have 
in  many  cases  been  unfortunate. 

Industrial  Education  Subvets.  Several 
cities,  notably  Richmond,  New  Orleans,  and  Min- 
neapolis, have  begun  or  completed  very  compre- 
hensive investigations  of  their  industries  as  re- 
lated to  industrial  education.  After  consider- 
ing such  questions  as  conditions  of  employment, 
wages,  hours  of  labor,  entrance  age,  etc.,  the 
findings  in  the  Richmond  investigation  present 
the  education  requirements  for  operatives  in  the 
various  trades.  It  shows  what  the  worker  needs 
to  properly  equip  him  for  the  trade,  what  train- 
ing the  industry  gives,  common  deficiencies  of 
workmen,  and  ends  with  suggestions  as  to  what 
the  school  ought  to  give.  The  industrial  survey 
of  Minneapolis  seeks  to  find,  first,  to  what  ex- 
tent the  worker  can  "get  on"  in  his  job;  second, 
to  what  extent  the  city's  industries  may  give 
special  training  which  they  do  not  now  provide; 
third,  to  what  extent  can  the  schools  be  a  factor. 
The  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  In- 
dustrial Education  is  directing  the  survey.  Dr. 
Charles  A.  Prosser,  Director  of  the  William 
Hood  Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute  of  the  city 
of  Minneapolis,  is  director.  The  Minneapolis 
School  Board,  the  Dunwoody  Industrial  Insti- 
tute, the  Minneapolis  Art  Institute,  and  the 
Civic  and  Commerce  Association  are  cooperating. 

MoNTESSOBi  Schools.  Dr.  Montessori  began 
her  experiments  with  normal  children  in  Rome 
in  the  Case  dei  Bambini  (children's  houses)  in 
one  of  the  tenement  sections.  She  had  previ- 
ously experimented  with  defective  children  and 
found  that  by  using  methods  that  developed  the 
senses  and  by  followinff  the  child's  development 
she  was  able  to  accomplish  almost  as  much  with 
these  children  as  was  ordinarily  accomplished  by 
the  regular  schools  with  normal  children.  In 
1909  she  published  the  outcome  of  her  observa- 
tions and  experiments  in  a  book  entitled  The 


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EBTXCATION  IJSf  TTNITEB  STATES       103        EDUCATION  IK  TXNITEB  STATES 


Method  of  Sciet^tifio  Pedagogy  Applied  to  Inf€Mt 
Education.  Her  training  in  medicine  and  psy- 
chiatry enabled  her  to  apply  the  method  of  ex- 
perimental science  to  the  study  of  education. 
The  following  quotation  presents  in  brief  form 
her  method:  ''Qive  the  best  conditions  of  life, 
and  then,  as  is  done  witii  other  living  organisms, 
give  freedom  for  development,  disturbing  as  lit- 
tle as  possible,  observing,  certainly  helping,  by 
every  means,  in  this  development."  The  dis- 
tinctive features  of  the  method  are  an  insistence 
upon  sense  education  and  muscular  training. 
She  emphasizes  freedom  for  the  children  and  de- 
mands that  the  teacher  shall  observe  them  and 
assist  them  but  not  prescribe  what  shall  be  done. 
By  the  use  of  various  materials  which  can  be 
used  in  only  one  way  the  child  is  led  to  correct 
himself.  Inis,  according  to  Madame  Montessori, 
provokes  "auto-education"  and  because  the  ma- 
terial does  the  teachin|f  she  calls  it  "the  didactic 
material."  It  is  claimed  that  children  learn 
the  ordinary  school  subjects  rapidly  and  easily 
after  the  preliminary  training  afforded  by  this 
method. 

The  Montessori  movement  in  America  began 
in  1911.  From  that  time  on  many  American 
teachers  and  others  interested  in  education  vis- 
ited the  Montessori  schools  in  Italv  and  Swit- 
zerland. Miss  Anna  E.  Qeor^e,  who  had  pre- 
viously studio  and  observed  in  the  Montessori 
schools,  translated  Madame  Montessori's  book, 
and  opened  a  Montessori  class  in  Tarrytown,  K. 
Y.,  in  October,  1911.  In  1912  the  Montessori 
American  Committee  was  formed.  This  com- 
mittee helped  to  arrange  the  first  International 
Teachers'  Training  course  at  Rome.  Of  the  100 
students  in  attendance  nearly  70  were  Ameri- 
cans. In  May,  1913,  the  National  Montessori 
Educational  Association  was  formed  with  head- 
quarters in  Washington.  The  purpose  is  "to 
promote  and  develop  in  America  the  educational 
movement  based  on  the  principles  and  theories  of 
Dr.  Montessori,  and  to  assist  in  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  schools  for  children 
and  schools  of  observation  and  practice  con- 
ducted according  to  said  principles."  The  as- 
sociation now  luM  a  membership  of  more  than 
700. 

Dr.  Montessori  visited  the  United  States  in 
1913  and  again  in  1916.  During  her  last  visit 
she  conducted  a  teachers'  training  institute  in 
connection  with  a  model  clasj  at  the  Panama 
Exposition.  No  available  data  concerning  the 
number  of  Montessori  schools  in  America  are- 
available.  It  is  certain  that  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  teachers  have  been  influenced  by  her 
method  and  in  their  own  work,  largely  in  private 
schools,  have  modified  their  practice  in  accord- 
ance. 

Oboanio  Education.  Mrs.  John  F.  Johnson 
is  developing  a  method  of  school  instruction  and 
organization  at  Fairhope,  Ala.,  that  is  now  com- 
manding the  attention  of  the  school  authorities. 
Schools  similar  to  hers  have  been  establidied  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  Each  sum- 
mer she  conducts  a  teachers'  training  course  in 
connection  with  a  model  school  at  Greeiwich, 
Conn.  "She  calls  her  methods  of  education  'or- 
ganic' because  they  follow  the  natural  growth 
of  the  pupil.  The  school  aims  to  provide  for  the 
child  the  occupations  and  activities  necessary  at 
each  stage  of  development  for  his  unfolding  at 
that  sti^.  Therefore,  she  insists  that  general 
development,  instead  of  the  amount  of  iiSforma- 

Y,  B,— 7 


tion  acquired,  shall  control  the  classification  of 
the  pupils.  Division  into  croups  is  made  where 
it  is  found  that  the  chiloren  naturally  divide 
themselves.  These  groups  are  called  'Life 
Classes'  instead  of  grades.  The  first  life  class 
ends  between  the  Suk  and  9th  years;  the  sec- 
ond between  the  11th  and  12th,  and  since  an 
even  more  marked  change  of  interests  and  tastes 
occurs  at  the  period  of  adolescence,  there  are 
distinct  high-school  classes.  The  work  within 
the  group  is  then  arranged  to  give  the  pupils 
the  experiences  which  are  need^  at  that  age 
for  the  development  of  their  bodies,  minds,  and 
spirits." 

In  place  of  the  typical  primary  curriculum  she 
has  the  following  activities:  Physical  exercise, 
nature  study,  music,  hand  work,  field  geography, 
story  telling,  sense  culture,  fundamental  con- 
ceptions of  number,  dramatizations,  and  nunes. 
As  much  as  possible  of  this  work  is  conducted 
out  of  doors.  In  the  ordinary  school  the  gym- 
nasium work  comes  at  a  time  when  the  child  is 
fatigued  with  his  study.  In  Mrs.  Johnson's 
school  the  gymnasium  work,  which  is  informal, 
may  come  the  first  thins  in  the  morning.  In 
place  of  being  forced  to  learn  the  "three  R's," 
the  child  is  1^  into  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic by  his  own  desire  to  know.  Mrs.  Johnson 
is  not  disturbed  if  a  child  does  not  learn  to  read 
until  he  is  eight  or  nine  years  old. 

Mrs.  Johnson  has  not  formulated  her  work 
into  any  system,  so  it  is  impossible  to  state  the 
principles  by  which  she  works.  The  best  de- 
scription of  her  work  is  found  in  Schools  of  To- 
morrow, by  John  Dewey. 

Vocational  EnucATioif.  There  was  no  change 
during  1916  in  the  number  of  States  having  sys- 
tems for  organizing  and  supervising  vocational 
schools  and  for  assisting  local  commimities  in 
the  maintenance  of  such  schools  through  grants 
of  State  aid.  The  States  having  such  systems 
are:  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Indiana.  In  eadi 
of  these  States  administration  is  effected 
through  the  office  of  a  special  deputy  or  expert 
assistant  attached  to  the  staff  of  the  State  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction  or  Commis- 
sioner of  Education. 

Federal  Aid  for  Vooatumal  Training,  The 
Smith-Lever  Act,  approved  by  the  President 
on  May  8,  1914,  provides  for  ''cooperative  agri- 
cultural extension  work  which  shall  consist  of 
the  ^ving  of  instruction  and  practical  demon- 
strations in  agriculture  and  home  economics  to 
persons  not  attending  or  resident"  in  the  agri- 
cultural colleges.  The  appropriations  provided 
by  this  act  go  to  the  State  agricultural  colleges 
which  are  required  to  make  plans  for  the  work 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture. During  the  current  fiscal  year  cSich 
State  had  $10,000  from  this  fund.  The  general 
plan  for  conducting  the  extension  work  consisted 
in,  first,  locating  extension  agents  in  several 
counties  of  the  State  to  carry  on  demonstrations, 
advise  the  agricultural  people  and  stimulate 
them  to  better  methods;  second,  the  organiza- 
tion of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  largely  in  connec- 
tion with  the  rural  schools,  to  conduct  some 
simple  agricultural  or  home  economics  project; 
third,  the  organization  of  a  staff  of  specialists 
in  agriculture  and  home  economics  as  a  part  of 
the  faculty  of  the  agricultural  college.  These 
specialists  go  about  the  State  and  assist  the  ex- 
tension agents.    Agents  are  now  located  in  more 


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EDtrCATION  IN  UNITED  STATES        194 


EOYPT 


than  1000  comities  out  of  the  3000  in  the  United 
States. 

The  Smith-Lever  Bill  provides  "$10,000  an- 
nually to  each  State  for  its  Agricultural  College 
beginning  July  1,  1914.  For  the  year  beginning 
July  1,  1915,  it  provided  $600,000  additional  to 
be  allotted  to  the  various  States  in  the  propor- 
tion which  the  rural  population  of  each  State 
bears  to  the  total  rural  population  of  the  United 
States;  and  for  each  succeeding  year  for  seven 
years  an  additional  amount  of  $500,000  allotted 
on  the  same  basis.  By  July  1,  1923,  this  will 
amount  to  an  annual  appropriation  of  $4,100,- 
000  in  addition  to  the  $10,000  to  each  State. 
None  of  this  amount  will  be  paid  to  any  State 
(excepting  the  $10,000  annually)  imless  the 
State  makes  an  equal  appropriation.  Both  the 
fund  received  from  the  Federal  government  and 
the  equal  fund  from  the  State  government  to 
balance  it  must  be  expended  on  extension 
schemes  approved  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture." 

The  Smith-Hughes  Bill  for  national  aid  to  vo- 
cational education  was  before  the  Sixty-third 
Congress  and  has  been  reintroduced  in  the 
Sixty -fourth  Congress.  This  bill  would  "provide 
Federal  aid  to  cooperate  with  the  various  States 
in  the  maintenance  and  support  of  vocational 
schools  of  agriculture,  home  economics,  and  the 
trades  and  industries  for  persons  14  vears  of  age 
and  over,  and  in  the  maintenance  and  support  of 
schools  for  training  teachers  for  the  vocational 
subjects  in  these  vocational  schools.  This  would 
provide  vocational  education  in  regular  day 
schools  of  high  school  grade  and  part-time  day 
schools  for  youths  not  employed,  and  in  con- 
tinuation courses  in  evening  schools  for  youths 
and  adults  regularly  employed."  The  following 
table  presents  a  summary  of  the  proposed  grants 
to  be  given  to  the  States  by  the  Smith-Hughes 
Bill: 


his  sole  control.  This  theatre  was  given  over  to 
the  lighter  comedies  and  burlesques.  With  the 
production  of  The  Oaiety  OiH  Mr.  Edwardes 
first  introduced  that  form  of  entertainment  now 
known  as  musical  comedy.  This  was  followed 
by  a  long  series  of  comedies  of  a  like  kind,  in- 
cluding The  Shop  Oirl,  The  Artisfs  Model,  8an 
Toy,  The  Country  Oirl,  and  The  Oeisha,  These 
musical  plays  were  produced  in  conjunction 
with  Charles  Frohman,  and  other  partners, 
and  were  successful  in  the  United  States  and 
England.  Mr.  Edwardes  was  one  of  the  most 
widely  known  managers  in  England  at  the  time 
of  his  death. 

EOGS.  See  Aobicultube,  sections  The  War 
and  Agriculture  and  Eggs, 

EGYPT.  A  khedivate  of  northeastern  Africa, 
virtually  under  the  control  of  Great  Britain  and 
nominally  under  Turkish  suzerainty  until  1914, 
when  it  became  a  British  protectorate.  Cairo  is 
the  capital. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  exclusive 
of  the  Sudan,  is  given  as  363,181  square  miles, 
of  which  only  12,013  square  miles  are  settled  and 
under  cultivation.  The  population  in  1907  num- 
bered 11,189,978,  not  including  nomadic  Bedou- 
ins, estimated  to  number  over  97,000.  By  na- 
tionalities the  population  was  made  up  as  fol- 
lows: 10,903,677  (10,366,046  sedentery,  637,- 
631  nomadic)  Egyptians,  and  286,381  foreigners, 
of  whom  69,726  Turks,  62,973  Greeks,  34,926 
Italians,  20,853  British  including  Maltese,  14,- 
591  French  including  Timisians,  7704  Austrians 
and  Hungarians,  2410  Russians,  etc.  Moham- 
medans numbered  10,366,826;  Copts,  706,322; 
Jews,  38,635.  In  1907  Cairo  had  654,476  in- 
habitants; Alexandria,  332,246;  Tanta,  54,437; 
Port  Said,  49,884;  Mehala  el  Kobra,  47,955; 
Mansura,  40,279;  Assiut,  39,442;  Damanhur, 
38,752;  Fayum,  37,320;  Zagazig,  34,999;  Dami- 
etta,   29,354;    Minieh,   27,221;    Sherbin,  25,473; 


Tear 


Toward 
talarieg 
foragri- 
cultural 
teaehw* 


1915-16 $500,000 

1916-17 750,000 

1917-18 1,000,000 

1918-19 1,250,000 

1919-20 1,500,000 

1920-21 1,750,000 

1921-22 2,000,000 

1922-23 2,600.000 

1928-24 8,000,000 


Federal 

Toward 

For 

Board  of 

taiarieM 

training  of 

Vocational 

Total 

for  trade 

teachere 

Education 

for 

and 

for  voca- 

for 

each 

induatrial 

tional 

adminiatration, 

year 

teaehere 

vork 

investigation, 
Mtudiee,  etc. 

$500,000 

$500,000 

$200,000 

$1,700,000 

750,000 

700,000 

200.000 

2.400.000 

1,000,000 

900,000 

200,000 

8,100,000 

1,250,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 

8,700,000 

1,500,000 

1,000,000 

200,000 

4,200,000 

1,750,000 

1,000,000 

200,000 

4,700,000 

2.000,000 

1.000,000 

200.000 

5,200,000 

2,500.000 

1,000,000 

200,000 

6.200.000 

3,000,000 

1,000,000 

200.000 

7,200,000 

The  maximum  in  each  case  above  is  con- 
tinued annually  after  1923-24. 

EDXTCATION,  Vocational.  See  Education 
IN  THE  United  States,  section  Vocational  Edu- 
cation. 

EDWABDES,  George.  English  theatrical 
manager,  died  Aug.  4,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
1852.  In  his  early  years  he  intended  to  enter 
the  army,  but  his  associations  with  the  theatre 
provided  the  stronger  attraction,  and  he  went 
into  the  theatrical  business.  For  10  years,  be- 
ginning with  1875,  he  worked  under  the  direc- 
tion of  D'Oyley  Carte,  then  manager  of  the  Sa- 
voy Theatre.  He  then  bought  out  a  half  interest 
in  the  Gaiety  Theatre,  which  soon  passed  under 


Akhmim,  23,796;  Beni-Suef,  23,367;  Menuf,  22,- 
316;  Shebin  el  Kom,  21,576;  Mellawi,  20,249; 
Qena,  20,069. 

Education.  In  1910  an  important  and  very 
interesting  experiment  was  begun,  viz.,  the  hand- 
ing over  of  local  education  to  the  recently  con- 
stituted provincial  councils.  This  new  depar- 
ture introduced  a  much-needed  elasticity  and  di- 
versity into  the  system.  The  provincial  coun- 
cils became  entirely  responsible  for  elementary 
vernacular  education  in  their  districts,  and  all 
schools  maintained  by  them  are  inspected  by  the 
ministry  of  education.  The  ministry  still  re- 
tains, under  its  direct  control,  certain  elemen- 
tary schools  belonging  to  trusts  controlled  by 


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EGYPT 


195 


EOYPT 


the  mmifltry  of  Waqfs  (pious  foundations) ; 
these  schools,  or  maktabs,  numbered  142  at  the 
end  of  1913,  with  an  attendance  of  14,027. 
Higher  primary  schools,  34,  with  7610  pupihi; 
provincial  coimcil  maktabs,  911,  with  67,176; 
private  maktabs  (grant-in-aid),  3394,  with  174,- 
282;  provincial  council  higher  primary  schools, 
78,  with  10,493.  Total  number  of  establish- 
ments under  direct  management  of  the  ministry 
of  education,  198,  with  27,864  pupils ;  total  num- 
ber of  establishments  under  inspection  by  the 
ministry,  4493,  with  263,296  pupils.  Of  the  lat- 
ter total,  227,434  were  boys,  and  26,861  were 
girls.  A  free  primary  school  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Cairo. 
Agriculture.    The  area  planted  to  cotton  in 

1910  was  stated  at   1,642,610   feddans,  and  in 

1911  at  1,711,228— an  increase  of  68,618  feddans. 
Production,  in  1911,  of  cleaned  cotton,  3,318,629 
metric  quintals.  In  the  table  below  are  shown 
areas  under  main  crops  in  feddans  ( 1  f eddan  = 
1.0^  acres)  in  1913,  as  distributed  in  Lower 
Egypt,  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  Suez  governorate; 
with  the  total  area  for  Egypt,  and  the  total 
yield  (cotton  and  sugar  in  kantars,  other  crops 
in  ardebs  of  5.44  bushels)  : 

Lower       Upper  S.O.      Total            Yield 

Cotton     .1,839,565   888,485  44   1.723,094     7.554,000 

Wheat   .  .     678,747  626,634  197   1,805,578      6.972.000 

Barley   .  .     165,785  203,300  78      369,158     2,078,000 

Rice     .  .  .     220,149      13,218  .  .  .       242,367      1,280,000 

Corn    ...1,173,716  458,471  869   1,632,556   10,350,000 

Millet    220,204  .  .  .       220,204      1,363,000 

Sugar    ..         2,199     46,241  28         48.468  21,629,000 

Of  the  1,723,094  feddans  reported  as  planted 
to  cotton  in  1913,  486,600  feddans  were  attacked 
by  the  cotton  worm,  as  compared  with  980,300  in 
1912.  Area  reported  as  planted  to  cotton  in 
1914,  737,354  hectares;  yield,  3,144,960  metric 
quintals.  Lower  Egypt  suffered  from  pink  boll- 
worm  attacks,  but  Upper  Egypt  yielded  a  good 
crop. 

The  area  under  sugar  cane  in  1916  was  21,921 
hectares,  or  106.2  per  cent  of  the  area  in  1914, 
which  amounted  to  20,252  hectares  and  gave  a 
production  of  9,248,429  metric  quintals  of  cane. 
The  amount  of  sugar  cane  treated  in  1913  was 
741,000  tons,  as  compared  with  537,000  in  1912. 
Amount  of  sugar  cane  treated  in  1909-10,  516,- 
839  tons  (sugar  yield,  553,346  metric  quintals) ; 
472,344  in  1910-11    (493,942). 

Area  planted  to  wheat,  1913-14,  526,453  hec- 
tares (preliminary  figures  for  1914-15,  640,118 
hectares),  yielding  8,935,297  metric  quintals 
(10,654,389);  barley,  161,035  (187,206)  hec- 
tares, 2,412,234  (2,993,027)  quintals;  corn,  713,- 
550  (771,904)  hectares,  16,954,119  quintals;  rice, 
14,967.(133,925)   hectares,  598,991  quintals. 

Much  hardship  has  resulted  from  the  dearth 
of  cattle  for  plowing  in  the  Delta,  disease  having 
carried  off  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  these  ani- 
mals in  seven  years.  Increase  of  cotton  pests, 
due  to  improper  drainage  and  the  wholesale  de- 
struction of  birds,  has  wrought  havoc.  Legisla- 
tion has  been  enacted  for  the  protection  of  bird 
life,  and  a  commission  appointed  to  devise  means 
for  the  suppression  or  better  control  of  the  cot- 
ton worm  and  bollworm.  The  government  has 
taken  measures  for  the  distribution  of  improved 
cotton  seed. 

CoMMEBCE.  In  the  following  table  are  given 
imports  and  exports  of  merchandise  in  thousands 
of  pounds  Egyptian: 


1910         1911         1912         191S  1914 

...28,658     27.227     25.908     27,865     21,725 
...28,944     28,699     84,674     81.662     24,092 


Imports 
Exports 


Trade  with  the  principal  countries  of  origin 
and  destination  is  shown  in  the  following  table 
in  thousands  of  pounds  Egyptian  (£E=: 
$4.943) : 

1910  1911  1919  1918  1914 
Imports : 

United   Kingdom.  7,811  8,557  7,991  8,496  7,061 

British  poB.^ 169  257  258  207  192 

British   pos.t 967  1.095  1,814  1.762  1,277 

France  t    2,708  2,889  2,411  2,518  1,640 

Turkey    2,905  2,808  2.754  2.724  1,911 

Austria-Hungary.  1,647  1,988  1,680  1,941  1,127 

Germany     1,262  1,500  1,421  1,609  1.875 

Italy    1,169  1,461  1.248  1,478  1,450 

Exports : 

United   Kingdom.  14.843  13.958  16,022  18,648  10.460 

British  pos.< 10  10  14  18  06 

British  pos.f    82  111  118  108  168 

Prance  t     2,480  2.816  2,707  2,787  1,571 

Austria-Hungary.    1,485  1.448  1,481  1.757  960 

Germany     3.088  8.117  8.886  4.066  2,299 

United    States...    1.892  2.071  4.121  2,485  2,917 

Russia     1,659  1.789  2,056  2.242  1.600 

*  British  possessions  in  the  Mediterranean, 
t  British  possessions  in  the  Far  East. 
t  Including  Algeria. 

B^  decision  of  the  president  of  the  council  of 
ministers,  the  export  of  foodstuffs  and  products 
(except  for  necessary  supplies  to  ships  leaving, 
which  demand  them)  was  prohibited  after  Aug. 
3,  1915. 

The  total  export  of  cotton  decreased  from 
fE27,529,300  in  1912  to  £E25,613,100  in  1913, 
and  from  £E24,241,000  in  1910  to  £E22,988,000 
in  1911,  the  United  Kingdom  taking  over  £E1,- 
000,000  less  than  in  the  previous  year.  In  1913 
the  United  Kingdom  took  £E10,996,700,  as 
amnst  £E12,572,200  in  1912;  the  United  States, 
££2,442,500,  as  against  £E4,072,200  in  1912. 
Total  export  of  cotton  seed  was  £E3,294,800,  of 
which  the  United  Kingdom  took  £E1,698,700, 
and  Germany,  £E1, 480,704.  The  cigarette  ex- 
port was  £E395,000.  Coal  arrived  to  the  amount 
of  1,686,700  tons,  valued  at  £E2,010,000,  of 
which  the  United  Kingdom  contributed  1,605,000 
tons,  valued  at  £E1,909,700. 

The  withdrawals  of  leaf  tobacco  decreased 
from  8,206,000  kilograms  in  1912  to  8,177,000  in 
1913.  Russian  tobacco  advanced  from  1,027,000 
kilograms  in  1911  to  1,511,000  in  1912,  and 
1,853,000  in  1913.  Tobacco  in  bond  decreased 
from  186,000  bales  Dec.  31,  1912,  to  167,000 
bales  Dec.  31,  1913,  from  the  fact  that,  owing 
to  the  disturbed  political  conditions  in  eastern 
Europe,  merchants  transferred  their  stocks  to 
Alexandria  in  1912. 

Steamers  entered  at  Alexandria  in  the  1913 
trade,  1932,  of  3,718,660  net  registered  tons; 
cleared,  1927  steamers,  of  3,698,396.  There 
passed  through  the  Suez  Canal  in  1913,  4979  ves- 
sels, of  19,758,040  net  tons. 

Communications.  There  were  1512  miles  of 
state  railway  in  operation  Jan.  1,  1913.  In  ad- 
dition there  were  795  miles  of  light  railways — 
the  Egyptian  Delta  Light  Railways,  the  Chemins 
de  Fer  de  la  Basse-Egypte,  and  the  Fayum  Light 
Railway.  There  is  an  increase  of  20  miles,  as 
compared  with  1912,  due  to  the  completion  of  a 
new  line  from  Salhib  to  Baltim,  constructed  by 
the  Delta  Light  Railway  Co.  Capital  value  of 
railways,   1913,  £E27,291,943;   interest  on  cap- 


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Italy  5.97  per  cent.  Capital  expenditure  on  State 
railways  in  1013  amounted  to  £E446,000.  For 
1014,  expenditure  on  capital  works,  ££443,000 
were  granted. 

Finance.  The  alteration  of  the  date  of  the 
financial  year  involTed  the  preparation  of  an  in- 
tercalary budget  for  the  first  quarter  of  1914, 
which  estimated  for  a  surplus  of  £E156,000.  All 
unused  balances  lapsed  on  March  13,  1014,  with 
the  inception  of  the  new  system.  The  budget  for 
1014-16  was  estimated  to  balance  at  ££18,162,- 
000.  Revenue  and  expenditure  for  three  years 
are  shown  in  the  table  below: 


1011  191$  1918 

Revenne   . .  .££16,792,760  £El7,616,748  £E17.868,616 
Expenditure       14,414.499        16,470,584        15,728,786 

The  total  outstanding  debt  Jan.  1,  1014, 
amounted  to  ££04,202,640,  and  the  annual 
charge  for  interest  and  sinking  fund  to  £E3,661,- 
266. 

QovsBNiCENT.  The  reigning  Khedive  at  the 
date  of  the  establishment  of  the  British  pro- 
tectorate was  Abbas  (II)  Hilmi.  By  associat- 
ing himself  with  the  Turkish  military  operations 
against  £gypt  he  incurred  the  resentment  of  the 
British  government  and  was  superseded  by  his 
fatiier's  brother,  Hussein  Kemal  Pasha,  with  the 
revived  title  Sultan  of  £gypt.  The  Sultan  is  a 
man  over  60  years  of  age,  experienced  in  ad- 
ministrative fimctions,  and  educated  in  the  Paris 
of  the  Second  £mpire.  Sir  Arthur  Henry 
McMahon  was  appointed  high  commissioner  for 

Egypt. 

HiSTOBT.  The  first  Sultan  of  Egypt,  Hussein 
Kemal,  appointed  in  December,  1014  (see  Yeab 
Book,  1014,  Egypt),  chose  the  following  min- 
isters to  form  his  first  cabinet:  Premier  and 
minister  of  the  interior,  Hussein  Rushdi  Pasha; 
agriculture,  Adli  Yeghen  Pasha;  pious  founda- 
tions, Ismail  Sidki  Pasha;  public  works,  Ahmed 
Hilmi  Pasha;  finance,  Yussuf  Wahba  Pasha; 
justice,  Abdul  Khalek  Sarwat  Pasha.  Almost 
from  the  outset  the  newly  created  Sultan  was 
confronted  by  foreign  and  domestic  dangers. 
From  without,  Egypt  was  menaced  by  the  ex- 
Khedive,  AblMUB  Hilmi,  who  had  been  given  the 
title  "King  of  Syria  and  Arabia"  by  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey  by  way  of  consolation  for  the  loss  of 
Egypt,  and  was  rumored  to  be  engaged  in  mus- 
tering forces  for  an  attack  upon  the  usurping 
Hussein  Kemal.  More  serious  was  the  danger 
from  the  army  which  the  Turks  sent  to  attack 
the  Suez  Canal  and  invade  Egypt.  Thanks  to 
the  warships  stationed  in  the  canal  and  to  the 
loyal  British  colonial  troops  encamped  on  the 
banks  of  the  canal,  all  Turkish  assaults  were  re- 
pulsed. (For  details  see  article  Wab  of  the 
Nations,  The  Suez  Canal.)  Within  Egypt  it- 
self constant  conspiracies  were  being  formed 
against  the  Sultan's  life.  Sir  Arthur  McMahon, 
the  new  high  coinmissioner,  who  arrived  in 
Egypt  Jan.  0,  1016,  took  prompt  measures  to 
insure  domestic  tranquillity ;  and  care  was  taken 
to  impress  the  populace  with  a  sufficient  display 
of  British  colonial  troops;  but  in  spite  of  all 
precautions,  an  attempt  to  assassinate  the  Sul- 
tan almost  succeeded  April  8.  A  few  months 
later  another  attempt  was  made.  A  bomb  was 
thrown  at  Hussein  as  he  passed  through  the 
streets  of  Alexandria  on  his  way  to  prayers, 
July    10.    After    this   attack,    the   government 


deemed  it  necessary  to  issue  a  proclamation 
ordering  every  person  having  knowledge  of  any 
plot  to  report  it  under  pain  of  summary  punish- 
ment by  martial  law;  nevertheless  in  September 
a  member  of  the  cabinet  was  thrice  stabbed  by 
an  employee  of  the  ministry  of  finance.  The 
regular  November  session  of  the  Lesislative  As- 
sembly and  the  elections  which  should  have  been 
held  in  January,  1016,  were  postponed  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  government,  October  27th.  See  also 
Abchjeoloot  and  Wab  of  the  Nations. 

EHSLICHy  Paul.  German  scientist,  died 
Aug.  20,  1016.  He  was  bom  in  Strehlen,  in  the 
Province  of  Silesia,  in  1854,  and  attended  school 
in  Breslau,  and  later  studied  medicine  in  that 
city  and  at  Strassburg,  Freiburg,  and  Leipzig. 
His  first  studies  were  of  the  cellular  elements  of 
the  blood,  and  his  experiments  in  this  work  for- 
tified him  for  his  practical  triumphs  over  cer- 
tain blood  diseases.  About  the  same  time  he 
standardized  his  diphtheria  antitoxin,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  German  government  and  whi^h  is 
used  almost  everywhere  to-day.  After  the  publi- 
cation of  this  discovery,  he  took  over  the  direc- 
tion of  a  government  institution  founded  at  Steg- 
litz,  but  its  activities  grew  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  1800  the  Royal  Institute  for  Experi- 
mental Therapeutics  was  established  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  and  Dr.  £hrlich  was  made  its 
director.  Here  he  carried  on  many  experiments 
in  the  treatment  of  cancer,  and  in  1012  produced 
his  cancer  specific,  nigrosin,  which  he  had  used 
on  mice  with  great  success.  His  most  important 
discovery  was  salvarsan,  widely  known  at  first 
as  "606"  specific,  for  the  cure  of  blood  diseases. 
His  experiments  led  him  to  the  discovery  of  this 
remedy  in  1010.  Several  years  before  his  death 
he  began  experiments  on  the  sleeping  sickness. 
In  1006  Mrs.  Georg  Speyer  endowed  an  institute 
for  chemical  therapeutics  for  Dr.  Ehrlich.  This 
was  known  as  the  Georg  Speyer  House.  About 
the  same  time  John  D.  Rockefeller  learned  of  the 
contributions  made  by  Dr.  £hrlich  to  medical 
science,  and  authorized  the  board  of  the  Rocke- 
feller Institute  to  place  $10,000  at  his  disposal. 
In  1004  he  visited  the  United  States,  and  de- 
livered lectures  in  several  large  cities.  He  re- 
ceived the  deraree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University 
of  Chicago,  in  1007  he  delivered  the  Harben 
lectures  in  London,  receiving  the  degree  of  Sc.D. 
from  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  the 
greatest  exponent  of  modem  pathology.  He 
with  Dr.  Metchnikoff  was,  in  1008,  the  recipient 
of  the  Nobel  prize  for  research  work  in  medicine. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  works  on  medical 
science. 

ELECTION  LAWS.     See  Electobal  Rsfobm. 

ELECTION  OF  SENATOBS,  Direct.  See 
£legtobal  Refobm. 

ELECTOBAL  BEFOBM.  The  State  Legisla- 
tures in  session  in  1016  enacted  many  important 
measures  relating  to  changes  in  electoral  laws  of 
the  States.  In  several  States  changes  were 
made  in  the  residence  qualifications  of  the  voters. 
In  Vermont  the  voter  who  changed  his  residence 
within  16  days  prior  to  the  election  might  vote 
in  the  town  to  which  he  moved.  The  0[>nnecti- 
cut  Legislature  authorized  a  voter  to  retain,  for 
the  purpose  of  voting,  residence  in  the  town  from 
which  he  moved.  Meanwhile  he  was  regarded  as 
a  resident  of  the  town  to  which  he  movS,  for  the 
purpose  of  voting  there  at  the  following  election. 
A  similar  provision  was  passed  by  the  California 
Legislature.    In   Colorado,  Michigan,  Montana, 


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ELEGTBIG  BATTBBISS 


Waahington,  Wisopnsin,  and  Iowa,  qualified  vot- 
ers,  ab^t  from  their  resident  precincts,  were 
permitted  to  vote  elsewhere  in  the  State.  In 
Texas  a  constitutional  amendment  was  proposed 
authorizinff  absentee  voting  for  State  officers  or 
on  referendum. 

IU»mATioNS  OF  Eleotions.  Separate  bal- 
lots for  judicial  candidates  in  cities  of  200,000 
or  over  were  required  in  Illinois  and  Wyoming. 
In  these  States  judges  had  to  be  nominated  re- 
gardless of  political  affiliation  on  judicial  bal- 
lots at  the  general  primaries.  The  Legislature 
of  Indiana  passed  measures  providing  for  the 
election  by  public  vote  of  party  conmiittees  of  all 
kinds.  It  further  provided  that  candidates  for 
all  offices,  except  State  offices,  and  for  presir 
dential  electors,  should  be  chosen  by  direct  pri- 
maries, but  preferential  voting  for  candidates 
for  President,  Vice-President,  l&ited  States  Sen- 
ator, and  Qovemor  was  authorized.  Provision 
was  made  in  West  Virginia  for  nomination  by 
direct  primaries  for  all  candidates  for  office,  ex- 
cept specified  judicial  officers,  presidential  can- 
didates and  electors,  and  officers  in  small  cities. 
The  Legislature  of  South  Dakota  repealed  the 
Richards  Primaiy  Law  enacted  in  1913,  and  re- 
stored the  law  of  1909,  with  amendments.  New 
direct  primary  laws  were  enacted  in  California 
and  Alabama.  In  Or^on  provision  was  made 
for  the  election  of  delegates  to  national  conven- 
tions, nomination  of  presidential  electors,  and 
for  expression  of  choice  of  candidates  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President.  In  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin  a  second-choice  provision  of  the  pri- 
mary laws  was  abolished.  In  Vermont  at  the 
primarv  a  provision  for  referendum  was  enacted. 
If  the  law  is  approved  by  the  people,  it  will  take 
effect  in  1916;  if  rejected  it  will  take  effect  in 
1927.  In  Kansas  provision  was  made  for  a  sys- 
tem of  individual  declaration  of  intention  to  be- 
come a  candidate  as  an  alternative  for  nomina- 
tion by  votes.  At  the  time  of  making  this  dec- 
laration the  intended  candidate  must  pay  an 
entry  fee  of  1  per  cent  on  his  salary  for  the 
first  year.  The  expenditure  of  any  party  for 
a  single  campaign  is  limited  to  $15,000. 

IlOTIATIVIB,    REFERENDUK,    AND    RECALL.      The 

constitutional  amendment  authorizing  the  in- 
itiative and  referendum  was  proposed  in  Min- 
nesota and  Korth  Dakota.  Frauds  in  connection 
with  initiative,  referendum,  or  recall  petitions 
were  penalized  in  California,  and  it  was  made  a 
felony  of  1  to  16  years'  imprisonment  to  sub- 
scribe a  fictitious  name  or  the  name  of  another 
person  to  such  petitions.  In  Nevada  provision 
was  made  for  referendum  on  local  and  special 
legislation  to  the  voters  of  the  county  affected. 
Improvement  in  the  form  of  initiative  bills  is 
provided  for  in  California,  which  requires  the 
legislative  council  to  cooperate  in  the  passage 
of  such  measures  on  the  request  of  25  electors, 
and  requires  also  the  Attorney-General  to  pre- 
pare a  title  and  summary  for  initiative  im- 
provements. 

Pbovision  fob  Amendioott  of  State  Consti- 
tutions. A  constitutional  convention  for  the 
provision  of  an  amendment  in  New  York  State 
was  in  session  in  New  York  (see  New  York). 
The  question  of  calling  conventions  in  Louisiana, 
New  Hampshire,  South  Dakota,  and  Tennessee 
was  submitted  to  the  voters.  If  authorized  the 
New  Hampshire  Convention  will  meet  in  1918, 
and  the  Tennessee  Convention  in  1916. 

EIiECTBIGAL  ENGINEEBIKG.    See  Bleo- 


TBIO  POWEB,  TaANBMISBION  OF;    ElECTBIO  RAIXt 

WATS;  Railways;  Wibblebs  Telbqbafht  and 
Telephony;  etc. 

ELECTBICAL  INDTTSTBIES.  The  Euro- 
pean war  continued  to  have  its  retarding  effect 
on  the  development  of  electrical  industries  dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  1915,  but  later  on  under 
improved  business  conditions  there  was  a  larger 
demand  in  most  lines  of  activity,  although  not 
great  enough  noticeably  to  alter  the  financial  re- 
sults as  compared  with  1914.  The  accompany- 
ing table,  compiled  by  a  well-known  authority 
in  such  matters,  giving  the  gross  earnings  of  the 
various  electrical  industries  of  the  Unit^  States 
for  1915,  shows  a  very  slight  increase^less  than 
one-half  of  1  per  cent — ^in  the  result  of  opera- 
tions as  compared  with  the  preceding  year: 


1914 

Electric  railway! $  780,000,000 

Central  stations 400,000,000 

Telephone  service  ....  850,000,000 

Telegraph  service 85,000,000 

Electrical  mfg 450,000,000 

Isolated  plants 125,000.000 

Miscellaneous    125,000.000 

Total  $2,265,000,000 


1915 
9  700,000.000 
425,000,000 
850.000,000 
100,000,000 
450.000.000 
125,000,000 
125,000.000 

$2,275,000,000 


The  exports  of  electrical  machinery,  appli- 
ances, instruments,  etc.,  from  the  United  States 
for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  amoimted 
to  $19,771,757,  a  decrease  of  $5,289,087,  as  com- 
pared with  the  corresponding  period  of  1914. 

The  iron  and  steel  industry  adopted  electric 
power  on  an  increasing  scale  and  for  a  great  va- 
riety of  purposes.  In  steel  works  the  arc  fur- 
nace was  apparently  the  most  favored  type,  and 
there  was  a  continually  wider  use  of  electo'icity 
for  welding  in  railroad  and  automobile  shops, 
etc.  The  adoption  of  electric  japanning  ovens 
for  use  in  the  automobile  industiy  was  making 
rapid  strides  and  it  was  estimated  tibat  appli- 
ances of  this  sort  having  a  total  capacity  of  12,- 
000  k.  w.  were  in  use  m  or  near  the  cities  of 
Detroit  and  Toledo  alone,  besides  an  equal 
amount  in  widely  distributed  service  stations  of 
the  various  automobile  manufacturing  com- 
panies. 

A  project  for  the  construction  of  a  dam  near 
Queenston,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Niagara 
Gorge,  for  developing  2,000,000  horse  power  of 
electrical  energy,  was  under  consideration  during 
the  year.  A  plant  at  this  location,  and  of  such 
large  capacity,  would  increase  enormously  the 
development  of  the  electro-<^emical  industries 
in  and  near  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls.  The  im- 
portance of  the  matter  alike  to  the  industrial 
world  and  to  all  those  interested  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  scenic  beauties  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  was  destined  to  lead  to  a  bitter  contro- 
versy. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  it  was  the  prevailing 
opinion  that  the  competition  of  the  jitney  au- 
tomobile that  had  nuide  such  serious  inroads  on 
the  earnings  of  electric  street  railways  had  about 
reached  its  limit,  and  that  owing  to  the  growing 
recognition  of  the  cost  of  supplying  jitney  serv- 
ice on  a  scale  satisfactory  to  the  public,  the  ef- 
fect on  the  earnings  of  the  traction  companies 
would  be  less  severe. 

ELECTBIC  BATTEBIES.  There  was  little 
change  in  the  design  of  storage  batteries  during 
the  year.  A  modified  type  of  cell  was  brought 
out  by  Thomas  A.  Edison,  Inc.,  of  larger  size  and 


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stronger  construction  than  the  standard  nickel- 
iron  alkaline  cell,  and  adapted  for  use  in  central 
stations  and  submarine  boats.  The  positive  ele- 
ments consisted  of  layers  of  nickel  hydrate  and 
metallic  nickel  flakes  packed  in  small  perforated 
steel  tubes.  These  were  clamped  into  a  grid  called 
a  subgrid,  which  was  welded  into  a  main  grid 
frame  of  steel.  The  negative  plates  were  oxide 
of  iron  and  mercury  packed  in  flat  perforated 
pockets  of  nickel-plated  steel.  The  chemical  re- 
actions are  the  same  as  those  in  the  standard 
Edison  cells  in  common  use. 

There  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  applica- 
tion of  storage  batteries  to  vehicle  propulsion 
not  only  for  pleasure  cars  but  for  commercial 
trucks  and  flre  apparatus  as  well.  The  growing 
recognition  by  the  managers  of  electric  central 
stations  of  the  value  of  the  electric  vehicle  as  a 
by-product  customer  led  in  large  cities  to  a  bet- 
ter system  for  supplying  energy  for  such  pur- 
poses, as  well  as  improved  arrangements  in  ga- 
rages to  facilitate  the  charging,  handling,  and 
replacing  of  batteries. 

An  endurance  test  for  a  delivery  wagon  bat- 
tery was  made  which  established  a  new  mileage 
record  for  such  work,  the  vehicle  traveling  98 
miles  with  a  single  charge  of  its  battery  while 
operating  under  regular  service  conditions,  over 
wet  asphalt,  carrying  its  regular  load  and  mak- 
ing the  average  number  of  stops,  of  which  there 
were  35.  The  amount  of  current  consumed  was 
about  165  ampere  hours,  or  an  average  of  1.68 
ampere  hours  per  mile. 

A  number  of  electric  locomotives  for  operation 
by  storage  batteries  were  built  during  the  year, 
ranging  in  size  from  the  smallest  practicable 
type,  for  use  in  mines  and  having  a  height  of 
only  41  inches,  to  a  10- ton  locomotive  built  for 
use  in  the  United  States  Navy  Yard  at  Ports- 
mouth, Va.  This  was  equipped  with  two  21- 
horse-power  motors,  and  its  battery  could  de- 
velop enough  energy  to  accomplish  800  ton-miles 
of  travel  on  a  level  track. 

ELECTBIC  GENEEATOBS  AND  MOTOBS. 
See  Dynamo-Elkctwc  Machinery. 

ELECTBICITY.    See  Agbicultube. 

ELECTBIC  LIGHT  AND  POWEB.  See 
Municipal  Ownership. 

ELECTBIC  LIGHTING.  The  retarded  prog- 
ress of  most  industries  during  the  earlier  part  of 
the  year  restricted  the  demand  for  electric  lamps 
of  all  kinds,  and  conservative  estimates  reported 
that  the  total  sales  of  incandescent  lamps  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States  amounted  to  less 
than  100,000,000,  about  the  same  number  as  in 
1914.  Tungsten  lamps  made  up  70  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  sold.  In  1914  about  1,000,000 
gas-filled  tungsten  incandescent  lamps  were  put 
on  the  market,  while  in  1915  it  was  reported 
that  more  than  1,750,000  lamps  of  this  type  were 
sold  in  the  United  States.  This  lamp  was  avail- 
able in  a  variety  of  sizes  rated  from  200  to  1000 
watts  and  adapted  to  voltages  of  from  220  to 
250.  There  was  an  improvement  in  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  15-  and  20-ampere  lamps  used  for 
series  street  lighting,  and  the  1000-candle-power 
lamp  used  for  this  purpose  showed  a  specific 
consumption  of  0.45  watts  per  candle  power. 
Its  quality  was  further  improved  by  an  arrange- 
ment for  avoiding  the  damage  to  the  stem  caused 
by  the  excessive  heat  of  the  gas. 

Continued  efforts  were  being  made  in  large 
cities  to  improve  the  quality  of  street  illumina- 
tion.   Some  illuminating  engineers  preferred  the 


flame  arc  and  ma^etite  arc  lamps  to  the  gas- 
filled  tungsten  unit,  but  this  was  not  by  any 
means  universal  and  the  substitution  of  the  lat- 
ter type  for  arc  lamps  in  several  large  cities  con- 
tinued on  an  increasing  scale,  the  prevailing  type 
of  the  former  being  of  300  watts'  capacity,  with 
a  limited  number  of  the  400  watt  size.  The 
manufacturers  were  producing  lamps  capable  of 
a  useful  life  of  about  2000  hours,  a  notable  im- 
provement over  the  former  product. 

The  high  and  rapidly  increasing  cost  of  plat- 
inum during  the  year  made  it  necessary  for 
manufacturers  to  find  a  substitute  for  this  metal 
to  use  for  the  leading-in  wires  of  incandescent 
lamps.  For  this  purpose  an  alloy  of  nickel  and 
chromium  was  largely  employed,  and  to  a  lim- 
ited extent  metallic  timgsten  and  molybdenum 
were  used. 

In  England  a  novel  type  of  tungsten  arc  lamp 
was  being  developed.  The  lamp  was  filled  with 
nitrogen  at  a  pressure  of  about  two-thirds  of 
one  atmosphere,  and  the  filament  was  of  tung- 
sten combined  with  the  refractory  oxides  zir- 
conia,  thoria,  and  yttria.  In  operation  the  heat- 
ing of  the  filament  ionized  the  gas  between  it 
and  another  electrode,  thus  leading  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  arc  after  a  few  moments.  The  lamp 
was  so  made  that  the  arc  occurred  between 
small  globules  of  timgsten,  and  while  still  in  an 
experimental  sta^e  at  the  close  of  the  year,  gave 
promise  of  furnishing  a  highly  efficient  light. 
Its  ordinary  efficiency  was  0.5  watt  per  candle 
power,  and  the  color  of  the  light  a  bright  yel- 
low. Higher  efficiencies  than  this  were  obtained 
and  the  color  of  the  light  became  a  dazzling 
white,  but  the  arc  under  Uiose  circumstances  was 
not  as  stbble  as  could  be  desired. 

A  portable  searchlight  for  fire  department  use 
was  developed  that  was  giving  highly  satisfac- 
tory results  in  service,  'fhe  light  was  furnished 
by  a  36  volt,  750  watt  Mazda  lamp  of  the  focus 
type,  for  which  current  was  furnished  by  a  35  volt 
Edison  storage  battery  of  150  ampere  hours'  ca- 
pacity. The  focusing  device  attached  to  the 
lamp  made  it  possible  either  to  concentrate  the 
light  in  a  parallel  beam  of  almost  1,000,000  can- 
dle power  for  penetrating  dense  smoke,  or  for 
furnishing  a  divergent  beam  to  illuminate  a  wide 
area  such  as  the  entire  front  of  a  high  building. 
The  apparatus,  which  weighed  only  600  pounds, 
was  moimted  on  two  wheels  and  could  be  op- 
erated by  one  man. 

The  Illuminating  Engineering  Society,  of 
which  Dr.  Charles  Proteus  Steinmetz  was  elected 
president  in  1915,  continued  its  active  work 
during  the  year  in  stimulating  and  educating  the 
public  taste  for  better  quality  of  illumination, 
especially  as  regards  its  influence  on  the  human 
eye.  The  society  published  in  September,  1915, 
a  Code  of  Lighting  for  factories,  mills,  and  other 
work  places,  emlK>dying  a  systematic  effort  to 
diffuse  reliable  information  on  this  highly  im- 
portant subject.  One  of  the  large  accident  in- 
surance companies  reported  as  the  result  of  an 
extended  investigation  that  25  per  cent  of  all 
the  industrial  accidents  could  be  traced  in  one 
way  or  another  to  improper  lighting. 

ELECTBIC  POWEB,  Transmission  of.  In 
the  transmission  of  electric  power  there  was  no 
particularly  notable  work  done  in  1915.  Existing 
transmission  lines  were  extended  as  the  demand 
for  energy  increased  and  became  diversified. 
The  maximum  voltage,  150,000,  that  had  been 
employed  on  several  such  lines  in  1914,  was  not 


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ELEVATOBS 


exceeded.  Experience  with  the  steel  towers  com- 
monly used  disclosed  the  fact  that  in  several  in- 
stances they  were  unable  to  resist  the  twisting 
action  set  up  by  high  winds  when  heavily  coated 
with  ice  and  sleet,  thus  causing  destruction  of 
property  and  interruption  of  service. 

The  Great  Falls  Power  Company  of  Montana 
completed  a  plant  of  60,000  horse  power  capacity 
on  the  Missouri  River  at  the  site  from  which  the 
company  derives  its  name.  Late  in  the  year  this 
plant  began  to  supply  electric  energy  at  100,000 
volts,  over  a  line  140  miles  long,  to  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  A,  St.  Paul  Railway  for  the  electric 
locomotives  on  that  portion  of  its  line  (about 
230  miles  in  length)  between  Deer  Lodge  and 
Harlowton,  that  had  been  equipped  for  such  op- 
eration.    (See  Electric  Railways.) 

An  interesting  hydro-electric  plant  was  put  in 
operation  during  the  year  in  Japan,  noteworthy 
for  the  large  amount  of  power  developed  and  be- 
cause it  distributed  energy  at  the  highest  tension 
of  any  transmission  line  in  the  world  outside  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  This  plant  util- 
ized the  power  of  the  Xippashi  River,  the  outlet 
of  Lake  Inawashiro.  Sixty  thousand  horse 
power  developed  at  this  location  by  a  fall  of  350 
feet  was  being  transmitted  over  two  three-phase 
circuits  at  115,000  volts,  a  distance  of  145  miles 
to  the  city  of  Tokyo.  The  apparatus  was  sup- 
plied by  manufacturers  in  England,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States.  In  Toledo,  Ohio,  an 
underground  cable  adapted  to  the  unusually  high 
voltage  of  23,000  was  put  in  use  during  the  year. 
Hitherto,  the  maximum  voltage  for  underground 
cables  had  been  13,200.  The  municipality  of 
Treves,  Prussia,  was  distributing  electric  energy 
throughout  the  city  by  underground  cable  at  25,- 
000  volts,  a  more  notable  achievement  even  than 
that  just  mentioned.  Before  this  cable  was  put 
in  use  it  was  tested  for  a  half  hour  at  75,000 
volts  with  three-phase  alternating  current  and 
showed  only  250  watts  per  kilometer  dielectric 
loss. 

ELEGTBIG  SAILWAY&  Several  impor- 
tant developments  in  the  application  of  electric 
motive  power  to  railways  marked  the  year  1915. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  more  than  2250 
miles  of  steam  railway  tracks  in  the  United 
States  had  been  converted  to  electrical  operation, 
using  either  third-rail  or  overhead  conductor. 
In  addition  to  motor  cars  in  use  on  those  lines 
there  were  more  than  280  electric  locomotives  in 
regular  service.  During  December  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Railway  was  making 
tests  of  new  electric  locomotives  built  for  its 
440  mile  electrification  in  Montana  and  Idaho. 
These  locomotives  were  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  electric  engines  ever  built,  weighing 
282  tons,  and  were  for  operation  at  the  highest 
voltage  (3000)  ever  attempted  with  direct  cur- 
rent. As  shown  in  the  illustration,  they  were 
of  the  double  unit  type,  each  half  having  the 
4-4-4  wheel  arrangement  consisting  of  a  four- 
wheel  guiding  truck  and  two  four-wheel  motor 
trucks  with  a  375-horse-power  motor  geared  to 
each  axle,  giving  a  total  rating  of  3000  horse 
power  for  the  double  unit.  Their  one  hour  rat- 
ing was  3440  horse  power,  giving  a  tractive  ef- 
fort of  85,000  poimds,  while  for  starting,  almost 
135,000  pounds  could  be  depended  on.  On  a  test 
run  two  of  these  locomotives  hauled  a  train  of 
48  loaded  cars,  weighing  3000  tons,  up  a  2  per 
cent  grade  at  a  speed  of  16  miles  an  hour.  This 
train  was  followed  up  the  grade  by  another  com- 


posed of  37  cars  weighing  2000  tons,  and  pulled 
by  two  standard  stciim  locomotives  assisted  by 
a  Mallet  engine  as  a  pusher.  This  train  went 
up  the  grade  referred  to  at  a  speed  of  9  miles 
an  hour.  The  St.  Paul  engines  were  also  not- 
able for  being  the  first  direct-current  locomotives 
ever  built  to  use  "degenerative"  control,  an  ar- 
rangement for  so  connecting  the  motors  when  de- 
scending grades  as  to  act  as  generators  and  re- 
turn current  to  the  line,  thus  retarding  the 
train. 

Early  in  the  year  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
Railway  began  the  operation  of  a  30-mile  stretch 
of  its  line  in  West  Virginia  with  electric  loco- 
motives, illustrated  in  the  1914  Year  Book. 
These  machines  operated  with  alternating  cur- 
rent from  an  overhead  conductor  at  11,000  volts, 
and  were  hauling  in  regular  service  trains  hav- 
ing a  total  weight  of  3250  tons.  One  of  the  im- 
portant features  of  the  polyphase  motors  used 
on  these  locomotives  was  their  equipment  also 
for  regenerative  braking  but  differmg  from  that 
above  mentioned  on  account  of  the  use  of  alter- 
nating current.  Another  important  electrifica- 
tion was  that  inaugurated  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  in  September,  between  Broad  Street 
Station,  Philadelphia,  and  Paoli,  Pa.,  about  20 
miles  distant.  No  electric  locomotives  were 
used,  but  93  motor  passenger  coaches  were  em- 
ployed, equipped  with  series-repulsion  motors  of 
450  horse  power,  taking  energy  from  an  over- 
head conductor  at  11,000  volts  alternating  cur- 
rent. This  installation,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
railway  officials,  increased  the  total  capacity  of 
Broad  Street  Station  by  more  than  8  per  cent, 
and  the  company  was  contemplating  equipping 
the  12-mile  Chestnut  Hill  branch  in  the  same 
manner  during  1916. 

In  England,  the  London  and  South  Western 
Railway  began  the  electrification  of  nearly  50 
miles  of  suburban  lines  near  London,  using  600- 
volt  direct  current  with  a  third  rail. 

The  Swedish  State  Railways  began  electric  op- 
eration of  their  line  from  Kiruna  to  Riksgrilnsen 
in  October.  This  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion because  it  was  the  first  Swedish  line  to  use 
electricity,  and  because  of  its  northerly  location, 
which  for  part  of  its  length  was  within  the 
Arctic  Circle. 

ELECTBIC  SHIP  PEOPULSION.  See  Dy- 
namo-Electbic  Machinery. 

ELECTBIEICATION  OF  RAILWAYS.  See 
Electric  Railways  ;  Railways. 

ELECTRIFICATION  OF  RAILWAYS  AT 
CHICAGO.    See  Smoke  Abatement. 

ELECTRO-METALLTJROY.  See  Metal- 
lurgy. 

ELEVATORS.  A  notable  work  of  the  year 
in  this  field  was  the  completion  of  a  5,000,000- 
bushel  bulk  grain  elevator  bv  the  municipality  of 
Seattle,  Wash.  It  was  built  and  owned  by  the 
city,  by  which  it  will  be  operated.  It  was  de- 
signed to  afford  storage  for  the  local  flour  mills, 
and  to  facilitate  commerce,  and  especially  the 
interchange  between  rail  and  ship  transporta- 
tion of  the  product  of  the  grain  fields  of  Mon- 
tana, Idaho,  and  Washington.  The  new  elevator 
was  of  concrete,  165  feet  high,  with  a  receiving 
capacity  of  95  cars  per  each  24-hour  day,  and  a 
shipping  capacity  of  20,000  bushels  per  hour. 
All  equipment  is  electrically  operated  and  access 
is  given  to  tracks  from  four  railroads,  the  struc- 
ture standing  between  the  dock  and  the  tracks. 
The  total  cost  was  $281,862. 


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A  new  method  of  controlling  the  elevators  or 
lifts  on  the  London  Underground  Railway  was 
inaugurated  this  year.  T%e  attendants  were 
stationed  at  the  top  and  bottom  landings  in- 
stead of  inside  the  cars,  on  the  theory  that  a 
man  was  always  available  to  deal  with  the  in- 
quiries of  passengers,  and  could  control  the  load- 
ing of  the  cars  better  from  the  outside  than 
from  within.  The  method  consisted  of  install- 
ing control  boxes  at  the  various  landings  which 
not  only  served  to  control  the  movements  of  the 
cars  themselves  but  also  to  open  and  close  the 
gates  and  doors  by  the  action  qf  compressed  air. 
These  control  boxes  were  arranged  for  the  elec- 
trical control  both  of  the  operating  gear  of  the 
elevators,  and  the  air  for  the  doors  and  gates. 
Fifty-one  elevators  were  to  be  equipped  for  op- 
eration in  this  manner,  and  the  Central  London 
Railway  was  also  to  have  the  new  arrangement 
installed  on  the  elevators  of  older  pattern. 

ELXIN,  John  Pbatt.  American  jurist,  died 
Oct.  3,  1916.  He  was  bom  in  Indiana  Co.,  Pa., 
in  1860,  and  graduated  from  the  Law  School  of 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1884.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  began  active  practice. 
In  1886  and  in  1887  he  served  in  the  Pennsylva- 
nia House  of  Representatives;  from  1896  to  1899 
was  Deputy  Attorney-General  of  the  State;  and 
in  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  Attomey-Gkn- 
eral.  He  was  Republican  candidate  for  Grovemor 
in  1902,  and  in  1906  was  appointed  to  the  Su- 
preme bench  of  the  State.  He  was  at  one  time 
chairman  of  the  Republican  State  Committee, 
and  was  a  delegate  to  many  Republican  National 
and  State  conventions. 

EKBBSONy  LuTHEB  Oblando.  American 
composer  and  hymn  writer,  died  Sept.  29,  1916. 
He  was  bom  in  Parsonfield,  Me.,  in  1820,  and  re- 
ceived an  academic  education.  Studying  music, 
he  became  teacher  and  choir  master  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  and  was  afterwards  organist  and  director 
in  the  Bulfinch  Place  Church  in  Boston.  He  di- 
rected about  300  musical  festivals  and  conven- 
tions, and  made  over  70  selections  of  church  and 
other  music.  He  also  compiled  many  other  books 
for  piano  and  organ,  and  composed  largely.  He 
composed  the  music  for  the  song,  "We  Are  Com- 
ing, Father  Abraham,"  popular  in  the  days  of 
the  Civil  War. 

EMETIN.    See  Ptobrh<ea  Alveolaris. 

EMIGEATION.  See  Immigration  and  Emi- 
gration. 

EMPLOYEES'  ASSOCIATIOKS.  The  first 
important  association  of  employers  in  the  United 
States  was  the  Stove  Founders'  National  Defense 
Association,  formed  in  1886.  It  was  followed  by 
numerous  others  before  the  close  of  the  century. 
Most  of  these  were  formed  along  trade  lines  and 
had  for  their  main  purpose  the  meeting  of  trade 
union  demands,  though  they  also  sought  to  ad- 
vance the  general  interests  of  the  trade.  There 
followed  more  powerful  organizations,  including 
employers  as  such,  regardless  of  industrial  lines. 
These  sprang  up  in  various  cities  and  States 
under  such  names  as  "Citizens'  Alliance,"  "Citi- 
zens' Industrial  Association,"  "Employers'  Asso- 
ciation," and  "Manufacturers'  Association." 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  National  As- 
sociation of  Manufacturers  described  below.  In 
1913  the  investigating  commission  of  Congress, 
created  to  inquire  into  such  associations  on  the 
score  of  the  scandals  connecting  members  of  Con- 
gress with  tiie  legislative  activities  of  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Manufacturers,  secured  a 


list  of  more  than  200  associations  of  employers. 
Such  organizations  are  an  inevitable  accompani- 
ment of  modem  industrial  conditions  and  hence 
are  found  in  England,  France,  and  Germany. 
Everywhere  their  purposes  are  the  same.  They 
seek  to  advance  the  legislative  interests  of  em- 
ployers, to  secure  the  advantages  of  oo5peration 
and  combination,  and  especially  to  oppose  the 
political  and  industrial  activities  of  organized 
labor.  Thus  they  have  in  all  these  countries 
made  use  of  lockouts,  black  lists,  employment  bu- 
reaus with  registers  of  workmen,  professional 
strike  breakers,  strike  funds,  "fake"  unions,  de- 
tective agencies,  armed  guards,  and  spies.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  has  been  an  increasing 
tendency  on  the  part  of  employers  to  recognize 
unions,  to  enter  into  collective  agreements,  and 
to  provide  suitable  machinery  for  the  settlement 
of  grievances  and  trade  disputes.  Only  a  few 
notable  associations  can  be  described  here. 

The  Nationai,  Association  of  Manufactur- 
ers b^ian  in  1895  as  a  voluntary  association,  but 
10  years  later  was  chartered  as  a  membership 
corporation  under  the  laws  of  New  York.  Its 
membership  includes  individuals,  partnerships, 
and  corporations  in  all  kinds  of  manufacturing 
businesses.  In  1915  it  had  about  4000  members 
with  combined  capital  of  $10,000,000,000  and  em- 
ploying about  5,000,000  workers.  It  thus  claimed 
to  be  "the  largest  and  strongest  trade  organiza- 
tion in  the  world,  whether  one  considers  capital 
invested,  hands  employed,  or  output."  It  has  a 
foreign  trade  department  for  studying  oppor- 
tunities in  international  commerce;  a  legal  de- 
partment for  supplying  advice  to  meml^s  on 
State  and  corporation  law;  and  a  foreign  and 
domestic  collection  department.  It  has  also  a 
Committee  on  Industrial  Betterment  for  study- 
ing plans  for  improving  the  conditions  of  labor. 
During  the  summer  of  1915  this  committee  made 
a  report  on  the  minimum  wage  at  home  and 
abroad.  In  the  view  of  the  committee  the  weight 
of  the  argument  was  against  the  advisability  of 
establishing  a  l^al  minimum  wage.  It  held 
that  "the  general  operation  of  the  legislative 
minimum  wage  has  everywhere  been  unsatisfac- 
tory to  employers  and  employees."  Competent 
students,  in  commenting  on  this  report,  univer- 
sally condemned  it  as  warped  in  spirit  and  as 
setting  forth  general  opinions  unsupported  by 
facts.  The  annual  membership  dues  of  the  as- 
sociation are  $50.  As  it  can  conduct  no  business 
vultures,  it  has  formed  an  auxiliary  corporation, 
the  National  Manufacturers'  Company,  which 
publishes  two  export  journals  and  the  official 
magazine,  American  Industries,  Its  headquar- 
ters are  at  30  Church  Street,  New  York  City. 

The  National  Council  for  Industrial  De- 
fense was  formed  in  1907  through  the  initiative 
of  President  Van  Cleave  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Manufacturers.  The  primary  object  was 
to  focus  the  power  of  numerous  associated  em- 
ployers in  opposing  legislation  deemed  "unwise," 
"vicious  class  legislation,"  and  to  promote  legis- 
lation deemed  "wise."  The  Council  virtually 
consists  of  a  chairman,  treasurer,  and  ooimsel, 
these  being,  respectively,  two  chief  officers  of  the 
N.  A  M.,  and  Mr.  James  A.  Emery  as  counsel. 
The  constituent  organizations  contribute  as  they 
see  fit  to  the  necessary  expenses,  there  being  no 
fixed  membership  fee,  but  each  grants  the  counsel 
full  power  of  attorney  to  represent  them  in  State 
and  national  legislative  contests. 

The    American    Anti-Botcott    Association 


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EKPLOYEBS'  ASSOCIATIONS 


likewise  owes  its  existence  to  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Manufacturers.  It  was  formed  to  fight 
organized  labor  in  the  courts,  and  especially  to 
put  an  end  to  the  use  of  the  boycott.  It  had  a 
prominent  part  in  two  famous  cases,  the  Buck's 
Stove  and  Kange  Company  case,  and  the  Dan- 
bury  Hatters'  case.    See  Boycott. 

Thk  National  Metal  Trades  Association  in- 
cludes numerous  powerful  employers  in  all 
branches  of  the  metal  industries  and  machine 
trades.  It  has  branches  in  some  15  or  16  cities 
where  these  trades  are  important,  each  branch 
exercising  considerable  local  autonomy.  It  has 
been  a  most  determined  opponent  of  any  "dic- 
tatorial" action  by  organized  labor,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  closed  shop;  and  while  it  is  not  as  a 
whole  opposed  to  the  union  shop  with  collective 
bargaining,  some  of  its  stronger  branches  have 
successfully  opposed  every  form  of  recognition 
of  organized  workers.  It  holds  the  following 
principles  are  essential  to  the  conduct  of  the 
business  of  its  members  and  hence  cannot  be 
made  subjects  of  arbitration:  the  number  of  ap- 
prentices, helpers,  and  handy  men  must  be  de- 
termined by  employers;  wages  must  be  fixed  by 
employers;  any  employee  may  leave  when  he  sees 
fit,  or  the  employer  at  his  discretion  may  dis- 
charge any  employee.  This  association  has  made 
a  most  effective  use  of  registers  of  workers  by 
means  of  the  employment  offices  maintained  in 
connection  with  local  branches.  The  records  of 
employees  of  all  member  concerns  are  kept;  men 
cannot  transfer  from  one  firm  to  another  without 
a  suitable  card  from  this  employment  office;  the 
same  is  true  to  a  large  extent  of  men  from  other 
cities  who  have  previously  worked  in  the  metal 
trades.  The  national  h&Btdquarters  are  in  the 
People's  Gas  Building,  Chicago,  III. 

Commission  on  Industrial  Relations.  The 
preliminary  report  of  this  Commission  (q.v.)  in- 
cluded a  statement  of  21  criticisms  of  employers' 
associations.  Most  of  these  had  been  advanced 
by  trade  imionists,  who  favored  the  formation  of 
such  associations  as  essential  to  effective  col- 
lective agreements,  but  who  objected  to  various 
methods  and  policies  of  many  associations.  It 
was  objected  that  they  frequently  oppose  the  or- 
ganization of  the  workers;  to  this  employers  re- 
plied that  they  do  not  object  to  unions  formed 
on  proper  lines,  but  that  they  do  object  to  unions 
which  interfere  with  the  employer's  right  to  con- 
duct his  business  in  his  own  manner  and  with 
the  right  of  the  worker  to  determine  what  con- 
ditions of  employment  he  individually  is  willing 
to  accept.  It  was  objected  that  the  salaried  sec- 
retaries or  managers  of  employers'  associations 
are  usually  not  employers,  lack  contact  with  in- 
dustry, and  to  keep  their  jobs  stir  up  enmity; 
this  was  declared  by  employers  to  be  in  the  main 
untrue.  To  the  charge  that  the  associations  are 
usually  dominated  hj  small  cliques,  it  was  re- 
plied tiiat  this  was  smiply  such  centralization  of 
power  as  experience  had  shown  to  be  effective. 
The  charge  IJiat  the  associations  were  indifferent 
to  the  condition  of  workmen  was  generally  ad- 
mitted on  the  ground  that  the  associations  were 
formed  for  purely  business  reasons  and  left  in- 
dividual employers  free  to  do  what  each  saw  fit 
in  the  way  of  welfare  work.  The  charge  that 
office  records  of  workmen  were  used  to  blacklist 
agitators  and  unionists  was  admitted,  but  it  was 
contended  that  men  ought  to  be  employed  on  the 
basis  of  their  past  records,  and  that  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  fl^tator  was  in  the  interest  of  in- 


dustrial peace.  That  associations  opposed  to 
trade  imions  have  boycotted  employers  using 
union  labor  and  goods  bearing  union  labels  was 
answered  by  the  contention  that  such  action  was 
taken  as  defense  against  union  aggression.  It 
was  charged  that  associations,  by  employing 
armed  guards,  maintain  a  state  of  feudalism, 
and  oppose  the  constituted  authorities  of  the 
State,  while  these  guards  themselves  provoke 
violence;  to  this  employers  answered  that  tiie 
employment  of  guards  was  due  to  a  failure  of 
the  government  to  perform  its  duties,  that,  since 
this  involved  heavy  expense,  it  was  a  result,  not 
a  cause,  of  violence,  and  that  since  violence  was 
most  detrimental  to  employers'  property  and 
faithful  workers,  it  is  inconceivable  that  em- 
ployers would  encourage  violence.  To  the  ob- 
jection that  the  associations  maintain  spies  and 
detectives  to  spy  on  unions,  harass  union  offi- 
cials, and  foment  strikes,  it  was  replied  that  de- 
tectives were  used  to  secure  onlv  such  informa- 
tion as  the  employers  need,  and  that  it  is  not 
probable  that  employers  stir  up  trouble  among 
their  workers  only  to  suffer  the  consequent 
losses. 

That  employers'  associations  maintain  bodies 
of  strikebreakers,  who  are  not  bona  fide  work- 
men but  only  mercenaries  in  the  industrial  war 
was  defended  on  the  ground  that  plants  must 
be  kept  in  operation  and  that  the  maintenance 
of  a  supply  of  reserves  is  only  an  example  of 
business  foresight.  To  the  charge  that  the  as- 
sociations defend  members  in  case  of  strikes 
without  determining  the  justice  of  tiie  issues, 
the  employers  replied  that  this  was  not  fre- 
quent and  that  behind  an  apparently  just  strike 
may  be  fundamental  principles  which  tiie  em- 
ployers must  mainiam.  The  employers  con- 
tended that  no  association  exercised  such  ton- 
trol  over  its  members  as  to  compel  them  to  so 
distribute  advertising  that  the  press  could  be 
brought  under  control.  They  also  contended 
that  the  influence  of  employers  over  judges 
through  social  contact  was  not  greater  than  the 
influence  of  labor  through  elections  of  judges. 
To  the  charge  that  the  agents  of  associations 
bribe  union  officials,  it  was  answered  that  such 
bribes  were  usually  solicited  and  that  no  asso- 
ciation would  be  warranted  in  disciplining  a 
member  "held  up"  by  a  trade  union  official. 
The  employers  admitted  that  the  associations 
maintain  lobbyists  at  State  and  National  capi- 
tals, but  this  involved  great  expense  and  would 
not  be  done  had  experience  not  shown  it  to  be  a 
necessary  protection  against  foolish  and  bur- 
densome legislation.  Other  minor  objections 
were  made  and  similarly  answered. 

In  its  Final  Report,  the  Commission  included 
a  section  on  "Organization,  Methods,  and  Poli- 
cies of  Employers'  Associations."  It  found  that 
such  bodies  had  increased  rapidly  in  number 
and  power  during  the  past  10  years,  and  that 
tbey  were  of  two  classes,  "bargaining"  associa- 
tions, formed  to  make  collective  agreements, 
and  "hostile  associations,"  formed  to  oppose 
trade  unions  and  collective  bargaining.  Of  the 
latter  a  fundamental  principle  is  that  wages 
shall  be  determined  solely  by  the  individual  em- 
ployer and  individual  worker.  Such  associa- 
tions see  to  it  that  the  number  of  union  men  in 
the  shops  of  members  is  kept  within  suitable 
limits;  they  nearly  all  maintain  employment 
agencies  and  secret-service  departments.  The 
report,  which  was  written  by  Basil  M.  Manly, 


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condemned  the  'HioBtile*'  associationB  as  anti- 
Bocial  and  recommended  the  formation  of  strong 
aBsociations  for  the  determination  in  a  demo- 
cratic and  equitable  manner  through  collective 
agreements  of  the  conditions  of  labor. 

EMPLOYEB'S  TJABTTiTTY.  See  Wobk- 
KEiv's  Compensation. 

ENDAMCEBA.     See  Pyobbhcea   Alveolabis. 

ENGINEEBINO.  The  year  1915  was  some- 
what abnormal  in  practically  all  branches  of 
engineering,  when  the  world  at  large  is  consid- 
er^. The  attention  of  engineers  in  the  leading 
European  coimtries  was  turned  to  the  great  war 
and  military  engineering  was  paramount  to  all 
other  considerations.  The  services  of  all  depart- 
ments of  engineering  were  enlisted  by  the  great 
armies,  and  never  before  had  warfare  involved 
such  destructive  means  and  such  scientific  meth- 
ods. Not  only  were  these  concerned  with  the 
actual  combat,  as  discussed  under  Militaby 
PBoobebs  and  Naval  Pboobess,  but  also  with 
the  supply  of  the  various  munitions,  including 
ordnance  supplies  to  battleships,  improved  shoes, 
metal  helmets,  clothing,  and  other  articles  man- 
ufactured specially.  These  scientific  methods 
applied  also  to  the  operation  of  railways  and 
waterways  under  purely  military  conditions  or 
under  conditions  changed  by  military  necessi- 
ties. In  the  neutral  or  non-belligerent  coun- 
tries tiie  manufacture  of  war  munitions  enlisted 
the  attention  of  many  large  manufacturers,  and 
in  title  United  States  particularly,  new  plants 
came  into  being  for  the  manufacture  of  explo- 
sives, shrapnel,  motor  vehicles,  aeroplanes,  and 
other  munitions  of  war,  where  the  latest  meth- 
ods of  machine  operation  and  factory  organiza- 
tion were  applied. 

As  is  usual  in  the  Yeab  Book,  the  more  im- 
portant branches  of  engineering  will  be  found 
discussed  under  their  individual  heads.  See,  for 
instance,  in  civil  engineering,  the  following  arti- 
cles:     AQUEDUCT;      6Bn)0E8;      BUILDINO     OPEBA- 

TI0N8;  Canals;  Dams;  Flood  Pbevention; 
Railways;  Tunnels;  Wateb  Pubification ; 
and  Wateb  Wobks.  The  Panama  Canal, 
with  its  record  of  successful  operation  for  a  few 
months,  till  the  ^eat  slides  caused  its  closure, 
is  also  discussed  m  a  separate  article,  while  the 
much  needed  harbor  improvement  at  various 
American  ports  is  considered  under  Docks  and 
Habbobs.  The  article  on  Railways  in  1915  is 
particularly  interesting,  in  view  of  the  depres- 
sion under  which  the  great  transportation  com- 
panies had  been  operating  for  several  years,  and 
of  the  improvement  of  the  railway  business  with 
a  renewal  of  prosperity.  Municipal  Govebn- 
ment,  as  usual,  requires  careful  consideration, 
and  this  it  receives  from  the  Yeab  Book,  with  a 
discussion  of  such  problems  as  Wateb  Supply, 
mentioned  above,  Gabbaoe  and  Refuse  Dis- 
posal, and  forms  of  municipal  engineering  and 
activity,  such  as  Fibe  Pbotection,  where  im- 
proved methods  of  engineering  not  confined 
merely  to  apparatus  but  extended  to  proper  con- 
struction and  inspection,  were  made  evident. 

In  Electrical  Engineering  the  year  1915  saw 
the  first  long  distance  electrification  of  a  trunk 
line— the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  in 
its  Rocky  Mountain  section,  through  Montana 
and  Idaho.  This  involved  special  equipment 
and  locomotives,  which  are  discussed  under 
Electbic  Railways.  In  Dynamo-Electbig  Ma- 
GHiNEBY  the  most  notable  progress  of  the 
year  was  not,  as  hitherto,  an  increase  in  the 


size  of  the  various  units  put  under  construction 
or  completed,  but  the  large  number  of  units  of 
unusual  size  and  capacity  which  seemed  to  be 
considered  the  best  practice.  In  Communica- 
tion the  most  notable  advance  was  in  wireless 
telephony,  where  successful  conversation  was 
maintained  between  Washington  and  Honolulu, 
and  signals  from  San  Francisco  were  heard  at 
Paris.    This  is  discussed  under   Wibeless  Te- 

LBOBAPHY    AND    TELEPHONY.      Under    TELEPHONY 

the  completion  of  successful  transcontinental 
communication  by  wire  on  a  commercial  basis 
was  the  notable  event  of  the  year. 

In  Mechanical  Engineering  the  depression 
that  was  felt  until  well  into  the  year  acted 
against  any  extensive  developments,  though  some 
progress  was  to  be  noted  in  Intebnal  Combus- 
tion Engines,  and  larger  Boilebs  with  higher 
steam  pressures  and  higher  superheat  were  con- 
sidered the  coming  practice.  Under  ASbonau- 
Tics  great  developments  in  size,  power,  and 
strength  of  aeroplanes,  as  demanded  by  war  con- 
ditions, were  the  order  of  the  year,  and  great 
tri planes  spreading  a  hundred  feet  were  reported 
at  its  close. 

The  record  of  the  Submabines,  while  not  par- 
ticularly creditable  on  the  moral  side,  from  the 
engineering  point  of  view  indicated  progress,  as 
the  increased  radius  of  activity  of  these  vessels 
indicated  good  construction  and  design. 

In  Shipbuilding  the  renaissance  of  construc- 
tion in  the  United  States  due  to  war  conditions 
was  not  accompanied  by  any  original  or  novel 
features  of  design,  but  naval  engineers  were  in- 
terested in  the  performance  of  the  warships  of 
belligerent  navies,  and  the  new  battleships  that 
were  being  designed,  built,  and  placed  in  service. 

In  short,  the  year's  record  as  outlined  under 
the  topics  given  above,  and  under  similar  titles, 
is  one  that  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  the 
war,  and  not  as  marking  any  great  development 
in  theoretical  engineering  or  actual  design  and 
construction. 

ENOIKEEAINO  CONOBESS.  See  Intbb- 
national  Engineebino  Congbess. 

ENGLAND.     See  Qbeat  Bbitain. 

ENOLAJl'D,  Chubch  of.  During  1915  all 
church  questions  were  necessarily  considered  in 
their  relation  to  the  great  war.  The  work  of 
the  army  chaplains  was  efficient,  but  their  num- 
ber was  too  small.  Dr.  L.  H.  Gwynne,  Bishop 
Suffragan  of  the  Sudan,  was  put  in  general 
charge  of  army  work.  Dr.  A,  F.  Winnin^n-In- 
^ram.  Bishop  of  London,  was  actively  engaged 
m  ministrations  in  France  and  Belgium,  and 
paid  many  visits  to  the  soldiers  in  the  trenches. 

The  three  outstanding  features  of  interest  dur- 
ing the  year  were:  Welsh  Disestablishment;  the 
opinion  of  the  Central  Consultative  Body  of  the 
Church  of  England  on  the  Kikuyu  Conference; 
and  the  question  of  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book. 

With  regard  to  the  first,  it  was  found  that 
the  Welsh  disestablishing  law,  strictly  con- 
strued, permitted  its  being  put  into  force  im- 
mediately in  certain  parts  of  Wales,  though  not 
intended  to  be  generally  operative  until  the  close 
of  the  war. 

With  regard  to  the  Kikuyu  Conference,  the 
action  of  the  bishops,  and  also  the  scheme  of 
federation  there  proposed,  were  referred  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  the  Central  Con- 
sultative Body  of  the  Church  of  England,  which 
published  in  1915  the  following  opinion:  "The 
Central  Consultative  Body  heartily  appreciate 


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the  fact  that  the  main  object  of  the  Kikuyu 
Conference — ^namely,  the  promotion  of  a  broth- 
erly spirit  and  the  adoption  of  practical  steps 
toward  unity — is  wholly  desirable.  All  this, 
with  the  mutual  consideration  involved,  and  with 
the  united  testimony  borne  to  the  faith  which  is 
enshrined  in  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  Creeds, 
plainly  makes  for  unity ;  and  it  is  by  such  meth- 
ods and  by  such  a  temper,  more,  perhaps,  than 
by  formal  organization,  that  the  conditions  may 
be  realized  in  which  the  end  of  our  efforts  and 
our  prayers — a  genuine  African  Church — will 
be  shaped  by  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God  according 
to  His  will."  This  opinion  was  endorsed  by  the 
Archbishop,  who,  nevertheless,  emphasized  the 
difficulty  and  danger  of  allowing  one  section  of 
a  great  communion  to  federate  itself  with  some 
of  those  outside  of  it.  He  admitted  that  inter- 
denominational preaching  might  be  allowed,  if 
care  were  taken  not  to  contravene  the  authority 
of  the  diocesan  bishop.  He  also  favored  a  large 
discretion  for  the  diocesan  bishop  in  regard  to 
admitting  unconfirmed  persons  to  the  Holy  Com- 
munion. With  regard  to  the  special  eucharistic 
service  held  at  Kikuyu,  at  which  such  persons 
were  admitted,  the  Archbishop  advised  absten- 
tion at  present  from  such  services. 

A  joint  committee  of  the  two  houses  of  the 
Canterbury  Convocation  recommended  a  number 
of  changes  in  the  Prayer  Book.  These  include 
a  rearrangement  of  the  Psalter,  a  revision  of  the 
calendar,  and  alterations  in  the  ornaments 
rubriCy  the  daily  offices,  and  the  litany. 

In  1915  there  were  in  England  and  Wales 
approximately  2,446,000  Anglican  communicants 
and  2,541,000  Sunday  school  scholars.  There 
were  14,019  beneficed  clergymen,  222,309  Sunday 
school  teachers,  and  about  7700  assistant  curates. 
The  annual  income  from  voluntary  offerings  is 
between  £12,000,000  and  £14,000,000. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  As  has  been  stated  in 
earlier  Year  Books,  economic  entomology  is  a 
subject  of  especial  interest  in  the  United  States 
where  insect  pests  (other  than  those  carrying 
disease)  are  undoubtedly  of  more  pressing  im- 
portance than  anywhere  else.  .  A  large  number 
of  these  pests  are  imported,  but  some  are  un- 
doubtedly indigenous.  Writing  from  an  oecolog- 
ical  standpoint,  Shelford  considered  the  latter 
condition  an  indirect  result  of  the  removal  of 
forests.  He  thought  that  the  original  habitat 
of  these  insects  was  in  "cracks"  in  the  original 
forest;  i.e.  along  the  margins  of  streams  and 
ponds,  and  on  rocky  highlands  where  trees  do 
not  grow.  As  the  foreste  were  removed,  the  in- 
sects spread  from  these  "cracks"  over  larger 
areas. 

The  gypsy  moth  has  continued  to  spread  over 
New  England,  accompanied  in  many  cases  by  the 
brown  tail.  Twenty  towns  in  Connecticut  report 
the  presence  of  the  gypsy,  and  72  the  brown  tail. 
In  this  State  the  last  Legislature  appropriated 
$26,000  to  be  expended  in  the  next  two  years  in 
combating  these  insects.  The  gypsy  moth  prob- 
lem is  discussed  in  Bulletins  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  general 
conclusion  being  that  in  many  cases  we  must  re- 
sort to  reforestation  with  trees  on  which  the 
animal  does  not  feed,  if  we  are  to  have  any  for- 
ests left.  For  apples,  spraying  with  arsenate  of 
lead  and  thorough  removal  of  all  probable  nest- 
ing places  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  are 
recommended.  In  Europe,  Burgess  reported 
that  coniferous  trees  are  not  attacked,  but  that 


other  trees  are  subject  to  periodical  attacks.  In 
Massachusetts,  a  number  of  parasites  have  be- 
come acclimated;  two  of  these  are  hymenopterus 
parasites,  and  one  is  a  fly,  while  the  Colosoma 
beetle  is  doing  effective  work  in  feeding  on  cater- 
pillars of  both  the  gypsy  and  brown  teils.  Egg 
clusters  have  been  found  on  quarry  products,  and 
in  October,  1914,  a  quarantine  was  declared 
against  these,  similar  to  the  one  earlier  placed 
against  lumber  products.  Quarry  products 
must  now  be  inspected  exactly  as  are  the  others. 

Much  work  was  done  during  the  year  on  the 
house  fiy  problem.  Experiments  conducted  in 
Texas  indicated  that  in  order  to  prevent  repro- 
duction it  is  necessary  to  capture  the  female 
fiies  within  4  days  after  they  emerge  in  sum- 
mer, and  within  10  days  in  early  fall  and 
spring.  The  egg  stage  lasts  less  than  24  hours 
even  in  winter,  while  the  larval  stage  varies 
from  3^  days  to  about  3  weeks.  While  horse 
manure  is  their  favorite  breeding  material,  they 
will  breed  in  almost  any  decaying  materials  such 
as  ensilage,  bottoms  of  burned  straw  stacks,  etc. 
Flies  will  feed  on  manure,  but  in  these  experi- 
ments, did  not  lay  eggs  when  this  was  the  only 
food.  These  experiments  in  Texas  indicated  that 
the  fiy,  with  plenty  of  food,  will  live  to  an  age 
of  53  days,  but  no  evidence  was  seen  that  they 
can  hibernate  as  adults.  It  seemed  demon- 
strated that  hib^'nation  is  always  as  ^ggs  or 
pupae.  Hewitt,  however,  in  otiiier  localities, 
thought  he  found  them  hibernating  in  the  adult 
condition. 

According  to  a  Bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  compound  Para- 
dichlorobenzole,  used  in  the  proportion  of  1 
pound  to  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space,  is  supe- 
rior to  carbon  bisulfid  in  killing  insects.  It  is 
not  injurious  to  human  beings  imless  taken  in- 
ternally. 

That  the  public  is  becoming  aware  of  the  seri- 
ousness of  the  fiy  problem  is  evidenced  by  the 
number  of  publications  that  appeared  during  the 
year,  both  from  the  government  printing  office, 
and  from  private  sources.  The  best  mode  of  pre- 
vention is  undoubtedly  to  eliminate  breeding 
places,  but  this  is  not  always  practicable,  and 
attempts  have  been  made  to  discover  some  effec- 
tive larvicide.  A  publication  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  recommended 
the  use  of  hellebore,  %  pound  dissglved  in  10 
gallons  of  water  for  each  8  bushels  of  horse 
manure,  as  an  efficient  larvicide,  and  one  that 
does  not  affect  the  value  of  the  manure.  For 
outhouses,  etc.,  they  reconmiended  the  use  of 
powdered  borax  in  the  proportion  of  62  pounds 
to  8  bushels  of  manure.  If  used  in  larger  quan- 
tity, the  borax  is  liable  to  injure  the  material 
for  fertilizing  purposes,  by  killing  vegetation 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

Since  1912  the  mosquito  work  in  the  State  of 
New  Jersey  has  cost  $200,000,  while  the  prop- 
erty values  within  the  protected  area  have  in- 
creased more  than  $6,500,000. 

Unusually  successful  results  from  the  impor- 
tation of  parasites  of  injurious  insects  are  re- 
ported from  Hawaii,  where,  according  to  Howard, 
more  has  been  done  along  this  line  than  any- 
where else  in  the  world. 

Much  trouble  was  experienced  in  California 
from  the  insects  which  infest  dried  fruit.  Of 
these  the  "Indian  Meal"  moth,  the  fig  moth,  and 
a  number  of  beetles  are  most  important.  It 
was  estimated  that  a  single  "Indian  Meal"  moth 


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will  give  rise  to  23,000  larvte  in  the  course  of  a 
summer.  Infestation  may  take  place  at  any 
stage  of  the  preparation  of  the  fruit,  though 
heating  and  the  sulphur  treatment  which  are 
used  in  the  "processing"  tend  to  kill  the  insects. 
The  fruit  may  also  become  infested  after  it  is 
packed,  and  hence  it  is  desirable  that  some 
method  of  sealing  the  packing  boxes  should  be 
devised. 

In  the  Australian  Zodlogiat  is  recorded  the 
appearance  in  Australia  of  a  carpet  beetle  (At- 
iagenus  piceti9)  imported  in  cloth  from  London, 
and  a  West  Indian  longicom  beetle  {EJmria  bin- 
odosa)  was  seen  to  work  its  way  out  of  an  im- 
ported oak  chair.  The  observations  were  inter- 
esting as  showing  possible  means  of  transporta- 
tion of  insects.  It  was  feared  that  the  carpet 
beetle  might  develop  into  a  serious  pest. 

An  alarming  discovery  recently  made  in  Ari- 
zona is  that  there  is  a  variety  of  the  cotton  boll 
weevil  feeding  on  cotton-like  plants.  In  Texas 
some  parts  of  the  State  have  been  free  from  the 
weevil  because  of  the  dry  climate.  If  this  newly 
discovered  form  can  live  in  the  dry  climate  of 
Arizona  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  it  may 
spread  to  Texas  and  attack  the  cultivated  cotton 
there.  It  is  now  found  only  on  the  wild  plant, 
but  might  change  its  food  habit  at  any  time.  See 
also  Insects,  Pbopagation  of  Disease  by. 

EPILEPSY.  Reed  returns  to  the  old  theory 
that  epilepsy  is  due  to  a  toxic  state  of  the  sys- 
tem, originating  in  the  intestinal  canal,  eith^ 
as  a  result  of  chemical  changes  in  the  food  after 
ingestion,  or  in  consequence  of  bacterial  fermen- 
tation, or  both.  Looking  for  the  causes  of  this 
intestinal  toxemia,  he  found  that  obstinate  con- 
stipation was  a  common  phenomenon  in  epilepsy, 
and  this  was  of  a  mechanical  nature,  due  to  dis- 
placements, malformations,  adhesions,  angula- 
tions, etc.,  of  the  intestines.  The  whole  question 
resolves  itself  into  providing  adequate  intestinal 
drainage  and  his  surgical  experiences  have  con- 
firmed these  theories  to  a  remarkable  extent. 
Besides  correcting  malpositions,  releasing  ad- 
hesive bands,  and  the  like.  Reed's  main  proced- 
ures have  been  colectomy  and  short-circuiting 
the  large  bowel,  the  same  procedures  that  are 
used  by  Sir  Arbuthnot  Lane  and  his  followers 
for  the  cure  of  intestinal  stasis.  Reed  reported 
that  in  his  cases  constipation  was  promptly  over- 
come and  as  a  rule  the  epileptic  seizures  disap- 
peared immediately.  In  other  cases,  attacks  of 
the  grand  tnal  type  assumed  the  light  character 
of  petit  mal.  The  question  naturally  arises, 
why  do  not  other  individuals  with  precisely  the 
same  pathological  lesions  as  those  whidi  he 
found  in  epileptics  suflfer  from  epilepsy?  Reed 
answers  by  asserting  his  belief  that  the  infection 
is  specific  and  probably  due  to  a  gas-forming  ba- 
cillus. He  was  unable  to  find  any  case  of  so- 
called  traumatic  epilepsy,  assigned  to  some  in- 
jury of  the  head;  on  the  contrary,  he  found 
where  a  history  of  traumatism  existed,  the  in- 
jury manifested  itself  in  the  intestine;  that  is, 
there  was  evidence  in  the  way  of  prolapse  of  this 
structure  or  of  other  abdommal  organs. 

EPISCOPAL  CHXTEGH.  See  Pbotebtant 
Episcopate  Chubch. 

EPWOBTH  LEAOXTE.  See  articles  on 
Methodist  denominations. 

EBIE  FLOOD.    See   Flood  Prevention. 

EBITEEA.  An  Italian  colony  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea.  Estimated  area,  46,800 
square  miles;   population,  279,000.    Asmara  ia 


the  capitel.  Salt  is  an  important  product,  be- 
ing sent  to  Southern  Abyssinia,  where  it  is  a 
monetary  currency.  Imports.  1912,  18,846,118 
lire;  1910,  16,372,830  lire;  1909,  17,226,720. 
Exports,  1912,  9,371,802  lire;  1910,  7,277,865; 
1909,  6,845,026;  transit,  1912,  6,234,262;  1910, 
3,867,361;  1909,  3,162,380.  Tonnage  entered, 
1912,  178,152;  1911,  191,101;  1910,  164,696. 
There  are  74  miles  of  railway.  The  railway 
from  Massaua  to  Asmara  was  finished  in  1911; 
it  will  be  extended  to  Keren  and  Agordat.  Esti- 
mated revenue  (1910-11),  8,977,760  lire  (state 
contribution,  6,350,000) ;  expenditure,  7,223,700 
(militery  administration,  3,988,200).  The  1912- 
13  budget  balanced  at  13,008,004  lire.  Local 
revenue (1913-14)  was  estimated  at  3,221,000  lire. 

ESPEBANTO.  See  Intebnational  Lan- 
guage. 

ESSAYS.  See  Litebatubb,  Engush  and 
Amebican. 

ETHICS.    See  Philosophy. 

ETHIOPIA.    See  Abyssinia. 

ETHNOORAPHT.    See  Anthbopology. 

ETHNOLOGY.  See  Anthbopology;  and 
Peabody  Museum,  passim, 

EUGENICS.  Not  the  least  of  the  effecte  of 
the  great  war  has  been  the  interest  aroused  by 
it  in  the  question  whether,  because  of  the  con- 
flict, the  human  race  is  or  is  not  deteriorating  in 
those  qualities  which  are  handed  down  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  not  by  means  of  training 
but  by  inheritance.  During  the  early  part  of 
1915  the  English  people  were  much  disturbed  by 
the  so-called  problem  of  ''war  babies."  Not  only 
was  moral  deterioration  feared  from  an  antici- 
pated increase  in  illegitimate  births,  but  the 
question  was  also  raised  whether  the  coming 
generation  would  not  be  disadvanti^^eously  a^ 
fected.  The  problem  early  assumed  large  pro- 
portions in  the  press,  but  evidence  later  collected 
showed  that  matters  were  greatly  exaggerated. 
Attention  then  turned  to  the  more  serious  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  the  sudden  removal  of  a  large 
proportion  of  potential  fathers  from  their  homes 
— a  British  army  of  3,000,000,  for  example,  re- 
quiring every  second  man  between  the  ages  of 
18  and  45— would  not  greatly  affect  the  eugenic 
qualities  of  the  future  population  by  leaving 
only  the  more  inferior  parente  to  contribute  to 
it.  Among  many  articles  on  this  subject,  those 
of  Prof.  J.  A.  Thomson  on  "Eugenics  and  the 
War"  (the  second  Galton  Lecture)  in  The  Eu- 
genics Review,  April,  1915,  and  of  Prof.  Roswell 
H.  Johnson,  on  ''Natural  Selection  in  War,"  in 
The  Journal  of  Heredity,  December,  1915,  were 
perhaps  the  most  valuable  because  of  the  scien- 
tific caution  displayed.  Both  of  these  writers 
agreed  that  the  effect  of  the  war  would  be  "dys- 
genic."  In  this  connection,  a  recent  book  by 
Profs.  D.  S.  and  H.  G.  Jordan,  on  War's  After- 
math (Boston,  1914),  is  interesting.  This  book 
is  an  attempt  to  gauge  the  eugenic  effects  of  the 
Civil  War. 

During  the  past  year,  both  in  the  scien- 
tific and  in  the  practical  phases  of  eugenics, 
many  noteworthy  advances  have  been  made  along 
usual  lines  of  inquiry.  On  the  scientific  side, 
for  example,  the  Italian  Anthropological  Society 
was  reported  to  be  making  an  investigation,  on 
a  scale  which  was  expected  to  definitely  settle 
the  question,  as  to  whether  first-born  children, 
as  has  been  maintained  by  the  English  Biometric 
school,  are  usually  inferior  to  others.  Much 
discussion   has   occurred   also   concerning   pro- 


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posed  modifleations  of  the  famoufl  '^inet  Test" 
for  mental  ability.  The  praetical  application  of 
the  Binet  scale  itself  has  been  extending  rapidly 
in  public-school  systems,  in  institutions  for  the 
feeble-minded,  in  prisons,  and  in  other  institu- 
tions. Striking  results  of  its  application  have 
sometimes  been  reached.  H.  B.  Hickman  re- 
ported, for  example,  in  the  Training  School  Bul- 
letin, January,  1915  (vol.  xi.  No.  9),  that  out 
of  229  delinquent  and  criminal  boys  tested,  only 
about  63  would  be  able  to  leave  the  institution 
and  take  a  normal  station  in  society;  at  least 
46  would  be  unfit  for  anything  but  institutional 
life;  and  the  remainder  would  always  require  as- 
sistance of  some  kind  to  make  a  living.  The 
same  report  contained  an  account  of  'The  First 
Psychopathic  Laboratory  in  a  Prison"  (Kansas), 
by  Alexander  Johnson.  According  to  Mr.  John- 
son, during  the  year  endinff  Aug.  17,  1914,  325 
men  were  examined;  224  white,  101  colored.  Of 
the  whites,  33,  or  about  15  per  cent,  were  found 
to  be  normal  mentally;  of  the  negroes,  about  4 
per  cent.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  whites 
and  90  per  cent  of  the  negroes  were  classed  as 
**moron8." 

While,  on  the  one  hand,  work  of  a  charac- 
ter which  is  likely  in  the  end  to  produce  sci- 
entific results  has  thus  been  accomplished,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  considerable  amount  of  hasty 
legislation  has  been  attempted.  In  a  recent  ar- 
ticle on  the  subject.  Dr.  W.  C.  Rucker,  assistant 
surgeon  general  of  the  United  States  Public 
Health  Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  secretary 
of  the  Ck>mmittee  on.  Education  and  Extension 
of  the  American  Genetic  Association,  reported 
that  four  States  were  considering  sterilization 
legislation,  and  that  nine  contemplated  eugenic 
restrictions  on  marriage.  Dr.  Rucker  considered 
none  of  the  proposed  laws  satisfactory  from  a 
eugenic  standpoint.  An  excellent  report  and 
criticism  of  eugenic  legislation  was  recently  is- 
sued by  the  University  of  Washington  {Bulletin 
No.  82,  Seattle,  Wash.,  May,  1914).  The  con- 
clusion was  therein  reached  that  in  many  re- 
spects a  considerable  portion  of  the  legislation 
discussed  was  so  out  of  date  from  a  biological 
point  of  view  that  it  was  really  worse  than 
useless. 

For  standard  treatment  of  the  subject  of  eu- 
genics the  reader  is  referred  to  the  list  appended 
to  the  article  Eugenics  in  the  Yeab  Book  for 
1914.  From  the  large  number  of  recent  books, 
reports,  and  articles,  not  heretofore  cited,  the 
following  are  selected  as  particularly  worthy  of 
attention:  Defective  Children,  by  T.  N.  Kely- 
nack,  M.D.  (London,  1915) ;  Oehurien-RUckgang 
und  Oehurten-Regelung,  by  Prof.  A.  Grotjshu 
(Berlin,  1914) ;  Heredity  and  Environment  in  the 
Development  of  Men,  by  E.  G.  Conklin,  professor 
of  biolo^,  Princeton  University  (Princeton  Uni- 
versity Press,  1915) ;  Human  Derelicts,  A  Collec- 
tion of  MedAco'Sodological  Studies,  by  T.  N. 
Kelynack,  M.D.  (London,  1914);  The  Next  Gen- 
eration, A  Study  in  the  Physiology  of  Inheri- 
tance, by  F.  G.  Jewett  (New  York,  1915) ;  The 
Progress  of  Eugenics,  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Saleeby 
(New  York,  1914) ;  The  Truth  About  War 
Babies,  by  John  ^rehart,  honorary  secretary 
National  Birth-Rate  Commission  (London, 
1915);  Bidletins  of  the  Eugenics  Record  Office: 
No.  12,  'The  Feebly  Inhibited:  Violent  Temper 
and  Its  Inheritance"  (September,  1915) ;  No.  13, 
''How  to  Make  a  Eugenical  Family  Study" (June, 
1915) ;  No.  H,  "Hereditary  Fragility  of  Bone" 


(November,  1915) ;  The  Training  School  Bulle- 
tins, especially  vol.  xii,  No.  4,  June,  1915,  con- 
taining "The  Examination  of  1097  dHiildren  in 
the  pAlic  Schools  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,"  "A  Study 
of  150  Delinquent  Boys,"  "The  Relation  of  Delin- 
quency and  Criminality  to  Mental  Deficiency;" 
'The  Olibate  Woman  of  To-day,"  by  Earl 
Barnes  {Popular  Science  Monthly,  June,  1915) ; 
"Education  and  Race  Suicide,"  by  R.  J.  Sprague 
{Journal  of  Heredity,  April,  1915);  "Mental 
Tests,"  by  C.  Burt,  in  ChUd  Study  (February, 
1915) ;  '^Misconceptions  of  Eugenics,"  by  S.  J. 
Holmes  {Atlantic  Monthly,  February,  1915); 
'Tolitical  Aspects  of  Eugenics,"  by  H.  S.  Shel- 
ton  {Contemporary  Review,  January,  1915) ; 
"The  Scientific  Claims  of  Eugenics,"  by  T.  More 
{Hibbert  Journal,  January,  1915). 

ETTBIPIDES,  Performances  of,  in  English. 
See  Drama,  American  and  Enoijsh. 

EITBOPEAN  WAB.  See  Military  Prog- 
ress; and  War  of  the  Nations. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCLATION.  A  reli- 
gious denomination  principally  composed  of  Ger- 
man-born citizens  of  the  United  States.  Its  doc- 
trines are  in  many  respects  similar  to  those  of  the 
Methodists.  Its  communicants  belong  to  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  northern  section  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  there  are  also  many 
to  be  found  in  the  West  and  South.  The  mis- 
sionary work  of  the  Association  is  carried  on 
chiefly  among  the  Italian  immigrants.  In  1915 
the  denomination  had  115,343  communicants, 
1663  churches,  and  1031  ministers.  The 
Church  is  divided  for  administrative  purpoeea 
into  24  districts,  has  over  175,000  pupils  in  its 
Sunday  schools,  and  a  Young  People's  Alliance 
whose  membership  numbers  over  50,000.  A 
preaching  house  is  maintained  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  and  there  are  several  philanthropic  insti- 
tutions and  hospitals  in  Chicago,  Philadelphia, 
and  cities  throughout  the  Middle  West.  North- 
western College,  Naperville,  111.,  is  the  leading 
educational  institution. 

EXCESS      CONDEKNATION.    See      Cnr 

Pr.ANNINO. 

EXHIBITIONS,  Art.  See  Painting  and 
Sculpture. 

EXFEBIMENTAL  PSYCHOLOGISTS,  As- 
sociation OF.     See  PSYCHOIXMSY. 

EXPEBIMENT  STATIONS.  See  AoBioui> 
TUBAL  Experiment  Stations. 

EXPLORATION.  (For  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
exploration  see  Polar  Research.)  During  the 
year  1915  not  only  have  no  new  and  extended 
schemes  of  exploration  been  initiated,  but  several 
have  been  recalled  or  postponed.  Additions 
along  lines  of  geographical  knowledge  are  largely 
due  to  expeditions  which  were  already  in  the 
field  in  1914.  Among  these  the  most  important 
are  Shackleton's  southern  voyage  for  the  purpose 
of  crossing  the  Continent  of  Antarctica,  from 
Weddell  Sea  to  McMurdo  Sound ;  the  archaeologi- 
cal researches  of  Stein  in  the  deserts  of  central 
Asia;  the  discovery  of  new  land  by  Stefansson 
in  Arctic  America;  and  the  making  of  the 
Northeast  Passage  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the 
White  Sea  by  Vilkitzsky. 

Africa.  When  war  conditions  arose  explora- 
tions practically  ceased  in  Africa,  where,  how- 
ever, the  areas  of  unknown  r^ions  are  becoming 
limited.  French  researches  have  continued  to 
some  extent.  The  most  notable  is  probably  the 
surveys  of  Henry  Hubert,  by  journeys  of  2500 
miles,  of  the  geology  of  the  Ivory  Coast.    Be- 


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sides  his  general  geological  map  of  western 
Africa,  this  scientist  has  completed  geological 
maps  of  colonies  in  Senegal,  Guinea,  Dahomey, 
Upper  Senegal,  and  Niger.  Great  extensions  of 
railway  systems  will  facilitate  future  explora- 
tions. Notable  is  the  completion  of  the  Trans- 
African  Railroad  from  Kaholo,  on  the  Congo,  to 
Lake  Tanganyika,  which  already  had  rail  con- 
nection with  the  port  of  Ujiji. 

NoBTH  America.  (For  the  explorations  of 
Bemier,  McMillan  and  Stefansson,  see  Polar 
Research.  For  Alaskan  work,  see  Alaska.) 
With  its  strictly  limited  regions  of  unknown 
territory,  North  America  has  been  comparatively 
neglected,  except  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
The  most  interesting  work  in  that  country  is 
the  rediscovery  in  Hudson  Bay  of  the  lost 
islands  of  Gerritz'  chart  (1612),  discovered  by 
Hudson  in  his  last  voyage  (1610-11),  concern- 
ing which  there  have  been  much  doubt  and  dis- 
cussion. R.  J.  Flaherty  has  skirted  this  group, 
which  lies  to  the  north  of  James  Bay,  between 
55**  and  QO"*  north  latitude.  The  largest  of  the 
three  islands  is  100  miles  in  length,  and  the  area 
of  the  group  is  about  4000  square  miles.  The 
most  notable  discovery  in  the  United  States  is 
the  Sun  Temple,  unearthed  in  the  Mesa  Grande 
Park  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Fewkes.  Built  as  early  as 
1300,  for  religious  and  ceremonial  purposes,  it  is 
the  most  striking  prehistoric  ruin  in  America. 
Ita  25  rooms  are  enclosed  by  walls  4  feet'  thick 
ani  over  1000  feet  in  length. 

South  America.  The  Bolivian-Brazilian 
Boundary  Commission  has  completed  its  ex- 
ploration and  delimination  of  the  boundary  of 
the  two  countries  along  the  Abuma,  the  Madeira 
and  the  Raquirran  rivers.  Between  July  and 
October,  1914,  Dr.  Farabee  explored  portions  of 
the  valley  of  the  Upper  Amazon,  giving  special 
attention  to  the  tribes  living  in  the  watersheds 
of  the  Ucayale  and  adjacent  streams.  In  March, 
1916,  he  began  a  journey  from  the  Upper  Purus 
River  for  the  purpose  of  skirting  the  unknown 
frontiers  of  Brazil,  Bolivia,  and  Peru.  Among 
additions  to  the  geographic  literature  of  1915 
is  the  astonishing  report  of  Maj.  P.  H.  Fawcett 
on  his  explorations  of  extensive  and  hitherto  un- 
visited  forest  areas  of  Bolivia.  He  states  that 
in  regions  distant  from  the  navigable  rivers, 
there  are  numerous  large  tribes,  aggregating  "at 
least  100,000  savages,"  who  have  had  no  contact 
with  white  men.  These  tribes  are  for  the  most 
part  anthropophagUB,  wage  continuous  wars,  and 
generally  live  in  communal  fashion.  Within  15 
leagues  of  the  provincial  capital  of  Santa  Cruz 
there  are  hostile  savages  yet  living  under  Stone 
Age  conditions.  Savage  tribes  have  also  barred 
from  travel  the  Mamore  and  Heat  rivers.  Pro- 
fessor Bingham  made  in  1915  his  fifth  expedition 
to  South  America.  His  Peruvian  researches 
were  pursued  in  the  valleys  of  the  Apurimac  and 
Urubamba  rivers.  In  addition  to  geographic  and 
archeological  work,  large  collections  were  made 
of  new  and  of  ancient  food  plants. 

Asia.  During  Dr.  Filippi's  recent  explora- 
tions, he  discovered  that  the  Remo  Glacier,  on 
the  crest  of  the  Karakoram  Range  between 
Cashmir  and  Afghanistan,  drains  both  into  the 
interior  of  Asia  and  also  into  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  proves  to  be  the  source  of  the  Yarkand,  an 
affluent  of  the  Tarim  River  to  the  northeast,  and 
of  Stryok,  the  main  tributary  of  the  Indus  to 
the  southwest.  An  English- American  expedition 
has   made   an   ethnological   exploration    of   the 


valley  of  the  Lower  Tenesei,  under  Miss  Czap- 
licka,  Oxford  University,  and  Mr.  Hall,  Univer- 
sitv  of  Pennsylvania.  Studying  first  the  Samo- 
yeds,  the  party  wintered  with  the  Tungus,  a 
very  primitive  folk,  and  subsequently  made  re- 
searches among  the  Tartars. 

Sir  Aurel  Stein's  recent  discoveries  in  East 
Turkestan  have  been  extensive  and  important. 
He  began  his  explorations  from  Tun-huans:, 
southeast  of  the  Gobi  Desert,  where  he  visited  the 
temple  of  the  Thousand  Buddhists.  Thence  he 
traoed  for  250  miles,  across  a  sterile  desert,  an 
ancient  wall  of  China  which  was  erected  at  least 
a  century  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  This  wall  was  built  with  great  engineering 
skill  of  reed  and  brushwood  fascines,  filled  with 
clay  or  gravel.  It  was  surmounted  with  watch- 
towers,  etc.,  and  abundant  remains  were  found 
of  the  soldiers  who  occupied  it  as  a  defensive 
force.  It  appears  that  the  adjacent  sterile 
regions  had  been  made  habitable  by  extensive 
irrigation  systems.  Stein  explored  thoroughly 
the  ruins  of  Khara  Koto,  which  he  identifies  with 
Marco  Polo's  city  of  Etzina,  the  ancient  out- 
fitting station  of  merchants  making  the  40-day 
march  across  the  desert  to  Karakoram,  the  old 
capital  of  Mongolia.  Among  the  ruins  were 
found  Buddhist  manuscripts  and  prints,  frescoes, 
stuccos,  reliefs,  records  on  paper,  coins,  orna- 
ments, etc.  He  also  explored  the  region  around 
Turfan,  mapped  large  areas  of  the  Dry  Moun- 
tains, and  portions  of  the  former  bed  of  the 
Oxus.  Although  turned  back  by  the  war,  the 
Voisins,  S^galen,  Lartigue  (French)  expedition 
succeeded  in  reaching  as  far  west  as  Li-kiang- 
fou,  on  the  Yangtse  m  Yunnan,  Western  China. 
The  Smithsonian  expedition  for  biological  re- 
search along  the  Siberian  coast,  under  Koren,  ob- 
tained a  large  collection  of  birds  and  of  Arctic 
fossils. 

Europe.  Some  additions  have  been  made  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  Kola  Peninsula,  by  the  survey 
and  construction  by  the  Russian  government  of 
a  railway  from  Vologda,  on  the  Petrograd- 
Archangel  Railroad,  northward  to  Kola  on  the 
Northern  Coast,  thus  affording  an  ice-free  har- 
bor. 

Oceanic.  The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
continuing  its  work  of  offshore  exploring,  has 
located  the  edge  of  the  continental  shelf  along  a 
large  part  of  the  South  Atlantic  Coast.  The 
100-fathom  curve  lies  quite  far  seaward,  extend- 
ing in  some  instances  into  the  Gulf  Stream.  The 
wire-drag  operations  of  the  Survey  have  covered 
214  square  miles  in  Alaskan  waters  and  250  in 
the  Atlantic.  Surveys  in  the  Philippines  dis- 
close the  existence  of  a  submerged  range  of  coral 
mountains,  extending  southwesterly  for  200  miles 
from  the  south  end  of  Panay.  The  Cagayenes 
and  other  small  islands  are  the  summits  of  the 
coral  range.  The  Sulu  Sea  is  divided  into  two 
deep  basins,  wherein  a  maximum  depth  of  18,294 
feet  was  found.  Hydrographic  surveys  of  the 
delta  of  the  Obi  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a 
deep  channel  through  which  sea-going  ships  of 
deep  draught  can  ascend  the  river,  thus  opening 
interior  Siberia  to  sea-traffic.  Exploration  in 
the  field  of  terrestrial  magnetism  has  been  con- 
tinued during  1915  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Bauer  of  the  Carnegie  Magnetic  Institute.  The 
Carnegie  Institute's  work  included  observations 
at  more  than  200  sea-stations,  and  extended  from 
60*  N.  latitude,  in  Bering  Sea,  to  Port  Lyttle- 
ton,  N.  Z.,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 


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OPENING  OF  THE  EXPOSITION  ON  JANUARY  i,    1915 

Centre  group  from  left  to  r  ght :  G  Aubrey  Davidson,  President  of  the  Expotition  ;  William  Q.  McAdoo,  Secretary  of  the 
United  Stetes  Treasury  end  personel  representative  of  President  Wilson  ;  tnd  Lyman  J.  Gage  former  S«crttary  of  the  United 
Ststes  Treasury,  end  Chairmen  of  opening  ceremonies 


^  h'tinaiua-coiuornid  £.xpusiciun 

EXPOSITION  GROUNDS  FROM  A  SPANISH  BALCONY  OVERLOOKING  THE  SEA 


PANAMA.CALIFORNIA  EXPOSITION.  SAN  DIEGO 


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EXPLOSIVES  PACTOaiES 


207 


FABBE 


EXPLOSIVES  AND  MUNITION  PACTO- 
HIES.     See  Untied  States  and  the  Wab. 

EXPLOSIVES.  See  Chemistbt,  Industrial, 
section  00  entitled. 

EXPOSITIONS.  During  the  year  two  great 
international  expositions  have  been  held  in  the 
United  States:  the  Panama-California  Exposi- 
tion in  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  the  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition  in  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

PanahaCalifobnia  Exposition.  This  was 
held  in  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  the  history  of  its 
inception  and  development  has  been  given  in  the 
Yeab  Books  for  1911,  p.  247;  1912,  p.  216;  1913, 
p.  236,  and  1914,  p.  235.  It  was  opened  on 
January  Ist,  with  appropriate  ceremonies,  in- 
cluding an  address  by  the  Hon.  William  G. 
McAdoo,  who  represented  President  Wilson- on 
that  occasion.  The  beauty  of  the  exposition  has 
impressed  those  who  have  visited  it  and  its  in- 
fluence in  bringing  about  a  greater  appreciation 
of  the  possibilities  of  the  Spanish  Colonial  archi- 
tecture will  be  its  lasting  lesson.  On  December 
4th,  an  official  announcement  was  made  that  the 
Panama  Exposition,  opened  on  Jan.  1,  1915, 
would  continue  throughout  1916  as  the  Panama- 
California  International  Exposition.  The  1916 
exposition  will  open  on  January  Ist,  the  day 
following  the  official  closing  of  the  1915  fair. 
Foreign  exhibits  valued  at  several  million  dol- 
lars, from  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  San 
Francisco,  just  closing,  are  to  be  brought  to  San 
Di^o.  Two  of  the  largest  exhibits  at  the  San 
Francisco  Exposition — ^the  Canadian  and  the 
Italian — have  been  obtained,  and  other  exhibits 
promised  are  the  French,  Swiss,  Spanish,  Nether- 
lands, and  Russian.    See  also  Abghitectube. 

Panama-Pacific  Exposition.  (See  Yeab 
Books,  1912,  p.  216;  1913,  p.  236;  and  1914,  p. 
236.)  This  exposition  was  held  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.  The  touching  of  a  button  by  Presi- 
dent Wilson  in  the  White  House  gave  the  electric 
signal  that  opened  the  exposition  exactly  at 
noon.  Pacific  time,  on  February  20th,  which  was 
made  a  legal  holiday  throughout  California. 
The  exercises  included  addresses  by  Hon.  Frank- 
lin K.  Lane,  who  represented  President  Wilson, 
Gov.  Hiram  W.  Johnson,  and  Charles  C.  Moore, 
president  of  the  exposition.  The  exposition  con- 
tinued until  midnight  on  December  4th,  when 
President  Moore  closed  the  festivities  by  pressing 
a  button  that  turned  off  the  electric  display.  The 
following  words  are  from  the  message'  which 
President  WMlson  sent  to  the  formal  closing  ex- 
ercises: 

"The  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition : 
which  in  its  conception  and  successful  accom- 
plishment gave  striking  evidence  of  the  practical 
genius  and  artistic  taste  of  America;  which  in 
its  interesting  and  unusual  exhibits  afforded  im- 
pressive illustration  of  the  development  of  arts 
and  peace;  and  which  in  its  motive  and  object 
was  eloquent  of  the  new  spirit  which  is  to  unite 
East  and  West  and  make  all  the  world  partners 
in  the  common  enterprises  of  progress  and  hu- 
manity." Thirty-nine  foreign  nations  and  37 
States  and  3  Territories  of  the  American  Union 
were  represented  at  the  exposition.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  there  were  80,000  exhibitors  whose 
displays  were  valued  at  $350,000,000.  The  daily 
attendance,  which  averaged  about  62,000,  began 
with  245,143  on  the  opening  day  and  reached  its 
highest  number — 348,472,  on  November  2nd,  San 
Francisco  Day.  The  total  was  18,413,399. 
There  were  800  congresses  and  conventions  held 


during  the  life  of  the  exposition.  The  financial 
results  of  the  exposition  were  most  satisfactory. 
In  abbreviated  form  the  data  are  as  follows:  cost 
of  exposition  to  opening,  $18,365,193.69;  income 
to  opening,  $16,988,555.79;  deficit  on  opening, 
$1,376,637.90;  operating  surplus  of  exposition 
period,  $2,571,807.79;  estimated  net  profit  on 
dosing,  $1,195,169.89;  estimated  net  loss  of 
wrecking  period,  $160,000;  and  estimated  final 
net  profit,  $1,040,000.  In  addition  to  this  sur- 
plus the  exposition  has  paid  for  and  given  to 
the  city  the  Municipal  Auditorium,  in  tne  Civic 
Center,  at  a  cost  of  $1,086,000,  and  the  $50,000 
pipe  organ  now  in  Festival  Hall.  In  January 
Congress  passed  a  law  permitting  the  minting 
of  special  coins  commemorative  of  the  exposition 
as  follows:  Three  thousand  50-dollar  pieces; 
10,000  2^-dollar  pieces;  25,000  1-dollar  pieces, 
all  in  gold,  and  200,000  half-dollar  silver  pieces. 
The  law  permitted  the  mint  to  deliver  these 
coins  at  their  par  value,  and  the  exposition  was 
authorized  to  put  its  own  selling  price  on  the 
coins.    See  also  Abghitectube;   and  Painting 

AND   SCULPTUBE. 

Otheb  Expositions.  Among  minor  and  local 
expositions  held  in  the  United  States  may  be 
mentioned  the  First  National  Exposition  of 
Chemical  Industries  held  in  New  York  City  dur- 
ing September  20-25.  It  is  described  under 
Chemistbt,  Industbial  (q.v.).  The  expositions 
held  abroad  during  the  year  include  the  British 
Industries  Fair  in  London,  England,  during  May 
10-21;  the  Canadian  National  Exhibition  in 
Toronto,  Canada,  during  August  28-Sept.  13; 
the  Swiss  Exposition  of  Toys  in  Zurich,  Switzer- 
land, during  October ;  and  a  traveling  exposition, 
the  proceeds  of  which  were  designed  for  the 
care  of  war  cripples  and  invalids  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Red  Cross  Society  during  the  au- 
tumn in  Berlin,  Breslau,  Budapest,  Afiigdeburg, 
and  Cassel.  In  the  Orient  the  second  annual 
exhibition  of  Siamese  agriculture  and  domestic 
manufactures  was  held  in  Bisanuloke,  Siam,  dur- 
ing March  17-21;  a  Chinese  National  Exposi- 
tion was  opened  in  Peking  on  October  10th;  an 
Industrial  Competitive  Exhibition  was  held  in 
Seoul,  Chosen,  during  September  lO^ctober 
31,  and  a  Japanese  Exposition  was  held  in 
Santiago,  Chile,  during  September. 

Coming  Exfositionb.  The  opening  of  the  Na- 
tional Exposition  of  Panama  has  again  been 
postponed  until  Jan.  21,  1916.  An  International 
Exposition  of  Electrical  Appliances  and  also  a 
general  Spanish  Exposition  is  announced  as  in 
preparation  to  be  held  in  Barcelona,  Spain,  dur- 
ing 1917.  Announcement  is  made  of  the  or- 
ganization of  committees  for  the  preparation  of 
a  celebration  in  1916  of  the  250th  anniversary  of 
the  founding  of  the  city  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
of  the  200th  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  San 
Antonio,  Texas,  by  the  Franciscan  monks.  See 
also  Abchitectube. 

FABBEy  Jean  Henbi,  a  distinguished  French 
entomologist,  died  at  Orange,  France,  on  Oct. 
11,  1915.  He  was  born  at  St.  Ltons,  Avignon, 
in  1823,  taught  for  several  years  in  the  Lyc^ 
of  Avignon,  and  was  afterward  professor  of 
physics  at  the  College  of  Ajaccio.  Later  he  re- 
tired to  L^rignan,  where  he  wrote  his  greatest 
work,  Souvenirs  entomologiques  (10  vols.  1879- 
1907),  which  was  crowned  by  the  Institute. 
His  other  works  are:  La  science  SlSmentaire,  a 
aeries  of  lectures  (1862-65);  Histoire  de  la 
hUche    (1866);    Notions  pr^Uminairea   de   phy- 


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FABBE 


208 


FEBBBATBD  MALAY  STATES 


9ique  (1867-70);  Le  lAvre  d^hittoireM  (1868); 
Les  ratvageurs  (1870);  Astranomie  4J4mentaire 
(1872);  Le9  auwiliairet  (1873);  Lectures  ecien- 
tifiquea:  eodlogie  (1873);  Botanique  (1874); 
Premiere  4l4menie  de  physique  (1874)  ;  De 
chinUe  (1875);  De  science  naturelle  (1875); 
Les  serviteurs  (1875) ;  La  planie  (1875) ;  L7f»- 
dustrie  (1875);  Cours  oomplet  d^enseignement 
litt^raire  et  scientifique  (1876);  Livre  des 
champs  (1879);  Les  inventeurs  et  leurs  inven^ 
tions  (1880)  ;  La  vie  des  insectes  (1910). 
Fabre  was  made  a  correeponding  member  of  the 
Institute  and  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
Parts  of  his  writings  have  been  published  in 
English,  as  Insect  Life  ( 1901 ) ;  The  Life  and 
Love  of  the  Insect,  translated  by  A.  T.  de  Mat- 
tos  (1911);  Social  Life  in  the  Insect  World, 
translated  by  Bernard  Miall  (1913);  The  Life 
of  the  Spider  and  The  Life  of  the  Fly,  translated 
by  A.  T.  de  Mattos  (1913). 

FAILTTSEB.  See  Financial  Review,  section 
so  entitled. 

PALABA  CASE.    See  United  States  and 

THE   l^AB 

FALKLANI)  ISLANDa  A  British  colony 
composed  of  a  group  of  islands  in  the  South 
Atlantic.  They  are  East  Falkland  (3000  square 
miles).  West  Falkland  (2300),  and  about  100 
smaller  islands  (totaling  about  1200  square 
miles) .  South  Georgia,  a  group  of  islands  54^* 
S.,  with  an  area  of  about  1000  square  miles,  a 
great  whaling  station,  is  a  dependency  of  the 
Falkland  Islands.  Inclusive  of  South  Georgia 
the  population  numbered  in  1911,  3275  (2370 
males  and  905  females).  Estimated  population 
Dec.  31,  1913,  3223.  Sheep  farming  is  the  sole 
industry  of  the  colony,  the  entire  country  being 
wild  moorland  fit  for  little  besides  pasture. 
There  are  no  trees.  There  were  in  1913  about 
698,000  sheep,  7821  cattle,  and  3528  horses. 
Hides,  skins,  horns,  hoofs,  bones,  tallow,  wool, 
and  guano  are  the  exports.  Whale  produce  ex- 
ported in  1913  was  valued  at  £1,252,932,  of 
which  £443,378  from  South  Georgia.  Imports 
and  exports  for  1913  were  valued  at  £239,222  and 
£1,460,219  respectively  (£93,913  and  £471,156  in 
1911).  The  United  Kingdom  contributed  im- 
ports valued  at  £152,958,  and  received  exports 
£750,994.  Total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared, 
500,449  (315,278  in  1911).  Revenue,  1913,  £42,- 
929  (1911,  £35,349) ;  expenditure,  £25,238  (£22,- 
460).  There  is  no  public  debt.  The  only  town 
is  Stanley,  with  about  950  inhabitants.  It  has 
a  fine  inner  and  outer  harbor  and  is  a  coaling 
station  for  vessels  rounding  Gape  Horn.  Be- 
yond the  town  limits  there  are  no  roads.  The 
islands  were  taken  by  Great  Britain  in  1832  for 
the  protection  of  the  whale  fisheries.  Depend- 
encies besides  South  Georgia  are  the  South  Shet- 
lands,  Graham's  Land,  the  South  Orkneys,  and 
the  Sandwich  group. 

FABABEE,  Db. — ^His  Ezflosations.  See 
EXFLOBATION.  South  America, 

FABAT8IHITE.    See  Minebaloot. 

FABMEBS'  INSTITUTES.  See  Aoeicul- 
TI7BAL  Extension  Wobk. 

FABMING.    See  Aobioultube. 

FAWCETTy  Majob  P.  H. — ^His  Exploba- 
TioNS.    See  Explobation,  South  America,  

FEDEBAL         COTJKCHi  OF  THE 

CHUBCHES  OF  CHBIST  IN  AMEBICA. 
The  council  officially  unites  in  its  activities  30 
Protestant  denominations,  including  139,000 
churches  with  17,500,000  members.    During  1916 


the  established  lines  of  activity  were  maintained 
by  the  council  in  State  and  local  federations, 
foreign  missions,  home  missions,  religious  educa- 
tion, social  service,  evangelism,  Sunday  observ- 
ance, temperance,  and  peace  and  arbitration. 
The  council  promoted  a  reli^ous  exhibit  and 
conducted  a  continuous  religious  campaign  at 
the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  with  evangelistic 
meetings,  daily  lectures,  and  conferences.  In  aid 
of  the  promotion  of  international  friendliness 
through  the  churches,  400,000  books  and  pam- 
phlets were  distributed  and  170,000  letters  sent 
out.  A  Christian  embassy  to  Japan  was  well 
received,  and  an  investigation  was  conducted  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  concerning  the  Japanese  prob- 
lem in  the  United  States.  Delegates  afterward 
came  from  Japan  for  fraternal  conference  with 
American  workers.  A  committee  on  the  special 
interests  of  the  colored  denominations  was  pro- 
jected. The  general  secretary,  Rev.  Charles  S. 
MacFarland,  visited  Holland,  Switzerland,  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany,  representing  the 
United  Churches  on  25  national  committees; 
and  he  addressed  over  100  conferences.  The 
council's  year  ended  free  of  debt,  but  it  was 
admitted  that  the  growing  demands  of  the  work 
call  for  much  larger  expenditure  in  1916.  The 
annual  meeting  of  the  executive  committee  of 
the  council  was  held  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  on 
December  8-1 0th,  was  attended  by  1150  mem- 
bers and  delegates,  and  was  addressed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  The  administra- 
tive committee  is  in  close  and  constant  com- 
munication with  the  churches  of  the  belligerent 
nations  of  Europe,  looking  toward  future  op- 
portunities of  reconciliation,  a  delegation  being 
in  readiness  to  go  to  Europe  at  the  earliest 
opportunity. 

The  denominations  affiliated  with  the  Federal 
Council  are  as  follows:  Baptist  (North),  Free 
Baptist,  Christian,  Congregational,  Disciples  of 
Christ,  Evangelical  Association,  Evangelical 
Synod,  Society  of  Friends,  Lutheran  General 
Synod,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  (South),  German  Evangelical 
Synod,  National  Baptist  Convention  (colored), 
the  Mennonite  Church,  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  the  African  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Zion  Church,  the  Colored  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  in  America,  the  Methodist  Prot^tant 
Church,  the  Moravian  Church,  the  Presbyterian 
CHiurch  in  the  United  States  of  America,  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(South),  the  Primitive  Methodist  Church,  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  the  Reformed 
Church  in  America,  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States,  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  (General 
Synod),  the  Seventh  Day  Baptist  Church,  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  the  United  Breth- 
ren Church,  the  United  Evangelical  Church,  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  Welsh 
Presbyterian  Church. 

FEDEBAL  BESEBVE  BANKS.  Bee  Banks 
AND  Banking. 

FEDEBAIf  BESEBVE  SYSTEIL  See 
Banks  and  Banking,  tmder  the  section  so  en- 
titled. 

FiBDEBAI.  1?BADE  COKHISSION.  See 
Trusts. 

FEDEBATED  MALAY  STATES.  A  Brit* 
ish  protectorate  composed  of  four  states  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  as  follows  (area  m  B^uiire 
milesi  population  oensui  of  19U)  i 


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FEDBBATED  MALAY  STATES 


200 


FEBTILIZEBS 


8q.  m.  1911              Ompfua 

Perak     7.800  494*057  Taipinc 

BeUnfor    8.156  294,085  KnaU  Lumpur 

Kegrl    Sembilan. . .   2,550  180,199  Seremban 

Pahanff    14,000  118.708  Kuala  Lipit 

F.  M.  S 27,506  1,086,999  KnaU  Lumpur 


See  articles  on  the  separate  states  for  indi- 
vidual production.  A  table  of  commercial  and 
financial  statistics  follows,  Talues  in  Straits 
Settlements  dollars  (1  Straits  Settlements  dol- 
lar =$0.56776)   for  1013: 

Imp9,  Bxpt,  Bmf.          Expend. 

Pk 84,286.777  71,402,985  28.970.068  25,804,040 

8 42,890.846  56,897,277  15,561,895  16,725,848 

N.  8.  ...    6.462,551  18,862,762  8,071,799     2,681,580 

Pg 8,268.988  7.006.474  1,729.459     2.076.168 

There  is  no  public  debt.  Railway  lines  in 
operation  (1914),  771  miles,  includinji^  37  miles 
opened  in  1913.  The  Kail  wars  Administration 
controls  the  line  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  in- 
cluding the  Johore  State  Railways,  leased  since 
January,  1912.  In  1913  the  Singapore  Railway 
had  20  miles  in  length,  which  had  been  leased 
to  the  Railways  Administration  from  the  co- 
lonial government  from  January,  1912,  at  a 
rental  of  $150,000,  and  was  purchased  for  $4,- 
136,000. 

In  1909  a  Federal  Council  was  created  by  an 
agreement  between  the  high  commissioner  and 
the  four  native  rulers,  to  consist  of  the  high 
commissioner,  the  chief  secretary,  the  sultans 
of  Perak,  Selangor,  and  Pahang,  the  yam  tuan 
of  the  Negri  Sembilan,  the  four  British  residents, 
and  four  unofficial  members  nominated  by  the 
high  commissioner.  The  first  meetintr  was  held 
Dec.  11,  1909,  at  Kuala,  Kangsar.  The  Council 
meets  annually,  the  high  commissioner  (Sir 
Arthur  Young)   presiding.   

FEDERATION  OF  JEWISH  FABMEBS 
OF  AMEBICA.    See  Agbioultubai.  Cbedit. 

FEDERATION  OF  LABOR,  Ameuoan.  See 
Labor,  American  FEDERATioif  of. 

FEEBLE-MINDEDNES8.  A  recent  publica- 
tion issued  by  the  Ohio  Board  of  Administration 
is  of  considerable  value  in  relation  to  the  coun- 
try-wide problem  of  the  feeble-minded.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  from  300,000  to  400,000  per- 
sons in  the  United  States,  equivalent  to  0.^  per 
cent  of  the  population,  are  feeble-minded,  and  of 
these  not  over  one-third  are  under  custodial  care. 
In  Ohio  there  are  between  10,000  and  15,000 
feeble-minded  children,  less  than  20  per  cent  of 
whom  are  in  institutions  devoted  particularly 
to  their  care.  Others  are  to  be  found  in  infirm- 
aries, reformatories,  and  prisons,  and  others  help 
to  swell  the  number  of  juvenile  delinquents.  A 
mental  examination  of  the  inmates  of  the  Girls' 
and  Boys'  Industrial  School  and  Home  showed 
that  59  out  of  100  girls  examined  were  feeble- 
minded, 14  were  borderline  cases,  13  mentally  re- 
tarded, and  only  14  normal.  In  the  case  of  the 
boys,  out  of  100  examined,  46  were  feeble-minded, 
20  borderline  cases,  11  mentally  retarded,  and 
11  mentally  normal.  The  findings  in  Ohio  coin- 
cide with  those  in  other  States  and  indicate 
that  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the  feeble-minded- 
ness  is  due  to  bad  heredity.  This  report  takes 
the  view  that  the  attempt  to  discipline  and  train 
defective  children  and  then  return  them  to  so- 
ciety, is  futile.    They  can  never  be  brought  up 

to  oonpfti  mi  to  i^m  ^m  \o<m  <m  the  pubUp 


is  a  blunder,  both  moral  and  economic.  If  both 
parents  are  feeble-minded,  all  their  numerous 
progeny  will  be  mentally  defective;  while  at  least 
one-half  of  the  children  will  be  mentally  de- 
fective if  but  one  parent  is  feeble-minded.  These 
people  are  classified  as  borderline  cases,  morons, 
imbeciles  of  three  grades,  and  idiots  of  three 
grades.  They  are  all  instances  of  arrested  men- 
tal development,  while  the  insane  have  retro- 
graded from  normal  mentality  through  disease. 

FEMINISM.  See  Woman  Movement;  and 
Woman  Suffrage. 

FENCING.  The  twenty-second  annual  inter- 
collegiate fencing  tournament  was  won  by  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy.  Columbia,  which 
captured  the  diampionship  in  1914,  finished  sec- 
ond, and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  third. 
The  individual  winners  were:  foils,  H.  B.  Van 
Buskirk,  Pennsylvania;  sabres,  R.  D.  S.  Home, 
United  States  Naval  Academy. 

Dual  college  competitions  resulted  as  follows: 
Tale  9,  Bowdoin  0;  Yale  8,  Columbia  1;  Yale  5, 
Harvard  4 ;  Yale  5,  Pennsylvania  4 ;  Columbia  6. 
Pennsylvania  4;  Cornell  7,  Columbia  2;  Cornell 
8,  Michigan  1;  United  States  Naval  Academy  6, 
Cornell  3. 

In  the  national  championships  held  by  the 
Amateur  Fencers'  League,  Sherman  Hall  of  the 
New  York  A.  C.  won  with  the  foils  and  J.  A. 
McLaughlin  of  the  Washington  Fencers'  Club 
excelled  with  the  duelling  swords.  The  woman's 
championship  with  the  foils  was  captured  by 
Miss  Jessie  Pyle. 

FEBTHiIZEBS.  To  just  what  extent  the 
supply,  price,  and  use  of  fertilizers  were  affected 
by  the  disturbed  conditions  of  trade  during  the 
year  1915  it  was  impossible  to  say  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  since  complete  and  reliable  statistics 
of  the  fertilizer  industry  were  not  available. 
Some  outstanding  features  of  the  situation  were 
■  the  shortage  and  high  price  of  potash,  an  advance 
in  the  price  of  nitrate,  and  a  shortage  of  sul- 
phuric acid  for  the  manufacture  of  super-phos- 
phates. 

Potash.  A  large  part  of  the  world's  supply 
of  potash  was  cut  off  by  the  German  embargo 
in  1914,  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  greatly  in- 
creased demand  for  potash  for  the  manufacture 
of  munitions.  The  result  was  such  a  decrease 
in  the  amounts  available  for  agriculture  and 
such  an  advance  in  price  as  to  make  the  use  of 
potash  salts  as  fertilizer  in  large  measure  pro- 
hibitive. The  United  States  was  probablv  the 
greatest  sufferer  from  this  cause.  Normally  the 
United  States  used  about  $14,000,000  worth  of 
(rerman  potash  salts  annually  besides  $1,000,000 
worth  of  potassium  nitrate  obtained  indirectly 
from  India.  The  situation  created  by  the  failure 
of  the  Overman  supply  of  potash  added  impetus 
to  the  search  for  other  sources  of  supply  and 
stimulate  inquiry  as  to  practical  means  of 
meeting  the  emergency  without  impairment  of 
the  productiveness  of  the  soil.  Attrition  there- 
fore was  directed  toward  the  more  liberal  use 
of  substances  such  as  lime,  gypsum,  salt,  decay- 
ing organic  matter,  etc.,  and  more  thorough  till- 
age, which  was  believed  to  increase  the  avail- 
ability of  the  soil  potash.  These  of  course  were 
only  temporary  expedients  and  would  at  best 
only  partly  meet  the  needs  of  the  situation.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  shortage  of  potash  may  in 
the  end  prove  a  distinct  advantage  to  agriculture 
in  that  it  will  force  a  more  careful  study  of  the 
lertiUisw  9^eeds  of  ^oilf  witb  reference  to  potash 


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and  lead  to  a  more  discriminating  and  profitable 
use  of  potash  fertilizers.  There  was  good  reason 
to  believe  that  there  was  a  large  waste  in  the 
use  of  such  fertilizers  on  lands  which  did  not 
need  them,  and  hence  did  not  make  a  profitable 
return  for  their  use.  Many  of  the  soils  of  the 
United  States  are  abundantly  supplied  with  pot- 
ash. Good  tillage  and  the  liberal  use  of  de- 
caying organic  matter  are  probably  the  most 
effective  practical  means  at  the  command  of  the 
farmer  of  increasing  the  availability  of  this  soil 
potash.  Recent  investigations  indicated  that 
the  common  estimate  of  the  effectiveness  of  lime 
for  this  purpose  was  greatly  exaggerated.  All 
farm  supplies  of  potash,  such  as  ashes,  straw 
and  crop  residues,  manure,  etc.,  should,  of  course, 
be  conserved. 

It  seemed  certain  that  conditions  created  by 
the  European  war  would  result  in  the  develop- 
ment and  permanent  establishment  of  other  com- 
mercial supplies  of  potash  besides  those  of  Ger- 
many. The  information  available  indicated  that 
the  potash  deposits  of  Spain  are  of  such  extent 
and  character  as  to  warrant  the  expectation  that 
they  will  ultimately  supply  more  than  the  home 
demand.  The  inquiries  conducted  under  govern- 
ment auspices  in  the  United  States  made  it 
plain  that  America  could  develop  an  abundant 
domestic  supply  of  potash  when  the  commercial 
conditions  justify  the  investment  of  the  necessary 
capital.  The  sources  of  supply  are  abundant 
and  the  more  important  technical  problems  have 
in  most  cases  been  worked  out.  The  four  most 
promising  of  these  sources  of  supply  are  con- 
sidered to  be :  ( 1 )  the  giant  kelps  of  the  Pacific 
Coast,  the  beds  of  which  are  more  than  400 
square  miles  in  extent  and  are  estimated  to  be 
capable  of  yielding,  with  careful  harvesting,  six 
to  seven  times  the  normal  demands  of  the  United 
States;  (2)  the  alunite  deposits,  mainly  in  the 
mountains  of  Utah;  (3)  the  feldspars  of  the 
Eastern  United  States;  and  (4)  the  saline  muds 
of  Searles  Lake  in  California. 

Up  to  the  end  of  1915  there  was  a  reluctance 
to  invest  capital  in  the  kelp  potash  industry  on 
account  of  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  State 
laws  governing  the  harvesting  of  the  kelp.  One 
plant  was  constructed  and  another  was  planned 
for  the  production  of  potassium  sulphate  from 
alunite.  In  addition  to  the  potassium  sulphate 
it  is  possible  to  produce  a  fair  grade  of  alumina 
and  sulphuric  acid,  which,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, would  constitute  valuable  by-products. 
An  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  most  successful 
utilization  of  this  source  of  potash  seemed  to  be 
the  remoteness  from  commercial  centres  of  the 
great  deposits  which  were  to  be  used.  Inquiry 
with  reference  to  the  production  of  potash  from 
feldspars  had  gone  far  enough  to  show  that  this 
is  feasible  if  a  salable  by-product,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, cement,  could  be  secured  at  the  same  time. 
Of  the  large  number  of  desert  basins  which  had 
been  explored  in  the  United  States  Searles  Lake 
was  the  only  one  which  seemed  to  be  commer- 
cially'^  promising.  The  brine  obtained  here  con- 
tains from  5  to  6  per  cent  of  potash  as  chloride, 
but  its  impurity  presents  certain  serious  techni- 
cal difficulties  in  preparing  pure  salts.  Develop- 
ment of  the  industry  here  was  delayed  by  doubt 
and  litigation  as  to  the  title  to  the  property. 
From  none  of  the  sources  named  was  the  short- 
age of  potash  for  agricultural  purposes  likely  to 
be  relieved  for  many  months  to  come  even  under 
most    favorable    circumstances.    The    situation. 


therefore,  had  to  be  met  by  conservation  and  dis- 
criminating use  of  such  supplies  as  were  avail- 
able. 

In  order  that  the  many  important  experiments 
with  fertilizers  in  progress  in  the  United  States 
may  continue  without  hindrance  an  attempt  is 
being  made  to  arrange  for  the  import  of  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  potash  salts  for  these  experi- 
ments, the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  acting  as 
consignee  and  guaranteeing  that  the  salts  shall 
be  used  only  for  experimental  purposes  and  not 
sold. 

Phosphates.  Phosphates  are  the  normal 
basis  of  practically  all  fertilizers  since  phos- 
phorus is  probably  the  fertilizer  constituent  most 
generally  needed  by  soils.  Fortunately  the 
world's  supply  is  abundant.  The  United  States 
especially  contains  a  practically  inexhaustible 
supply  of  high-grade  phosphates.  It  is  becom- 
ing increasingly  desirable,  however,  to  find  prac- 
tical methods  of  utilizing  more  completely  the 
large  supplies  of  low-grade  phosphates,  and,  in 
general,  to  improve  the  methods  of  manufac- 
ture of  soluble  phosphates.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  was  systematically 
investigating  these  questions  as  well  as  the  eco- 
nomic justification  of  the  use  of  untreated  rock. 
The  systematic  examinations  of  the  enormous 
phosphate  deposits  of  the  Western  United  States 
were  continued  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  with  a  view  to  withdrawing  from  entry 
and  reserving  under  government  control  lands 
underlaid  by  high-grade  phosphate.  On  Jan.  1, 
1915,  the  total  area  of  phosphate  lands  with- 
drawn from  public  entry  in  Montana,  Utah, 
Wyoming,  and  Idaho  was  2,713,150  acres,  con- 
stituting perhaps  the  largest  area  of  phosphate 
rock  yet  recognized  in  the  world. 

Nitrogen.  The  nitrogen  supply  for  fertilizers 
was  affected  to  a  marked  extent  during  the  year 
by  the  greatly  increased  demand  for  nitric  acid 
for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war.  The 
conditions  stimulated  the  study  of  additional 
means  of  meeting  the  need  for  nitrogen  com- 
pounds. This  is  being  done  partly  by  the  in- 
creased use  of  by-products  of  coke  ovens  to  save 
the  ammonia  produced  in  coking,  the  develop- 
ment of  processes  of  fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air,  and  more  intelligent  use  of  city  and  indus- 
trial wastes,  especially  garbage  and  sewage 
sludge.  It  was  found  that  the  two  latter  can 
be  made  to  furnish  useful  components  of  fertil- 
izers without  interfering  with  the  requirements 
of  sanitary  disposal.  The  search  for  new  surface 
deposits  of  nitrates  had  not  yielded  results  of 
commercial  importance. 

It  is  well  known  that  farm  manure  is  subject 
to  large  loss  of  nitrogen  under  ordinary  methods 
of  handling,  but  the  cause  of  this  loss  had  not 
been  clearly  understood.  Investigations  in  £ng- 
land  showed  that  the  explanation  was  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  alternate  wetting  and  dry- 
ing of  the  manure  causes  reduction  of  nitrates 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  manure  and  conse- 
quent loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  free  state.  This 
teaches  the  practical  lesson  that  if  manure  can 
not  be  promptly  spread  on  the  land  as  it  is  pro- 
duced it  should  be  stored  under  cover  and  kept 
as  imiformly  moist  as  possible.  Another  fact 
of  considerable  practical  importance  brought  out 
by  experiments  with  manure  was  that  small 
amounts  of  manure  might  be  instrumental  in  in- 
creasing to  a  considerable  extent  the  effective- 
ness of   green   manures,   especially   legiuninous 


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green  manureB,  by  lumiBhing  active  bacteria  to 
hasten  their  decomposition  in  the  soil. 

Radioactive  Febtelizesb.  That  radium  ex- 
erts a  marked  influence  upon  plant  growth  was 
shown  by  plant  physiologists  very  soon  after 
radium  was  discovered  and  its  properties  began 
to  be  studied.  Following  this  discovery  the  use 
of  radioactive  materials  as  fertilizers  was  sug- 
gested. The  results  of  experiments  with  sudi 
materials,  however,  up  to  1915  was  contradictory 
and  inconclusive.  Several  reports  on  experi- 
ments of  this  kind,  reaching  entirely  contradic- 
tory conclusions,  appeared  in  1915.  Those  who 
had  investigated  the  subject  most  fully  were  of 
the  opinion  that  the  amounts  of  radium  which 
could  actually  be  supplied  in  this  way  at  prices 
which  would  not  be  prohibitive  do  not  and  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  produce  any  effect  upon 
crop  yields.  Moreover,  as  Hopkins  pointed  out, 
even  if  such  materials  proved  effective  their  use 
should  be  adopted  with  caution  since  they  add 
nothing  to  the  soil  but  by  stimulating  plant 
growth  hasten  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

Sulphur.  Investigation  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  sulphur  is  frequently  deficient  in 
soils  and  suggested  that  it  is  possibly  a  more 
important  element  of  soil  fertility  than  has  com- 
monly been  supposed.  A  number  of  investiga- 
tions on  the  fertilizing  effect  of  sulphur  and  its 
compounds  were  reported.  These  showed  that 
with  certain  soils  relatively  deficient  in  sulphur 
the  addition  of  sulphur  compounds  measurably 
increase  the  growth  of  certain  plants,  notably 
l^rumes  and  crucifers.  Elemental  sulphur  had 
not  proved  as  effective  as  sulphates  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  was  suggested  that  the  beneficial  effect 
observed  might  1^  due  in  part  to  stimulation  of 
bacterial  activity  in  the  soil. 

See  also  Ghemistbt,  Iin)USTRiAL,  Uiilieation 
of  Peaty  and  pfissim, 

TEBTTVAJ^,  Musical.    See  Music. 

FIJI  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  South  Pacific 
islands;  a  British  crown  colony.  The  principal 
inhabited  islands  are  Viti  Levu  (4112  square 
miles),  Vanua  Levu  (2432),  Taviuni  (217), 
Kadavu  (124),  Koro  (68),  Gau  (46),  and 
Ovalau  (43).  Total  area,  including  the  depend- 
ency of  Rotumah  (14),  is  7436  square  miles,  a 
little  larger  than  the  combined  area  of  Con- 
necticut and  Delaware.  Estimated  population, 
Dec.  31,  1913,  153,704.  The  population  at  the 
1911  census  was  139,541  (80,008  males,  59,533 
females),  of  whom  87,096  Fijians,  40,286  (26,- 
073  males)  East  Indians,  3707  Europeans. 
Sugar,  copra,  and  fruit  (particularly  pineapples) 
are  the  chief  products  and  exports.  Total  im- 
ports 1913,  £903,968  (1910,  £870,120);  exports, 
£1,425,940  (£1,005,818).  Export  of  sugar,  £1,- 
041,927  (£669,432)  ;  copra,  £176,741  (£258,914)  ; 
fruit,  £168,249  (£47,301).  There  is  no  railway. 
Suva,  the  capital,  has  cable  commtmication  with 
Brisbane  and  with  Canada.  Revenue,  1913, 
£266,031  (£211,952  in  1910);  expenditure,  £324,- 
528   (£236,661).     Public  debt,  £71,915. 

FILIPPI,  Db. — His  Expldbations.  See  Ex- 
PLOBATioN,  Asia. 

FILTRATION.     See  Watieb  Pubification. 

FINANCE.  See  sections  so  entitled  under 
various  countries,  and  under  the  States  of  the 
United  States.  See  also  the  article  Financial 
Review. 

FINANCIAL  BEVIEW.  Under  this  topic 
is  included  a  statement  of  the  general  aspects  of 
business  during  the  year   together   with   some 


treatment  of  such  special  topics  as  the  stock  ex- 
change, foreigpn  trade,  bank  clearings,  building 
operations,  failures,  and  business  conditions  in 
the  particular  countries.  For  additional  in- 
formation relating  to  business  and  finance  the 
reader    is    referred    to    the    following    topics: 

AOBIOULTUBAL    CbEDIT;     BaNKS    AND    BANKING; 

Blue  Sky  Laws;  Cotton,  Cotton  Futures  Act; 
Insubancb;  National  Banks;  Pbices;  Sav- 
ings Banks;  State  Banks;  Tabiff;  Tbusts. 
See  also  Labob  and  various  articles  there  re- 
ferred to. 

Genebal  Conditions.  The  year  1915  was  one 
of  very  marked  and  decisive  recovery  from  the 
industrial  depression  of  the  preceding  year,  the 
tide  of  business  operations  rising  steadily 
throughout  the  entire  twelve  months.  Some 
signs  of  approaching  prosperity  had  begun  to 
appear  at  the  close  of  1914,  but  that  business 
was  still  at  a  low  ebb  at  the  opening  of  the  year 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  output  of  pig  iron 
in  December,  1914,  was  only  1,500,000  tons,  the 
net  earnings  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion in  the  fourth  quarter  of  1914  were  less  than 
$11,000,000,  steel  mills  of  the  country  were  work- 
ing at  only  60  per  cent  of  capacity  with  thou- 
sands of  idle  workmen,  steel  prices  averaged  $2 
per  ton  less  than  in  1913,  railroad  earnings  were 
low,  and  business  failures  were  large.  By  con- 
trast in  1915  the  output  of  pig  iron  rose  to 
3,125,000  tons  in  October,  an  amount  never  be- 
fore equaled;  prices  of  steel  products  were  high, 
but  steel  plants  were  running  at  full  capacity 
and  were  rejecting  orders;  net  revenues  of  the 
Steel  Corporation  rose  from  $12,500,000  in  the 
first  quarter  to  $28,000,000  in  the  second,  and 
$38,500,000  in  the  third.  Foreign  trade  which 
in  1914  was  less  than  in  1913  or  1912  rose  to 
the  unprecedented  sum  of  $5,290,000,000  in  1915, 
and  exports  of  merchandise  for  the  12  months 
ending  with  October  exceeded  imports  by  the  re- 
markable amount  of  $1,626,886,000,  and  for  1915 
by  $1,760,000,000.  Likewise  the  volume  of  rail- 
way freight  traffic  during  the  fall  of  1915  was 
never  before  equaled,  some  of  the  roads  with 
Atlantic  seaboard  terminals  being  actually  under 
the  necessity  of  refusing  freight  for  ocean  ship- 
ment. As  a  result  the  stock  quotations  of  rail- 
road shares  advanced  generally  10  to  20  points. 
This  great  outburst  of  business  and  especially 
the  great  volume  of  orders  from  abroad  for  war 
munitions  and  supplies  resulted  in  wild  specula- 
tion on  the  stock  exchange.  During  January 
the  pessimism  of  the  preceding  year  gradually 
gave  way  to  a  more  hopeful  sentiment.  Exports 
were  increasing;  foreign  countries,  especially 
Canadian  provinces  and  cities,  Sweden,  Norway, 
and  Argentina,  placed  loans  in  the  American 
market;  the  gold  pool  of  $100,000,000  to  meet 
maturing  American  obligations  abroad  was  dis- 
solved and  the  pool  for  the  relief  of  cotton  grow- 
ers likewise  formed  in  the  fall  of  1914  became 
inoperative,  only  $28,000  having  been  applied 
for;  nearly  all  of  the  $384,000,000  of  emergency 
currency  and  of  the  $215,000,000  of  clearing 
house  certificates  that  had  been  issued  since 
August,  1914,  were  retired;  the  stock  exchange 
was  reopened,  but  trading  was  moderate,  only 
5,000,000  shares  being  transferred  in  January 
and  4,300,000  in  February. 

In  the  latter  month  the  upward  tendency  be- 
came more  marked.  Exports  exceeded  imports 
by  $173,500,000,  with  the  result  that  sterling  ex- 
change declined  to  $4.79.    This  rate  contrasted 


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sharply  with  the  rate  of  $7  which  had  been 
reached  in  August,  1914.  During  March  the 
activities  of  the  stock  market  increased  owing 
to  business  conditions  and  to  Supreme  Court  de- 
cisions favorable  to  the  railroads.  By  one  of 
these  the  two-cent  passenger  rate  law  of  Vir- 
ginia was  annulled  and  by  the  other  the  reduc- 
tion of  freight  rates  on  coal  by  North  Dakota 
was  set  aside.  New  York  City  was  able  to  float 
a  sale  of  bonds  at  4^  per  cent;  copper  rose  to 
15^  cents  per  pound,  an  increase  of  more  than 
2  cents;  cotton  rose  by  a  similar  amount  to  9% 
cents;  while  the  price  of  wheat  at  Chicago  was 
about  $1.60  per  bushel.  In  April  all  minimum 
limits  for  stock  exchange  transactions  were  re- 
moved; steel  plants  were  occupied  to  70  per  cent 
of  capacity;  the  price  of  copper  rose  to  21  cents 
and  the  prices  of  wheat  and  cotton  showed  slight 
advances;  but  the  striking  feature  of  the  month 
was  the  outburst  of  speculation  on  the  New  York 
exchange,  21,000,000  shares  being  transferred. 
This  outburst  was  due  mainly  to  war  orders 
which  resulted  in  large  advances  in  Bethlehem 
Steel,  American  Locomotive,  New  York  Air 
Brake,  and  the  stocks  of  motor  companies.  In 
May  there  was  some  recession  in  the  price  of 
commodities;  stocks  declined,  in  part  owing  to 
the  sinking  of  the  Lusitaniay  but  June  brought 
recovery  in  stock  prices.  TTie  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court  against  the  dissolution  of  the 
Steel  Corporation  brought  a  favorable  movement 
in  stock  prices,  but  the  resignation  of  Secretary 
of  State  Bryan  caused  some  reaction.  The  prices 
of  sterling  exchange  had  continued  to  fall  and 
the  importation  of  $40,000,000  of  gold  did  not 
prevent  a  decline  to  $4.75.  Copper  prices  con- 
tinued to  advance  but  the  price  of  wheat  fell  to 
$1.04. 

The  influences  favorable  to  business  revival 
during  the  flrst  half  year  continued  to  operate 
during  the  second  half.  Large  contracts  with 
foreign  governments  for  military  supplies  re- 
sulted in  wild  trading  on  the  exchange  in  July; 
steel  plants  increased  their  business  to  87  per 
cent  of  capacity;  pig  iron  production  increased 
and  railroad  traffic  rose  considerably.  August 
was  marked  by  the  transfer  of  20,500,000  shares 
on  the  New  York  exchange;  by  continued  ad- 
vances in  the  prices  of  railroad  securities,  due  in 
part  to  the  granting  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  of  freight  increases  to  the  western 
roads;  the  enormous  crops  produced  a  favorable 
reaction  on  business  in  general.  The  decline  of 
sterling  exchange  to  $4.50  was  checked  in  Sep- 
tember by  the  negotiation  of  the  Anglo-French 
loan  of  $500,000,000.  It  was  during  August  and 
September  that  stock  speculation  was  most 
reckless,  the  shares  of  some  of  the  companies 
proflting  by  war  orders  gaining  as  much  as  30  or 
40  points  in  a  day.  It  was  during  September 
also  that  the  railroads  began  to  feel  a  pressure 
of  freight  for  export. 

The  fourth  quarter  of  the  year  was  character- 
ized by  the  continued  increase  in  the  volume  of 
business  and  the  optimism  of  business  sentiment. 
Another  outburst  of  speculation  in  war  order 
stocks  resulted  in  the  transfer  of  26,679,000  shares 
in  October,  numerous  days  being  marked  by  a 
business  of  from  1,000,000  to  1,500,000  shares. 
Bethl^em  Steel  made  a  phenomenal  advance  to 
600,  having  opened  the  year  at  46^,  and  declin- 
ing in  December  to  about  460.  There  were  simi- 
lar but  less  extreme  advances  in  some  other 
gtodcB.    Pig  iron  production  made  a  new  record 


of  over  3,000,000  tons  in  October,  and  by  the 
middle  of  November  the  activity  in  the  steel 
plants  of  the  country  was  without  precedent. 
This  was  due  not  only  to  the  war  orders,  but  to 
the  fact  that  unprecedented  business  encouraged 
the  railroads  to  spend  large  sums  for  cars,  rails, 
and  other  equipment.  The  enormous  export 
traffic  at  eastern  ports  forced  the  railroads  to 
reduce  free  storage  time  from  thirty  to  fifteen 
days,  there  being  at  one  time  50,000  loaded  cars 
on  side  tracks  near  New  York.  This  congestion 
was  due  in  part  to  the  reduction  in  the  number 
of  ocean  carriers  by  the  war.  In  December  the 
attention  of  the  stock  market  turned  somewhat 
to  railroad  securities,  but  considerable  gains  were 
still  made  in  the  stocks  of  the  war  order  com- 
panies. In  spite  of  the  fact  that  certain  roads 
had  gone  into  receiverships,  the  relatively  favor- 
able condition  of  railway  finances  in  general  was 
shown  by  the  statistics  of  the  Bureau  of  Rail- 
way Economics.  The  net  revenue  per  mile  of 
line  for  roads  comprising  228,000  miles  rose 
from  $220  in  January  and  February,  to  about 
$300  per  mile  in  each  of  the  next  three  months, 
and  to  $477  per  mile  in  September,  The  net  in- 
come for  these  roads  in  September  was  17.4  per 
cent  above  the  previous  five-year  average,  and 
subsequent  months  were  not  less  favorable.  The 
increase  in  net  revenue  of  railways'  over  1914 
was  estimated  at  $168,955,000.  The  foreign 
trade  for  October  totaled  $477,000,000  and  for 
November,  $405,000,000.  The  excess  of  exports 
over  imports  reached  the  maximum  of  $178,857,* 
000  in  October.  During  every  month  of  the 
year  there  was  an  excess  of  gold  imports  over 
gold  exports,  the  maximum  of  $76,731,000  being 
in  October  and  the  total  excess  for  the  year  being 
$429,000,000.  Moreover,  extra  dividends  on  the 
stocks  of  copper,  oil,  and  powder  companies  were 
declared.  Steel  prices  reached  the  high  average 
of  $39.70  per  ton,  a  gain  of  $7.50  since  August 
and  of  nearly  one-third  since  1915  and  the  high- 
est average  in  eight  years. 

Crops.  Not  a  little  of  the  great  prosperity 
of  the  United  States  during  1915  was  due  to 
new  records  in  farm  production.  Thus  the  wheat 
crop  for  the  first  time  exceeded  1,000,000,000 
buEUiels,  the  actual  production  being  1,002,029,- 
000  bushels.  This  was  an  increase  of  110,000,000 
bushels  over  1914.  The  corn  crop  exceeded  that 
of  the  previous  year  by  over  400,000,000  bushels, 
reaching  the  enormous  amount  of  3,090,000,000 
bushels.  Oats  likewise  set  a  new  maximum  of 
1,517,478  bushels,  while  barley  with  236,682,000 
bushels  was  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  1914 
crop.  The  total  value  of  all  farm  products  in- 
cluding grain,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  animal 
produd^B  for  the  year  was  estimated  at  $10,000,- 
000.000. 

Pig  Iron  PR(N>ucnoN.  One  of  the  best  indexes 
of  business  conditions  is  the  volume  of  pig  iron 
production.  During  the  last  four  months  of 
the  year  this  averaged  about  3,000,000  tons. 
This  contrasted  with  1,601,000  tons  in  January. 
The  output  increased  steadily  ever^  month  until 
October,  the  total  for  the  year  bemg  about  29,- 
796,000  tons,  an  amount  exceeded  only  in  1912 
and  1913,  and  being  about  6,500,000  tons  greater 
than  in  1914.  The  total  for  the  year  may  be 
compared  with  a  total  of  30,724,000  tons  in 
1913;  29,727,000  in  1912;  and  23,649,000  in  1911. 

Automobile  Industrt.  A  notable  feature  of 
the  year's  industry  was  the  great  expansion  in 
the  automobile  manulacture.    It  was  eBtimated 


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thai  the  retail  value  of  can  and  tniekg  sold  in 
1915  aggregrated  $691,778,000.  This  included 
842,249  paaaenger  ears  at  $666,856,000;  and 
160,369  trucks  at  $125,922,000.  Exports  were 
estimated  at  $100,000,000  or  two  and  one-half 
times  as  great  as  in  1914;  of  this  sum  about 
two-thirds  was  for  commercial  Tehicles.  6ee 
Automobiles. 

Stock  Exchange.  The  changes  in  business 
sentiment  were  reflected  in  the  actiyities  of  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange,  though  this  state- 
ment must  be  qualifled  on  account  of  an  ex- 
cessive and  unreasoning  spirit  of  speculation 
which  prevailed  during  April  and  during  the  fall 
months.  It  was  this  speculative  fever  which 
undoubtedly  made  the  total  shares  exchanged 
for  the  year  greater  than  in  any  year  since 
1909.  The  number  of  shares  sold  by  months 
were  as  follows:  January,  6,076,210,  Febru- 
ary, 4,383,449,  March,  7,862,308,  April,  21,022,- 
930,  May,  12,681,040,  June,  11,004,042,  July, 
14,371,633,  August,  20,432,350,  September,  18,- 
399^86,  October,  26,678,963,  November,  17,634,- 
270,  December,  14,647,000.  Total  for  the  year, 
173,000,000  shares.  That  these  figures  repre- 
sent an  extraordinary  volume  of  business  is, 
shown  by  comparison  with  totals  for  previous 
years:  1914,  47,900,668;  1913,  83,470,693;  1912, 
131,128,426;  1911,  127,207,258;  1910,  164,150,- 
061;  1909,  214,632,104.  The  speculative  fever 
was  also  reflected  in  the  phenomenal  advances 
of  Bome  of  the  stocks.  The  advances  were  due 
almost  entirely  to  the  great  volume  of  Euro- 
pean trade  due  to  war  orders.  The  stocks  of 
these  companies  came  to  be  known  popularly 
as  *'war  brides."  The  following  are  a  few  in- 
stances of  the  advances  during  the  year  shown 
by  first  and  last  quotations  of  the  prices  of 
common  stocks:  Anaconda,  50  to  91;  Baldwin 
Locomotive,  40  to  117;  Bethlehem  Steel,  46 
to  469;  General  Motors,  82  to  500;  Studebaker, 
36  to  167;  Industrial  Alcohol,  20  to  121;  Cruci- 
ble Steel,  18  to  73;  Continental  Can,  40  to  84; 
Lackawanna  Steel,  28  to  81;  Tennessee  Cop- 
per, 32  to  63.  These  prices  were  less  in  all 
cases  than  the  maxima  attained  in  the  fall. 
Thus  Baldwin  Locomotive  went  to  164  on  Octo- 
ber 23rd;  Bethlehem  Steel  to  600  on  October 
22nd;  General  Motors  to  559  on  December  9th; 
Studebaker  to  195  on  October  22nd;  and  Lacka- 
wanna Steel  to  96  on  September  29th.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  year  interest  attached  to  railroad 
shares  and  the  stocks  of  all  the  principal  rail- 
roads of  the  coimtry  showed  considerable  ad- 
vances with  the  exception  of  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas,  Missouri  Pacific,  and  Wabash,  which 
were  in  financial  difficulties. 

The  bond  market  refiected  somewhat  the  same 
wide-spread  interests  in  investments.  The 
transactions  on  the  New  York  exchange  by 
months  were  as  follows:  January,  $57,100,500, 
February,  $43,842,500,  March,  $63,214,600, 
April,  $110,359,500,  May,  $64,284,200,  June,  $57,- 
957,000,  July,  $55,635,500,  August,  $72,253,000, 
September,  $80,741,000,  October,  $105,191,500, 
November,  $130,088,500,  and  December,  $120,- 
110,000.  Total  for  the  year,  $956,500,000  par 
value.  While  the  advances  in  bond  prices  were 
not  phenomenal  yet  there  was  a  general  up- 
ward movement  for  the  bonds  of  the  govern- 
ment, of  railroads,  and  of  industrial  companies, 
ranging  from  1  per  cent  to  6  per  cent.  The 
total  transactions  for  the  year  were  exceeded  in 
1909,   but   not   in   any   subsequent   year.    The 


totals  for  immediately  preceding  years  were: 
1914,  $461,526,600;  1913,  $601,671,020;  1912, 
$675,213,500;  1911,  $890,210,100;  1910,  $634,- 
722,850;  1909,  $1,317,291,000.  The  ease  of  the 
bond  fiotations  showed  the  abundance  of  avail- 
able money  due  to  the  revival  of  prosperity  and 
especially  to  the  enormous  export  trade.  In 
this  connection  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
foreign  credits  established  during  the  year  and 
noted  below.  One  notable  result  of  the  year's 
transactions  was  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
stockholders  of  principal  corporations.  A  sum- 
mary for  23  railroads,  14  public  utility  com- 
panies, and  28  industrial  corporations  showed 
an  increase  of  26,447  in  the  number  of  stock- 
holders during  the  year. 

Another  important  result  was  the  great  ab- 
sorption of  American  securities  previously  held 
abroad.  When  the  war  began  the  par  value  of 
American  securities  held  abroad  was  estimated 
variously  from  $4,000,000,000  to  $6,000,000,000. 
Mr.  L.  F.  Loree,  President  of  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Company,  after  a  thorough  study  of 
American  railway  securities  held  abroad,  con- 
cluded that  their  par  value  was  $2,223,000,000, 
and  their  market  value,  July  31,  1916,  was  $1,- 
751,000,000;  industrials  owned  abroad  on  that 
date  were  estimated  $618,300,000  par  value. 
His  inquiry  showed  that  $480,892,000  par  value 
of  these  railway  securities  were  sold  in  Amer- 
ica in  five  months;  it  was  known  that  during 
this  same  period  $140,000,000  par  value  of  in- 
dustrial securities  were  also  exchanged.  On 
this  basis  it  was  estimated  that  during  the  year 
more  than  $1,000,000,000  of  stocks  and  bonds 
previously  held  abroad  were  bought  by 
American  investors.  The  remarkable  financial 
strength  of  the  country  made  possible  not 
merely  the  repurchase  of  these  securities,  but 
also  the  extension  of  credits  aggregating  $1,- 
000,000,000,  besides  which  gold  imports  ex- 
ceeded exports  by  over  $425,000,000. 

Securities.  According  to  the  JounuU  of 
Commerce  the  total  authorized  capital  of  all 
companies  incorporated  in  the  United  States 
in  1915  with  a  capital  of  $100,000  amoimted  to 
$2,061,000,000,  an  increase  of  over  30  per  cent 
compared  with  1914.  For  companies  with  a 
capital  of  $1,000,000  or  more  incorporated  in  the 
Eastern  States  this  paper  reported  an  aggregate 
of  $1,426,000,000.  Ihis  amount  compared  with 
$894,947,000  in  1914,  and  $1,534,000,000  in 
1913. 

The  actual  issues  of  securities  by  railroads  in 
1915  aggregated  $780,216,000.  Of  this  $541,- 
350,000  were  bonds,  $216,516,000  notes,  and  $22,- 
360,000  stocks.  Industrial  companies  issued  a 
total  of  $655,134,000,  including  $241,838,000 
bonds;  $110,918,000  notes,  and  $302,377,000 
stocks.  Moreover,  the  Daily  Bond  Buyer  re- 
ported during  1915,  5181  issues  of  long-term 
State  and  municipal  bonds  aggregating  $482,- 
220,000,  the  largest  amount  of  such  securities 
ever  issued  in  one  year. 

Bank  Cleabinos.  The  bank  clearings  for  137 
cities  reached  the  enormous  sum  of  $186,079,- 
731,000,  an  amount  never  before  equaled,  and 
exceeding  the  previous  maximum  in  1912  by 
7.8  per  cent.  During  the  first  quarter  the 
clearings  aggregated  $38,915,000,000;  second 
quarter,  $43,427,000,000;  third  quarter,  $44,271,- 
000,000;  fourth  quarter,  $59,466,000,000.  For 
the  month  of  December  the  total  was  $20,167,- 
000,000,  or  .5  per  cent  more  than  in  October  or 


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November,  in  either  of  which  the  clearings  ex- 
ceeded those  of  any  previous  month  in  Amer- 
ican history.  By  geographical  divisions  the 
clearings  for  the  year  were  as  follows:  New 
England,  $8,838,236,000;  Middle,  $23,939,698,- 
000;  Western,  $7,189,399,000;  Northwestern, 
$21,678,344,000;  Southwestern,  $9,926,078,000; 
Southern,  $6,865,044,000,  and  Far-Western,  $6,- 
642,930,000.  At  principal  centres  the  clearings 
¥(ere:  Boston,  $8,266,036,000;  New  York,  $110,- 
204,392,000;  PhiUdelphia,  $8,863,633,000;  Pitts- 
burgh, $2,666,312,000;  Chicago,  $16,198,985,000; 
St  Louis,  $4,153,535,000;  Kansas  City,  $3,835,- 
061,000;  Baltimore,  $1,833,648,000;  San  Fran- 
cisco, $2,693,688,000;  Los  Angeles,  $1,048,128,- 
000. 

Canada,  Bank  clearings  in  Canada  were 
slightly  less  than  in  1914,  amounting  to  $7,- 
653,000,000,  a  decrease  of  .4  per  cent  from  1914. 
Slightly  more  than  one-third  of  all  clearings 
were  at  Montreal,  nearly  one-fourth  at  Toronto, 
and  one-fifth  at  Winnipeg. 

Failubes.  In  spite  of  the  many  indications 
of  business  prosperity,  the  number  of  commer- 
cial failures  in  1915  exceeded  those  of  any  previ- 
ous year.  R.  G.  Dun  &  Co.  reported  22,156 
suspensions  in  1915,  with  aggregate  indebted- 
ness of  $302,286,000;  similar  figures  for  1914 
were  18,280  and  $357,908,000.  Bradatreefs  re- 
ported 19,032  failures  with  $283,432,000  liabili- 
ties, these  figures  being  respectively  13.4  per 
cent  higher  and  20.7  per  cent  lower  than  in 
1914.  The  liabilities  were,  moreover,  26  per 
cent  less  than  in  1907  or  1893,  but  the  number 
of  failures  had  never  been  equaled.  The  busi- 
ness mortality  was  very  high,  but  as  conditions 
improved  in  various  lines,  failures  became  fewer. 
In  the  fourth  quarter  the  number  was  37  per 
cent  less  and  the  liabilities  50  per  cent  less  than 
in  the  first  quarter. 

Likewise  railway  receiverships  of  the  year 
were  unusually  niunerous,  the  mileage  under  re- 
ceiverships beinff  the  greatest  in  nearly  20 
years.  The  total  mileage  was  39,905;  and  the 
par  value  of  bonds  represented  $1,678,129,000, 
and  of  stocks,  $707,603,000.  The  most  impor- 
tant lines  were  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific;  the  Missouri  Pacific;  the  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco;  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Texas;  the  Wabash;  the  Texas  Pacific;  and  the 
P^re  Marquette.  It  was  alleged  that  one  fac- 
tor in  many  cases  was  the  restrictive  legisla- 
tion of  Southwestern  States,  notably  Oklahoma 
and  Texas. 

Canada,  Failures  in  Canada  reached  the 
number  of  2621,  a  decrease  of  9.1  per  cent  from 
1914,  but  exceeding  the  number  in  any  previous 
year.  The  liabilities  aggregated  $31,989,000,  an 
increase  of  4.2  per  cent  over  1914,  and  greatly 
exceeding  any  other  year. 

Building.  According  to  Bradstreet'a  the 
building  operations  in  155  American  cities  ag- 
gregated over  $806,000,000  in  1915.  This  was 
an  increase  of  4.5  per  cent  over  the  total  for 
1914.  Nevertheless,  during  the  first  seven 
months,  the  building  expenditures  were  less  in 
each  month  than  in  the  corresponding  month 
of  1914,  except  in  May,  when  there  was  an  in- 
crease of  .3  per  cent.  During  the  last  five 
months  there  was  an  increase  each  month  over 
1914.  While  the  figures  for  the  first  nine 
months  showed  a  decrease  of  5  per  cent  from 
those  of  1914,  the  last  quarter  of  1915  showed 
expenditures  exceeding  those  of  the  last  quarter 


of  1914  by  53.2  per  cent.    See  also  BniLDiifa 
Operations. 

AicEBiCAN  Intbbnational  Cobfobation.  This 
organization  was  incorporated  in  New  York 
about  December  1,  under  the  direction  of  the 
National  City  Bank.  It  was  capitalized  at  $50,- 
000,000.  Its  purpose  was  to  develop  American 
trade  with  foreign  countries,  promote  the  in* 
vestment  of  American  capital  in  industrial  proj- 
ects in  foreign  lands,  and  develop  markets 
abroad  for  Anrarican  goods.  The  charter  of  the 
company  empowered  it  to  deal  in  securities,  ac- 
quire concessions,  make  explorations,  develop 
mines,  smelt  ores,  build  houses  and  factories* 
construct  telephone  and  telegraph  lines,  wharves, 
and  reservoirs,  and  indeed  to  do  whatever  was 
necessary  in  carrying  on  legitimate  business. 
Among  its  directors  were  Frank  A.  Vanderlip, 
president  of  the  National  City  Bank;  Otto  H. 
Kahn,  of  Kuhn,  Loeb  and  Company ;  J.  Ogden  Ar- 
mour of  Chicago;  James  J.  Hill,  of  the  Great 
Northern  Company;  William  E.  Corey,  of  the 
Midvale  Steel  Company;  and  many  other  well- 
known  financiers  and  industrial  promoters. 
This  corporation  was  formed  under  the  lead- 
ership of  the  National  City  Bank  which  was 
carrying  out  a  policy  of  establishing  branches 
in  principal  South  American  cities,  and  which 
had  acquired  control  of  the  International  Bank- 
ing Corporation  with  its  16  banks  in  China, 
Japan,  India,  the  Philippines,  Panama,  and  else- 
where. 

FoBEiON  Credits.  One  of  the  most  unique 
and  remarkable  features  of  the  financial  history 
of  the  year  was  numerous  and  large  foreign 
loans  or  credits  fioated  in  this  country.  It  was 
estimated  that  their  total  exceeded  $1,000,000,- 
000,  and  that  about  80  per  cent  of  the  proceeds 
were  expended  in  this  country  for  war  supplies 
of  all  kinds.  The  Canadian  government  secured 
a  5  per  cent  loan  amoimting  to  $45,000,000, 
while  8  Canadian  Provinces  and  10  Canstdian 
cities  borrowed  a  total  of  $102,000,000.  Vari- 
ous Latin-American  countries  secured  a  total 
of  $50,000,000,  of  which  Argentina  secured  $15,- 
000,000  on  notes  and  $31,000,000  on  treasury 
bonds.  Small  loans  or  credits  to  various  Euro- 
pean countries  were  as  follows:  Switzerland, 
$15,000,000;  Sweden,  $5,000,000;  Norway,  $8,- 
000,000;  Greece,  $7,000,000.  German  treasury 
notes  to  the  amount  of  $10,000,000  were  sold  in 
the  United  States.  Russia,  which  placed  orders 
for  war  supplies  amounting  to  $70,000,000  in 
the  single  month  of  October,  and  had  previously 
placed  orders  estimated  as  equally  great,  se- 
cured one  loan  of  $32,000,000,  and  late  in  De- 
cember was  negotiating  a  second  loan  of  $60,- 
000,000  to  run  for  90  days,  but  renewable  up 
to  18  months.  According  to  announcement  this 
new  loan  would  bear  5  per  cent  and  1  addi- 
tional per  cent  for  each  90  days'  extension. 
Italy  secured  $25,000,000  on  one  year  6  per 
cent  notes  convertible  at  maturity  into  6  per 
cent  one  year  bonds;  these  latter  were  in  turn 
exchangeable  for  10  year  5^  per  cent  bonds. 
In  addition  to  the  Anglo-French  loan  noted  be- 
low, France  secured  $75,000,000  on  notes,  bonds, 
and  collateral;  and  London  banks  $50,000,000 
for  six  months.  At  the  close  of  the  year  plans 
were  under  way  also  for  additional  credits  for 
both  France  and  Great  Britain,  to  be  based  on 
American  securities  mobilized  by  the  bank  of 
England  and  the  bank  of  France. 

Anolo-Fbench  Loan.    The  most  notable  for- 


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RUFUS  ISAACS  (LORD  READING) 
Htt«d  of  AnglO'French  Lotn  CommlMJon 


Pbo(on«ph  by  Pftul  Thompson 

KARL  HELFERICH 
Mlnlttar  of  Flntnc*,  Qcrmtny 


ALEXANDRE  RIBOT 
Minlttor  of  Fin*nc«,  Franco 


REGINALD  MoKENNA 
Chanc«ltor  of  th«  Exchoqu«r, 


FOUR  FINANCIERS  OF  THE  GREAT  WAR 


•t^gyCoogle 


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FINANCIAL  BEVIEW 


215 


PINANCIAL  BEVIEW 


eign  loan  ever  floated  waa  that  negotiated  by 
England  and  France.  Various  small  credits 
and  gold  imports  of  more  than  $150,000,000  had 
not  prevented  sterling  exchange  at  New  York 
from  falling  to  about  $4.50;  normally  it  is 
$4.86,  and  in  August,  1914,  it  had  been  nearly 
$5.  In  September,  a  commission  of  British  and 
French  financiers,  including  Baron  Reading, 
Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England,  as  chairman, 
and  noted  English  and  French  bankers  and  pub- 
licists, came  to  the  United  States  to  negotiate 
a  loan  through  prominent  American  bankers. 
It  was  stated  that  their  original  desire  was  to 
establish  a  credit  for  $750,000,000  or  even  $1,> 
000,000,000,  but  after  various  conferences  led  on 
the  part  of  American  financiers  by  J.  P.  Mor- 
gan and  Company,  the  sum  of  $500,000,000  was 
fixed  upon.  An  extensive  underwriting  syndi- 
cate was  formed  in  which  banks  from  all  parts 
of  the  country  participated,  though  some  banks 
in  various  sections  refused  to  join.  Refusal  was 
due  in  part  to  financial  reasons  and  in  part  to 
sentiment.  A  vigorous  effort  was  made  by  some 
of  the  leading  German- Americans  to  prevent  the 
participation  of  banks,  especially  savings  banks, 
in  the  loan;  and  this  was  accompanied  by  pro- 
posals for  the  establishment  of  German-Amer- 
ican banks  in  New  York  and  Chicago.  The 
American  Truth  Society  formed  by  Germans  in 
this  country  held  meetings  in  35  cities  in  op- 
position to  the  loan;  it  later  issued  a  list  of  56 
banks  taking  part  in  the  loan  which  were  **not 
to  be  forgotten  nor  forgiven."  The  loan  was 
taken  by  the  syndicate  at  96  or  on  a  basis  to 
yield  an  average  5%  per  cent  and  sold  to  in- 
vestors at  98  or  so  as  to  yield  for  the  5-year 
period  during  which  the  securities  run,  about 
5^  per  cent.  The  privilege  of  converting  these 
securities  into  4^4  per  cent  bonds  running  from 
15  to  25  years  was  Included.  The  subscription 
list  was  closed  early  in  October,  and  a  total  was 
exceeded  by  some  $50,000,000.  The  largest  in- 
dividual subscription  was  $35,000,000;  there  was 
one  of  $20,000,000;  one  of  $15,000,000;  and 
three  of  $10,000,000  each.  The  first  installment 
of  25  per  cent  was  due  October  15;  a  second  in- 
stallment of  25  per  cent  was  due  November  15; 
and  a  final  installment  of  60  per  cent  was  due 
December  15.  The  loan  had  momentous  con- 
sequences in  preventing  the  breakdown  of  Euro- 
pean exchange.  It  thus  made  it  possible  for 
England  and  France  to  continue  their  purchases 
of  war  supplies  in  the  United  States,  a  condi- 
tion which  reacted  powerfully  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  American  manufactures. 

FtoERAL  Reventte.  The  great  decline  in  im- 
port duties  which  had  made  necessary  emer- 
gency taxes  in  1914  continued  to  be  a  cause  of 
anxiety  to  treasury  officials  during  1915.  It 
became  evident  early  in  the  year  that  existing 
legislation  would  probably  produce  only  barely 
sufficient  revenue  to  carry  the  government's 
finances  to  the  close  of  the  calendar  year. 
Moreover,  when  it  became  evident  that  the  Ad- 
ministration was  determined  to  enter  upon  a 
policy  of  greatly  increased  expenditures  for  the 
army  and  navy,  it  was  perfectly  certain  that 
new  sources  of  revenue  would  need  to  be  de- 
vised. This  additional  revenue  could  be  secured 
from  an  expansion  of  existing  taxes  or  from 
new  taxes,  or  from  the  sale  of  bonds.  Either 
policy  was  evidently  fraught  with  political 
dangers  and  economic  difiiculties.  It  was  gen- 
erally  agreed  that   the  income  tax,   which   in 


the  fiscal  year  1915  yielded  only  $40,000,000, 
was  capable  of  yielding  a  much  larger  return; 
also  that  a  Federal  inheritance  tax  was  also 
likely  to  prove  a  fruitful  source  of  revenue. 
Early  in  December  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
McAdoo  suggested  that  the  emergency  revenue 
law  which  would  expire  on  December  Slst  be  re- 
enacted;  that  the  law  providing  that  sugar 
should  be  free  of  duty  after  May  1,  1916,  be  re- 
pealed ;  that  the  income  tax  rate  be  raised ;  that 
the  exemption  limit  of  the  income  tax  be  low- 
ered from  $4000  to  $3000  for  married  men,  and 
from  $3000  to  $2000  for  single  men;  that  the 
income  surtax  begin  at  $10,000  or  $15,000  in- 
stead of  $20,000;  and  that  taxes  be  imposed  on 
gasoline,  crude  or  refined  oil,  and  on  automo- 
biles and  other  internal  combustion  engines  ac- 
cording to  horse  power.  Members  of  Congress 
proposed  taxes  on  the  profits  of  the  manufacture 
of  munitions;  or  an  increase  of  the  taxes  on 
whiskey  and  beer. 

Most  of  the  proposals  of  Secretary  McAdoo's 
programme  above  outlined  were  approved  by  the 
Administration.  In  December  a  caucus  of 
House  Democrats  voted  in  favor  of  extending 
for  one  year  the  emergency  tax  law.  On  the 
16th  a  joint  resolution  to  this  effect  passed  the 
House  by  a  vote  of  205  to  189,  all  Republicans 
and  5  Democrats  voting  in  the  negative.  In 
the  Senate  the  resolution  carried  by  a  vote  of 
45  to  29.  The  discussion  of  this  proposal  was 
largely  partisan  in  character,  and  brought  out 
the  opposed  policies  of  the  two  parties  regard- 
ing the  protective  tariff. 

England.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  of 
English  financial  history  of  the  year  was  the 
prodigious  efforts  of  the  government  to  finance 
the  war.  The  direct  cost  of  the  war  to  Great 
Britain  up  to  the  close  of  1915  was  estimated 
at  $8,000,000,000,  of  which  some  $6,500,000,000 
represented  the  cost  during  1915.  This  had  been 
met  for  the  most  part  by  loans,  but  also  in  part 
by  taxation.  In  addition  to  previous  taxes, 
over  $1,000,000,000  was  raised  by  new  taxes; 
and  at  the  close  of  the  year  further  taxes  were 
in  contemplation.  The  stock  exchange  at  Lon- 
don, which  had  been  closed  in  August,  1914,  was 
reopened  in  January.  The  valuation  of  387 
representative  British  stocks  by  the  Bankers* 
Magazine  showed  a  decline  in  the  aggregate  mar- 
ket value  of  these  stocks  of  $900,000,000  in  the 
latter  days  of  July,  1914;  of  nearly  $350,000,- 
000  more  between  August  1  and  February  1; 
and  of  over  $700,000,000  additional  decline  be- 
tween Feb.  1  and  Dec,  1,  1916.  This  shrink- 
age was  striking  evidence  of  the  unfavorable 
condition  of  general  industrial  operations.  The 
war  necessitated  a  great  shift  of  both  labor  and 
capital  to  new  lines  of  production  (see  Unem- 
pi:x>TMENT).  The  foreign  trade  of  England 
showed  an  excess  of  imports  in  each  month  of 
1915  over  the  corresponding  month  of  1914,  with 
the  exception  of  January,  in  which  the  imports 
of  the  two  years  were  practically  the  same.  On 
the  contrary,  the  exports  were  smaller  in  each 
month  than  in  the  preceding  year.  The  total 
imports  of  the  year  exceeded  $4,270,000,000,  as 
compared  with  $3,500,000,000  in  1914.  The 
total  exports  amounted  to  $1,925,000,000,  as 
compared  with  $2,180,000,000  in  1914^  The  tre- 
mendous financial  strength  of  Great  Britain  was 
revealed  by  the  fact  that  she  had  extended 
credit  to  her  allies  in  large  amounts,  had  ex- 
ported gold  to  the  amount  of  $400,000,000,  and 


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216 


nuLAin) 


yet  in  epite  of  a  most  unusual  unfavorable  trade 
balance,  had  Buffered  a  loss  of  only  $100,000,- 

000  net  in  her  gold  holdings:  this  was  owing 
largely  to  the  inflow  of  gold  from  South  Africa 
and  Australia. 

France.  The  war  almost  completely  inter- 
rupted the  foreign  trade  of  France.  It  was  es- 
timated that  from  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
France  had  produced  from  her  own  agriculture 
and  manufactures  five-sixths  of  all  her  sup- 
plies. The  Paris  Bourse  was  reopened  late  in 
the  year,  and  the  curb  market  resumed  partial 
activity.  Also  toward  the  end  of  the  year  the 
liquidation  of  accounts  suspended  since  July, 
1014,  was  resumed.  From  August,  1914,  to  No- 
vember, 1015,  the  government  paid  out  $5,200,- 
000,000.  Of  this  sum  $1,000,000,000  was  se- 
cured from  regular  taxes  previously  imposed; 
no  new  war  taxes  were  enacted,  though  a  re- 
vision of  the  income  tax  became  effective  Jan. 
1,  1016.  The  bank  of  France  had,  up  to  Nov. 
1,  1015,  advanced  $1,400,000,000  to  the  govern- 
ment. Moreover,  this  bank  held  gold  sliffhtly 
in  excess  of  $1,000,000,000  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  although  it  had  sent*  $140,000,000  gold  to 
England,  $40,000,000  to  the  United  States,  and 
an  equal  amount  to  Italy  and  Greece;  moreover, 
its  gold  reserve  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  was 
only  $615,000,000.  During  the  latter  half  of 
1915  an  especial  effort  was  made  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  accumulate  the  gold  hordes  of  the 
French  people,  with  the  resmt  that  from  July 

1  to  December  1,  $250,000,000  in  gold  was  sent 
in.  Perhaps  the  most  notable  event  of  the  year 
was  the  flotation  of  the  ''Loan  of  Victory"  in 
the  closing  months.  The  total  subscriptions  to 
this  were  not  known  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
but  they  approximated  $2,900,000,000  from  all 
classes  of  the  population.  Payments  were  made 
to  a  considerable  amount  in  gold,  and  the 
amount  paid  in  exceeded  that  due. 

Gebmant.  In  Germany  the  year  brought  no 
considerable  changes  in  industry.  The  Boerse 
operated  unofficially  during  the  ^eater  part  of 
the  year.  Statistics  as  to  foreign  trade  were 
lacking,  though  it  was  known  that  the  overseas 
trade  was  almost  eliminated.  It  was  stated 
that  the  Boerse  had  reflected  the  prosperity  of 
industries  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  war 
supplies  in  that  a  real  boom  of  war  shares  oc- 
curred during  the  summer;  with  excessive  spec- 
ulation. It  was  claimed  that  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  was  evidenced  by  the  increase 
of  deposits  in  savings  banks.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  these  banks  held  aggregate  deposits  of 
nearly  $5,000,000,000.  Up  to  June  3,  1915,  the 
new  deposits  were  estimated  at  $500,000,000; 
and  it  was  estimated  that  the  total  increase  in 
savings  deposits  from  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
to  the  close  of  1915  was  $750,000,000.  The  most 
striking  financial  events   were  the   war   loans. 


881,000,000.  There  were  2,113,000  subscribers 
to  the  March  loan,  and  2,884,000  to  the  Sep- 
tember loan.  Over  90  per  cent  of  the  latter  loan 
had  been  paid  in  at  the  close  of  the  year,  al- 
though only  75  per  cent  was  due. 

FINLAllrD.  A  grand  duchy  of  the  Russian 
Empire  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Capi- 
tal, Helsingfors. 

Abea  and  Population.  Area  in  square  kilo- 
meters and  population  by  governments,  Dec.  31, 
1910,  follow: 

8q.  km.  Pop. 

NjUnd    11.872  876,218 

AboBjorneborg    24,171  499.882 

Tavutehus    21.584  842,821 

Viborg     48,055  521,460 

St.  Michel 22,840  198,829 

Kuoplo    42,780  888,777 

WaM 41,711  514,940 

me&borg 165,641  828.811 

ToUl    878,604*  8,116.197 

*  Of  which,  47,829  sq.  kilometen  internal  waten. 

The  total  area  in  square  kilometers  is  equiv- 
alent to  144,249  square  miles.  The  population 
was  33  per  square  kilometer  in  Kyland  (great- 
est density),  and  2  in  Uleaborg  (the  least),  and 
the  averaee  density  for  the  country  was  9. 
EvangelicfUs  numbered  3,057,627,  Greek  Ortho- 
dox, 52,004,  Baptists,  4467,  Methodists,  676, 
Roman  Catholics,  423.  Sp^iking  Finnish  as 
their  native  tongue  were  2,565,742,  Swedish 
344,364,  Russian  7339,  German  1794,  Lapp  1660, 
other  tongues  298.  Total  population  as  esti- 
mated Jan.  1,  1913,  3,196,700;  1911,  3,154,824. 
Of  the  2,712,562  adults  listed  as  actively  pur- 
suing occupations,  1,555,357  were  enga^  in 
agriculture.  Helsingfors  had  161,091  inhabi- 
tants in  1912,  Abo  52,057,  Viborg  28,257,  Tam- 
merfors  46,192,  Nikolalstad  23,275,  Bj5meborg 
17,072,  Uleaborg  21,271,  Kuopio  16,266. 

Education  is  on  a  much  higher  plane  than  in 
Russia.  Primary  instruction  is  free  and  com- 
pulsory between  the  ages  of  7  and  15.  Sec- 
ondary schools  are  well  attended,  and  special 
schools  of  agriculture  are  maintained,  devoting 
particular  attention  to  stock  raising  and  dairy- 
ing. 

Pboduction  and  Commerce.  (Dereal  crops  are 
grown;  also  roots  and  forage  plants.  The  tim- 
ber industry  is  important.  Iron  ore  is  mined, 
and  pig  and  bar  iron  are  produced  for  export. 
In  1912  the  harvest  yielded  42,283  hectolitres 
of  wheat,  3,656,630  of  rye,  1,795,000  of  barley, 
7,416,030  of  oats,  6,630,110  of  potatoes.  Rev- 
enue from  crown  forests  in  1913,  13,517,512 
marks;  expenditure,  3,283,960. 

The  trade  by  countries  of  origin  and  destina- 
tion, with  values  in  thousands  of  marks  (gold), 
is  shown  below  for  three  years: 


1911 

Germany     178,400 

Russia     187,500 

United  Kingdom    61,700 

Denmark     28,071 

Sweden  and  JNorway. .  21,600 

France    6.400 

Spain    2,200 

Other     18,587 


Total    444,500 


Imparts 

ExportM 

1919 

1918 

1911 

1919 

186,767 

202,585 

46,500 

78,688 

181,676 

140,198 

89,000 

98,668 

68,885 

60,660 

88,100 

87,629 

26,087 

28,094 

11,700 

16,285 

25,218 

29,858 

14,500 

12,070 

7.487 

7,118 

11,658 

28,219 

2,286 

2,692 

27,100 

9.420 

22,289 

24.789 

8,700 

89,111 

420,082 

495.484 

819,600 

870,040 

191S 
52.161 
118,801 
108,566 
18,826 
11,916 
88,528 
12,180 
40,882 

404,799 


The  subscriptions  to  a  loan  in  March  totaled        The  principal  articles  of  export  are  timber, 
$2,167,000,000;  and  to  that  of  September,  $2,-    paper    and    pulp,    butter,    hides    and    leather, 


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217 


FIBE  PBOTBCnOK 


wooden  wares,  fish,  cotton  textiles,  iron.  Vee- 
eels  entered  (1913),  11,901,  of  8,696,330  tone; 
cleared,  11,937,  of  3,628,905.  Merchant  marine 
(Jan.  1,  1913),  3647  TeeseUi,  of  408,660  tone 
(507  Bteamere,  of  71,297). 

GoMinnncATiONS.  BailwajB  in  operation 
Jan.  1,  1913,  3763  kilometers.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  1914  the  total  mileage  of  the  Finnish 
State  Railways,  including  207  miles  of  line 
owned  by  private  capital,  but  operated  by  the 
state  lines,  was  2537.  Finhind  has  2765  miles 
of  navigable  waterways,  of  which,  with  the  ex- 
istinff  facilities,  it  was  estimated  that  the 
freight  capacity  is  about  1,600,000  tons  a  year. 
The  waterways,  as  well  as  the  railways,  are 
under  the  administration  of  the  state.  The  Rus- 
sian government  has  decreed  that  all  new  lines 
are  to  be  constructed  in  conformity  with  Rus- 
sian  lines,  that  existing  lines  are  to  be  so  al- 
tered as  to  permit  the  use  on  them  of  Russian 
rolling  stock.  With  the  completion  of  the 
Kaskd-Kristinestad  line  will  be  begun  exten- 
sions of  present  lines  to  form  a  continuous 
route  from  NikolaTstad  to  Petrograd.  The  pro- 
jected alterations  and  extensions  were  decided 
upon,  not  by  the  Diet  of  Finland,  but  by 
Russia;  though  the  Finnish  railways  are  for 
the  most  part  owned  by  the  Finnish  govern- 
ment. 

Finance.  The  revenue  for  the  year  1913 
(figures  are  from  an  English  source)  amounted 
to  £6,796,715  ordinary  and  £20,610  extraordi- 
nary (£22,050  from  funds) ;  of  which  £3,004,905 
was  derived  from  state  domains  and  forests, 
railways,  canals,  etc.;  £2,709,666  from  indirect 
taxes  (customs  and  excise),  £244,850  from  di- 
rect taxes,  etc.  Expenditure,  £5,953,867  ordinary 
and  £956,442  extraordinary  (£22,281  for  funds) ; 
of  which  £1,917,015  for  communications,  £785,- 
411  for  worship  and  instruction,  £574,122  for 
civil  administration,  £531,882  military  contri- 
bution, £301,019  debt  charge,  £292,864  for  agri- 
culture, etc.,  £281,156  for  commerce  and  in- 
dustry, etc.  The  military  contribution  goes  into 
the  Russian  treasury.  The  debt  stood  Jan.  1, 
1914,  at  £6,485,352. 

Government.  Until  the  present  regime  Fin- 
land enjoyed  the  autonomy  guaranteed  her  in 
the  reign  of  Alexander  I.  latterly  the  Russi- 
fication  system  has  been  applied  to  an  increas- 
ing number  of  departments,  until  the  schools, 
the  press,  the  law,  and  the  legislature  have  all 
been  invaded.  By  the  end  of  1912  the  consti- 
tution was  virtually  annulled.  The  Diet  (200 
members)  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  three 
years,  formerly  possessed  of  large  powers  in 
civil  administration,  has  latterly  been  little 
more  than  a  figurehead.  The  Russian  sovereign 
is  the  grand  duke.  There  is  a  resident  gover- 
nor-general, and  a  secretary  of  state  residing  at 
Petrograd. 

FINIiAY,  Ghables  John.  Guban  scientist 
and  biologist,  died  Aug.  20,  1915.  He  was  bom 
in  Guba  in  1833,  and  received  his  education  in 
France,  and  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  GoUege, 
Philadelphia,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1855. 
He  took  up  practice  in  Guba,  and  in  1881  made 
the  discovery  that  the  mosquito  was  a  disease 
spreader.  This  theory  was  at  first  received 
with  ridicule,  but  Dr.  Finlay  continued  his  ex- 
periments, and  in  the  last-named  year  his  the- 
ory was  established  by  tests  in  the  transmission, 
through  the  bites  of  mosquitoes,  of  yellow  fever. 
Five  years  later  his  discovery  received  atten- 


tion from  medical  journals,  and  gradually  came 
to  be  accepted.  In  1899  the  United  States 
Army  Gommission  proved  the  correctness  of  the 
theory  through  the  work  of  Major  Reed,  Dr. 
Lasear,  and  their  associates.  These  men  to<^ 
Dr.  Finlay's  data  as  a  basis  for  their  investi- 
gation. Dr.  Finlay  was  chief  sanitary  officer 
of  Guba  from  1902-08.  He  belonged  to  many 
medical  associations  in  Guba,  and  in  other  coun- 
tries. 

FIBE  IN8TJBAKCE.    See  Insxtsanoe. 

FIBB  PBEVENTIOK.  See  Fibs  Pbotec- 
TION.  

FIBE  PBOTECnOK.  Increased  attention 
was  being  paid  to  methods  of  fire  prevention  as 
distinct  from  fire  fighting  in  many  fire  depart- 
ments throughout  the  United  States  during 
1915.  This  involved  more  inspection  by  mem- 
bers of  the  uniformed  force,  the  formulation 
and  enforcement  of  new  regulations,  and  the 
arousing  of  public  sentiment  to  realize  disad- 
vantageous conditions  where  they  existed.  This 
side  of  the  matter  had  been  too  much  neglected 
in  American  fire  departments  in  the  past,  and 
it  was  to  be  hopea  that  fire  department  ef- 
ficiency would  be  regarded  on  the  basis  of  the 
small  number  of  fires  rather  than  on  the  num- 
ber of  fires  occurring  and  extinguished  with 
small  loss.  But  the  movement  was  not  con- 
fined exclusively  to  fire  departments.  Better 
statutes  were  being  passed  to  afford  increased 
protection  and  to  punish  neglect  and  careless- 
ness; better  building  construction  was  being  se- 
cured through  improved  building  codes  and 
otherwise  (see  Buildino  Operations),  and  in 
general  a  more  enlightened  public  sentiment 
was  supporting  legislators  and  officials  in  their 
plain  duties,  not  to  mention  increased  atten- 
tion to  proper  fire  protection  by  factory  own- 
ers as  well  as  individuals  in  their  homes  and 
other  buildings. 

LiABiLiTT  FOB  FiBEfl.  An  interesting  and 
noteworthy  development  in  American  fire  pro- 
tection-is the  assessing  of  damages  due  to  fire 
on  the  owner  of  premises  where  a  fire  originates 
through  neglect,  carelessness,  or  violation  of 
rules  and  regulations.  A  law,  signed  by  Gov- 
ernor Brumbaugh  of  Pennsylvania  on  May  6th, 
applied  this  principle  to  cities  of  the  second 
cIeiss  in  that  State.  The  essence  of  the  law 
was  as  follows: 

Where  a  fire  originates  on  the  premises  oc- 
cupied by  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  as 
a  result  of  his  or  its  criminal  intent,  design,  or 
wilful  negligence,  or  where  said  person,  firm,  or 
corporation  has  failed  to  comply  with  any  law 
or  ordinance  made  for  the  prevention  of  fire  or 
the  spreading  thereof,  such  person,  firm,  or  cor- 
poration shall  be  liable  in  a  civil  action  to  the 
city  for  the  payment  of  all  costs  and  expenses 
of  the  fire  departments  incurred  in  the  extin- 
guishment of  or  any  attempt  to  extinguish  any 
fire  originating  as  aforesaid.  The  amount  of 
such  costs  and  expenses  shall  be  based  upon  the 
wages  of  the  firemen  and  other  officers  for  the 
time  they  were  engaged,  a  reasonable  amount  as 
rental  for  the  use  of  the  apparatus  and  the  cost 
of  the  water  and  other  materials  used,  with  an 
additional  amount  of  10  per  cent  on  the  total 
amount  as  overhead  charges. 

In  1915  there  was  a  general  improvement  to 
be  noted  in  fire-fighting  facilities  due  largely  to 
the  general  acquisition  of  motor  apparatus; 
and  in  part,  as  a  result,  the  number  of  fires 


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quenched  Boon  after  their  indpiency  was  in- 
creased,  particularly  in  the  smaller  towns. 
The  appreciation  of  proper  equipment  was  thus 
being  brought  home  to  city  authorities.  An  in- 
teresting development  in  the  way  of  apparatus 
for  small  fire  departments  was  a  chemical  en- 
gine carried  on  an  ordinary  Ford  car.  This 
was  equipped  with  two  26-gallon  chemical 
tanks,  160  feet  of  9i-inch  chemical  hose  and  a 
nozzle,  two  special  fire  department  extinguish- 
ers, lanterns,  rope,  axes,  and  other  appliances 
Various  types  of  motorcycles  and  tricars  were 
also  equipped  with  fire  ^inguishers,  and  even 
in  the  smallest  villages  a  tendency  was  mani- 
fested of  having  available  at  least  some  simple 
apparatus  and  one  or  more  men  who  understood 
its  use  to  send  out  in  case  of  fire. 

In  New  York  City  in  1915  there  were  1004 
fewer  fires  than  in  1914,  with  a  reduction  also  in 
the  average  loss.  This  was  due  to  the  various 
fire  prevention  methods  which  had  been  en- 
forced by  the  Fire  Department,  including  better 
housekeeping,  better  construction,  better  fire- 
proofing  of  shafts  and  stairways  and  other  open- 
ings, better  inspection,  and  increased  supervision 
by  fire  department  ofiicials.  The  work  in  fire 
prevention  was  securing  results,  and  it  was 
oelieved  that  the  city  was  in  better  shape  to  re- 
sist fire  than  ever  previously. 

American  Fibb  Losses  in  1915.  The  losses 
by  fire  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  during 
1915,  as  recorded  by  The  Journal  of  Commerce 
and  Commercial  Bulletin  (New  York),  aggre- 
gated $182,836,200,  or  a  decrease  of  $52,755,100 
from  the  figures  of  the  year  1914,  which  were 
$235,591,350.  The  fire  loss  record  for  1915  was 
the  smallest  since  1905,  when  the  figures  re- 
corded were  $175,193,800.  This  decrease  of  fire 
losses  was  considered  a  most  encouraging  sign 
and  seemed  to  show  that  the  various  campaigns 
for  fire  prevention  and  protection  had  not  been 
without  results. 

There  were  no  serious  conflagrations  during 
the  year,  and  while  some  28  fires  resulted  in  an 
estimated  property  damage  of  $500,000  or  over, 
only  one  amounted  to  more  than  $2,000,000. 
The  fires  of  $500,000  or  over  during  the  year 
were  the  following: 


BtHmated 

Location — Deeeription  damage 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  lumber  yards  and  other. .  $500,000 

Bayonne,  N.  J.,  lumber  yards  and  other ....  800,000 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  wire  rope  works 1,000,000 

Detroit,  Mich.,  office  buildinr 700,000 

Warrensburg.  Mo.,  school  building 600,000 

Champaign,  ID.,  business  district   500,000 

Spokane,  Wash.,  business  block,  etc 500.000 

Poughkeepsie.  N.  Y..  oil  works 500.000 

Russelyille,  Ala.,  business  section  of  town 500,000 

Fresno,  Cal.,  winery   500,000 

Oswego,  N.  Y.,  match  factory  and  lumber.  . .  .  600,000 

Newport  News,  Va.,  grain  elevator  and  other.  2,000,000 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  n-ocery  warehouse 1,000,000 

Chicago,   m.,   furniture  factory,   church   and 

other    500,000 

Ardmore,  Okla.,  business  section 500,000 

Marshall,  Tex.,  railroad  shops 700.000 

Richmond,  Va.,  tobacco  warehouse 500,000 

Seattle,   Wash.,   steamship  pier 500,000 

Augusta,  Oa.,  cotton  compress  and  cotton ....  500,000 

Clifton,  Ariz.,  copper  mine  works 750,000 

Bethlehem,  Pa.,  ordnance  works 1.500.000 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  steel  rope  works 1,000.000 

Altus,  Okla.,  cotton  and  compress 500.000 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark.,  warehouse  and  cotton 1,000,000 

Alabon,  Cal.,  half  business  portion  of  town. .  1,000,000 

Hopewell,  Va.,  ahnost  whole  town 1,100.000 

Erie,  Pa.,  ffrain  elevators 1,000,000 

Chicago,  III.,  linseed  oil  plant 2,000,000 


Durinff  the  39  years  ended  1915  the  fire  losses 
for  the  United  States  and  Canada  had  attained 
the  stupendous  total  of  $6,049,817,225,  or  an 
average  annual  loss  of  $155,122,518.  The  fol- 
lowing tabulation  shows  the  losses  by  years  and 
emphasizes  the  improved  record  for  1915: 

FIRE    LOSSES   DURING   PAST   THIRTY-NINE 
TEARS  AOGREQATE   $6,049,817,225 


1895 $129,835,700 

1894 128,246,400 

1893 156.445,875 

1892 151.516,000 

1891 148.764.000 

1890 108,893.700 

1889 128.046.800 

1888 110.885.600 

1887 120,288,000 

1886 104,924.700 

1885 102.818.700 

1884 110.008.600 

1883 110.149.000 

1882 84,505.000 

1881 81.280,000 

1880 74,648,400 

1879 77.703,700 

1878 34.815,900 

1877 68,265.800 


1915 $182,886,200 

1914 285,591,850 

1913 224,728,850 

1912 225,820,900 

1911 284,887,250 

1910 234,470,650 

1909 203.649,200 

1908 288.562,250 

1907 215,671,250 

1906 459,710,000 

1905 175,198,800 

1904 252,554,050 

1903 156,195,700 

1902 149,260,850 

1901 164,347,450 

1900 168,362,250 

1899 136.778,200 

1898 119,650,500 

1897 110,319,650 

1896 115,655,500  

Total  for  thirty-nine  years $6,049,817,225 

During  the  year  the  engineers  of  the  National 
Board  o?  Fire  Underwriters  worked  out  a  pro- 
posed scheme  of  relative  values  for  fire  defenses 
and  physical  conditions  of  the  various  towns  and 
cities.  This  scheme  was  adopted  tentatively  by 
the  Actuarial  Bureau  with  the  consent  and  ap- 
proval of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Na- 
tional Board,  and  was  of  interest  as  showing 
the  various  factors  to  be  considered  in  reaching 
an  estimate  of  the  facilities  for  resisting  fire 
possessed  by  a  community.  The  table  is  based 
on  a  maximum  of  5000  points,  and  the  relative 
values  are  as  follows: 

ROaHve  Valuet  (Maximum  5,000) 

Water  supply    1.700 

Fire  department   1,400 

Fire   alarm    650 

Police 50 

Building  laws 200 

Explosives  and  inflammables    200 

Electricity 150 

Natural  and  structural  conditions   750 

5,000 

Working  on  the  above  scheme  it  was  proposed 
to  classify  the  various  towns  and  cities  accord- 
ing to  their  merit.  The  first  class  would  be 
cities  and  towns  where  the  deficiency  from  the 
above  maximum  did  not  exceed  500  points;  sec- 
ond, 500  to  1000;  third,  1001  to  1500;  fourUi, 
1501  to  2000;  fifth,  2001  to  2500;  sixth,  2501  to 
3000;  seventh,  3001  to  3500;  eighth,  3501  to 
4000;  ninth,  4001  to  4500;  and  the  tenth  repre- 
senting a  deficiency  of  4501  to  a  condition  with- 
out fire  protection  at  all.  The  scheme  was 
worked  up  in  detail,  and  the  various  elements  of 
apparatus,  water  distribution  systems,  etc.,  were 
all  considered. 

During  the  year  there  was  an  extension  of 
high  pressure  systems,  and  of  this  form  of  pro- 
tection. This  subject  was  taken  up  in  a  paper 
on  "Fire  Protection"  read  at  the  International 
Engineering  Congress  by  John  R.  Freeman,  and 
in  the  discussion  it  was  stated  that  high  pres- 
sure systems  are  only  available  where  there 
is  a  large  and  properly  trained  department. 
Nevertheless,  the  construction  and  extension  of 
such  systems  were  in  progress,  and  Cincinnati, 


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Ohio,  was  inBtalling  for  a  congested  area  dis- 
trict a  system  surrounded  by  a  20-inch  ring 
main,  with  two  16-inch  cross  mains,  with  12-inch 
lines  grid-ironing  the  district,  with  four  valves  at 
each  crossing,  and  three  at  each  T,  so  that  any 
block  or  blocks  could  be  cut  off  without  interfer- 
ence with  the  supply  of  the  others.  The  high 
pressure  pumping  station  is  located  at  8th  Street 
and  £ggle8ton  Avenue,  and  takes  filtered  water 
at  55  pounds  pressure  from  three  city  mains, 
and  has  a  capacity  of  75,000,000  gallons  per 
day.  The  hydrants  are  designed  for  a  working 
pressure  of  300  pounds  per  square  inch  and  are 
tested  to  600  pounds.  These  hydrants  are  set 
in  vaults  with  other  tubes  about  4  inches  below 
street  level.  The  port  directors  of  Boston  ap- 
proved the  proposed  site  for  a  high  pressure 
pumping  station  at  the  corner  of  Dorchester  Ave- 
nue and  Summer  Street  bridge.  Several  miles 
of  high  pressure  mains  were  laid  through  the 
city  in  1914,  and  a  corresponding  amount  in 
1915. 

During  the  year  a  number  of  serious  fires  oc- 
curred in  establishments  devoted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  various  munitions  of  war.  Thus,  on 
November  10th,  a  fire  at  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Company's  works,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  destroyed  a 
machine  shop  with  a  loss  estimated  at  $1,500,000 
or  less.  This  was  said  to  be  due  to  a  short  cir- 
cuit igniting  oil  in  one  portion  of  the  plant. 
On  D^ember  9th  the  new  city  of  Hopewell,  Va., 
a  town  of  some  500  acres,  was  destroyed  by  fire 
which,  however,  did  not  attack  the  adjacent  3200- 
acre  plant  of  the  Du  Pont  Powder  Company, 
which  had  been  established  within  a  few  years  at 
this  place,  which  is  12  miles  from  Petersburg. 
These  and  similar  fires  gave  rise  to  a  somewhat 
general  suspicion  that  they  were  the  work  of  in- 
cendiaries employed  by  European  governments  to 
harass  manufacturers  of  war  material.  In  few, 
if  any,  cases  were  such  claims  substantiated,  and 
it  was  thought  in  many  instances  that  the  ex- 


treme speed  with  which  work  was  being  done,  the 
use  of  new  plant  and  eauipment,  and  inadequate 
supervision  of  new  woricers,  were  responsible. 

Up  to  November,  1915,  153  school  fires  were 
reported,  and  the  most  serious  of  these  was  at 
Peabody,  Mass.,  on  October  28th,  when  St.  John's 
Parochial  School  was  burned,  and  21  pupils  per- 
ished, lliis  fire  aroused  a  general  consideration 
of  the  construction  and  equipment  of  school 
buildings,  and  added  attention  was  given  to  fire 
drills. 

A  serious  fire  during  the  year  was  that  at  the 
factory  of  the  Union  Paper  Box  Company,  Pitts- 
burgh, October  25th,  when  13  girls  and  1  man 
perished,  and  20  others  were  seriously  hurt. 
This  was  followed  by  a  fire  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
at  the  Diamond  Candy  Company,  Nov.  6,  1915, 
when  8  employees  were  suffocated  or  burned  to 
death,  and  4  jumped  and  were  fatally  injured,  in 
addition  to  others  injured  in  other  ways.  A  fire 
and  explosion,  in  which  55  lives  were  lost,  and 
$500,000  worth  of  property  destroyed,  took  place 
at  Ardmore,  Okla.,  in  August,  1915,  caused  by 
the  explosion  of  a  250-barrel  gasolene  car. 

There  were,  as  usual,  a  number  of  fires  during 
the  year  involving  serious  loss  of  life,  but  in 
practically  every  case  these  disasters  resulted 
from  ignoring  plain  warnings  from  earlier  and 
similar  catastrophes.  Fire  engineering  and 
building  construction,  not  to  mention  plans  for 
the  safety  of  the  occupants,  had  long  since 
reached  a  stage  where  the  precautions  to  be  ob- 
served were  clearly  indicated  and  where  these 
were  not  enforced  the  responsibility  lay  with  the 
community  rather  than  with  engineers  or  ex- 
perts.    See  also  Forestby. 

Statistics  of  Fibes.  The  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  through  its  Committee  on 
Statistics  and  Origin  of  Fires,  published  its 
usual  tables  for  the  leading  European  and  Amer- 
ican cities,  from  which  the  accompanying  in- 
formation has  been  compiled. 


Population 


No.  of 
A.larm§ 


STATISTICS  OF  FIRES  IN  AMERIOAN  OITIES.  1914 

Confined 

to  Building 

or  Place 

of  Origin 

14,128 

11,044 

4,240 

8,011 

4,221 


Area 
8q.  MUe 

New  York 814,75  5,698,667  16.245 

Chicago    104.4  2,450.000  14,077 

Philadelphia     129.5  1,660,000  5,061 

St.    Louis     61.87  790.000  4,674 

Boston     47.85  750,000  5.679 

aeveland     57  660,000  8,096 

Baltimore     88.67  600,000  2,860 

Pittsburgh     40.67  565,000  2,160 

Detroit     42  560,000  8,602 

Buffalo     42  460.000  2,279 

San  Francisco 88.87  450.000  2.645 

Cincinnati    70.8  402,000  2,217 

Newark,  N.  J 28.6  400.000  1,918 

New  Orleans 196.25  860,000  889 

Washington.  D.  0 70  858,878  1,874 

Los  Angeles 121.25  450.000  2.573 


Total  No. 
of  Fires 
14.425 
12,447 
4,888 
8,808 
4,249 
2,879 
2.261 
2.016 
8.160 
2,161 
2,451 
2.188 
1,159 
868 
1.301 
2.248 


2,285 
1.986 

2.140 
2,814 


$8. 
6, 


1,081  1, 

811 
1.281 
2,163  1 


Total 
Loee 
,217.811 
,018,589 
,791,180 
,900,522 
,044,627 
,756,863 
704.188 
,750.487 
,675,261 
,167.996 
,087,486 
699.478 
,280,110 
935.614 
779.792 
,070,570 


No.  of 
Firee  per 
1000  Popu- 
lation 
2.58 
6.08 
2.64 
4.19 
5.67 
4.86 
8.77 
8.57 
6.64 
4.68 
6.44 
6.32 
2.90 
2.41 
8.68 
4.98 


Loee 

per 

Capita 

$1.44 
2.46 
1.68 
8.42 
4.06 
2.66 
1.77 
8.10 
2.99 
2.54 
2.80 
1.74 
8.20 
2.60 
2.21 
2.38 


1914 
40.218,280 


COMPARATIVE  FIRE  LOSSES 

Number  of  Cities  Reporting  Loss  Population 

1911   1912  1918  1914        1911                   1919  1918 

United  States 298     800  298     298  81,210.084    82,826.688  88,281,804 

Argentina 1          1        1,428,042  1,428,042 

Austria    1          4  4          1     2,081,498       2,668.078  2,784.936 

Belgium     1          1        166.445  168.812 

Canada    1          5  6          6         125.000          957.872  612.453 

Chile 1        200,000 

England    12        12  14         9     9,898.817       7.164,849  7.396,664 

France     8          6  5          8     8.518.498       4.425.696  8.945.743 

Oermany 8          9  8          4     2,806.854      2,659,576  2,559,608 

Hawaii 1        45,000 

Ireland    2          2  2          2        694.272          699.808  701.400 

Italy 6          8  5          5     1,878,995          282,082  1,161,465 

Japan 8       10     2,481,628 


Per  Capita  Loss 

1911  1918  1918  1914 

2.62  2.55  2.25    2.82 

.  . .    8.58  4.21     .  . . 

157,000     .08     .80      .25      .42 

69   1.86     .  .  . 

597,709  2.61  2.88  2.46   8.58 
.80 


6,916,651 

8.659.224 

836.007 

'  700.666 
1,189,458 
6,611,988 


.58  .64  .88 
.81  .84  .49 
.21     .20     .28 

69 

.58  .57  .28 
.81     .90     .25 


.67 
.63 
.17 


89 

87 

.59      .44 


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OOKPARATITE  FIRE  LOSSES 


Number  of  Oitiss  Reporting  Lo§s 


Population 


Norway 

Philippine  Idanda 
BoBua     .... 
Scotland    . . . 
South  Africa 

Spain     

Sweden   .... 
Switxerland 
The  Netherlands 


1911   1919  191S  1914        1911 


8,488,291 
484,100 


1919 
250,000 

8.485,588 
485,001 


851,500 
140,000 
417,698 


1919 

250,400 

284,400 

1,710,000 

1,516.905 

'  '605,876 
888.000 
142,000 
801,846 


Unitbd  States  PojmloUon 

1011— Whole  country 08.027,000 

208  citiea 81,210,084 

1912 — ^Whole  country 95,410,508 

800  citiea 82,826.688 

1918— Whole  country 97,168,880 

298  citiea   88,281,804 

1914 — ^Whole  country 98,781,824 

298  citiea   40,218,280 

*  Estimated,     t  Actual  figures  reported. 


1914 


Per  Capita  Loee 
1911  1919  1918  1914 


251,000 
284,409 
1,617,157  1.17 


.60  .82  .48 
...  4.41  1.28 
.84     .89    1.19 


168.801     .56     .40     .86   5.85 


50,000 
606,150 
886.211 
146,000 
812,424 


*217.004,576 
t  81,700,877 
^206.488.000 
t  82.207,886 
*208,768,550 
t  74,876,608 
*221.480,850 
t  08.868,706 


1.77 
...  2.80  .15 
.18  .74  .54 
.04  .15  .10 
.12     .11      .07 


Total  Loee        Per  Capita 


2.81 
2.62 
2.16 
2.55 
2.10 
2.25 
2.24 
2.82 


STATISTIOS  OP  FIRES  IN  GREAT  CITIBS  OF  THE  WORLD  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1014 


Place 


Area 
8q,M, 


Po\ 


opula 
tion 


Anatralia^ 

Melbourne     280  642,210 

Austria— 

Gras    8.85  157,000 

Canada — 

Halifax     47,000 

Hamilton     11.44  101,844 

London     10  55,865 

St.  John 2.5  60,000 

VaneouTer    16.80  124,000 

Winnipeg    24.5  210.000 

Denmark- 
Copenhagen    27.18  485,500 

England — 

Birkenhead     6.16  187,996 

Birmingham     68.12  840.202 

Bolton     28.87  188,879 

Bradford     85.7  291.177 

Cardiff    12.6  182,280 

Lancaster    10  41.414 

Leeds    41  450,000 

London     117  4,516,612 

Sheffield    88  476,971 

York    5.76  82,297 

Prance- 
Bordeaux    18.62  261.788 

MarseiQea    88.7  550.600 

Paris     80.11  2,846,986 

Germany — 

Aachen    68.88  160.000 

Berlin   24.5  2,082.111 

Dresden    27.9  558.880 

Plensburg    17.02  66.506 

Frankfurt  A/M 52.01  444.500 

Posen    18.1  165,000 

Ireland- 
Belfast    25.8  890,000 

Dublin    12.4  810,000 

lUly— 

Brescia    24.  86.000 

Florence    288,800 

Messina     127.689 

Milan     660.969 

Ravenna 76,000 

Japan — 

Hukuoka     2.6  95,742 

Kakodate    16  100,778 

Kanasawa     8.8  127,267 

Kobe    14.5  440.766 

Kyoto    18.5  508.068 

Nagasaki     6.1  165.000 

Nagoya    15.7  447.951 

Osaka    22.5  1,881.994 

Tokio     80  2,008,821 

Yokohama     12  891.101 

Norwav — 

Christiana     6.8  251,000 

Philippine  Islands — 

"     •"       14.0  284,409 


No.  of 
Alarme 


2,808 

120 

270 
488 
264 
247 
642 
846 

642 

148 
1,042 

68 
186 
168 

12 

298 

6,125 

882 

85 

891 

500 

4,866 

200 
2,460 
510 
00 
884 
870 

164 
251 

184 
108 
142 
088 
22 

16 

77 

22 

166 

110 

6 

104 

208 

521 

116 

888 

184 


Confined 
to  Build- 
ing or 
Place  of 
Origin 


1,295        1,214 


Total  No. 
Firee 


Total 
Loee 


No.  of      Loee 

Firee  to       per 

1000  Pop.  Capita 


89 

270 
175 
208 
225 
244 
192 

476 

145 
827 

57 
159 
164 

12 

292 

8.600 

849 

85 

146 

482 

8,654 

260 
1,858 
871 
89 
278 
229 

164 
164 

122 
174 
101 
786 
21 

16 

77 

22 

166 

88 

6 

87 

198 

487 

116 

821 

121 


89 


156 
208 
224 
284 


470 

148 
802 
55 
159 
162 

287 

849 
85 

185 
475 


260 
1,841 
871 
89 
269 
229 


100 

786 

21 

10 

9 

5 

128 

7*2 

4 

78 

148 

887 

99 

297 

111 


$6,576 

816,200 
812,817 
200,458 
140,000 
677.771 
491,218 


155,250 

1,051.580 

175.745 

99,776 

1.490 

877.080 

2,760.000 

110,950 

6,740 

158,958 

438,528 

1,780.948 

81.646 


12.668 
71.189 
28,482 

181.885 
78,250 

21,146 
40.182 
40.986 
820.104 
17,980 

9,046 
864.095 

12,685 
165,087 
293.740 

18.058 
845,182 
878.628 
684.846 
252,264 

121,886 

299,618 


2.02 

.57 

5.74 
1.78 
8.76 
8.75 
1.97 
.01 

.08 

1.06 
.08 
.20 
.56 
.00 
.20 
.66 
.80 
.78 
.48 

.56 

.88 

1.28 

1.62 
.80 
.67 

1.84 
.61 

1.80 

.45 
.68 


.42 

6.78 
8.08 
8.62 
2.88 
5.47 
2.84 


1.18 

1.25 

.08 

'.65 
.04 
.84 
.60 
.28 
.08 

.61 
.70 
.61 

.20 


.10 
.16 
.17 

.46 
.22 


Loee 
F^e 


•  74 

1.171 
1.786 
064 
622 
2,778 
2.658 


1.071 
1,272 
8.088 

'608 
124 
1.201 
765 
818 
108 

1.088 
800 
477 

122 


142 

261 
124 

1,106 
477 


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FIBB  PBOTECnON 


221 


VI8H  AND  nSHBBIBS 


BTATISnOfl  OP  PIRB>S  IN  GEBAT  CITIES  OP  THE  WORLD  OUTSIDE  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1914. 


Area 
8q.M. 


Oonfifud 

FomUa.         No.  of     Total  No.   ^\^y^' 
iCS  Atorm«       fire,       ^J^/;, 


Toua 

LoM 


RuBsia — 

Moscow    85.8  1,617,167 

Scotland — 

Aberdeen    10.6  168.891 

Soatb  Africa — 

Kimberley     10  50,000 

Spain — 

Madrid     606.150 

Sweden — 

Stockholm     46.87  886,211 

Switaerland — 

Basle 14.82  145.000 

The  Netherlands — 

Amsterdam   18  609,000 

The  Hague 16.1  812.424 


1.228 
198 
115 
820 
785 
91 


1.866 
684 


1.188 

164 

42 

770 

781 

86 

1,117 
803 


Origin 
1,128 

161 

42 

660 

729 

86 

1,116 
801 


No.  of       Loss 

Fires  to       per 

1000  Pop.  Otkpita 


Loss 

is; 


1,926.625 

876,215 

89,840 

92.000 

206.752 

27.998 

Vl*246 


.78 
1.00 

.84 
1.27 
1.89 

.59 

1.88 
.97 


1.19 

5.85 

1.77 

.15 

.64 

.19 

.07 


1,629 

5,848 

2,127 

119 

288 

828 

"76 


.45 
.53 

142 

.73 

.79 

1  19 


.17 

.76 
.17 
.35 
.17 
.04 
.19 
.15 
.22 
.30 

1.27 

.58 


FISS  AND  FISHEBIES.  The  last  avail- 
able report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Fish  and  Fisheries  gave  statistics  up  to  June  30, 
1914.  According  to  this  report  the  amount  and 
value  of  flsh  landed  at  Boston  and  Gloucester  for 
the  year  were  as  follows: 

Amount  in  lbs.  Valus 

Cod     44,864,818  $1,574,875 

Cusk    5,959,286  102,468 

Haddock    58.672,665  1.488,856 

Hake    14,085,890  291,904 

PoUock 15,267,401  261.557 

Halibut    6,288.154  459,804 

Mackerel    5,676.002  847.068 

Herring   11.747,226  218,621 

Sword&h     2,880.920  198.877 

MisceUaneont     8,274.879  47.487 

Of  this,  67.52  per  cent  of  the  quantity  and  65.45 
per  cent  of  the  value  were  talcen  from  grounds 
lying  directly  off  the  United  States  coast.  The 
menhaden  fisheries  had  a  value  of  $2,269,912 
in  fish,  while  the  finished  products  were  valued 
at  $3,690,155.  In  North  Carolina,  measures 
have  been  taken  to  allow  the  spawning  shad  a 
free  passage  up  the  middle  of  rivers,  and  this 
has  resulted  in  a  large  increase  in  the  number 
of  eggs  taken  at  the  hatching  stations.  It  is 
expected  that  there  will  be  a  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  adult  fish.  In  order  to 
secure  a  greater  supply  of  lobster  eggs,  arrange- 
ment has  been  made  with  Maine  fi&ermen,  by 
which  berried  lobsters  will  be  given  to  the  bureau 
in  exchange  for  stripped  females.  Of  recent 
development  is  the  canning  of  the  long  finned 
tuna  of  California,  and  it  was  estimated  that 
400,000  cases  would  be  marketed  in  1914.  Ac- 
cording to  a  newspaper  item  appearing  in  Octo- 
ber, the  1915  catch  of  mackerd  was  the  largest 
•m  record. 

For  the  year  1914  there  was  appropriated  by 
tigress  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fish- 
.%  for  salaries,  $391,180,  and  for  the  propaga- 
•i^if  food  fishes,  $350,000.  The  latest  avail- 
Ig  *«tistic8  showed  that  in  1912  8400  persons 
.24  ^ged  in  making  buttons  and  other  prod- 
Ilk  the  fresh  water  mussels,  the  output 
>ued  at  $8,882,000.  The  value  of  the 
^'^  estimated  at  $294,600,  while  incident- 
1,05^00  worth  of  pearls  were  collected 
8.88^1iells.  The  Bureau  is  also  making 
lg%*Tts  to  encourage  the  use  of  mussels 
iS87  Tie  survey  work  of  the  Bureau  has 
1.'568  there  are  excellent  black  bass  fish- 
1'^^  coast  at  Beaufort,  K.  C,  and  large 
extending  to  within  40  mileB  of 


.09 

8.50 

.10 

.37 

.58 
.OS 
.77 
.28 
.34 
.65 


.48 
1.2« 


878 
f,4T5 


New  York  City.  The  report  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  on  many  farms  there  are  waste 
lands  which  could  easily  be  flooded  and  stocked 
with  fish,  thus  adding  to  the  available  food  sup- 
ply at  comparatively  little  cost.  During  the 
year  the  Bureau  distributed  530,213,676  eggs, 
3,494,991,837  fry,  and  22,438,005  flngerlings  and 
adults. 

The  latest  complete  official  compilation  regard- 
ing Alaskan  fisheries  is  that  for  the  year  1914, 
when  the  total  products  were  valued  $21,243,000, 
exceeding  bv  $5,500,000  the  values  for  the  year 
1913.  Of  the  phenomenal  catch  of  1914,  92  per 
cent  pertained  to  the  salmon  alone,  in  which 
industry  there  was  invested  capital  of  $31,894,- 
000,  giving  employment  to  21,200  persons.  The 
84  salmon  canneries  sent  forth  fish  valued  at 
$18,920,000  besides  miscellaneous  other  products 
than  canned  valued  at  $638,000.  The  fishery 
products  of  1915  slightly  exceeded  in  value  those 
of  any  preceding  year.  Dr.  Hugh  Smith,  Chief 
United  States  Fisheries,  estimates  the  total  value 
at  $21,535,992,  of  which  the  salmon  industiy 
yielded  $18,844,899.  Plans  for  the  improve- 
ment of  fishery  conditions  are  in  progress  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  as  to 
hatcheries,  methods  of  fishing,  conservation  of 
supply,  waste-preventions  and  refuse-utiliza- 
tions. Under  congressional  acts  certain  waters 
have  been  withdrawn  from  exploitation  by  fish- 
ing industries.  In  addition  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
there  became  effective  prohibition  against  salmon 
fishing  in  waters  tributary  to  Barnes  Lake, 
Prince  Wales  Island;  Hetta  Creek  and  tribu- 
taries; Sockeye  Creek  and  Boca  de  Quadra  hatch- 
ery waters.  Complications  as  to  Alaskan  fish- 
eries are  threatened  by  the  bill  passed  April  22, 
1915,  by  the  Alaskan  Le^slature  imposing  addi- 
tional license  fees  on  fisheries,  salteries,  fish- 
traps,  etc.,  already  taxed  by  the  United  States. 
The  bill  yet  awaits  approval  by  Congress  to  be- 
come a  law.    See  also  Alaska,  Fur  Bedl^ 

Work  on  economic  flsh  problems  was  continued 
in  England,  though  the  Intemati<mal  Explora- 
tion of  the  8efi9  was  stopped  by  the  war.  The 
station  at  Port  Erin  reported  that  in  1914  nearly 
9,000,000  plaice  were  hatched,  and  about  8,000,- 
000  young  were  liberated.  Out  of  24,500  lobster 
eggs,  1823  young  were  reared  to  the  fourth  stage. 
The  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  b^gan 
the  marking  of  salmon  and  sea  trout  with  metal 
tags,  afterwards  turning  the  animals  loose,  in 
order  to  collect  data  later  on  their  growth,  mi- 
grations, and  general  natural  history.  Furti^er 
evidence  has  been  oollected  to  demonstrate  that 


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FISH  AND  1T8HEBIE8  21 

the  age  of  cod  can  be  determined  by  the  rings  on 
the  scales  and  by  the  concentric  rings  of  the 
otoliths. 

.  Gardiner  pointed  out  the  fact  that  an  abun- 
dance of  sunshine  in  the  spring,  by  favoring  the 
growth  of  diatoms,  and  thus  favoring  the  growth 
of  copepods,  will  result  in  a  greater  abundance 
of  food  for  fishes,  and  thus  increase  the  number 
of  mackerel.  It  might  thus  be  possible  in  the 
spring  to  form  an  estimate  as  to  the  abundance 
of  fish  to  be  found  later.    See  also  Zoology. 

FISHERIES.  See  section  so  entitled  under 
various  coimtries  and  States  of  the  United 
States.  

FISK  TJNIVEBSITT.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  of  the  colored  race,  founded  in 
1866  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  The  total  enrollment 
in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was 
512.  The  teaching  faculty  numbered  38,  and  the 
officers  13.  Mr.  Fayette  Avery  McKenzie  was 
inaugurated  president  on  November  9th.  Dur- 
ing the  year.  Dr.  C.  W.  Morrow  was  appointed 
dean,  instead  of  acting  president;  A.  G.  Shaw 
was  appointed  professor  of  physics;  and  H.  C. 
Maeder  professor  of  Latin  and  history.  The 
productive  funds  of  the  university  amounted  at 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  to  $236,810,  and  the 
income  from  investments  for  that  year  to  $11,- 
446.  The  library  contained  about  11,500  vol- 
umes. 

FITGHy  Gbobge.  American  writer,  died 
Aug.  9,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Galva,  111.,  in 
1877,  and  graduated  from  Knox  College  in  1897. 
He  engaged  in  newspaper  work  on  several  papers 
in  Illinois,  and  finally  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Peoria  Herald-Transcript.  In  this  paper  ap- 
peared his  first  humorous  writings  which  soon 
gained  him  wide  recognition.  His  stories  of  col- 
lege life,  written  with  much  humor,  were  espe- 
cially well  received.  His  writings  include:  The 
Big  Strike  at  Siwash  (1909);  At  Good  Old 
Sitoash  (1911);  and  My  Demon  Motor  Boat 
(1912).  In  1912  Mr.  Fitch  was  elected  to  the 
Illinois  House  of  Representatives  as  a  Progres- 
sive. At  the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  president 
of  the  American  Press  Humorists'  Association. 

FLAX.  Data  pertaining  to  the  fiax  crop  of 
the  world  in  1915  were  very  incomplete,  only  a 
few  countries  reporting  estimates  of  their  yields. 
Italy  reported  a  production  of  2,968,000  bushels 
of  seed,  and  5,060,000  pounds  of  fibre.  Holland 
placed  its  fibre  crop  at  10,795,000  pounds.  The 
linseed  harvest  of  British  India  amounted  to  a 
little  over  17,000,000  bushels,  and  the  Canadian 
harvest  to  12,604,700  bushels  from  1,009,600 
acres,  the  rate  of  yield  being  12.48  bushels  per 
acre.  The  Canadian  flaxseed  crop  of  1915  was 
75  per  cent  greater  than  the  crop  of  1914.  The 
United  States  produced  13,845,000  bushels  on 
1,367,000  acres,  the  average  yield  per  acre  being 
10. 1  bushels.  The  area  was  less  by  about  275,- 
000  acres,  but  the  yield  was  larger  by  nearly 
100,000  bushels  than  in  1914.  For  the  five-year 
period,  1909-13,  the  average  area  in  fiax  was 
2,490,000  acres,  and  the  average  production  19,- 
501,000  bushels.  The  area  devoted  to  fibre  fiax 
in  the  United  States  was,  as  usual,  very  limited. 
As  pointed  out  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, fibre  fiax  has  been  grown  with  favorable 
results  during  recent  years  in  the  Puget  Sound 
and  the  lower  Columbia  and  Willamette  River 
regions,  as  well  as  in  the  territory  surrounding 
the  Great  Lakes  and  including  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota,  and  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the 


!2  FLOOD  FBEVEKnOK 

North.  The  State  of  Oregon  appropriated  money 
for  experiments  with  fibre  fiax.  An  equipment 
for  handling  and  working  the  flax  was  installed 
at  the  State  prison  and  the  convicts  were  also 
required  to  assist  in  harvesting  the  crop  from 
the  flelds.  Promising  results  were  obtained  and 
the  State  secured  fibre  fiax  seed  of  its  own  grow- 
ing for  distribution. 

FLINT,  Austin.  American  alienist,  died 
Sept.  23,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Northamp- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1836,  and  was  educated  in  pri- 
vate schools  in  Buffalo,  and  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, where  he  studied  for  two  years.  He 
afterwards  studied  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Louisville,  and  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia.  In  1857  he  began  to  practice  in 
Buffalo,  where,  from  1857-59,  he  was  also  editor 
of  the  Buffalo  Medical  Journal,  In  1858-59  he 
was  professor  of  physiology  and  microscopical 
anatomy  in  the  medical  department  of  tiie  Uni- 
versity of  Buffalo.  He  removed  to  New  York  in 
the  latter  year,  becoming  prof essor  of  physiology 
in  New  York  Medical  College.  After  a  year 
spent  in  New  Orleans,  he  was  appointed  acting 
assistant  surgeon.  United  States  army,  at  the 
General  Hospital,  in  New  York  City,  remaining 
there  imtil  1865.  From  1861  to  1898  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  physiolo^  and  microscopical  anatomy 
at  the  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  founders.  In  1898  he 
was  appointed  to  the  same  chair  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity Medical  College,  becoming  several  years 
before  his  death  professor  emeritus.  He  made  a 
specialty  of  insanity,  and  was  consulting  phy- 
sician in  several  State  hospitals  for  the  insane. 
His  greatest  fame  among  laymen  came  from  his 
connection  with  the  celebrated  Thaw  case.  His 
testimony  as  to  the  insanity  of  Harry  Thaw  was 
perhaps  the  strongest  factor  in  preventing  the 
latter*s  release  from  the  asylum  for  the  criminal 
insane,  following  the  murder  of  Stanford  White. 
During  the  year  1860  he  attracted  attention  for 
his  operations  on  the  spinal  cord  and  nerves  of 
living  animals.  Manv  honors  were  conferred 
upon  him  by  medical  and  scientific  societies, 
lliese  included  a  prize  from  the  French  Academy 
of  Science  in  1862.  He  was  interested  in  mili- 
tary matters,  and  in  1874  was  appointed  sur- 
geon-general of  New  York  State.  He  received 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Princeton  University. 
He  wrote  much  on  medical  subjects,  including  an 
elaborate  revision  of  the  history  of  the  discovery 
of  the  motor  and  sensitory  properties  of  the 
spinal  nerve  roots.  Among  his  books  may  be 
mentioned:  The  Physiology  of  Man  (1866-75); 
Text  Book  of  Human  Physiology  (1875-88); 
Source  of  Muscular  Power  (1878);  and  Hand 
Book  of  Physiology  (1905). 

FLOOD  PBEVEKTION.  The  disastrous 
floods  of  1913,  as  well  as  the  perpetual  menace 
to  many  cities  in  the  Middle  West  due  to  the 
inadequate  control  of  rivers  and  waterways,  dur- 
ing the  spring  season,  led  to  the  consideration  of 
a  number  of  important  engineering  works.  In 
Indianapolis  about  4^  miles  of  levee  were  being 
built  along  the  west  bank  of  the  W^hite  River, 
involving  an  embankment  whose  water  slope  was 
faced  with  concrete,  and  had  at  some  places  con- 
crete retaining  walls.  This  work  in  some  cases 
had  involved  the  rectification  of  the  river  channel 
and  provided  for  a  considerable  increase  in  width 
of  the  channel  at  high  water,  so  that  several 
bridges  would  have  to  be  lengthened  to  give  the 
required  waterway.    This  was  an  important  con- 


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PLOOD  PBEVENTION 


223 


FLOBIDA 


sideration,  as  the  water  channel  under  many 
bridges  through  the  Western  States  was  found 
to  be  seriously  inadequate,  due  to  encroachments 
on  the  natural  width  of  the  waterway.  The  top 
of  the  levee,  which  is  to  be  incorporated  in  the 
boulevard  system  of  the  city,  was  to  be  a  broad 
driveway  with  lawn  spaces  on  each  side,  the  top 
being  from  12  to  17  feet  above  the  original 
ground  level,  and  4  feet  above  the  1913  high 
water  mark.  Plans  were  also  being  prepared  for 
similar  protection  along  the  east  bank,  while 
work  had  been  done  along  Fall  Creek.  The  work 
was  begun  in  June,  1916,  and  was  to  be  finished 
during  the  year.  The  contract  price  was  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $400,000,  and  the  cost  of  land 
acquired  for  the  improvement  was  about  $655,- 
000.  The  new  work  involved  modern  concrete 
construction  with  a  well-equipped  plant. 

In  Ohio,  preliminary  engineering  work  was 
completed  in  tlie  Miami  conservancy  district, 
which  is  a  territory  including  Dayton  and  Ham- 
ilton, and  embracing  the  watershed  of  the  Miami 
River  and  its  tributaries.  The  reservoir  orig- 
inally contemplated  for  Logan  County  was  con- 
sidered less  efficient  than  was  at  first  supposed, 
and  had  to  be  compensated  for  at  other  sites  and 
at  a  substantial  saving  in  cost.  The  topograph- 
ical survey  of  the  district  included  some  240,000 
square  miles,  which  was  begun  very  carefully, 
and  some  12,000  feet  of  test  borings  on  dam  sites 
were  made,  so  that  the  general  character  of  the 
flood  protection  and  prevention  works  could  be 
determined.  Various  legal  complications  were 
in  the  way  of  the  prosecution  of  the  work,  but  it 
was  to  be  undertaken,  as  well  as  approved  by 
the  court. 

The  great  damage  resulting  from  floods  in  the 
Middle  West  led  to  the  discussion  of  many 
schemes  of  flood  prevention.  In  view  of  its  hy- 
dro^aphic  and  other  river  work,  it  was  urged 
that  flood-prevention  on  inland  rivers  might 
properly  be  imdertaken  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment in  cooperation  with  the  localities  affected. 
A  clause  in  the  river  and  harbor  bill  passed  in 
1915  provided  that  the  chief  of  engineers  of  the 
United  States  army  might  have  examinations 
and  surveys  made  "with  a  view  to  devising  plans 
for  flood  protection  and  determining  the  extent 
to  which  the  United  States  should  cooperate  with 
the  States  and  other  communities  in  carrying  out 
such  plans,  its  share  being  based  upon  the  value 
of  the  protection  to  navigation."  The  rivers 
named  are  the  Cheat,  Tygarts,  Westport,  Ka- 
nawha, Muskingum,  Scioto,  Miami,  Maumee, 
Kankakee,  and  Wabash. 

On  August  3rd  a  serious  rain  storm,  with  a 
rainfall  of  10  inches,  which  culminated  in  a 
cloudburst  about  7  P.  m.,  produced  a  disastrous 
flood  at  the  city  of  Erie,  Pa.,  with  the  loss  of  a 
score  of  lives  and  several  millions  of  dollars  in 
property  damaged.  Mill  Creek,  a  small  stream 
passing  through  the  centre  of  the  city,  rose 
within  two  hours  to  a  height  of  over  6  feet  and 
spread  across  the  principal  street  of  the  city — 
State  Street — causmg  a  failure  of  the  founda- 
tions of  many  buildings  and  their  collapse,  due 
to  the  heavy  wreckage  which  was  forced  against 
them.  Bridges  were  also  destroyed.  The  lesson 
of  this  flood  was  brought  before  the  people  in 
such  a  way  that  plans  were  prepared  for  an  im- 
provement of  the  channel  and  control  of  the 
stream.  There  was  involved  the  construction  of 
a  closed  reinforced  concrete  conduit  and  also  the 
eliminating  of  all  sharp  bends,  and  the  relocat- 


ing of  about  24,000  feet  of  the  channel  of  the 
stream  to  obtain  a  shorter  and  straighter  course. 
There  was  provision,  too,  for  constructing  a  con- 
crete-lined open  conduit.  A  dry  reservoir  was 
recommended  about  1%  miles  above  the  city  line, 
which  would  have  a  capacity  of  52,000,000  cubic 
feet.  This  reservoir  would  ordinarily  be  empty, 
and  would  be  drained  by  a  culvert  large  enough 
to  pass  any  but  extraordinary  floods.  The  esti- 
mate of  the  engineer  engaged  to  report  to  the 
city  stated  that  the  work  could  he  done  for 
$798,000. 

Floods  in  Los  Angeles  County  during  the 
rainy  season  have  been  a  source  of  serious  dam- 
age and  the  board  of  engineers  appointed  by  the 
supervisors  to  study  the  flood  control  problem  re- 
ported a  project  which  would  cost  $16,208,900, 
of  which  $12,824,400  was  for  structures,  and  $3,- 
384,500  for  right  of  way.  This  report  involved 
a  series  of  plans  including  the  conservation  of 
the  run-off  by  diversion  into  the  gravels  in  the 
headwater  district,  retardation  of  the  run-off  by 
contour  plowing,  reforestation  and  impeding 
dams,  and  stream-diversion  in  the  coastal  plains. 
There  was  recommended  a  change  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Los  Angeles  River  from  the  harbor  at  San 
Pedro  to  Alamitos  Bay.  With  necessary  legis- 
lation, which  became  effective  Aug.  10,  1915,  it 
was  proposed  to  push  the  final  preparations  and 
legal  steps,  so  that  the  work  could  be  put  under 
construction  immediately.  In  1914  the  loss  in 
this  district  was  over  $10,000,000,  and  the  need 
of  suitable  protection  was  brought  clearly  be- 
fore the  public.    See  Hubriganes. 

PLOSIDA.  P0PULATI0I7.  The  population  of 
the  State,  on  July  1,  1915,  was  estimated  at 
870,802.    The  population  in   1910  was  752,019. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Acreage  Prod,  Bu.  Value 

Corn     1915  800.000  12,000,000  $8,760,000 

1914  700,000  11,200,000  8.960,000 

Oats   1915  61,000  1.220,000  854.000 

1914  50,000  900,000  630,000 

Bice     1915  500  .     12,000  9,000 

1914  400  10.000  7,000 

Potatoes 1915  12,000  960,000  1.104,000 

1914  18,000  1,040.000  1.175,000 

Hay    1915  51,000  a  61,000  976,000 

1914  48,000  63,000  1.118,000 

Tobacco    1915  8.000  h  8.549,000  816.000 

1914  4,800  4,800.000  1,290,000 

Cotton    1915  198,000  c  50.000  8.559.000 

1914  221,000  81,000  4,768,000 

a  Tons,     h  Pounds,  e  Bales. 


Mineral  Pboduction.  The  only  mineral  pro- 
duction in  the  State  is  phosphate  rock.  In  this 
it  surpasses  all  the  other  States.  There  were 
marketed  in  1914,  2,138,891  long  tons  of  this 
mineral,  which  had  a  value  of  $7,354,744,  or  78 
per  cent  of  the  entire  production  of  the  United 
States.  As  compared  with  the  production  of 
1913,  the  output  of  1914  shows  a  decrease  of 
406,385  long  tons.  Phosphate  rock  produced  in 
the  State  consists  of  hard  rock,  land  pebble,  and 
river  pebble.  No  river  pebble  was  mined  in  the 
State  in  1914,  but  a  small  amount  was  sold  from 
De  Soto  County.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral 
production  in  1914  was  $8,497,638,  compared 
with  $10,508,016  in   1913. 

Finance.  The  latest  report  available  for  the 
financial  condition  of  the  State  is  for  the  fiscal 


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year  ending  June  1,  1914.  The  receipts  for  the 
year  amounted  to  $3,429,784,  and  the  disburae- 
menta  to  $3,300,685,  leaving  a  balance  on  hand 
Dec.  31,  1914,  of  $1,522,769,  which  includes  a 
balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $1,483,- 
699.  The  public  debt  amounted  to  about  $600,- 
000. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  in  1915  was  275,310.  The  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  was  177,154,  and  the  aver- 
age daily  attendance  was  126,565.  The  female 
t^uUiers  numbered  3208,  and  the  males  1074. 
The  average  monthly  salary  of  white  male  teach- 
ers was  $54.02,  and  of  white  females  $36.44.  The 
average  monthly  salary  of  negro  male  teachers 
was  $38.91,  and  female  teachers  was  $30.74. 
The  total  school  expenditure  for  the  year  1914- 
16  was  $2,769,335.  The  Legislature  of  1915 
passed  a  number  of  new  measures  dealing  with 
schools.  These  dealt  chiefly  with  the  methods 
of  administering  the  finances. 

Charities  and  Gorbsctionb.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  include 
an  asylum  for  the  insane;  an  institution  for 
wayward  boys,  known  as  Florida  Industrial 
School;  and  a  school  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and 
blind.  The  Legislature  of  1915  passed  a  meas- 
ure providing  for  the  establishment  of  an  indus- 
trial school  for  girls.  There  were  in  1915  about 
1500  State  prisoners. 

Transportation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  in  1914  was  6759.  Railways  with 
the  longest  mileage  are:  the  Seaboard  Air  Line, 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Florida  East  Coast, 
Louisville  and  Nashville  Line,  and  the  Georgia 
Southern  and  Florida. 

Poutigs  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
was  in  session  in  1915.  The  so-called  packaee 
law,  passed  by  the  Legislature,  which  forbids 
drinkmg  intoxicants  upon  the  premises  where 
they  are  publicly  sold,  went  into  effect  on  August 
1st.  Under  the  provision  of  this  measure,  liquor 
may  be  bought  in  containers  holding  not  less 
than  half  a  pint.  It  further  provides  that  sa- 
loons must  remain  closed  from  6  p.  h.  until  7 
A.  M.  There  were  no  elections  in  1915,  and  but 
little  of  political  interest  transpired. 

State  Officers.  Governor,  Park  M.  Tram- 
mell;  Secretary  of  State,  H.  C.  Crawford;  Treas- 
urer, J.  C.  Luning;  Comptroller,  W.  V.  Knott; 
Attorney-General,  Thomas  F.  West;  Auditor, 
Ernest  Amos;  Adjutant-General,  J.  C.  R.  Fos- 
ter; Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  W.  N. 
Sheats;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  W.  A. 
McRea — all  Democrats. 

SuFRBiCB  Court.  Chief  Justice,  R.  F.  Taylor; 
Justices,  T.  M.  Shackelford,  J.  R.  Whitfield,  R. 
S.  Cockrell,  and  W.  H.  Ellis;  Clerk,  G.  T.  Whit- 
field. 

State  Leqislaturb.  Both  Houses  are  Demo- 
cratic. 

FLOBIDA,  Univeesity  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  foimded  in  1905,  in 
Gainesville,  Fla.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  647.  The 
faculty  numbered  57.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  university  is  supported  almost 
entirely  by  legislative  appropriations.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  amount  to  about  $85,000.  The 
library  contains  about  15,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  A.  A.  Murphree. 

FLOTATION.    See  Metaixurot. 


FLOTJB.    See  Food  and  Nutritzon. 

FLY,  House.  See  Entoholoot  ;  and  Insects, 
Propagation  of  Disease  bt. 

FOOD  AND  NTJTSITION.  Nutrition  Stud- 
ies.  The  steadily  advancing  cost  of  living  and 
the  continuance  of  the  European  war  led  to 
many  efforts  to  effect  economy  in  the  food  sup- 
ply. In  Germany,  a  '*war  bread,"  in  which  rye 
flour  was  supplemented  by  about  20  per  cent  of 
potato  flour,  was  officially  reoonmiended,  al- 
though digestive  disturbances  from  its  excessive 
use  were  also  reported.  Blood  from  slaughter 
houses  and  susar  were  also  being  added  to  bread 
to  conserve  &e  grain  supply,  and  yeast  was 
found  to  be  a  very  digestible  substitute  for  meat. 
Attempts  to  prepare  a  hay  fiour  from  alfalfa  and 
clover,  meat  flour,  food  products  from  wood  and 
straw,  and  a  kind  of  tea  frmn  dried  heather 
were  also  reported,  as  well  as  the  direct  use  as 
food  of  sugar  beets  and  lichens. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
studied  the  prevention  of  spoilage  and  waste, 
particularly  of  eggs,  fish,  and  fruit  by-products. 
Many  fruit  juices  were  prepared,  and  their  dis- 
tinctive colors  and  fiavors  were  retained  for 
many  months  by  storage  at  about  14®  F.  After 
applying  pressures  of  60,000  pounds  per  square 
inch,  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  has 
kept  apple  juice,  peaches,  and  Dears  for  five 
years  without  spoilage,  but  was  less  successful 
with  berries,  tomatoes,  and  veoetables.  The  Cal- 
ifornia Station  prepared  a  palatable  paste  from 
cull  olives,  and  jellies  from  surplus  oranges  and 
lemons.  The  use  of  small  amoimts  of  feterita, 
proso,  and  kaoliang  was  suggested  to  replace 
wheat  fiour,  and  slightly  sprouted  wheat  was 
found  to  make  a  bread  of  fair  quality.  Atten- 
tion was  drawn  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  to  the  value  of  tile-fish,  a  deep  sea  fish 
now  becoming  plentiful  after  years  of  scarcity. 

Langworthy  and  Holmes,  of  the  Office  of  Home 
Economics,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  reported  studies  showing  a  digesti- 
bility of  97  per  cent  for  butter  and  fiurd,  93  per 
cent  for  beef  fat,  and  88  per  cent  for  mutton  fat. 
Osborne,  Mendel,  et  al.,  concluded  that  their 
previous  discovery  of  the  failure  of  lard  to  pro- 
mote growth  was  not  attributable  to  deteriorat- 
ing changes  brought  about  in  its  manufacture. 
Tests  bv  others  of  the  chemically  hardened  vege- 
table oils  recently  put  on  the  market  for  lard 
substitutes  and  other  purposes  indicated  that 
these  products  are  suitable  for  human  food,  but 
should  not  be  hardened  above  where  the  melting 
point  exceeds  body  temperature. 

In  studies  of  proprietary  preparations  for 
feeding  infants,  several  investigators  reported  ' 
that  many  of  tiiese  foods  contain  an  excess  of 
carbohydrates  and  a  deficiency  of  fat.  Analyses 
of  proprietary  brands  of  crackers,  cookies,  and 
similar  package  goods  by  the  Connecticut  State 
Station  indicated  that,  because  of  their  high  cost, 
their  purchase  must  often  be  justified  tiirough 
their  value  as  confections  rather  than  simply  as 
foods.  At  the  California  Station  a  high  nutri- 
tive value  was  foimd  for  the  avocado,  while  the 
Oregon  Station  demonstrated  the  wide  variations 
in  value  of  different  sorts  of  apples  for  specific 
cooking  purposes. 

The  intimate  relation  of  food  to  a  number  of 
specific  diseases  was  brought  out.  The  United 
States  Public  Health  Service  obtained  symptoms 
diagnosed  as  pellagra  in  several  convicts  after  a 
restricted  diet  consisting  mainly  of  com  prod- 


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uctB,  rice,  Bweet  potatoes,  and  cane  sirup.  Modi- 
fying the  diet  in  orphanages  where  the  disease 
imd  been  endemic  by  replacing  a  part  of  the 
carbohydrate  food  by  fresh  animal  and  legumi- 
nous protein  foods  was  followed  by  a  cessation  of 
the  disease.  In  other  cases  the  exclusion  of 
sugar  and  other  cane  products,  which  had  been 
eaten  in  large  amounts,  resulted  in  many  cures. 
Beriberi  was  also  ascribed  to  a  diet  deficient  in 
some  food  principle.  In  Poland,  many  people 
who  had  lived  almost  wholly  on  potatoes  for  sev- 
eral months  were  found  to  have  developed  symp- 
toms of  heart  disease  and  dropsy,  which  disap- 
peared with  better  nourishment  and  improved 
hygienic  conditions.  Other  cases  of  potato  poi- 
soning were  attributed  to  the  activities  of  yeast 
or  bacteria  rather  than  to  solanin.  Bacteria  in 
duck  ^gs  were  claimed  to  have  caused  food  poi- 
soning, and  sterilization  by  long-continued  boil- 
ing was  advised.  Such  foods  as  ice  cream  and 
spaghetti  were  proved  to  be  possible  carriers  of 
the  typhoid  fever  bacillus,  neither  freezing  for 
long  periods  nor  baking  destroying  its  viability. 
Similarly,  studies  of  carbonated  beverages  by  the 
Kentucky  Station  showed  that  carbonation  killed 
many  but  not  all  the  organisms,  and  indicated 
the  great  importance  of  a  pure  water  supply  and 
sanitary  methods. 

CJosT  OP  Food.  Bradstreefa  recorded  for  Dec. 
1,  1915,  the  highest  commodity  index  in  its  his- 
tory. This  showed  an  increase  of  over  17  per 
cent  over  the  previous  year,  and  11.5  per  cent 
over  the  former  high-water  mark  in  1912. 
Wholesale  prices  for  wheat,  com,  flour,  ham, 
butter,  cheese,  coffee,  sugar,  tea,  salt,  rice,  beans, 
peas,  potatoes,  lemons,  mackerel,  cranberries, 
raisins,  and  currants  were  still  higher  than  in 
1914,  but  those  for  live  and  dressed  meats,  eggs, 
milk,  and  apples  were  in  general  lower.  Despite 
the  advancing  cost  of  living,  however,  Brad- 
street's  maintained  that  "it  is  worth  noting 
that  in  1912  the  dearness  of  commodities  worked 
widespread  agitation,  whereas  just  now  discon- 
tent is  negligible." 

Food  Inspection.  The  cases  reported  for 
prosecution  under  the  United  States  Food  and 
Drugs  Act  numbered  820,  of  which  325  were 
criminal  cases.  There  were  also  155  cases  re- 
ported under  the  meat  inspection  law,  and  6713 
importations  of  food  were  denied  entry. 

Connecticut,  Hawaii,  Midiigan,  New  Jersey, 
North  Carolina,  and  Oregon  were  added  to  the 
States  requiring  the  net  weight  of  package  goods 
to  be  shown.  Arizona,  Massachusetts,  and  Min- 
nesota required  the  labeling  of  cold  storage  eggs; 
Connecticut  of  pasteurized  milk;  North  Carolina 
of  bleached  flour;  California,  Montana,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  of  eggs  and  dairy  products  from 
foreign  countries;  and  Montana  and  Oregon  of 
meat  and  meat  products  as  well.  Pennsylvania 
regulated  the  handling  of  meat  and  meat  food 
products,  as  well  as  the  sanitation  of  restau- 
rants, etc.  Delaware  provided  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  fruit  and  vegetable  canneries,  and  Ver- 
mont of  creameries  and  cheese  factories.  Florida 
and  Missouri  required  the  screening  from  flies 
of  food  producing  and  handling  estoblishments, 
and  Oregon  the  licensing  of  all  persons  catching, 
canning,  or  handling  food  fish.  Massachusetts 
provid^  for  bread  inspection,  California  further 
regulated  cold  storage  practices,  and  Illinois  the 
traffic  in  spoiled  ^gs.  Nebraska  and  North  Da- 
kota also  amendedtheir  pure-food  laws. 

Books  of  the  Yeab.    The  following  may  be 

Y.  B— « 


mentioned:  Ruth  A.  Wardall  and  Edna  N. 
White,  A  Study  of  Foods  (Boston);  Edith  H. 
Forster  and  Mildred  Weigley,  Foods  and  Sanita- 
tion (Chicago) ;  Mary  D.  Chambers,  Principles 
of  Food  Preparation  (Boston ) ;  E.  T.  and  Lilian 
Brewster,  The  Nutrition  of  a  Household  (Bos- 
ton) ;  Mildred  Bulkley,  The  Feeding  of  School 
Children  (London) ;  and  S.  Nearing,  Reducing 
the  Cost  of  Living   (Philadelphia). 

See  also  Chemistbt,  General  Progbebs  of, 
Organic  Chemistry. 

FOOT-AND-HOUTH  DISEASE.  See  Vet- 
EBiNART  Medicine. 

FOOTBALL.  Rugby  football  attained  its 
greatest  heights  in  1915.  It  is  estimated  that 
32,000  games  were  played  by  the  various  college 
and  school  teams  throughout  the  United  States, 
and  that  these  contests  drew  a  total  attendance 
of  6,000,000  persons.  The  play  itself,  too,  was 
more  spectacular  than  ever  before,  this  fact  being 
due  to  the  increased  familiarity  shown  with  the 
new  rules  which  place  a  premium  on  the  open 
game. 

Undoubtedly  the  strongest  eleven  of  the  sea- 
son was  Cornell,  which  went  through  its  sched- 
ule without  suffering  a  defeat.  Harvard,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Michigan  were  among  the  teams 
which  fell  before  Dr.  Al  Sharpens  powerful  and 
well  balanced  aggregation.  Harvard  deserves 
second  ranking  and  many  experts  maintain  that 
at  the  close  of  the  season  the  Crimson  squad, 
coached  by  Percy  D.  Haughton,  was  the  equal,  if 
not  the  superior,  of  Cornell. 

Harvard  was  well  satisfied  with  its  record  as 
a  whole,  despite  its  defeat  by  the  Ithacans,  for 
the  Cambridge  men  accomplished  their  two  chief 
tasks,  the  overthrow  of  Princeton  and  Yale. 
The  triumph  over  the  Elis  was  the  most  com- 
plete ever  gained  by  a  Harvard  eleven,  the  score 
being  41  to  0. 

The  University  of  Pittsburgh  would  naturally 
dispute  Harvard's  claim  to  second  place,  for  this 
team,  like  Cornell,  went  through  the  season  with- 
out losing  a  game.  The  fact  remains,  however, 
that  Pittsburgh  did  not  meet  elevens  possessing 
the  strength  exhibited  by  the  Crimson's  oppo- 
nents. 

Princeton  must  receive  serious  consideration 
for  fourth  place,  although  it  lost  to  Yale,  which 
had  been  defeated  by  four  so-called  "minor" 
teams  in  Virginia,  Washington  and  Jefferson, 
Colgate,  and  Brown.  The  ranking  of  the  other 
college  elevens  is  a  hard  problem,  but  closest 
followers  of  the  sport  placed  them  in  this  order : 
Syracuse,  Dartmouth,  Colgate,  Penn  State, 
Washington  and  Jefferson,  Rutgers,  Brown, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Yale. 

Among  the  individual  stars  of  the  year, 
Charlie  Barrett,  leader  of  the  Cornell  team,  and 
Eddie  Mahan,  the  Harvard  captain,  were  pre- 
eminent. Other  gridiron  players  of  note  were: 
Oliphant,  of  the  Army ;  Captain  Glick,  of  Prince- 
ton; Shiverick,  of  Cornell;  Tallman,  of  Rutgers; 
Na^,  of  Rutgers;  King,  of  Harvard;  Miller,  of 
Columbia;  Cahall,  of  Lehigh;  and  Peck,  of  Pitts- 
burgh. 

In  the  West  the  strongest  elevens  were :  Wash- 
ington State,  University  of  Washington,  Oregon 
Aggies,  Michigan  Aggies,  Illinois,  and  Minne- 
sota. Vanderbilt  and  Virginia  made  the  best 
showing  of  the  Southern  teams. 

Walter  Camp  made  the  following  selections  for 
his  All- America  first  team: 

Ends,  Baston,  Minnesota,  and  Shelton,   Cor- 


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nell;  tackles,  Gilman,  Harvard,  and  Abell,  Col- 
gate; guards,  Spears,  Dartmouth,  and  Schlach- 
ter,  Syracuse;  centre,  Peck,  Pittsburgh;  quarter- 
back, Barrett,  Cornell;  halfbacks,  King,  Har- 
vard, and  Macomber,  Illinois;  fullback,  Mahan, 
Harvard. 

A  summary  of  the  games  played  by  the  lead- 
ing college  teams  follows: 

Cornell  13,  Gettysburg  0;  Cornell  34,  Oberlin 
7;  Cornell  46,  Williams  6;  Cornell  41,  Bucknell 
0;  Cornell  10,  Harvard  0;  Cornell  46,  Virginia 
P.  I.  0;  Cornell  34,  Michigan  7;  Cornell  40, 
Washington  and  Lee  21;  Cornell  24,  Pennsylva- 
nia 0. 

Harvard  39,  Colby  6;  Harvard  7,  Massachu- 
setts Aggies  0;  Harvard  29,  Carlisle  7;  Harvard 
9,  Virginia  0;  Harvard  0,  Cornell  10;  Harvard 
13,  Penn  State  0;  Harvard  10,  Princeton  6; 
Harvard  16,  Brown  7;  Harvard  41,  Yale  0, 

University  of  Pittsburgh  32,  Westminster  0; 
Pittsburgh  47,  United  States  Naval  Academy 
12;  Pittsburgh  45,  Carlisle  0;  Pittsburgh  14, 
Pennsylvania  7;  Pittsburgh  42,  Allegheny  7; 
Pittsburgh  19,  Washington  and  Jefferson  0; 
Pittsburgh  28,  Carnegie  Tech.  0;  Pittsburgh  20, 
Penn  State  0. 

Princeton  13,  Georgetown  0;  Princeton  10, 
Rutgers  0;  Princeton  3,  S3rracu8e  0;  Princeton 
40,  Lafayette  3;  Princeton  30,  Dartmouth  7; 
Princeton  27,  Williams  0;  Princeton  6,  Harvard 
10;  Princeton  7,  Yale  13. 

Syracuse  43,  East  Syracuse  0;  Syracuse  6, 
Bucknell  0;  Syracuse  0,  Princeton  3;  Syracuse 
82,  Rochester  0;  Syracuse  6,  Brown  0;  Syra- 
cuse 14,  Michigan  7;  Syracuse  73,  Mount  Union 
0;  Syracuse  38,  Colgate  0;  Syracuse  0,  Dart- 
mouth 0. 

Dartmouth  13,  Massachusetts  Aggies  0;  Dart- 
mouth 34,  Maine  0;  Dartmouth  20,  Tufts  7; 
Dartmouth  60,  Vermont  0;  Dartmouth  7,  Prince- 
ton 30;  Dartmouth  20,  Amherst  0;  Dartmouth  7, 
Pennsylvania  3;  Dartmouth  29,  Bates  0;  Dart- 
mouth 0,  Syracuse  0. 

Colgate  44,  Susquehanna  0;  Colgate  44,  Ro- 
chester 0;  Colgate  13,  West  Point  0;  Colgate 
107,  Rensselaer  Poly.  0;  Colgate  15,  Yale  0;  Col- 
gate 0,  Syracuse  38. 

Penn  State  26,  Westminster  0;  Penn  State  14, 
Lebanon  0;  Penn  State  13,  Pennsylvania  3;  Penn 
State  27,  Gettysburg  12;  Penn  State  28,  West 
Virginia  0;  Penn  State  0,  Harvard  13;  Penn 
State  7,  Lehigh  0;  Penn  State  33,  Lafayette  3; 
Penn  State  0,  Pittsburgh  20. 

Washington  and  Jefferson  6,  Geneva  0;  Wash- 
ington and  Jefferson  6,  West  Virginia  6;  Wash- 
ington and  Jefferson  17,  Lafayette  0;  Washing- 
ton and  Jefferson  34,  Westminster  0;  Washing- 
ton and  Jefferson  16,  Yale  7;  Washington  and 
Jefferson  41,  Muskingum  7;  Washington  and 
Jefferson  0,  Pittsburgh  19;  Washington  and 
Jefferson  7,  West  Virginia  3;  Washington  and 
Jefferson  59,  Bethany  0;  Washington  and  Jeffer- 
son 27,  Lehigh  3. 

Rutgers  53,  Albright  0;  Rutgers  0,  Princeton 
10;  Rutgers  96,  Rensselaer  0;  Rutgers  21,  Muh- 
lenberg 0;  Rutgers  41,  Springfield  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
College  13;  Rubers  28,  All  Stars  7;  Rutgers  39, 
Stevens  3;  Rutgers  70,  New  York  University  0. 

Association  football,  or  soccer,  gained  many 
recruits  during  the  year  1915.  The  National 
Challenge  Trophy,  emblematic  of  the  champion- 
ship of  the  United  States  Football  Association, 
was  won  by  the  Bethlehem  Club,  the  final  match 
being  played  on  Taylor  Field,  Lehigh  University, 


with  the  Brooklyn  Celtics  as  the  opponents  of 
the  new  champions.    The  score  was  3  to  1. 

The  Celtics  made  an  excellent  showing  as  they 
also  were  finalists  in  the  cup  tie  of  the  Ameri- 
can Football  Association,  which  was  won  by  the 
Scottish-Americans  of  Newark,  N.  J.  The  Cel- 
tics were  more  successful  in  the  New  York  State 
series,  capturing  the  championship  for  the  third 
successive  year. 

The  West  Hudsons  won  the  championship  of 
the  National  League,  and  the  United  HudAons 
carried  off  the  honors  in  the  Metropolitan 
League.  The  intercollegiate  soccer  title  went  to 
Haverford,  after  a  spirited  race  in  which  Penn- 
sylvania was  the  chief  contender. 

In  England  the  principal  series  were  contested 
despite  the  fact  tiiat  many  of  the  leading  players 
answered  the  call  to  the  colors. 

FOOTEITE.    See  Minebalogt. 

70BD  PHAGE  TBIP.    See  United  States 

AND  THE  WaB. 

FOBEIGN  CB£I>ITS.  See  Financiai,  Re- 
view, section  so  entitled. 

FOBEIGN  BELATIONS.  See  United 
States. 

FOBEIGN  TBABE.    See  Financial  Review. 

FOBESTBY.  The  year  1916  promised  to  be 
a  bad  year  for  forest  fires.  Many  thousand 
acres  of  forest  and  suburban  woodland  in  the 
Eastern  United  States  and  in  Canada  were 
burned  over  during  the  early  spring  by  fires 
which  started  for  the  most  part  from  preventable 
causes.  Rains  during  the  latter  part  of  April 
helped  the  situation  somewhat,  and  reports  from 
different  parts  of  the  country  since  that  time  in- 
dicated that  the  damage  from  forest  fires  for  the 
year  as  a  whole  would  be  much  less  than  for 
many  years  past  The  successful  results  of  the 
Federal  fire  protective  system  on  the  National 
Forests  was  yearly  inducing  more  States  to  take 
up  the  work  of  forest  prot^tion.  The  estimated 
loss  from  forest  fires  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
for  1916  was  $10,000,000.  Formerly  the  rail- 
roads were  the  principal  offenders  in  starting 
fires.  During  the  year  1916,  however,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  losses  resulted  from  settlers'  fires, 
there  being  no  serious  loss  along  the  lines  of 
railroad  governed  by  the  Dominion  Board  of 
Railway  Commissioners  and  their  forest  protec- 
tive regulations. 

At  least  80  lots  of  imported  white  pine  in- 
fected with  white-pine  blister  rust  had  been  lo- 
cated in  the  United  States  and  Canada  during 
the  previous  five  years.  Most  of  these  infec- 
tions had  been  eradicated,  but  from  eight  of 
them  outbreaks  of  the  disease  in  native  pines 
occurred.  The  largest  of  these  outbreaks  re- 
cently developed  along  the  Niagara  River  in  On- 
tario, fortimately,  however,  in  an  isolated  region. 
In  the  United  States  the  eastern  white  pine 
{Pinua  atrolma)  was,  in  1916,  the  only  one  af* 
fected.  In  Europe,  however,  the  disease  attacked 
other  five-needle  pines,  and  consequently  the  five- 
needle  pines  of  the  Western  States  were  endan- 
gered. 

The  importation  of  European  pine  to  the 
United  States  was  prohibited  after  July  1,  1916. 
This  action  was  taken  to  save  American  pine 
trees  from  the  pine  shoot  moth  which  had  long 
done  much  damage  in  European  forests.  The  Ca- 
nadian government  prohibited  the  importation 
into  Canada  of  all  forest  plant  products  from 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire^  Connecti- 
cut, and  Rhode  Island,  unless  accompanied  by  a 


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certificate  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  showing  them  free  from  gypsy  moth. 

Thk  National  Forest  Service.  On  March 
31,  1915,  there  were  162  National  Forests  in  the 
United  States,  with  a  total  area  of  184,611,596 
acres,  of  which  21,337,533  acres  were  private 
land.  During  the  previous  five  years  about  14,- 
000,000  acres  had  been  released  either  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  or  because  they  were  unsuited 
for  permanent  forest  purposes.  Some  recent 
eliminations  for  the  latter  cause  included  5,802,- 
000  acres,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the  Chugach  For- 
est in  Alaska,  and  the  Kansas  National  Forest  in 
the  Sand  Hill  region  of  Western  Kansas.  About 
1,900,000  acres  were  made  available  under  the 
Forest  Homestead  Law  for  the  benefit  of  18,000 
settlers.  The  total  receipts  from  the  National 
Forests  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1915, 
approximated  $2,500,000,  of  which  amount  over 
$850,000  went  to  the  States  in  which  the  for- 
ests are  situated  for  county  school  and  road 
purposes. 

With  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1914,  appropriations  for  purchase  under  the 
Weeks  Law  (see  Forestby  in  Year  Book  for 
1912)  of  lands  for  protecting  watersheds  of  nav- 
igable streams  terminated.  Of  the  $11,000,000 
appropriated  for  this  purpose  to  be  expended 
during  the  fiscal  years  1910  to  1915  $3,000,000 
lapsed  before  contracts  of  purchase  could  be  com- 
pleted. With  the  remaining  $8,000,000  the  Na- 
tional Forest  Reservation  Commission  approved 
the  purchase  of  lands  in  16  localities  of  the 
Southern  Appalachian  and  White  Mountains,  in- 
volving a  total  area  of  1,317,551  acres.  This 
was  acquired  or  bargained  for  at  an  average 
prioe  of  $5.22  per  acre.  In  1914  the  Commission 
recommended  that  purchases  be  continued  until 
about  6,000,000  acres  are  acquired,  and  that  Con- 
gress authorize  appropriations  through  another 
five-year  period  at  the  rate  of  $2,000,000  a  year. 
In  his  report  to  the  President,  the  secretary  of 
agriculture  recommended  that  purchases  should 
continue  imtil  areas  sufficient  to  be  infiuential  in 
protecting  the  watersheds  are  acquired. 

Legislation.  In  order  to  encourage  the  use 
of  National  Forest  land  for  recreational  pur- 
poses— summer  homes,  resorts,  etc. — Congress 
passed  a  law  in  March  authorizing  the  secretary 
of  agriculture  to  lease  lands  in  tracts  of  not 
more  than  five  acres  for  periods  not  to  exceed  30 
years.  More  than  2000  cottages  had  been  built 
under  the  old  permit  system  and  a  large  number 
of  applications  under  the  new  leasing  system  had 
been  received. 

Massachusetts  passed  a  law  carrying  an  appro- 
priation of  $75,000,  empowering  the  State  for- 
ester to  employ  needy  persons  on  the  State  for- 
ests in  the  work  of  forest  protection  and  de- 
velopment. Working  under  the  Municipal  For- 
est Law,  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  set  aside  105  acres  of 
land  to  be  known  and  used  as  a  Town  Forest. 
New  Hampshire  provided  for  the  conveyance  of 
lands  to  the  State  for  reforestation.  After  10 
years  the  lands  can  be  repurchased  by  paying  the 
cost  of  improvements  and  4  per  cent  interest.  In 
Vermont,  cities  and  towns  were  authorized  to  buy 
lands  for  forestry  purposes,  the  profits  to  be  used 
for  the  schools  of  each  place.  The  State  forester 
is  to  manage  tracts  of  over  40  acres.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania, counties  are  permitted  to  sell  tax  lands 
for  reforestation  through  the  State  forest  serv- 
ice, Texas  provided  for  a  State  Board  of  For- 
estry and  a  State  forester.    The  Governor  may 


accept  for  the  State  gifts  of  lands  for  forest  re- 
serves and  similar  lands  may  be  purchased. 
West  Virginia  created  the  position  of  State  for- 
ester in  the  Department  of  the  Forest,  Game,  and 
Fish  Warden.  State  cut-over  lands  in  Washing- 
ton that  are  suitable  for  reforestation  may  bie 
perpetually  reserved,  reforested,  and  handled  as 
State  forests. 

Alaskan  Timber  Reserve.  A  timber  reserve 
approximately  200  miles  in  length  and  from  6 
to  10  miles  in  width,  was  established  by  presi- 
dential order  on  the  public  lands  north  of  the 
Chugach  National  Forest.  The  purpose  of  the 
reservation  was  to  prevent  the  timber  needed  for 
the  construction  of  the  government  railroad  from 
falling  into  the  possession  of  individuals  or  cor- 
porations. Only  the  timber  on  the  land,  not  the 
land  itself,  has  been  reserved. 

FOREION  CoDNTBiES.  With  the  continuance  of 
the  great  war  forest  activities  in  Europe  were  al- 
most at  a  standstill,  except  that  many  trained 
foresters  and  many  valuable  forests  were  sacri- 
ficed in  the  conflict.  American  foresters  were 
pleased  to  learn  that  Dr.  C.  A.  Schenk,  former 
director  of  Biltmore  Forest  School,  who  was 
seriously  wounded  in  battle  in  France,  did  not 
die  as  reported  last  year  but  recovered  after  a 
long  convalescence. 

'Die  International  Colonial  Institute  at  Brus- 
sels issued  a  symposium  in  three  volumes 
dealing  with  the  forest  laws  and  forest  admin- 
istration in  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  Italy,  and  France,  the  Philip- 
pines, Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  etc.  The  subject  mat- 
ter was  prepared  by  various  authorities. 

Russia  in  1915  occupied  first  place  among  the 
nations  of  the  world  in  the  extent  of  its  timber 
resources.  The  forests  in  European  Russia  cov- 
ered an  area  of  474,000,000  acres;  in  Finland, 
50,500,000  acres;  in  Poland,  6,700,000  acres;  and 
in  the  Caucasus,  18,600,000  acres;  a  total  of 
549,800,000  acres,  exclusive  of  Siberia.  The  Rus- 
sian Forestrv  Department  placed  the  total  tim- 
berland  in  Siberia  at  810,000,000  acres,  of  which 
two-thirds  could  be  successfully  placed  on  the 
market.  The  government  owned  285,598,941 
acres  of  forest  land  in  European  Russia,  12,826,- 
387  acres  in  the  Caucasus,  360,519,435  acres  in 
Asiatic  Russia,  and  288,742,000  acres  in  the 
Amur  region,  a  total  of  947,686,763  acres. 
Twenty-three  per  cent  of  the  forest  land  belonged 
to  landed  proprietors  and  9  per  cent  to  the  peas- 
antry in  1910. 

As  the  results  of  experiments  carried  out  by 
a  Swedish  expert  it  was  ascertained  that  Arau- 
carta  imhricataf  a  tree  which  abounds  in  Argen- 
tina and  Chile,  provided  excellent  raw  material 
for  wood  pulp,  better  even  in  quality  than  that 
usually  employed  in  making  paper  pulp  in  both 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  Three  and  one- 
half  average  trees  suffice  to  produce  one  ton  of 
pulp.  Two  and  one-half  trees  will  produce  one 
ton  of  news  print  paper. 

A  survey  of  Ireland's  timber  resources  showed 
that  of  the  total  area  of  the  country  only  297,- 
809  acres,  or  1.4  per  cent,  was  under  woods. 
The  rates  of  cutting  and  planting  during  the 
previous  10  years  ^owed  a  deficiency  of  4341 
acres  in  the  planted  area  necessary  to  maintain 
a  permanently  stocked  acreage  of  woodland. 

The  director  of  the  Philippine  Bureau  of  For- 
estry who  recently  returned  from  a  trip  to  China 
in  the  interests  of  Philippine  lumber,  reported 
that  there  was  a  market  for  all  the  lumber  pro- 


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70BB8TBY  2S 

duoed  in  the  islanda  if  the  dealers  could  receive 
a  ffuaranty  of  a  constant  supply. 

The  Venezuelan  government  recently  created 
a  Central  Commission  of  Forestry  and  Water 
Supplies  to  fulfill  the  duties  indicated  by  its 
name. 

The  year  1916  witnessed  the  development  of  a 
growing  reforestation  movement  in  China.  The 
University  of  Nanking  opened  a  school  of  for- 
estry in  March  with  an  enrollment  of  17  stu- 
dents. The  event  was  commemorated  by  cere- 
monial tree  planting  on  Purple  Mountain,  near 
Nanking.  Three  scholarships  in  the  school  were 
provided  by  the  forestry  fund  committee  of 
Shai^ai. 

Bibliography.  H.  H.  Chapman,  Forest  Valur 
aiion  (New  York,  1915);  P.  Descombes,  UEvih 
lution  de  la  Politque  Foreati^e  (Paris,  1914); 
H.  Winkenwerder  and  E.  T.  Clark,  A  Manual  of 
Exercises  in  Forest  Mensuration  (Seattle,  Wash., 
1916) ;  H.  F.  Weiss,  The  Preservation  of  Struc- 
tural Timber  (New  York  and  London,  1916); 
F.  F.  Moon  and  N.  C.  Brown,  Elements  of  For- 
estry (New  York,  1914);  F.  Roth,  Michigan 
Manual  of  Forestry, — I,  Forest  Regulation  or 
the  Preparation  and  Development  of  Forest 
Working  Plans  (vol.  i,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1914) ; 
A.  von  Guttenberg,  Wachstum  und  Ertrag  der 
Fichte  in  Hochgehirge  (Vienna  and  Leipzig, 
1916) ;  F.  S.  Mathews,  Field  Book  of  American 
Trees  and  Shrubs  (New  York,  1916);  W.  P. 
Lawson,  The  Log  of  a  Timber  Cruiser  (New 
York,  1916) ;  N.  Shaw,  Chinese  Forest  Trees  and 
Timber  Supply  (London,  1914);  Handbook  for 
Campers  in  the  National  Forests  in  California 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  For- 
est Service,  1916). 

FOBMAK,  Justus  Miles.  American  writer, 
died  May  7,  1916.  He  was  born  in  Le  Roy,  N. 
Y.,  in  1876,  and  graduated  from  Yale  in  1898. 
For  three  years  he  studied  art  at  Paris.  His 
talent  was  more  for  literature  than  for  art,  how- 
ever, and  he  took  to  authorship,  writing  stories 
profusely  for  the  magazines,  and  also  many 
novels.  Among  his  b<x>k8  are  The  Garden  of 
Lies  (1902) ;  The  Journey's  End  (1903) ;  Jason 
(1909);  The  Unknoum  Lady  (1911);  The  Open 
Door  (1913);  and  The  Blind  Spot  (1916).  He 
was  the  author  also  of  several  successful  plays. 
Mr.  Forman  was  a  victim  of  the  sinking  of 
the  Lusitama.  See  Dbama,  Amebican  and  Eng- 
lish. 

FOBUOSA,  or  Taiwan.  An  island  depend- 
ency of  Japan  off  the  coast  of  the  Chinese  Prov- 
ince of  Fukien.  The  capital  is  Dai-Hoku  (or 
Taipei).  Formosa  Island  has  an  area  of  2318.6 
square  ri ;  the  seven  adjacent  isles,  6.6  square  ri ; 
total,  2324.1  square  ri  (13,841  square  miles). 
The  estimated  population  at  the  end  of  1914  was 
3,612,184;  at  the  end  of  1912,  3,476,679  (1,826,- 
618  males,  1,661,161  females),  of  whom  the  in- 
digenes numbered  3,336,967;  Japanese,  122,793; 
and  foreigners,  17,929.  Estimated  population  of 
the  larger  towns  Dec.  31,  1911:  Dai-Hoku 
(consisting  of  Jonai,  Moko,  and  Daitote),  96,- 
077;  Dainan  (or  Tainan),  69,601;  Kaga  (or 
Chia-i),  22,418;  Rokko  (or  Lukong),  19,163; 
Kiilung  (or  Keelimg),  17,962;  Shinchiku  for 
Hsinchu),  16,294;  Gilan  (or  Han),  16,062; 
Shokwa  (or  Changhua),  16,646;  Taku  (or  Ta- 
kow),  13,776;  Daichiu  (or  Taichu),  12,788. 

Japan  acquired  Formosa  from  China  by  ces- 
sion in  1896  and  instituted  civil  government  in 
the  following  year.    Many   improvements  have 


8  FOBSTTH 

been  made,   including  the  establishment   of  an 
educational  system. 

The  agricultural  products  include  rice  and 
other  cereals,  tea,  sugar,  sweet  potatoes,  jute, 
and  hemp.  By  far  the  most  important  crop  is 
rice,  which  was  planted  to  486,213  cho  in  1912 
(1  cho  =  2.46  acres);  the  yield  was  4,046,611 
koku  (1  koku  =  about  1.804  hectoliters,  or  4.063 
English  bushels).  In  1912  cattle  numbered  446,- 
687;  goats,  126,270;  and  swine,  1,276,607.  The 
forest  area  of  Formosa  is  reported  at  2,862,712 
cho.  An  important  forest  product  is  camphor, 
which  is  worked  as  a  government  monopoly. 
The  mineral  output  in  1912  was  valued  at  4,302,- 
969  yen,  as  compared  with  2,266,292  in  1907; 
gold  produced  in  1912  was  valued  at  2,136,660 
yen;  copper,  1,031,460;  oil,  892,136;  and  silver, 
132,416.  The  value  of  fishery  produce  in  1912 
is  stated  at  992,737  yen.  Manufactures  include 
flour,  sugar,  spirits,  tobacco,  oil,  soap,  etc.  The 
figures  below  represent,  in  yen,  imports  and  ex- 
ports from  and  to  foreign  countries  and  from 
and  to  Japan  (including  Korea,  etc.). 


Importt  Exports 

ForHgn        Japan         Foreign  Japan 

1908    ...11,009.464  11.194,788  11,078,821     0.729.459 

1911  ...19,565,047  88,739,556  18,175,590  61.648,586 

1912  ...19,807,126  48,825.290  14,960,228  47,881.451 
1918  .  . .  18,028,724  42,835,598  12.942,442  40,446.620 


The  larger  classified  imports  and  exports  (in- 
cluding both  foreign  and  Japanese,  but  excluding 
the  small  trade  with  Korea)  were  as  follows  in 
1913:  rice,  other  cereals,  etc.,  6,886,843  and  16,- 
010,667  yen  respectively;  other  foodstuffs,  to- 
gether with  beverages  and  tobacco,  13,266,303 
and  23,878,661;  drugs,  colors,  etc.,  6,611,276  and 
8,262,601;  cotton  yam,  fabrics,  etc.,  7,720,661 
and  724,824;  minerals,  pottery,  metal  go€>ds,  etc., 
3,076,709  and  2,963,182.  Imports  from  and  ex- 
ports to  China  in  1912,  6767  and  4264  tliousand 
yen;  United  Kingdom,  3490  and  1087;  Britidi 
India,  2173  and  342;  United  SUtes,  1700  and 
4917;  Germany,  1072  and  1673.  Reported  length 
of  state  and  private  railway  open  in  1913  (in- 
cluding light  railways  on  sugar  estates),  690 
miles. 

Revenue  and  expenditure  in  1912-13,  60,296,- 
868  and  47,188,676  yen  respectively;  the  budget 
for  1913-14  balanced  at  47,626,016  yen;  for 
1914-16,  48,337,133.  Formosa  is  administered 
by  a  Governor-General  (Lt.  Gen.  Count  Ss^ma 
Samata),  resident  at  Dai-Hoku. 

FOBSYTHy  Geobgb  Alexander.  American 
soldier,  died  Sept.  12,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
Muncy,  Pa.,  in  1837,  and  received  an  academic 
education.  He  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Chi- 
cago Dragoons  in  1861 ;  in  the  same  year  became 
first  lieutenant  in  the  eighth  Illinois  cavalry; 
was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  1862,  and  major 
in  1863;  and  in  1866  was  mustered  out  of  the 
volimteer  service,  and  into  the  regular  army  as 
major  in  the  ^inth  United  States  cavalry.  He 
was  appointed  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry 
in  1881,  and  was  retired  from  service  in  1890.  In 
1904  he  was  advanced  by  an  act  of  Congress  to 
the  rank  of  colonel.  He  received  a  brevet  as  col- 
onel of  volunteers  in  1864  for  gallant  and  meri- 
torious service  at  Winchester,  and  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  of  the  volunteers  in  1866  for 
distinguished  service  and  conspicuous  gallantry. 
General  Forsyth  fought  during  the  entire  war  in 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


FOBSTTH  21 

the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  took  part  in  16 
battles,  6  skirmiahes,  and  over  60  minor  engage- 
ments. He  was  four  times  wounded.  From 
1869-73  he  acted  as  military  secretary  to  Lieu- 
tenant-General Sheridan,  and  was  an  aid  to 
Sheridan  from  1878-81.  He  achieved  much  dis- 
tinction as  an  Indian  fighter,  and  his  celebrated 
battle  with  "Old  Roman  Nose*'  and  2000  Chey- 
enne warriors  on  the  Republic  River  in  Kansas 
was  one  of  the  most  thrilling  engagements  in  In- 
dian warfare.  The  Indians  held  General  For- 
syth  and  his  small  band  at  bay  for  two  and  one- 
half  days  on  a  sand  bar  in  the  river.  "Old 
Roman  Nose''  and  many  of  the  Indians  were 
killed,  and  all  of  the  white  men  were  either 
killed  or  wounded.  General  Forsyth  took  part 
as  a  staff  official  in  Sheridan's  famous  ride  from 
Winchester  to  Cedar  Creek,  He  wrote  Thrilling 
Days  in  Army  Life  and  The  Story  of  the  Holdier, 
both  published  in  1900. 

EGBSYTH,  John  McQueen.  Admiral,  re- 
tired, of  the  United  States  navy,  died  Aug.  3, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  the  Bahamas  in  1842,  and 
at  the  age  of  11  removed  to  the  United  States, 
settling  with  his  family  in  Philadelphia.  He 
graduated  from  the  Central  High  School  of  that 
city  in  1858,  and  in  the  same  year  went  to  sea 
before  the  mast.  Three  years  later  he  enlisted 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  navy,  and  in  1861  was 
appointed  acting  master's  mate.  He  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War,  in  the  South  Atlantic 
and  West  Gulf  squadrons  •  took  part  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Forts  Clarke  and  Hatter  as,  in  1861;  and 
was  with  Admiral  Farragut  in  the  naval  fights 
on  the  Mississippi.  He  was  in  the  engagement 
with  the  Confederate  ram  Arkans<u.  Promoted 
to  be  lieutenant  in  1868,  he  became  commander 
in  1899,  and  captain  in  the  following  year.  His 
last  sea  duty  was  in  command  of  the  battleship 
Indiana,  to  which  he  was  assigned  in  August, 
1901.  In  September,  1901,  he  was  retired,  at 
his  own  request,  and  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral. 

FOBTIFICATIONS.    See     Militabt     Pboo- 

BESS. 

FOBWOOD,  WiixiAM  Henbt.  American  sol- 
dier, died  May  11,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Brandy  wine  Hundred,  Del.,  in  1838,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Crozier  Academy  in  1856,  afterward 
studying  medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1861  he  was  appointed  assistant  sur- 
geon in  the  United  States  army,  and  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War.  At  its  close  he  was 
promoted  to  be  captain  and  assistant  surgeon, 
and  rose  through  the  several  ranks  until  he  was 
appointed  in  1902  brigadier -general  and  surgeon- 
general.  He  received  two  brevets  for  gallantry 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  served  also  in  the  In- 
dian campaigns,  and  was  surgeon  and  naturalist 
in  Sheridan's  exploring  expeditions  in  1880-82. 
In  1898  he  built  the  Afontauk  Hospital.  He  re- 
tired from  active  service  in  1902.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  surgical  pathology  in 
the  Georgetown  Medical  College,  and  he  was  also 
professor  of  medical  surgery  at  the  Army  Med- 
ical School.  He  was  a  member  of  many  medical 
and  scientific  societies,  and  wrote  much  on  medi- 
cal subjects  and  on  natural  history  in  period- 
icals. 

FOSDICE,  Chables  Austin.  American 
writer,  whose  pen  name  was  "Harry  Castleman," 
died  Aug.  22,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Randolph, 
N.  Y.,  in  1842,  and  received  a  high  school  educa- 
tion in  Buffalo.    At  the  outbreak  of  tiie  Civil 


^  FBANCE 

War  he  shipped  as  landsman  in  the  Mississippi 
squadron.  He  passed  through  all  intermediate 
classes,  and  at  the  end  of  the  war  was  receiver 
and  superintendent  of  the  coal  of  the  squadron. 
Practically  all  the  remainder  of  his  life  was 
given  to  writing  stories  for  boys.  Many  of  his 
books  embodied  his  experiences  during  the  Civil 
War.  He  was  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Ameri- 
can writers  of  juvenile  stories.  Among  his  nu- 
merous books  are:  The  Boy  Trapper;  Buried 
Treasure;  Sailor  Jack,  the  Trader;  The  House- 
boat Boys;  The  Pony  Express  Rider;  and  The 
White  Beaver.      

FOTJBTH  OF  JULY  IN JTTBIES.  The  Jour- 
nal of  the  American  Medical  Association  com- 
piled its  13th  annual  report  of  deaths  and  in- 
juries resulting  from  the  celebration  of  the 
Fourth  of  July.  In  the  13  years  a  total  of  43,- 
951  persons  were  killed  or  injured  in  the  cele- 
bration. The  total  of  1915  showed  a  gratifying 
improvement  over  previous  years,  except  in  a 
few  localities.  There  was  only  one  death  from 
lockjaw,  although  294  blank  cartridge  wounds 
were  reported.  The  decrease  in  tetanus  is  be- 
lieved to  be  due  to  the  general  and  prompt  use  of 
antitoxin.  In  all  there  were  30  deaths  from 
fireworks  injuries;  5  persons  were  killed  by  fire- 
arms; 5  by  explosions  of  powder,  bombs,  or  tor- 
pedoes; 6  by  cannon;  and  2  by  other  forms  of 
fireworks.  Eleven  persons,  mostly  little  girls  or 
small  children,  were  burned  to  aeath.  Of  non- 
fatal injuries  there  were  1135.  One  person  was 
totally  blinded,  11  lost  one  eye  each,  5  lost  legs, 
arms,  or  hands,  and  38  lost  one  or  more  fingers. 
The  large  cities  showing  the  greatest  number  of 
accidenUil  injuries  are:  Philadelphia,  with  1 
killed  and  280  injured;  New  York,  272  injured; 
St.  Louis,  47  injured;  Boston  and  Hartford, 
Conn.,  27  casualties  each;  while  Chicago  had 
only  8  casualties,  but  5  of  these  fatal.  See  Tet- 
anus. 

FOWIiBB,  Thomas  Powell.  American  rail- 
way officer,  died  Oct.  12,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  in  1851,  and  was  educated  at 
Columbia  and  at  Heidelberg  universities.  He 
practiced  law  for  several  years  in  New  York  City 
with  great  success.  In  1886  he  was  president  of 
the  New  York,  Ontario,  and  Western  Railroad; 
and  he  was  interested  in  other  railroads  and  in 
various  financial  institutions. 

VOX,  Joseph  John.  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
died  March  15,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Green 
Bay,  Wis.,  in  1855,  and  was  graduated  at  the 
Cathedral  School  at  Green  Bay,  at  St.  Francis 
Seminary,  Milwaukee,  and  at  the  University  of 
Louvain.  From  the  last  named  institution  he 
received  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1879.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  ordained  a  priest.  His  first  pas- 
toral work  was  at  New  Franken,  Wis.  He  was 
afterwards  for  three  years  in  charge  of  St. 
John's  Church,  Green  Bay.  In  1896  he  was  ap- 
pointed vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Green  Bay, 
serving  until  1904;  and  in  1898  domestic  pre- 
late to  Pope  Leo  XIII.  He  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Green  Bay  in  1904. 

F&AKCE.  A  republic  in  western  Europe. 
Capital,  Paris. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  is  stated  at 
53,646,374  hectares,  equivalent  to  536,464  square 
kilometers,  or  207,129  square  miles.  The  table 
following  gives,  by  departments,  areas  in  square 
kilometers,  legal  population  according  to 
the  censuses  of  1911  and  1906,  and  density  in 
1911. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


TRANCE 


2S0 


F&AKCE 


Sq.  km. 

Ain     5,826.60 

AiBne    7,428.85 

AlUer    7.881.88 

Alpes 

(Basste) .     6,988.40 
Alpes 

(Hautes-)      5,648.11 
Alp«s- 

Maritimes 
Ard^che 


8,736.26 
5,556.07 
5,252.59 
4,903.83 
6,026.29 
6,842.27 
8,771.18 


Ardennes 
Ariftge  . . . 
Anbe  .... 
Ande  .... 
Aveyron  . . 
Bouches-du- 

Rh6ne     ...  5,247.95 

OaWadoti     . . .  5,692.61 

Gantal    5,779.38 

Cbarente    . . .  5,971.75 
Charente-In- 

f^rieure    . .  7,281.51 

Cher    7,808.58 

Corrdze     5,887.65 

Corse    8,721.82 

C6te-d'Or    ...  8,786.77 

Odtes-du-Nord  7,217.64 

Greuse    6.606.18 

Dordogne    . .  .  9.224.20 

Donbs     5,260.08 

Drdme    6,561.86 

Enre     6,087.48 

Enre-et-Loir.  5.989.80 

Pinlst^e    ...  7,029.47 

Gard     5.880.65 

Garonne 

(Hante-)..  6.366.99 

Gers    6,290.58 

Gironde    10.726.60 

H6rault    6.224.27 

lUe-et-Yilaine  6.992.84 

Indre   6,906.44 

Indre-et-Loir.  6,158.47 

l8»re     8.286.58 

Jura     6.055.25 

Landes    9.864.04 

Loir-et-Gber.  6,421.86 

Loire    4,799.81 

Loire 

(Hante-)..  6,001.89 
Loire-In- 


fteieure    . 

Loiret     

Lot     

Lot-et- 

Garonne 
Loxdre    . . . , 
Maine-et- 

Loire  . . . 
Mancbe  . . . 
Marne  . . . . 
Marne 

(Hante-) . 
Mayenne 
Menrtbe-et- 

Moselle 
Mense     . . . . 
Morbiban  . . 
Nidrre    .  . . . 

Nord     

Oise 


6,979.97 
6.811.88 
5,226.13 

6.884.76 
5,179.82 

7.218.03 
6,411.68 
8,205.81 

6,256.95 
5,212.28 

6,279.56 
6,240.57 
7.092.49 
6.888.14 
6.778.78 
5,886.78 


Ome     6,144.10 

Pasde-Calais.    6,761.66 

Pny-de-Dftme 

Pyr6n6es 

(Basftte)  . 
PyT6n6es 

(Hautes-) 
Pyr6n6es- 

Orientales.   4.148.60 
Belfort  (Ter- 

rttoire  de) 
Rbdne  .... 
Sa6ne 

(Haute)  . 
Sa6ne-et-Loire   8,627.41 

Sarthe    6,244.79 

SaYoir    6,187.91 

BaTote 

(Haute-)..    4,598.01 

Seine    4,795.00 

Seine-In- 

f6rieure  . .  6.341.99 
Seine-eMfarne  5,981.07 
Seine-ei-Gise..   5,658.94 


8,016.13 
7,712.88 
4.584.49 


6,084.90 
2,869.84 


5.875.24 


669,920 
864,061 
205,769 

268.083 
122.738 

508.149 
476.119 
436,810 

214.765 
297,732 

564,780 
277,966 
678.400 
299.812 

1,961,780 
411,028 
807,433 

1,068,166 
525.916 

448,318 

206.105 


1906 

2). 

845,856 
584.496 
417.961 

58.8 
71.4 
50.0 

834,007 

96.4 

347.140 

59.7 

817.606 

60.7 

205.684 

40.5 

243.670 

89.9 

808.827 

47.4 

877.299 

42.1 

1911 
842.482 
530,226 
406,291 

107,281    113.126   15.8 

105,088    107,498   18.6 


856,338 
881,801 
818.896 
198.725 
240,755 
800,537 
869.448 

805,532 
896,318 
228,861 
846.424 

450,871 
887.810 
809,646 
299,820 
350.044 
605.528 
266.188 
487.432 
299.985 
290.894 
828.651 
272,256 
809,771 
418.868 

482.126 
221,994 
829,095 
480,484 
608,098 
287.678 
841.205 
555,911 
252.718 
288,902 
271,281 
640,549 


803,888    814,770   60.7 


766,918 
403,481 
228,690 
851,788 

463,798 
848.484 
817,480 
291.160 
357,960 
611.506 
274.094 
447.052 
298.438 
297.280 
880,140 
278.828 
796.108 
421,166 

442.065 
231.188 
828.925 
482.779 
611,805 
290,216 
287,916 
562,815 
257,726 
298,897 
276,019 
648,984 


666,748 
864.999 
216,611 

274,610 
128,016 


425.817 
209,397 


101,386 
915,681 

257,606 
604.446 
419,370 
247.890 

256,137 
4,154.042 

877,383 
368.561 
817,617 


95,421 
858,907 


96.7 
58.4 
39.4 

49.8 
28.7 


518.490  70.4 

487,443  74.8 

484.157  58.2 

221,724  84.8 

805.457  67.1 

517,608  107.0 

280,220  44.6 

673,162 

818,972 

1,895,861  839.7 

410,149  69.8 

815,998  50.0 

1.012.466  168.2 

685,419  65.6 


81.5 
48.4 


56.2 
45.5 


212.986    218,171   61.4 


166.6 
822.0 


263,890  47.9 

613,377  70.1 

421,470  67.1 

263,297  40.0 

260,617  65.6 

3,848,618  8664.5 

863,879  188.4 

861,939  61.8 

749,758  144.5 


Sevres 

(Deux-) 
Somme     . . . 

Tarn     

Tarn-et- 

Garonne 

Var    

Yauclnse  . . 
Vendte  . . . 
Yienne  .  . . . 
Yienne 

(Haute-) . 

Yosges    

Yonne    .  . . . 


Sq.km. 

6,054.84 
6,277.12 
5.780.44 

8,730.56 
6,028.89 
8,578.46 
7,016.58 
7,044.14 

6,565.28 
6,908.08 
7,460.64 


2922 


1906 


887,627  889,466 
520,161  582.667 
824,090        880,588 


182,587 
880,756 
238,650 
488.520 
882,276 

884,786 
488,914 
808,889 


188.658 
824,688 
289,178 
442,777 
888,621 

885.782 
429.812 
816.199 


55.8 
82.9 
56.1 

48.9 
54.9 
66.7 
62.5 
47.2 

69.2 
78.6 
40.7 


158.6 
69.6 
88.6 
58.0 

62.8 
46.8 
52.6 
88.1 
89.8 
88.9 
47.5 
47.4 
56.9 
44.8 
58.6 
45.8 
115.2 
70.8 

67.9 
85.8 
77.8 
77.2 
86.9 
41.1 
55.4 
67.6 
50.0 
80.8 
42.2 
188.5 


Totals 53,646.87     89,601,609  39,252,246       78.8 

Some  of  the  principal  cities,  with  their  com- 
munal population  in  1911,  are  as  follows:  Paris, 
2,888,110  (1,063,262  in  1851);  Marseilles,  650,- 
619;  Lyons,  623,796;  Bordeaux,  261,678;  Lille, 
217,807;  Nantes,  170,635;  Toulouse,  149,676; 
Saint-Etienne,  148,656;  Nice,  142,940;  Le  Havre, 
136,159;  Rouen,  124,987;  Roubaix,  122,723; 
Nancy,  119,949;  Reims,  116,178;  Toulon,  104,- 
582;  Amiens,  93,207;  Limoges,  92,181;  Brest, 
90,540;  Angers,  83,786;  Tourcoing,  82,644; 
Nimes,  80,437;  Montpellier,  80,230;  Rennes,  79,- 
372;  Grenoble,  77,438;  Dijon,  76,874;  Tours, 
73,398;  Calais,  73,322;  Orleans,  72,096;  Saint- 
Denis,  71,759;  Le  Mans,  69,361;  Leyallois-Per- 
ret,  68,703;  Clermont-Ferrand,  66,386;  Ver- 
sailles, 60,468;  Besangon,  57,978;  Boulogne-sur- 
Seine,  57,027;  Saint-Quentin,  56,571;  Troyes,  55,- 
486;  Boulogne,  63,128;  B^ziers,  51,042;  Avignon, 
49,304;  Lorient,  49,039;  Caen,  46,934;  Clichy, 
46,676;  Bourges,  45,736;  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  44,- 
616;  Cherbourg,  43,731;  Montreuil,  43,217;  As- 
ni^res,  42,583;  Villeurbanne,  42,526;  Saint-Ouen, 
41,904;  Poitiers,  41,242;  Perpignan,  30,510;  Bel- 
fort,  39,371;  Dunkerque,  38,891;  Vincennes,  38,- 
568;  Ivry,  38,307;  Saint-Nazaire,  38,267;  Angou- 
Iftme,  38,211;  Courbevoie,  38,138;  Aubervilliers, 
37,558;  Pau,  37,149;  Roanne,  36,697;  La  Ro- 
chelle,  36,371;  Pantin,  36,359;  Douai,  36,314; 
Le  Creusot,  35,587;  Rochefort,  36,019. 

Education.  In  1911  the  conscription  list  car- 
ried 301,467  men  of  the  class  of  1910.  Degree 
of  instruction  of  18,093  of  these,  imknown.  Of 
the  other  283,374,  2.79  per  cent  could  neither 
read  nor  write,  1.31  per  cent  could  read  only, 
27.44  per  cent  could  read  and  write,  65.98  per 
cent  had  acquired  a  more  extensive  primary  edu- 
cation, and  2.30  per  cent  were  graduates  of  sec- 
ondary institutions.  In  1913  the  conscription 
list  carried  309,580  men  of  the  class  of  1012,  of 
whom  2.48  per  cent  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
1.37  could  read  onlv,  28.76  could  read  and  write, 
54.76  had  received  other  primary  instruction, 
2.57  were  graduates,  2.17  had  received  degrees, 
and  7.89  remained  unclassified. 

Infant  schools  (1912-13),  3868  (2660  public 
and  1208  private  lay  schools),  with  8410  teach- 
ers and  683,074  pupils.  Primary  schools,  in- 
cluding superior  primary  schools,  81,489,  with 
156,189  teachers,  and  6,508,534  pupils.  State 
expenditure  for  primary  instruction  during  the 
year  1912,  225,477,137  francs. 

Secondary  public  schools  (1912-13):  343 
lyc^es  and  colleges  for  boys  (100,203  students), 
and  139  for  girls  (33,282) ;  55  secondary  courses 
for  girls  (5076  pupils).  Students  in  universi- 
ties, Jan.  15,  1914,  42,037. 

Agricultubb.  Of  the  productive  area  (1909), 
23,615,220  hectares  were  under  crops  (including 
sown  meadows),  4,837,610  under  natural  mead- 
ows, 1,577,220  under  forage  plants,  3,627,330  nn- 


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der  pasture,  1,686,942  under  vines,  1,220,160  un- 
der industrial  plants,  truck  gardens,  etc.,  9,329,- 
193  under  woods  and  forests;  3,843,520  hectares 
were  fallow  or  uncultivated;  3,218,579  not  in- 
cluded in  any  of  the  foregoing.  As  calculated  in 
1912:  23,747,220  hectares  cropped,  4,898,510 
meadows,  1,572,440  forage  plants,  3,613,290  pas- 
ture, 1,624,213  vines,  251,560  industrial  plants, 
etc.,  1,098,450  various  and  uncultivated,  2,615,- 
705  not  included  in  foregoing — a  total  of  52,- 
952,579  hectares. 

A  table  of  cereal  crops  follows — ^year  1912, 
area  sown  in  hectares,  yield  by  measure  in  hecto- 
litres and  by  weight  in  metric  quintals,  and 
value  in  thousands  of  francs: 


Ha. 

HetU. 

Q». 

1000  fr. 

Wheat    . 

..6.571.580 

118.505,800 

90,991.500 

2,523,289 

Maslin   .. 

.     128,750 

2.120,260 

1,534,620 

87,101 

Rye    .... 

.1,201,680 

17,228,900 

12,882,200 

280,010 

Barl«7     . 

.     750,680 

17,295,400 

44.014,200 

216,499 

BnckVt 

.     461,280 

7.888,820 

5.006,940 

112,859 

Oats     . . . 

.2,081.980 

110,581,900 

51,451,600 

1,091.970 

Corn    . . . 

.    476,480 

8,222,070 

6,028,680 

144,749 

Millet    .. 

21,170 

227,786 

154,566 

010  (3,041,054);  fat  stock  over  six  months,  2,- 
808,230  (1,632,252),  sows,  960,000  (785,989). 

Mining  and  Metals.  In  1912  there  were 
1459  conceded  mines,  covering  an  area  of  1,166,- 
353  hectares,  of  which  496,  covering  an  area  of 
596,262  hectares,  were  in  operation.  In  these 
mines  236,966  persons  were  employed — 168,358 
underground,  68,608  at  the  surface.  Total  esti- 
mated number  of  work  days,  67,991,633 ;  total  es- 
timated wages,  358,001,473  francs.  Total  output, 
62,284,573  tons,  valued  at  775,403,262  francs  at 
the  pit's  mouth.  The  quarries  employed  134,087 
work  people;  output,  53,279,845  tons,  valued  at 
293,623,038  francs.  In  the  table  below  are  shown 
some  of  the  principal  mining  products,  with 
their  value  in  francs,  for  comparative  years: 


The  following  table  gives  provisional  figures 
for  1914-15,  and  final  figures  for  1913-14  for 
area  under  main  crops  in  hectares,  total  yield  in 
quintals,  and  quintals  yielded  per  hectare  in 
1913-14.  These  figures  are  exclusive  of  terri- 
tory invaded  by  the  enemy. 


Ton» 

Franet 

1911 

1919 

1911 

1919 

Coal   ... 

88,520,827  40,894,177  589,219.277  681.427,608 

Lignite  . 

708,764 

751,001 

7.229,789 

8.001,688 

Iron*    .. 

16,680,426  18,428,752 

77,462,085 

89,887,276 

Peat    ... 

58.521 

42,714 

785,674 

512.716 

Bait     ... 

1,889,303 

1.098,516 

18,826,599 

15,850,245 

Gold*    .. 

148,514 

165,880 

7,588,080 

9,574.000 

Zinc  ore. 
Iron 
pyrites 

^faf  . 

48,761 

45,929 

5.159.005 

5.148.000 

277,942 

282,002 

4,696.685 

4.766.000 

14,098 

18,958 

2,612,959 

8,790.000 

Antimony 

'        29,267 

11.018 

1,596,668 

599,000 

Asphalt 

85.568 

81,535 

566,688 

491,869 

Manganese       6,086 

5,576 

169,564 

178.000 

•Ore. 

HecUtr4S 

1914-15  191814 

Wheat 5,691.771  6.188,060 

Rye   1,029,565  1,080,870 

Barley     692,758  740,961 

Oats     8.419,955  8,681,869 

Corn    810,118  461.920 

PoUtoes    1.802,561  1.479,690 

Sn^ar  beets    84,818  195,488 

Vines* 1,637,218  1,658,599 

*  Production  in  hectolitres  of  wine. 


Quintals  Qs, 

1914-15                   1918-14  Ka, 

64,720,200              78,708,210  12.8 

9,928,200              11,888,260  10.5 

7,862.750               10,044,980  18.6 

87,462,200              46,654,720  12.7 

!;'.*.;!".!  146,000,666  !!! 

!!!!!!!!          69,981,492  ! ! ! 


In  the  invaded  area  were  275,000  hectares  un- 
der wheat  in  1915,  24,000  under  rye,  19,700  imder 
barley,  243,000  under  oats,  4238  under  vines 
(1914). 

In  1912,  33,133  hectograms  of  silk-worm  eggs 
were  placed  to  be  hatched,  against  35,431  hecto- 
grams in  1911.  The  cocoons  obtained  amounted 
to  6,233,942  kilograms,  against  5,109,426  in  1911. 
Average  yield  of  cocoons  per  hectogram  of  eggs, 
188.1  kilograms  (144.2  in  1911).  Live  stock 
statistics  follow  (Dec.  31,  1910  and  1913;  July 
1,  1915). 

1910  1918  1915 

Horses     8.197,720  3,230,700  2,227,209 

Mnles     192,740  192,570  152.266 

Donkeys    360.710  360,390  887,244 

Cattle    14,582,080  14,807,880  12,286.849 

Sheep    17.110.760  16.213.030  18.488,189 

Ooats     1,417,710  1,453.230  469,487 

Swine    6,900.280  7,047.750  6,490.796 

Of  the  horses  enumerated  Dec.  31,  1913,  2,558,- 
170  were  over  and  672,530  were  under  three 
years  (July  1,  1915,  1,562,742  and  664,467);  of 
the  cattle,  7,807,560  were  cows  (6,346,496),  1,- 
845,620  oxen  (1,262,315),  284,490  bulls  (211,- 
343),  2,855,780  young  stock  (2,581,870),  and  2,- 
013,930  calves  (1,884,825).  Of  the  sheep,  9,- 
334,840  were  ewes  over  one  year  (8,033,886), 
2,589,000  sheep  over  one  year  '^(1,572,236),  295,- 
410  rams  (239,832),  3,993,780  lambs  (3,637,- 
235) ;  pigs  under  six  months  nimibered  3,294,- 


Employed  in  metal  works  in  1912  were  5870 
workpeople;  output,  4,939,194  tons.  Smelting 
works,  13,312  workpeople;  524,907  tons.  Steel 
works,  72,653  workpeople;  3,250,278  tons. 

Fisheries.  There  were  in  1911,  137,057  per- 
sons engaged  in  the  various  fisheries,  with  28,- 
885  vessels  of  247,634  aggregate  tons. 

In  1910  there  were  128,869  fishermen,  with 
28,288  sail  boats  of  206,129  aggregate  tons,  and 
454  steamers  of  38,000  tons;  value  of  sail  boats, 
51,933,057  francs;  of  steamers,  23,945,330;  value 
of  the  engines,  25,309,360.  Total  value  of  all 
fisheries  products  for  the  year  1910,  140,288,211 
francs.  The  total  value  of  the  products  was 
139,568,367  francs,  of  which  the  Newfoundland 
cod  fisheries  contributed  19,015,063  francs,  the 
herring  fisheries  13,243,466,  and  the  sardine  fish- 
eries 11,311,615. 

Commerce.  Imports  for  four  years  are  given 
below  by  great  classes  (special  trade),  values  in 
thousands  of  francs  (A — foodstuffs,  B---raw  ma- 
terials, C — manufactured  articles) : 


Imports:      1910 

1,413.031 

\     4,345,671 

I     1,414,680 


1911 
1,989,832 
4,638,979 
1,531,856 


1919 
1,808.400 
4,813,200 
1,614,200 


1918 
1,916,500 
4.041.600 
1,650.300 


Total   .    7.173,382     8,160,667     8,230,800     8,508,400 

Exports  appear  in  the  following  table,  by  great 
classes  as  above,  with  the  addition  of  D  (by  par- 
cel post),  values  in  thousands  of  francs: 


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Exports:       1910  1911  1918              1919 

A  858,199  725,240  840.800    888,200 

B     1,030,847  1,919,170  1,944.900     1,882.700 

O     2.960,951  3.089,761  3,917,900     4.159.500 

D     488,808  487,906      

Total   .    6.238,805     6,172,077     6.712,600     6.875,400 

The  figures  for  the  1913  special  trade  are  sub- 
ject to  slight  revision.  The  general  commerce 
for  1912  shows  imports  valued  at  10,293,600,000 
francs,  exports  valued  at  8,823,000,000  francs. 
An  English  source  gives  the  1914  trade  as  fol- 
lows: £253,960,000  imports  and  £179,120,000  ex- 
ports (exclusive  of  £13,880,000  by  parcel  post). 

The  table  below  shows  important  articles  in 
the  special  trade  for  successive  years,  values  in 
millions  of  francs: 


Imports:  1906    1909    1910  1912 

Wool    588.1  634.4  658.9  684.6 

Cotton     358.9  494.7  469.8  567.1 

Coal,   etc 861.2  442.1  400.7  501.4 

Raw    silk    845.2  881.5  346.8  567.1 

Rubber    120.3  208.8  820.1  218.7 

Cereals    221.8   152.0  301.8  366.8 

Wines    102.5  128.8  206.5  321.0 

Machinery     148.4  216.2  247.5  301.6 

Skins,   etc 199.6  199.8  206.9  222.8 

Timber    172.6   188.2  165.0  177.2 

Copper    164.7   122.6  180.6  197.1 

Coffee    101.8   112.8  126.4  216.9 

Flax     87.4     81.2     82.4  114.7 

Oil  seeds 281.2  292.1  879.7  17.0 

Petroleum     144.0 

Chem.    products.  138.6     

Exports:  1906    1909    1910  1918 

Raw  wool 278.0  337.7  341.4  865.5 

Silk     807.8  816.9  332.8  292.8 

Cottons    306.7  882.0  828.2  384.7 

Wines    196.0  214.4  248.3  228.8 

Woolens    224.0  212.1  212.5  190.7 

Raw    silk 172.8   164.0  188.6  147.7 

A.    de   P.*    184.0   178.8   172.7  184.6 

Automobiles    ...  187.9  146.6  161.9  207.1 

Skins     153.1   141.5   138.7  821.2 

Metals    114.8     99.1  102.4  118.8 

*  Articles  de  Paris. 


Countries  of  origin   and  destination,   special 
commerce,  values  in  thousands  of  francs: 

Imports 

1910          1911          1918  1914 

U.    K 930,344  1,020,827  1,113.100  870.000 

Germany    860.477     065,086  1,068,800  593.900 

U.   S 614,128     888.188     894.700  787,600 

Belgium    469.749     538,001     556,200  816.400 

Algeria     446,643     457,540     830,800  812,800 

Russia    337,825     412,641     458,100  811.200 

Argentina     802,914     864,875     369.200  217.100 

Spain 195,271     227.745     281,500  195.800 

Italy     188,913     187,877     240,500  173,900 

Braiil     167,166     155,061      174,200  160,500 

Switzerland    ...     188,912     142,158      135,200  101.900 

Turkey     96,117     100,177       93,600  77,300 

Aus.-Hun 88,614       86,180     103,400  60,900 

Other 

Total     7,178,832  8,160,667  8.421,800  6.849.200 

Exports 

1910          1911          1913  1914 

U.    K 1.275.138  1,246,980  1,458,800  1,153,700 

Germany    804,018     819,061     866.700     498.500 

U.  S 456,089     869,695     422,600  375.700 

Belgium     1.008,650  1,002,503  1,108,400  603,900 

Russia    87.584        55,461        88,200  60,900 

Argentina     162,848      171,917     199,900  93,300 

Spain    140,655     137,610     151,200  111,400 

Italy     344,194     288,274     305,700  213,500 

Brazil     68,818        78.832        86,800  89,100 

Switzerland    . . .     385,518     402,949     406,100  299,600 

Turkey     72,927       82,156       88,200  72,500 

Aus.Hun 45,961       46,208       43,800  82,000 

Algeria     438,980     484,628     552,500  487,800 

Other    

ToUl     6.288,805  6,172,077  6,880.200  4.824,500 


2915 

1914 

698.8 

526.1 

541.2 

856.8 

575.2 

441.6 

541.2 

258.0 

199.6 

81.4 

613.4 

564.5 

275.6 

240.7 

828.7 

218.6 

288.5 

177.6 

186.9 

117.4 

207.0 

150.6 

224.8 

208.2 

122.9 

76.5 

10.5 

849.6 

144.9 

125.6 

188.6 

106.5 

1913 

1914 

204.2 

248.2 

874.2 

818.9 

867.4 

276.9 

200.3 

182.6 

211.3 

158.1 

161.7 

146.9 

190.8 

180.8 

217.5 

180.8 

315.7 

117.1 

125.0 

84.6 

By  presidential  decree  dated  July  31,  1014, 
the  export  of  all  kinds  of  food  flour  has  been 
prohibited  from  the  day  when  the  decree  was 
communicated  to  the  prefects.  By  presidential 
decree  dated  October  18th,  the  export  of  cotton 
and  cotton  waste  has  been  prohibited  from  Oc- 
tober 19th.  Exceptions  to  these  orders  may, 
however,  be  granted. 

By  an  order  of  Aug.  22,  1915,  raw  cotton  was 
declared  contraband  of  war. 

Shipping.  The  number  of  ships,  French  and 
foreign,  with  their  aggregate  tonnage,  entered 
and  cleared,  exclusive  of  coasting,  during  the 
years  1911  and  1912  are  given  herewith. 

1911  1918 

No.  Tons  No.  Ton* 

Entered : 

French    7,690     7,138,790     8,098     7,581.874 

Foreign     20,493  22,728.220  21.798  23.721,488 

Total 28,183  29.867,010  29,886  81,802,807 

Cleared : 

French     6,946     6,623,511     8,288     7,768,518 

Foreign     18,860  15,981.885  21.766  28.709,449 

Total    20,806  22,555,846  30.004   81.472,968 

Merchant  marine,  Jan.  1,  1913:  15,813  sailing 
vessels,  of  614,024  tons;  1857  steamers,  of  904,- 
494— total,  17,670  vessels,  of  1,518,618  tons. 

CoMBfUNiCATiONS.  There  were  reported  in  op- 
eration Dec.  31,  1013,  40,786  kilometers  of  main 
railway  lines,  and  10,645  of  local  lines.  At  the 
end  of  1910  there  were  in  operation  40,484  kilo- 
meters of  main  railway  lines,  234  of  industrial 
lines,  and  8956  of  local  lines;  making  a  total  of 
49,628  kilometers,  besides  8687  kilometers  of 
tramways.  The  main  lines  had  a  personnel  of 
339,032,  and  rolling  stock  including  12,840  loco- 
motives and  379,181  cars.  Receipts  from  main 
lines  (1910),  1,829,942,000  francs;  expenditure, 
1,098,802,000;  net  profit,  731,140,000;  net  kilo- 
metric  profit,  18,060.  liength  of  main  lines  in 
operation  in  1911,  40,635  kilometers;  in  1912, 
40,854.  Length  of  local  lines  in  operation  in 
1911,  9321;  in  1912,  9925. 

During  1916  the  railways  of  France,  except  in 
the  territory  actually  the  scene  of  military  oper- 
ations, were  restored  somewhat  to  their  normal 
conditions.  The  railway  systems,  both  state  and 
private,  passed  through  the  trials  of  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  war  with  considerable  credit,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  the  military  organiza- 
tion of  the  French  lines  was  in  no  way  com- 
parable to  that  of  Germany.  The  French  rail- 
roads performed  a  wonderful  service,  and  were 
essential  elements  of  the  successful  retreat  and 
operations  attending  the  battle  of  the  Marne  in 
1914.  Reports  of  their  activity  in  the  first 
months  of  the  war,  published  in  1916,  revealed 
the  fact  that  from  Aug.  1  to  Aug.  20,  1914,  no 
less  than  1,800,000  men  were  taken  to  the  front, 
and  each  of  tliese  soldiers  was  handled  three 
times,  so  that  in  reality  6,400,000  troops  were 
delivered  at  various  points  along  the  battle  line. 
In  addition,  it  was  estimated  that  some  6,000,000 
of  the  civilian  population  were  also  traveling, 
and  that  two  armies  were  being  hurried  into  Al- 
sace and  Lorraine.  After  the  first  two  weeks  of 
the  war,  except  in  the  actual  zones  of  fighting, 
the  regular  schedules  for  regular  passengers  and 
commercial  freight  practically  were  resumed, 
and  were  carried  on  in  addition  to  the  movement 
of  large  numbers  of  troops  and  war  material,  on 


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a  battle  front  584  miles  long  from  the  English 
Channel  to  the  Swiss  frontier.  When  it  is  re- 
called that  the  rolling  stock  was  constantly  de- 
creasing, as  well  as  the  coal  supply,  and  a 
smaller  number  of  railroad  men  were  avail- 
able, the  importance  of  the  work  may  be  appre- 
ciated. 

France  contains  six  large  railway  systems — 
two  controlled  by  the  stat^  and  four  by  private 
corporations — the  latter  comprising  30,000  of  the 
36,000  miles  of  single  track,  and  it  was  by  these 
private  companies  that  much  of  the  work  was 
done  during  the  war.  In  addition  to  the  mobil- 
izing of  the  troops  in  the  early  part  of  the  war, 
there  was  the  transport  of  tourists,  and  on 
Aug.  1,  1914,  the  time  tables  on  every  one  of  the 
six  systems  of  France  were  changed  to  a  new 
schedule.  One  of  the  most  notable  incidents  of 
the  war  was  the  transportation  of  70,000  Indian 
troops  from  Marseilles  in  three  days,  from  the 
south  of  France  to  the  vicinity  of  Orleans, 
whence  they  proceeded  to  support  the  English  at 
Nieuport-Dixmont.  The  French  railways  at  first 
suffered  from  the  effects  of  mobilization  as  in 
some  cases  employees  were  withdrawn,  but  grad- 
ually this  trouble  became  adjusted,  and  in  many 
instances  the  wives  of  railroad  men  called  to  the 
colors  took  their  husbands'  places. 

The  Eastern  Railroad  (chemin  de  fer  de  TEst), 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  Northern  Rail- 
road (chemin  de  fer  du  Nord),  suffered  more 
physical  and  financial  disaster  than  any  other  of 
the  French  roads,  because  of  the  Qerman  lines. 
At  least  half  of  the  500-mile  line  of  trenches 
banning  at  Laon  was  in  the  territory  adjacent 
to  the  tracks  of  the  Eastern  Railroad,  which  was 
in  consequence  seriously  crippled.  On  that  half 
of  its  system  which  brought  in  the  greatest  reve- 
nue, it  could  do  no  business  at  all,  and  it  was 
thought  it  would  be  many  months  after  the  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  before  it  could  rebuild  its 
burned  stations,  restore  dynamited  bridges,  re- 
pair its  roadbed,  etc. 

Likewise  the  Northern  Railway  (chemin  de 
fer  du  Nord)  suffered  severely,  as  much  of  its 
territory  was  in  the  enemy's  hands.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  September,  1914,  only  414  miles,  or  18 
per  cent  of  the  total  network  of  2324  miles,  was 
actually  being  operated  by  the  company.  At  the 
end  of  1915,  the  company  was  operating  a  total 
length  of  about  1200  miles,  or  51.5  per  cent  of 
the  entire  system.  Of  the  768  stations  on  the 
system,  346 'were  either  occupied  by  the  enemy 
or  clo»sd  to  traffic.  Not  all  the  remaining  412 
stations  were  open  to  the  public,  a  certain  num- 
ber being  exclusively  reserved  for  military  uses. 
For  over  a  year  the  Nord  was  deprived  of  the 
use  of  most  of  its  main  lines,  and  the  only  dou- 
ble-track main  line  available  at  the  end  of  1915 
was  that  from  Paris  to  Creil,  Amiens,  Boulogne, 
Calais,  and  Hazebrouck. 

In  1912  there  were  190,111  kilometers  of  tele- 
graph lines,  and  710,557  of  wires;  state  tele- 
graph stations,  18,707;  railway  and  private  sta- 
tions, 3677.  There  were  51,750  kilometers  of 
urban  telephone  lines,  with  1,135,953  of  wires; 
and  108,447  kilometers  of  interurban  lines,  with 
571,405  of  wires.  Post  offices,  14,634.  Postal 
receipts  for  the  year  1912,  390,942,960  francs; 
expenditure  (posts  and  telegraphs),  353,028,874 
francs.  Telegraphic  receipts  (including  wire- 
less), 49,347,920  francs.  Telephone  receipts,  56,- 
649,228  francs. 

Finance.    The  monetary  unit  is  the  franc,  par 


value  19.295  cents.  The  1912  budget,  as  voted, 
estimated  the  revenue  for  the  year  at  4,495,849,- 
566  francs  (including  revenue  returnable  from 
Algeria,  2,480,900  francs) ;  the  expenditure  at 
4,497,963,139  francs.  Sources  of  revenue:  3,- 
136,996,425  from  taxes;  953,225,785  from  monop- 
olies and  state  industrial  enterprises;  68,218,- 
850  from  state  domains;  69,441,485  from  divers 
sources  (indemnities,  repayments,  annuities, 
sales,  prison  labor,  etc.);  153,000,000  from  spe- 
cial sources;  114,967,021  recettes  d*ordre  (from 
colonial  railways,  fines,  fees,  etc.) ;  2,480,900 
from  Algeria.  Expenditure:  1,286,084,002  for 
the  public  debt,  19,972,948  for  public  services, 
2,539,705,705  for  the  ministries,  605,873,584  for 
costs  of  administration  and  collection  of  taxes, 
46,326,900  for  reimbursement,  restitution,  etc. 

Actual  revenue  and  expenditure  are  given  be- 
low in  francs  for  three  years: 

1910  1011  1919 

Rerenne  ...4.278,800,780  4,680,045,845  4,857,401,108 
Expend.    ...4.821.018.600  4,547,015,741  4,742,756.004 

The  details  of  the  budget  for  1914  are  given 
below  in  thousands  of  francs: 


Revenue 

1914 

Revenue 

1914 

Direct  Uxes  . . . 
Other   direct    .. 
Indirect    

.     607,485 

68.087 

.2.040,050 

Monopolies    .... 
Sundries     

Total     

.1.004.858 
.     758,085 

.5.878,517 

Expenditure 

Public   debt 

GoTcrnment    . . . 

Finance    

Justice    

Foreign    affairs. 

Interior    

War    

.1.818.824 

10.850 

.     870.880 

61.522 

20.048 

.     177,421 

.1.486.401 

.     480.124 

).      06.032 

BxpejidUure 
Instruction     . . . 

Fine  arts 

Commerce,    etc. . 

Labor,  etc 

Posts    and   Tels. 

Colonies    

Agriculture    . . . 
Public   works. . . 

ToUl     .... 

.     848,882 
.       21,816 
.       16,470 
.     112.122 
.     857,786 
.     110.018 
57.000 
.     352.822 

.5.878.820 

Marine    

Merchant  marin< 

The  special-services  budget  balanced  at  816,- 
329,331  francs  for  1913.  The  total  general  debt, 
Jan.  1,  1913,  stood  at  31,449,083,037;  floating 
debt,  Oct.  1,  1913,  1,432,412,800;  grand  toUl, 
32,881,496,837. 

Army.    See  Militabt  Pboobess,  passim. 

Navy.  On  Dec.  1,  1912,  the  number  and  dis- 
placement of  warships,  built  and  building,  of 
1500  or  more  tons,  and  of  torpedo  craft  of  more 
than  50  tons,  were  as  follows:  7  battleships 
(dreadnought  type),  having  a  main  battery  of 
all  big  guns  (11  inches  or  over  in  calibre),  of 
161,644  aggregate  tons — all  building;  20  battle- 
ships ( predreadnought  type),  with  main  bat- 
teries of  more  than  one  calibre,  of  286,005  tons 
— built;  2  coast-defense  vessels  (smaller  battle- 
ships and  monitors),  of  15,400  tons — built;  10 
cruisers  (designed  for  speed  at  some  expense  of 
armament  and  armor  protection),  of  49,978 — 
built;  75  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  of  29,816  tons 
— ^built,  and  9,  of  6860  tons — building;  157  tor- 
pedo boats,  of  15,370  tons — built;  76  submarines, 
of  27,803  tons— built,  and  13,  of  7456 — ^building. 
Total  vessels  built,  361,  of  630,769  tons;  build- 
ing, 29,  of  175,960  tons— in  all,  390  vessels  of 
806,729  tons.  Excluded  from  the  foregoing  are 
ships  over  20  years  old,  unless  reconstructed  and 
rearmed  within  5  years;  torpedo  craft  over  15 
years  old;  transports,  colliers,  repair  ships,  tor- 
pedo depot  ships,  or  other  auxiliaries.  Person- 
nel, 60,188  officers  and  men. 

Number    and   displacement    (built),    July    1, 


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1914:  4  battleships  (dreft^nought  type),  of  92,- 
368  tons  (and  8,  of  193,666  tons  estimated, 
building) ;  18  battleships  (predreadnought 
type),  of  262,676  tons;  1  coast-defense  vessel  of 
8800  tons;  20  armored  cruisers,  of  201,724  tons; 
9  cruisers  (unarmored  warships  of  more  than 
1600  tons),  of  46,095  tons;  84  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, of  36,812  tons  (and  3  of  2563  tons, 
building) ;  135  torpedo  boats,  of  13,426;  and  64 
submarines,  of  27,940  tons  (and  22,  of  14,766 
tons,  building).  Total  number  of  vessels  built, 
336,  of  688,840  aggregate  tons;  building,  33,  of 
211,076  tons — a  total  of  vessels  built  and  build- 
ing, 368,  of  899,916  tons.  The  total  strength 
of  the  personnel,  including  reserves,  was  aMut 
180,000,  one- third  being  active-service  ratings. 
The  general  efiSciency  increased  noticeably  from 
1904  to  1914.  The  main  squadrons  were  concen- 
trated in  the  Mediterranean  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Bou6  de  Lapeyrftre.  The  armored- 
cruiser  fleet  included  the  Edgar  Quinet  and  the 
Waldeck  Rouaaeau,  completed  in  1911,  and  hav- 
ing a  displacement  of  13,900  tons,  and  an  arma- 
ment of  14  7.6-inch  guns.  The  submarine  serv- 
ice is  highly  efficient,  the  vessels  composing  it 
being  remarkable  for  their  heavy  armament. 
Air  craft,  April  7,  1913,  included  13  military 
dirigibles  on  hand  and  7  ordered;  and  460  mili- 
tary aeroplanes  on  hand,  including  monoplanes, 
biplanes,  and  hydroaeroplanes. 

A  bill  passed  Feb.  13,  1912,  by  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  provided  for  a  home  fleet  to  consist  of 
28  battleships  divided  into  4  squadrons  each  and 
4  vessels  in  reserve;  in  addition,  each  squadron 
to  include  2  second  cruisers  and  12  destroyers, 
with  2  cruisers  and  4  destroyers  in  reserve.  The 
fleet  for  foreign  service  was  to  contain  10  prin- 
cipal vessels  with  the  necessary  auxiliaries. 
There  were  to  be  94  vessels,  together  with  mine- 
layers and  mine-raisers,  in  the  submarine  flo- 
tilla. To  complete  this  programme  by  the  time 
fixed  (Jan.  1,  1919),  16  new  battleships  were 
to  be  constructed  at  the  rate  of  two  a  year 
(1910-17).  Dreadnoughts  laid  down  in  1913 
were  the  Flandrea,  Gaacogne,  Languedoc,  Nor- 
mandie,  and  B^am  (the  latter  1914).  These 
ships  are  to  displace  26,800  tons  and  be  armed 
with  12  13.4-inch  and  24  6.5-inch  guns.  The 
three  battleships  launched  in  1913  are  the  Lor- 
raine, Bretagne,  and  Provence,  having  a  displace- 
ment of  23,177  tons  and  armed  with  10  13.4-inch 
and  22  6.6-inch  guns.  The  Jean  Bart  and  the 
Courbet  were  completed  in  1913,  having  a  dis- 
placement of  23,096  tons,  and  being  armed  with 
12  12-inch  and  22  6.6-inch  guns.  The  Paria  and 
the  France  were  completed  in  1914.  The  Vendue 
was  to  have  been  laid  down  early  in  1916.  See 
also  Naval  Pboobess. 

Government.  Under  the  present  constitution, 
the  President  is  the  executive,  assisted  by  a  cabi- 
net responsible  to  the  Chamber.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Parliament,  or  National  As- 
sembly, composed  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  The  President  elected  by  the  National 
Assembly  by  an  absolute  majority  of  votes  for 
seven  years,  chooses  his  own  cabinet,  ordinarily, 
but  not  of  necessity,  selected  from  among  the 
members  of  the  two  chambers.  The  Senate  Is 
made  up  of  300  members  aged  not  less  than  40 
years,  and  elected  by  delegates  for  nine  years; 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  made  up  of  members 
elected  by  direct  popular  vote  for  four  years,  1 
to  every  70,000  inhabitants.  The  president  from 
1906  to  1913  was  Clement- Armand  Falliftres;  he 


was  succeeded  Jan.  7,  1913,  by  Raymond  Poin- 
car6,  born  1868. 

HiSTOBT 

Opening  of  the  Pabliamentabt  Session. 
After  five  terrible  months  of  the  war,  the  French 
people  and  the  French  government  showed  no 
sign  of  weakening  in  their  steadfast  determina- 
tion to  fight  on  until  the  German  invader  had 
been  expelled  and  the  lost  Provinces  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  regained.  Although  events  had  proved 
that  the  war  would  be  long  and  victory  costly, 
the  same  grim  "will  to  conquer"  which  had  beoi 
expressed  in  August,  1914,  prevailed  in  France 
at  the  beginning  of  the  new  year.  President 
Poincar6,  in  a  New  Year's  address,  confidently 
affirmed  that  France  would  never  rest  until  vic- 
tory was  won;  he  even  ventured  to  predict  that 
the  war  would  be  pressed  to  a  successful  conclu- 
sion before  the  close  of  the  year  1916.  The  es- 
tablishment of  civil  government,  Jan.  1,  1916,  in 
the  portion  of  Upper  Alsace  occupied  by  the 
French  was  another  manifestation  of  the  same 
spirit  of  optimism.  When  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties and  the  Senate  assembled  for  the  leffLslative 
session  of  1916,  new  proof  was  afforded  of  the 
patriotic  unanimity  of  the  nation's  representa- 
tives. The  Socialists,  who  had  hitherto  made  it 
a  practice  to  nominate  a  separate  list  of  candi- 
dates for  the  presiding  officers  of  the  Chamber, 
decided  in  January,  1916,  to  abandon  their  cus- 
tom and  to  unite  with  tiie  other  groups  in  re- 
electing, by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  M.  Paul 
Deschanel  as  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. M.  Antonin  Dubost  was  reelected  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Senate.  In  their  inaugural  ad- 
dresses, both  presiding  officers  praised  the  union 
aaorie,  the  willingness  of  all  parties  to  forget 
their  political  antagonisms  and  to  work  for  the 
triumph  of  France.  The  tasks  incumbent  upon 
the  National  Legislature  in  war-time  were  ad- 
mirably summed  up  by  M.  Deschanel.  The 
Chambers,  he  said,  must  strive  "to  aid  those  who 
are  at  the  front  as  well  as  the  families  left  be- 
hind; to  repair  damage  done  by  the  invader;  to 
collaborate,  according  to  the  measure  of  their  au- 
thority, in  the  work  of  defense;  and  to  join  with 
the  nation  and  the  government  in  attempting  to 
achieve  the  expulsion  of  the  enemy,  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  heroic  country  (Belgium)  which  by 
an  act  unique  in  history  sacrificed  itself  to  honor, 
and  the  restitution  of  those  provinces  which 
force  has  wrenched  from  us.  At  the  same  time, 
we  must,  during  the  war,  prepare  for  the  works 
of  peace;  beginning  to-day  we  must  establish  the 
elements  of  to-morrow's  economic  regime-— cus- 
toms, transports,  mines,  credit,  industry — ^and  of 
national  reconstitution ;  we  must  lay  the  basis 
for  the  new  France,  more  fraternal  and  more 
prosperous  than  before." 

Financial  Questions.  Old  political  contro- 
versies being  for  the  time  forgotten,  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  during  the  spring  concerned  it- 
self chiefly  with  special  measures  for  the  relief 
of  suffering  caused  by  the  war,  for  the  regulation 
of  industry,  and  the  conservation  of  the  nation's 
economic  resources  during  war-time,  and  for  the 
provision  of  funds  for  the  energetic  prosecution 
of  the  war.  French  industry  had  been  crippled 
by  the  German  occupation  of  very  important  in- 
dustrial areas;  business  was  conducted  under 
abnormal  conditions,  as  the  moratorium  had  been 
prolonged;  nevertheless  France  had  not  only  to 
defray  her  own  enormous  expenses  in  the  war. 


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THEOPHILE  DELCASSE 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  1914-October  13,  1915 


ARISTIDE  BRIAND 
*»r»mi»r  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affaire  fronts  October  ap,  191 5 


GENERAL  GALLIENI 
MInlttar  of  War 


FOUR  FRENCH  STATESMEN 


REN^  VIVIANI 
Premier  until  October  28.  1915,  thereafter  Minist«rST>Ju8tice  T 


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but  also  to  make  joint  loans  with  Great  Britain 
to  Serbia,  Belgium,  Greece,  and  Montenegro. 
The  expenditures  during  the  first  months  of 
1915,  according  to  a  statement  made  by  M.  Alex- 
andre Ribot  (minister  of  finance)  on  March  18th, 
amounted  to  almost  1,300,000,000  francs  a 
month.  The  Bank  of  France  had  been  called 
upon  in  1914  to  furnish  3,600,000,000  francs,  and 
in  1915,  thus  far,  1,000,000,000.  The  amount 
raised  by  public  subscriptions  in  1914  was  only 
1,200,000,000;  in  less  than  three  months  in  1915, 
a  sum  more  than  twice  as  great  had  been  raised. 
Altogether  the  national  defense  bonds  had  pro- 
duced 3,862,000,000  francs  up  to  March  12. 

Mjnimttm  Wage  fob  the  Sweated  Trades. 
The  miserable  conditions  usually  prevalent  in 
the  sweated  trades  were  aggravated  by  the 
war,  since  many  poor  women,  whose  husbands 
had  been  sent  to  the  front,  found  it  necessary  to 
earn  their  own  livelihood  and  swelled  the  number 
of  underpaid  workers  in  the  clothing  trades.  To 
remedy  tiiis  evil,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  passed 
a  bill  modifying  the  Labor  Code  and  establishing 
the  principle  of  a  minimum  wage  for  certain 
categories  of  women  workers.  According  to  the 
statement  of  M.  Jean  Morel,  who  made  a  re- 
markable report  on  the  bill  in  the  Senate,  the 
minimum  wage  regulation  would  affect  about  a 
million  women  wage-earners,  many  of  whom  had 
been  receiving  less  than  20  centimes  an  hour  for 
their  labor. 

The  Desglaux  Graft  Case.  In  March  a  pro- 
found sensation  was  created  by  the  Desclaux  triaL 
Instances  of  dishonesty  on  the  part  of  officials 
and  contractors  in  connection  with  the  provision 
of  supplies  for  the  army  were  probably  no  more 
numerous  in  France  than  in  other  countries,  but 
in  France  such  cases  aroused  public  indignation 
to  a  greater  degree,  because  among  the  swindlers 
who  defrauded  the  government  were  men  who 
had  recently  held  important  administrative  posi- 
tions under  the  Radical-Socialist  government. 
The  most  conspicuous  offender  was  a  former  pay- 
master-general of  the  French  army,  Fran<:ois 
Desclaux,  who  had  been  identified  with  the  Radi- 
cal-Socialist faction  and  had  been  chief  secretary 
to  M.  Joseph  Caillaux  during  the  latter's  term 
of  office  as  finance  minister,  in  1914  (see  Year 
Book  for  1914,  France,  Murder  of  M.  Calmette, 
p.  269).  In  January,  1916,  M.  Desclaux  was  ar- 
rested on  the  charge  of  stealing  army  supplies. 
liime.  Bechoff,  a  prominent  Parisian  dressmaker, 
was  implicated  in  the  case,  and  quantities  of  the 
stolen  goods— coffee,  tents,  shells,  and  helmets — 
were  found  in  her  home.  Two  months  later, 
M.  Desclaux  and  Mme.  Bechoff  were  convicted 
after  trial  by  court-martial,  M.  Desclaux  re- 
ceiving a  sentence  of  seven  years'  solitary  con- 
finement; Mme.  Bechoff,  two  years'  imprison- 
ment; and  a  soldier-accomplice,  M.  Verges,  one 
year.  Desclaux  appealed  from  the  decision  of 
the  court-martial,  but  was  unable  to  secure  an 
acquittal,  and  was  degraded  from  his  military 
rank,  August  2nd.  The  Desclaux  case  was  by 
no  means  an  isolated  incident.  In  December  the 
fact  was  revealed  that  M.  Thierry,  under-secre- 
tary  of  war,  had  been  a  director  of  a  firm.  La 
Morue  Francaise,  which  had  sold  a  quantity  of 
chemically-preserved  codfish  to  the  government 
at  an  outrageous  price.  Many  other  cases  of 
corrupt  dealing  in  the  provision  of  war  supplies 
were  exposed  bv  M.  Simyan,  in  a  speech  before 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  December  14th. 

Attacks  on  the  War  Ministet.    During  the 


summer  a  few  deputies  and  certain  Parisian 
journals  vigorously  assailed  the  administration 
of  the  war  department.  In  the  Chamber,  June 
24th,  a  Radical-Socialist  depul^,  M.  Lton  Ac- 
cambray,  violently  censured  the  minister  of  war, 
M.  Millerand,  for  having  failed  to  prevent  or 
correct  grave  defects  in  the  manufacture  of  shells 
and  in  the  organization  of  the  sanitary  service. 
Again,  on  August  6th,  after  a  most  eloquently 
patriotic  speech  had  been  delivered  by  M.  Des- 
chanel,  M.  Accambray  attempted  to  voice  viru- 
lent criticism  of  the  minist^  of  war.  M.  Ac- 
cambray on  this  occasion  obviously  failed  to  gain 
the  sympathy  of  the  Chamber,  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  which  was  keyed  to  the  highest  pitch 
of  patriotic  enthusiasm  by  the  reading  of  Presi- 
dent Poincar6's  message.  The  army,  said  M. 
Poincar6,  realized  that  "on  the  victory  of  France 
and  the  Allies  rests  the  future  of  civilization 
and  humanity.  .  .  .  Those  who  fall  die  without 
fear,  since  by  their  death  France  lives  and  will 
live  forever.  ...  In  the  error  of  its  arrogance, 
Grermany  has  represented  France  as  light,  im- 
pressionable, unstable,  and  incapable  of  perse- 
verance and  tenacity.  The  people  and  the  army 
of  France  will  continue  to  controvert  this  calum- 
nious judgment  by  their  calm  conduct."  The 
storm  of  criticism  had  not  yet  blown  over,  how- 
ever. M.  Clemenceau,  writing  in  his  journal, 
L* Homme  enchain^,  continued  to  discover  fiaws 
in  the  war  department.  In  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties, August  13th,  M.  Brizon  vehemently  praised 
General  Sarrail,  who  had  been  recently  removed 
from  his  important  command  in  France  and 
transferred  to  the  distant  Dardanelles.  General 
Sarrail,  it  may  be  noted,  was  regarded  as  a  pos- 
sible successor  to  General  Joffre  and  was  praised 
by  Radicals  and  Socialists  as  a  better  "republi- 
can" than  the  commander-in-chief.  In  reply  to 
the  criticisms  which  had  been  directed  both 
against  himself  and,  by  implication,  against  the 
generalissimo,  M.  Millerand  intervened,  August 
20tii,  in  the  debate  on  an  appropriation  for  the 
payment  of  two  additional  under-secretaries  of 
war,  and  declared:  "For  a  wedc  certain  depu- 
ties have  conducted  here  a  trial  of  the  war  min- 
ister. According  to  them  my  administration  has 
been  characterized  by  negligence,  inertia,  and 
carelessness;  I  am  a  prisoner  in  my  own  office; 
I  have  abdicated  in  favor  of  the  military  authori- 
ties and  am  an  enemy  of  parliamentary  control." 
M.  Millerand  admitted  frankly  that  the  sanitary 
service  at  the  outset  had  been  faulty;  but  he 
asserted  that  the  defects  had  been  remedied,  that 
the  supply  of  munitions  had  been  accelerated  in 
a  most  satisfactory  manner,  and  that  the  com- 
mander-in-chief enjoyed  the  complete  confidence 
and  admiration  of  the  government,  the  army, 
and  the  nation.  The  Chamber  then  adjourned  to 
August  26th.  During  the  short  recess,  a  peti- 
tion was  preseated  by  notable  publicists  in  favor 
of  a  modification  of  the  censorship  of  the  press; 
among  the  signers  of  the  petition  were  Gabriel 
Hanotaux,  Stephen  Pichon,  the  editors  of  the 
Temps,  of  the  Journal  des  ddhaia,  of  the  Figaro, 
and  of  the  Gaulois,  and  M.  Georges  Clemenceau, 
whose  criticism  of  the  government  was  men- 
tioned in  a  foregoing  sentence.  The  test  of  the 
government's  strength  came  in  the  sitting  of 
August  26.  Many  observers  expected  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  to  insist  upon  the  creation  of  a 
secret  committee  to  investigate  the  conduct  of 
the  war  department.  M.  Accambray  repeated 
his  attacks  on  M.  Millerand.    But  the  president 


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ratAVGB 


of  the  council,  M.  Viviani,  defended  the  govern- 
ment in  a  stirring  speech,  and  the  Chamber  of 
Depnties  with  onl^  one  dissenting  voice  granted 
the  credits  for  which  the  government  had  asked. 
The  Chamber  was  hereupon  adjourned  to  Sep- 
tember 16. 

The  Cost  of  the  War.  Finance  monopolized 
the  attention  of  the  Chamber  in  September.  The 
budget  for  the  remaining  three  months  of  1916, 
as  drafted  by  Finance  Minister  Ribot,  contem- 
plated an  expenditure  of  6,240,000,000  francs. 
Russia,  M.  Ribot  declared,  was  spending  1,800,- 
000,000  francs  a  month;  Germany,  2,500,000,000 
francs;  and  Great  Britain,  an  even  larger  sum; 
whereas  the  average  monthly  expenditure  oif 
France  would  amount  to  less  than  2,100,000,000 
francs.  The  three-months*  appropriation  was 
quickly  passed  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
received  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  September 
28th,  making  the  total  of  appropriations  since 
Aug.  1,  1914,  more  than  28,000,000,000  francs. 

Delcabs£'s  Resignation.  The  failure  of  the 
Allies'  diplomacy  in  the  Balkans,  culminating  in 
the  Austro-German-Bulgarian  invasion  of  Serbia 
(consult  War  of  the  Nations),  entailed  as  one 
of  its  consequences  the  resignation  of  the  French 
foreign  minister  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Vivi- 
ani  cabinet.  M.  Viviani's  explanation  of  the 
Balkan  situation  was  published  in  the  French 
papers,  October  13th.  That  night  M.  Delcass^, 
the  foreign  minister,  sent  a  letter  to  M.  Viviani, 
announcing  his  resignation.  The  following 
morning,  M.  Viviani  called  a  special  meeting  of 
the  council  of  ministers  and  explained  that  M. 
Delcass^,  who  had  previously  asked  to  be  relieved 
of  his  arduous  ministerial  duties,  on  the  ground 
of  ill-health,  now  insisted  upon  resigning,  since 
he  could  not  agree  with  the  government  on  the 
question  of  aiding  Serbia.  In  the  afternoon  of 
October  14th,  the  president  of  the  council  in- 
formed the  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  the  foreign 
minister  had  resigned,  but  denied  that  any  di- 
vergence of  opinion  had  manifested  itself  between 
M.  Delcass^  and  the  other  members  of  the  cabi- 
net. Further  information  regarding  the  govern- 
ment's plans  for  the  relief  of  Serbia  were  in- 
sistently demanded  by  M.  Painlev4,  who  dwelt 
with  great  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  pre- 
venting the  Germans  from  opening  up  the  road 
to  Constantinople,  and  practically  demanded  that 
the  government  reveal  the  size  of  the  forces  sent 
to  Saloniki.  M.  Viviani,  however,  would  vouch- 
safe no  other  information,  and  limited  himself  to 
asserting  that  in  sending  the  force  to  Saloniki, 
the  government  had  taken  care  not  to  weaken  the 
front  in  France.  M.  Renaudel,  a  Socialist,  re- 
proached the  government  for  its  slowness  of  ac- 
tion and  demanded  a  secret  committee  to  investi- 
gate the  matter.  M.  Viviani  announced  that  he 
would  regard  the  vote  on  this  question  as  an  in- 
dication of  the  Chamber's  confidence  in  the  gov- 
ernment. The  demand  for  a  secret  committee 
was  then  rejected  by  303  to  190,  and  a  vote  of 
confidence  was  passed,  after  a  tumultuous  dis- 
cussion, by  a  majority  of  372-9.  More  than  150 
deputies  abstained  from  the  vote,  as  an  indica- 
tion of  their  lack  of  confidence  in  the  cabinet. 
Since  he  could  no  longer  command  the  unani- 
mous confidence  of  the  Chamber,  M.  Viviani  ten- 
dered his  resignation  to  President  Poincar^,  Oc- 
tober 29th. 

The  Briand  Cabinet.  A  new  cabinet  was 
formed  by  M.  Briand,  October  29th;  its  mem- 
bership, as  announced  October  31st,  was  as  fol- 


lows: President  of  the  council  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  M.  Aristide  Briand  (not  inscribed 
in  any  of  the  groups  of  the  Chamber,  but  leader 
of  the  Federated  Parties  of  the  Left:  consult  the 
Year  Book  for  1914,  p.  269) ;  ministers  of  state, 
without  portfolio— M.  de  Freycinet  (Senate,  in- 
dependent), M.  Lten  Bourgeois  (Senate,  Demo- 
cratic Union),  M.  Emile  Combes  (Senate,  Demo- 
cratic Union),  M.  Jules  Guesde  (Unified  Social- 
ist), M.  Deny 8  Cochin  (Right) ;  justice,  M.  Ren6 
Viviani  (Republican-Socialist);  war.  General 
Galli6ni;  navy.  Admiral  Lacaze;  finance,  M. 
Ribot  (Senate,  Republican  Union) ;  interior,  M. 
Malvy  (Radical-Socialist);  public  instruction 
and  fine  arts,  M.  Painlev6  (Republican-Social- 
ist);  commerce,  M.  CUmentel  (Radical  Left); 
agriculture,  M.  Jules  M^line  (Republican  Left, 
Senate) ;  public  works,  M.  Marcel  Sembat  (Uni- 
fied Socialist) ;  labor,  M.  Albert  M6tin  (Radical- 
Socialist)  ;  colonies,  M.  Doumergue  (Senate, 
Democratic  Union).  M.  Jules  Cambon,  as  dele- 
gate of  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  was  an 
important  auxiliary  of  the  new  cabinet.  It  is 
interesting  to  note,  furthermore,  that  since  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  under-secretaryships  for 
munitions,  sanitary  service,  aviation,  and  in- 
tendance  had  been  created  in  the  war  depart- 
ment; the  new  posts  were  filled  by  M.  Albert 
Thomas  (Unified  Socialist),  M.  Joseph  Thierry 
(Democratic  Union),  M.  Justin  Godart  (Radi- 
cal-Socialist), and  M.  Ren6  Bernard  (Radical- 
Socialist),  respectively.  The  most  important 
features  of  the  Briand  cabinet  were:  first,  the 
inclusion  of  a  representative  of  the  Right,  M. 
Denys  Cochin ;  second,  the  fact  that  eight  of  the 
new  ministers — ^MM.  Briand,  de  Freycinet,  Bour- 
geois, Combes,  M4line,  Ribot,  Doumergue,  and 
Viviani — were  former  presidents  of  the  council; 
third,  that  the  fighting  departments,  the  navy 
and  the  army,  were  placed  in  charge  of  profes- 
sional warriors.  Admiral  Lacaze  assuming  con- 
trol of  the  navy,  and  General  Galli^ni,  who  had 
rendered  brilliant  service  as  military  governor 
of  Paris,  superseding  the  much-criticised  Mil- 
lerand  in  the  ministry  of  war.  On  November 
3rd,  M.  Briand  made  his  declaration  of  policy 
before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  promised 
to  improve  the  censorship;  he  assured  the  Cham- 
ber that  the  government  would  communicate  to 
it  all  the  information  to  which  the  Chamber  was 
entitled;  he  declared  that  France  and  her  Allies 
would  not  abandon  '^heroic"  Serbia;  and  he 
warned  the  enemies  of  France  that  they  could 
not  expect  "either  weariness  or  exhaustion"  on 
the  part  of  France.  As  for  the  terms  of  peace, 
he  declared,  "when  the  territory  of  France  shall 
have  been  wrested  from  the  invader,  when  the 
peoples  who  liave  been  martyred  for  us,  among 
whom  Serbia  must  be  included,  have  been  re- 
stored integrally  to  their  rights,  then  there  will 
be  a  question  of  peace."  A  Socialist,  M.  Pierre 
Renaudel,  attempted  to  heckle  the  new  govern- 
ment, demanding  a  secret  committee  to  investi- 
gate the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  inquiring  why 
Socialist  papers  were  excluded  from  the  trenches. 
M.  Renaudel  created  a  lively  sensation,  and 
evoked  some  vehement  protests  when  he  insisted 
that  France  should  repudiate  all  ideas  of  ac- 
quiring new  territory  by  the  war,  and  asserted 
that  the  consciousness  that  they  were  not  fight- 
ing for  territorial  conquests  was  a  moral  asset 
to  the  French  army.  The  debate  on  the  declara- 
tion of  policy  was  wound  up  by  the  president  of 
the  council  with  an  eloquent  appeal  for  unanim- 


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FBEEMAK 


ity.  By  515  votes  to  1  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
signified  its  confidence  in  the  cabinet;  25  depu- 
ties, notwithstanding  M.  Briand's  appeal,  ab- 
stained from  the  vote. 

Politics  and  the  High  Command.  In  course 
of  the  year  a  niunber  of  generals  in  the  French 
army  were  superseded  by  yotmger  men,  and  a 
few  very  important  transfers  and  new  appoint- 
ments were  made.  The  popular  General  Sarrail, 
for  example,  was  transferred  from  his  command 
in  France  to  the  Dardanelles.  Admiral  Dartige 
du  Foumet  replaced  Vice- Admiral  Bou6  de  Jja- 
peyr^re  in  command  of  the  naval  forces.  A  still 
more  significant  change,  however,  occurred  in 
December.  On  December  2nd  a  decree  was  is- 
sued entrusting  General  Joffre,  who  had  hitherto 
been  in  command  only  of  the  armies  in  France, 
with  the  supreme  command  of  all  French  mili- 
tary forces,  excepting  those  in  the  colonies  and  in 
northern  Africa.  Tke  purpose  of  the  appoint- 
ment, explained  General  Galli^ni,  was  to  secure 
"unity  of  direction*'  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
war.  Some  critics  interpreted  the  decree  as  a 
triumph  for  General  Joflfre,  who  would  now  be 
able  to  control  and  supervise  the  French  oper- 
ations in  the  Dardanelles  and  in  Serbia  as  well 
as  in  France.  M.  Georges  Clemenceau,  however, 
in  his  L*Homme  enchaini,  and  M.  Gustave  Herv6, 
in  La  Ouerre  aociale,  hinted  that  General  Joffre 
was  being  honored  with  a  nominal  promotion,  in 
order  that  the  actual  direction  of  the  campaign 
in  France  might  be  given  to  another.  On  De- 
cember 9th  M.  Emile  Constant  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  questioned  the  government  in  regard 
to  the  high  command.  When  M.  Briand  refused 
to  take  tiie  Chamber  into  his  confidence  in  the 
matter,  M.  Charles  Chaumet  declared:  "It 
seems  that  you  have  taken  too  literally  the  witty 
paradox  of  M.  Marcel  Sembat,  'give  us  a  king 
or  give  us  peace.'  It  has  appeared  to  you  that 
there  was  some  incompatibility  between  democ- 
racy and  the  state  of  war.  We  are  persuaded, 
for  our  part,  that  the  strength  of  democracy  is 
to  remain  true  to  its  principles."  In  the  vote 
that  concluded  the  interpellation,  M.  Briand  was 
upheld  by  a  majority  of  443  to  98.  Two  days 
later  an  announcement  was  made  which  seemed, 
in  some  measure,  to  justify  the  predictions  of 
M.  Clemenceau  and  M.  Herv4.  Gen.  de  Curi^re8 
de  Castelnau  was  appointed  to  the  newly  created 
post  of  chief  of  the  general  staff.  General  de 
Castelnau  had  brilliantly  commanded  the  second 
army  in  Lorraine  during  the  earliest  stage  of  the 
war;  subsequently  he  had  been  placed  in  com- 
mand, first  of  the  arm^  of  the  Somme,  and  then 
of  the  group  of  armies  in  the  centre  of  the 
French  battle  line;  it  was  he  who  had  directed 
the  French  offensive  movement  in  the  Champagne 
region  during  September  and  October,  1915.  See 
War  or  THE  Nations. 

Finance.  In  the  middle  of  December  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  Senate  were  called 
upon  to  vote  credits  sufficient  to  cover  the  esti- 
mated expenditures  for  the  first  three  months  of 
1916.  Minister  of  Finance  Ribot  made  the  state- 
ment that  France  was  spending  approximately 
2,100,000,000  francs  a  month,  as  compared  with 
1,500,000,000  francs  in  the  first  months  of  the 
war.  According  to  the  calculations  of  the  ap- 
propriations committee  of  the  Chamber,  the  total 
expenditures  of  France  from  Aug.  1,  1914,  to 
Dec.  31,  1915,  amounted  to  31,024,000,000  francs. 
More  than  three-fourths  of  this  sum,  or  24,347,- 
000,000  francQ,  had  been  disbursed  for  purely 


military  expenditures.  The  loans  which  had 
been  issued  to  supply  the  stupendous  sums 
needed  for  the  war  had  been  received  by  the 
French  public  in  a  highly  satisfactory  manner; 
General  Joffre  had  urged  his  soldiers  to  persuade 
their  friends  and  relatives  to  invest  in  the  "loan 
of  victory*';  and  the  offices  opened  to  receive 
subscriptions  to  the  loan  had  been  thronged  by 
patriotic  investors. 

The  Class  of  1917.  The  determination  of 
the  French  government  to  utilize  every  resource, 
hesitating  at  no  sacrifice  of  money  or  of  men, 
until  victory  was  assured,  found  new  expression 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1915,  when  the  ministry 
introduced  a  bill  into  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
providing  for  the  immediate  enlistment  of  400,- 
000  recruits  who,  under  normal  circumstances, 
would  not  have  been  called  to  the  colors  until 
1917.  Certain  deputies,  notably  MM.  Turmel 
and  Auriol,  demanded  that  before  authorizing 
the  government  to  call  out  the  class  of  1917,  the 
Chamber  should  appoint  a  committee  to  investi- 
gate the  utilization  of  the  resources  already  at 
the  government's  disposal,  or  that  at  least  the 
government  should  inform  the  Chamber  of  the 
number  of  recruits  already  incorporated  in  the 
army.  A  minority  of  112  deputies  supported 
this  demand,  but  the  majority  upheld  the  gov- 
ernment. In  the  course  of  the  ensuing  discus- 
sion, Lieutenant-Colonel  Driant,  reporter  of  the 
bill,  assured  the  Chamber  that  the  health  of  the 
young  recruits  would  be  carefully  protected ;  that 
their  barracks  would  be  new,  clean,  and  amply 
ventilated ;  that  they  would  receive  an  extra  sup- 
ply of  bread  and  meat  and  hot  soup,  besides  wine, 
with  their  rations.  M.  Driant  demanded,  and 
obtained,  one  concession  from  the  government, 
that  the  date  for  the  enlistment  of  the  new  class 
be  postponed  from  Dec.  15,  1915,  to  Jan.  5,  1910, 
in  order  to  permit  the  youths  to  spend  their 
Christmas  holidays  at  home.  General  Galli4ni, 
the  war  minister,  informed  the  Chamber  that  al- 
though it  was  deemed  necessary  to  call  up  the 
class  of  1917,  the  boys  would  not  necessarily  be 
used  in  the  trenches  for  some  time  to  come.  "I 
am  asking  you  to  call  up  the  class  of  1917,"  he 
said;  "it  is  necessary  that  this  class  of  recruits 
shall  be  prepared  for  the  moment  when  the  in- 
tensive production  of  armaments  and  of  muni- 
tions, together  with  the  reinforcement  of  the 
battle-line  with  new  masses  of  men,  may  permit 
new  and  decisive  efforts."  Responding  loyally 
to  General  Galli^ni's  appeal,  the  Chamber  passed 
the  bill  unanimously.  In  the  Senate  the  bill  was 
passed  on  December  27th. 

Consult  also  International  Peace  and  Abbi- 
TRATioN,  and  Wab  of  the  Nations, 

FRANCHISE,  Municipal.  See  Municipal 
Government,  Model  City  Charter. 

FSANK,  Leo  M.  See  Georgia,  PoUtica  and 
Oovemment. 

FSATEBNAL  OBDEBS.    See  Insurance. 

FBEE  BAPTISTS.    See  Baptists,  Free. 

FBEEMAN,  Henbt  Blanchard.  American 
soldier,  died  Oct.  16,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Mount  Vernon,  Ohio,  in  1837.  At  the  age  of  18 
he  enlisted  in  the  tenth  United  States  infantry, 
in  which  regiment  he  was  a  first  sergeant  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  A  few  months  later 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  second  lieuten- 
ant, and  shortly  after,  captain.  He  was  bre- 
vetted  for  gallantry  in  the  battle  of  Murfrees- 
boro  and  later  received  the  same  honor  as  major 
in  the  battle  of  Chickfimauga,  where  he  was 


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238 


FRENCH  INDO-CHUTA 


taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Libby  Prison.  He 
escaped,  but  was  recaptured,  and  escaped  a  sec- 
ond time.  He  was  among  several  prisoners  who 
tunneled  their  way  out  of  this  prison.  After 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War  he  took  part  in  many 
campaigns  against  the  Indians.  Among  these 
was  the  Sioux  War  of  1867-68.  He  was  in  the 
campaign  in  which  General  Custer  lost  his  life. 
In  1870  he  assisted  in  subduing  the  Ute  Indians 
in  Colorado.  He  took  part  in  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican War,  as  colonel  of  the  twenty-fourth  in- 
fantry; was  made  brigadier-general  in  1901;  and 
in  the  following  year  was  retired  under  the  age 
limitation.  He  received  the  Congressional  Medal 
of  Honor  in  1894  for  gallantry  in  the  battle  of 
Stone  River.  His  last  active  service  was  in  Cuba 
and  in  the  Philippines. 

FBENCH,  Sib  John  Denton  Pinkstone 
(1862 — ).  A  British  soldier,  born  at  Ripple 
Vale,  Ripple,  Kent.  From  1866  to  1870  he  was 
a  naval  cadet  and  midshipman  in  the  royal  navy. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1874;  served  during  the 
Sudan  campaign  (1884-85).  From  1893  to  1894 
he  was  assistant  adjutant-general  of  cavalry, 
and  from  1895  to  1897  was  assistant  adjutant- 
general  at  army  headquarters.  He  was  ap- 
pointed major-general  in  command  of  the  cavalry 
division  in  Natal  in  1899.  In  1900  he  became 
lieutenant-general  (local)  of  the  cavalry  divi- 
sion in  South  Africa.  He  commanded  the  cav- 
alry in  the  operations  terminating  in  the  relief 
of  Kimberley  (February,  1900),  and  in  the  op- 
erations leading  to  the  capture  of  Bloemfontein 
and  Pretoria.  He  was  promoted  to  be  lieuten- 
ant-general and  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Ist  army  corps  at  Aldershot.  He  became 
general  in  1907,  was  inspector-general  of  home 
forces  in  1907-11,  and  was  made  field-marshal 
in  1913.  In  March,  1914,  during  the  contro- 
versy between  Asquith's  cabinet  and  the  army 
over  the  army's  service  in  Ulster,  French  re- 
signed, but  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war 
later  in  the  year  he  reentered  the  army  and  com- 
manded the  expeditionary  force  in  France.  In 
December,  1916,  he  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Douglas 
Haig  (q.v.).  He  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  home  forces  and  was  elevated  to  the  peer- 
age.   See  Wab  op  the  Nations. 

FBENCH  ACADEMY.  See  Academt, 
French. 

FBEirCH  CONGO.  Now  French  Equatorial 
Africa   (q.v.). 

FBENCH  EQXTATOBIAL  AFRICA  (for- 
merly French  Congo).  A  French  possession  in 
equatorial  Africa,  on  the  west  coast,  composed 
of  the  Gabun  Colony  (capital,  Libreville),  the 
Middle  Congo  Colony  (Brazzaville),  and  the 
Ubangi-Shari-Chad  Colony  (Bangui).  From 
the  old  area  of  669,280  square  miles  must  be  de- 
ducted, roughly,  170,270  square  miles  ceded 
under  the  convention  of  Nov.  14,  1911,  to  Ger- 
many by  France;  and  to  it  must  be  added  about 
6450  square  miles  ceded  to  France  by  Germany 
from  the  Kamerun.  The  area  ceded  to  Germany 
carries  a  population  of  about  1,000,000  out  of 
the  original  10,000,000  (the  estimated  popula- 
tion in  1906).  These  estimates  of  population 
are  probably  much  too  high.  The  products  and 
export  are  rubber,  ivory,  timber,  palm  kernels 
and  oil,  cacao,  etc.  Gold,  copper,  and  iron  are 
mined.  Imports  (1913),  21,181,678  francs;  ex- 
ports, 36,665,037  (11,119,319  and  17,453,933  in 
1909).  Revenue  and  expenditure  balanced 
(1911)  at  15,263,000.    Debt  (Jan.  1,  1912),  14,- 


784,215  francs.  French  Equatorial  Africa  is 
under  a  Governor-General  resident  at  Brazza- 
ville. 

FBENCH  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  OCE- 
ANIA. A  French  colony  in  the  South  Pacific, 
consisting  of  widely  scattered  groups  and  single 
islands.  Area  (estimated),  3998  square  kilo- 
meters; population,  31,477.  Capital,  Papeete 
(3617  inhabitants),  in  Tahiti,  Imports  and  ex- 
ports (1913),  9,030,474  and  11,554,607  francs 
respectively  (5,659,367  and  6,031,289  francs  in 
1910).  The  principal  exports  are  copra  and 
vanilla. 

FBENCH  QIJIANA  (Cayenne).  A  French 
colony  and  penal  settlement  on  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America.  It  covers  88,240  square 
kilometers  (34,069  square  miles)  and  had  a  pop- 
ulation in  1911  of  about  49,000.  Cayenne,  the 
chief  town  and  only  seaport,  has  about  13,500  in- 
habitants. Gold-mining  (placer)  is  the  chief  oc- 
cupation of  the  people.  Imports  and  exports  in 
1913  were  valued  at  12,494,765  and  12,222,537 
francs  respectively  (12,233,000  and  11,567,000 
francs  in  1910).  Of  the  value  of  the  exports, 
about  five-sixths  is  gold. 

FBENCH  QUINEA.  A  French  West  Afri- 
can colony.  Capital,  Konakry,  with  6623  in- 
habitants; Kankan  is  the  chief  commercial  cen- 
tre. Other  towns  are  Bok6,  Kindia,  and  Du- 
breka.  The  railway  from  Konakry  to  Kouro- 
ussa  (588  kilometers)  was  completed  and  in 
operation  Jan.  1,  1911.  A  branch  to  Kankan 
was  to  have  been  completed  in  1914.  Transport 
from  and  into  the  interior  is  by  caravan,  the 
best  porters  being  Soussous  and  Malinkte.  The 
route  from  Konakry  to  the  Niger,  known  as  the 
Leprince  route,  is  via  Kindia,  Timbo,  and  Kou- 
roussa.  Rubber  is  the  principal  export,  and  is 
gathered  over  all  the  colony;  but  the  principal 
sources  are  the  Futa-Jallon,  the  Farana  region, 
and  certain  circles  of  Upper  Guinea.  Rice  is 
grown,  and  grazing  is  widely  practiced.  The 
mineral  resources  are  believed  to  be  considerable. 
See  French  West  Afbiga. 

FBENCH  INDIA.  Five  French  dependencies 
in  India,  covering  513  square  kilometers,  with 
277,723  inhabitants  in  1906  and  282,472  in  1911. 
Density  per  square  kilometer  (1906),  541.4.  The 
towns  are  Pondicherry  (the  capital),  Karikal, 
Mah6,  Chandemagor,  and  Yanaon.  The  imports 
and  exports  (1913)  were  valued  at  10,837,115 
and  43,720,095  francs  respectively  (8,351,443 
and  37,466,013  francs  in  1910).  Chief  exports, 
oil  seeds,  raw  cotton,  and  pulse.  Railway  from 
Pondicherry  to  Villapuram  and  Peralam  to 
Karakal,   30   kilometers. 

FBENCH  INDO-CHINA.  A  dependency  of 
France  in  southeastern  Asia,  made  up  of  five 
states  and  a  strip  of  territory  leased  from  China, 
as  follows: 


Sg.  kmt.  Pop.  1911  Pop.  1906 

Annam     159.800  6,542,822  5,518,681 

Cambodia     175,450  1,487,048  1.198,584 

Cochin-Ghina     . . .  56,065  8,050,785  2.870,514 

LaoB    290.000  681,889  5.806,510 

Toning    110,750  6,117,054  668,727 

Kwangchow-Wan*  1.000  158,881  177.007 

Total     t808.055        16,900,229        16,815.068 

*  Leased  territory,     f  810,060  aqnare  miles. 

Hanoi  (in  Tongkin^)  is  the  capital,  with 
(1911)  113,676  inhabitants;  Cholon  had  191,- 
665;   Bin-Dinh,  75,000;   Saigon,  72,000;   Pnom- 


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Penh,  54,621;  Hu«,  65,000;  Vien-tiane  and  Haip- 
hong, each  27,000. 

Trade  Btatistica  are  returned  for  the  colony 
as  a  whole,  and  are  given  below  in  francfl: 

1909  1911  1918 

Imports  249.758,677  244,148,000  806,288,068 

EzporU  278.084,618  250,147,000  845.250.258 

The  general  budget  balanced  for  1013  at  35,- 
608,305  franca;'  the  budget  of  Tongking  at  8,- 
226,710;  Annam,  3,976,980;  Cambodia,  4,803,- 
000;  Cochin-China,  7,181,737;  Laos,  928,691; 
Kwangchow-Wan,  296,022;  total,  61,023,535. 
Debt  (Jan.  1,  1912),  245,912,608  francs. 

The  railway  from  SaTgon  to  Mytho  (the  oldest 
railway  in  the  country)  is  being  extended  to 
Cantho  (60  miles).  Other  lines  are  the  Haip- 
hong-Laoki-Tunnanfu  (291  miles),  the  line  from 
Hanoi  to  the  Chinese  frontier  (308),  Tourane- 
Hu4-Quang-tri  and  Tourane-FaTfu  (130),  SaTgon- 
Khat-Hoa-Langbian  (183).  The  Yunnan  Rail- 
way was  completed  in  1910.  The  total  length 
of  railway  reported  at  the  end  of  1914  was  1270 
miles.  

FBENCH  IJTEBATTTBE.  Naturally  war 
was  the  supreme  preoccupation  in  literature  as 
elsewhere.  As  compared  with  the  last  months 
of  last  year,  the  only  difference,  if  any,  would 
be  that  the  same  views  were  expressed  in  so- 
berer tone.  The  confidence  as  to  the  outcome  of 
the  war  remains  absolute.  This  present  state  of 
mind  of  the  French  people  is  in  keeping  with  the 
steady  tendency  of  recent  years,  as  previously 
pointed  out  in  the  Year  Book,  away  from  dilet- 
tantism, estheticism,  skepticism,  and  cynicism, 
and  towards  nationalism,  socialism  (in  the 
broadest  sense  of  the  term),  and  Catholicism. 

Draka.  One  by  one  the  theatres  have 
opened  their  doors  again ;  by  the  end  of  the  year 
many  ran  almost  normally,  except  that  they  pro- 
duced only  a  very  limited  number  of  new  plays, 
depending  on  reprUea  like  Sardou's  Pairie, 
Bomier's  La  fille  de  Roland,  and  Kistemaeker's 
Ira  Flamhie,  For  the  new  plays  the  place  of 
honor  belongs  to  Maurice  Barry's  Colette  Bau- 
doche,  put  on  the  stage  early  in  the  year — the 
story  of  an  Alsatian  girl  who  makes  plain  why, 
after  40  years  of  annexation,  there  can  still  be  no 
real  sympathv  between  the  conqueror  and  the 
conquered.  Two  plays  were  inspired  directly  by 
events  of  the  war ;  and  neither  was  very  well  re- 
ceived. Clearly  people  did  not  like  to  see  the 
villainy  of  the  enemy  put  on  the  stage  with  stark 
realism,  craving  plays  which  would  lift  them  up, 
not  weigh  them  down.  One  of  the  two  plays  re- 
ferred to  is  Nozi^re's  PrUre  dans  la  nuit.  There 
a  loyal  French  woman  of  the  invaded  territory 
married  a  naturalised  German;  discovered  that 
she  had  given  her  love  to  a  traitor;  and  stabbed 
him  before  he  had  time  to  do  more  harm.  The 
other  is  La  Kommandatur,  by  Fronson,  the  Bel- 
gian author  of  the  famous  Melle  Beulemans.  It 
is  a  painful  description  of  the  conditions  in 
Brussels  imder  German  rule,  and  especially  the 
story  of  a  German  who  has  been  refused  the 
hand  of  a  Belgian  girl,  returns  to  Brussels  with 
the  German  army,  takes  a  cowardly  vengeance 
by  having  the  fiance  of  the  girl  shot,  tries  to 
force  her  to  yield  to  him,  and  is  stabbed  for  his 
pains.  Plays  which  dealt  with  the  sacredness  of 
the  French  cause  rather  than  with  hatred  of  the 
enemy  proved  more  acceptable.  One  is  a  short 
mystery,  by  Paul  Claudel,  the  author  of  L'An- 


nonoe  faite  d  MaHe,  called  La  nuit  de  NoSl  19H, 
Another  is  an  allegorical  play  by  A.  Villery,  La 
Vierge  de  Lut^e,  four  acts  celebrating  Sainte 
Geneviftve  who  saved  Paris  from  Attila  and  the 
savage  Huns — an  allusion  to  modem  events 
which  was  clear  to  all.  Late  in  the  year  the 
Th^Atre  Sarah  Bernhardt  scored  a  great  success 
with  two  short  plays.  The  first  performance  of 
them  was  a  welcome  back  to  the  stage  for  the 
divine  Sarah,  after  her  operation.  L'impromptu 
du  Paquetage  is  a  charming  sketch  by  Maurice 
Donnay.  The  stage  represents  an  ofllce  for  war- 
relief  in  Paris,  to  which  come  various  callers 
from  the  humbler  classes  and  tell  their  touching 
tales,  often  heroic,  of  self-sacrifice  on  the  altar 
of  the  mother-country.  The  other  play,  Les  Ca- 
th^draleSf  is  more  spectacular.  In  a  gray 
cloud,  five  religious  sisters,  representing  the  ca- 
thedrals of  the  five  French  regions,  are  bemoan- 
ing the  tragic  events  of  the  war.  Maledictions 
against  the  barbarians  and  prophecies  of  divine 
punishments  are  also  heard,  uttered  with  all  the 
passion  at  the  command  of  Madame  Sarah  Bem- 
hardt's  voice.  The  Commie  F^ancaise,  the  na- 
tional theatre  of  France,  offered  patriotic  mat- 
inees in  which  scenes  of  French  history  were  re- 
vived, the  actors  of  the  famous  house  imperson- 
ating famous  men  and  women.  The  matinee  de- 
voted to  the  French  Revolution  was  one  of  the 
most  successful. 

PoETBT.  The  times  favor  lyrical  production. 
The  newspapers  and  revues  publish  many 
poems  inspired  by  the  various  phases  of  the  war. 
Some  are  in  a  lofty  epic  vein,  some  tragic,  some 
satirical  and  directed  against  the  representatives 
of  German  Kultur,  some  cursing  the  monardi 
who  dares  to  claim  the  God  of  Christianity  as  a 
sponsor  for  the  atrocious  deeds  of  his  invading 
army,  while  others  laud  the  heroism  of  those  en- 
gaged in  the  gigantic  struggle  or  serving  at  home 
as  women  and  children  can.  Few  betray  the 
rhetorical  and  excited  tone  of  J.  de  Marthold's 
"Chant  de  Haine,"  which  he  felt  called  upon  to 
write  as  a  retort  to  Lissauer's  famous  Cferman 
"Song  of  Hate  Against  England."  A  fairly  rep- 
resentative collection  of  war  lyrics  will  be  found 
in  Les  Poites  de  la  Guerre  (Levrault).  The 
real  chansonnier  of  the  war  in  France  is  Botrel, 
who  is  already  well  known  for  his  exquisite 
songs  of  French  Brittany,  and  who,  by  compos- 
ing war  songs  in  the  trenches,  has  earned  the 
titles  "Barde  de  I'Arm^e,"  or  '^Laur^at  des 
Tranchfies,"  and  "Singer  of  Rosalie"-~"Rosalie" 
being  the  nickname  the  French  soldiers  give  their 
bayonets.  His  Chants  du  Bivouac  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  Chants  de  Route.  There  should  be 
noted  also:  certain  of  Verhaeren's  poems  (see, 
e.g.  his  "La  ferme  des  marais  d'or,"  in  Orande 
Revue,  June) ;  Claudel,  Trois  Po^mes  de  Guerre; 
Rostand,  "Poem  to  America"  (in  VlUustra- 
tion) ;  Le  Coq,  Les  Cfermaniades;  etut;  leurs 
crimes;  Lieut.  George  Rollin,  Sous  la  Cuirasse. 

Fiction.  From  Capitaine  D4tanger,  author  of 
Gens  de  Guerre  du  Maroc,  killed  in  action,  Sep- 
tember, 1914,  came  this  year,  posthumously,  Le 
Conqu^ant,  Journal  d^un  indSsirdble  au  Maroc, 
under  the  pseudonym  E.  Nolly.  It  is  a  colonial 
novel  telling  of  a  rich  yoimg  man  who  has  en- 
joyed life,  and  is  ruined,  but  who  resolves  to  turn 
a  new  leaf  in  Morocco,  where  he  joins  the  Lteion 
etrang^re,  and  redeems  his  past  by  a  glorious 
death.  From  no  less  a  novelist  than  Paul  Bour- 
get  came  Sens  de  la  mort,  which,  besides  its  gen- 
eral relevance,  is  related  specially  to  the  war. 


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Jn  it  we  meet  a  famous  physician,  a  skeptic,  who 
knows  his  early  doom  is  sealed  by  cancer.  Be- 
lieving in  no  future  life,  he  cannot  bear  the 
thought  of  leaving  behind  him  his  dearly  loved 
wife  to  live,  and  perhaps  love  another,  after  he 
has  gone,  and  he  ventures  to  suggest  that  she  die 
with  him  when  his  hour  comes.  She  agrees. 
Then  the  war  breaks  out.  The  doctor  is  called 
to  treat  a  young  relative  of  his  wife,  a  soldier, 
who  has  been  wounded.  The  soldier  had  loved 
the  woman,  and  his  patience  in  suffering,  due  to 
his  religious  faith,  touches  her.  Her  husband 
releases  her  from  her  oath,  but  dies  in  despair 
and  misery,  while  the  young  soldier,  who  also 
dies,  passes  away  serenely  and  in  the  odor  of 
sanctity,  as  a  good  Christian  should.  The  con- 
trast of  the  two  ends,  and  the  edification  of  the 
latter  wins  back  the  young  woman  to  Christian 
faith.  Marcel  Tinayre  offered  this  year  her 
VeilUe  des  armea,  which  has  for  a  background 
the  first  days  of  the  war.  Francois  de  Niou  also 
concerned  himself  with  the  war  in  Pendant  la 
guerre^  a  love  story  set  successively  in  neutral 
countries,  then  in  Grermany,  then  in  France. 
Charles  G^niaux's  Les  fiances  de  19 H  is  another 
novel  written  hastily  to  provide  war  literature. 
Prince  d^Allemagne  describes  the  morbid  tastes 
of  a  degenerate  German  prince,  who  is  thirsty 
for  human  blood,  and  enjoys  a  man-hunt  as  an- 
other might  the  pursuit  of  game.  Several  vol- 
umes of  short  war  stories  may  be  mentioned: 
Ren6  Bazin,  R6cita  du  temps  de  la  guerre;  L. 
Frapi4,  Contea  de  la  guerre;  H.  Bordeaux,  La 
jeuneaae  nouvelle,  deux  Mroa;  and  a  collection 
written  by  soldiers  in  the  trenches,  Contea  v&ri- 
diquea  dea  tranch4eay  par  un  groupe  de  poUua 
("poilu"  being,  since  the  war,  the  word  for  "sol- 
dier" in  military  slang).  Here  might  also  be 
named  such  publications  as  Paul  Nohain  and 
Frank  Delay's  Hiatoire  anecdotique  de  la  guerre 
(appearing  serially) ;  Paul  d*Ivoy*s  Femmea  et 
goaaea  Mroiquea,  A.  Hermanns  Heurea  de  guerre 
de  la  famihe  Valadier,  and  Tristan  Bernard's 
(the  famous  humorist's)  Le  paU  civil,  gazette 
d'un  iinmohilia6  pendant  la  guerre  describe  the 
life  in  France  back  of  the  firing-line.  In  the  do- 
main of  pure  fiction  a  delicate  production  by 
George  Auriol  deserves  mention.  La  geate  dea 
petita  aoldata  de  hoia  et  de  plomh,  with  pictures 
of  toy  soldiers  by  Hell6,  evoking  the  French 
heroic  stories  of  the  past,  especially  of  Charle- 
magne and  of  Napoleon. 

Otheb  War  Literature.  Many  notable  pro- 
ductions belonging  to  none  of  the  traditional 
genrea  we  group  here.  They  are  expressions  by 
the  ablest  pens  in  France,  of  the  emotions  in- 
spired by  the  war:  Lavedan,  "Les  grandes 
heures"  (his  weekly  articles  in  L*Illuatration)  ; 
Anatole  France,  8ur  la  voie  glorieuae;  R6my  de 
Grourmont,  Pendant  Vorage;  M.  Barr^s,  Aliace- 
Lorraine;  L'dme  francaiae  et  la  guerre;  Une 
viaite  aur  un  champ  de  bataUle;  Paul  Loti,  La 
grande  harharie;  Paul  Adam,  Bier^  aujourd'hui, 
demain;  P.  Margueritte,  Contre  lea  harharea:  J. 
Kichepin,  Proae  de  guerre;  V.  Giraud,  Le  miracle 
frangaia;  Andr6  Suar^s,  Noua  et  eux;  C*eat  la 
guerre;  Italiet  Italic!;  Fanchois,  VeilUe  dea 
armea.  Of  a  somewhat  special  character  are  the 
articles  of  G.  Herv4,  once  the  fanatic  anti-mili- 
tarist, and  author  of  Leur  Patrie.  Now  Apr^ 
la  Mame  and  La  patrie  en  danger  show  him  to 
be  an  ardent  patriot.  Herv4  finally  enlisted  in 
the  army.  Romain  Holland  justifies  in  Au-dea- 
sua  de  la  mSUe  his  position  when,  at  the  b^^- 


ning  of  the  war  (see  Year  Book,  1914),  he  en- 
deavored to  assume  a  moderate  attitude.  Inter- 
esting in  different  ways  are:  Nothomb,  VYaer, 
Lea  villea  aaintea;  R.  Benjamin,  Lea  aoldata 
de  la  guerre;  Juarfts,  Six  moia  de  guerre;  the 
striking  description  of  the  life  in  the  trenches, 
by  Charles  Le  Goffic,  entitled  Diwmude;  Abb« 
Klein,  La  guerre  vue  d*une  ambulance.  Notable 
among  memoirs  written  by  influential  people 
who  tell  about  political  events  of  recent  years 
with  a  view  to  explaining  the  present  are: 
Madame  J.  Adam,  L'heure  vengereaae  dea  Crimea 
Biamarkiena — ^mostly  letters  written  by  the  cele- 
brated editor  of  the  Nouvelle  Revue;  U<m  Dau- 
det  (author  of  L'Avant-guerre  in  which  he  elo- 
quently but  in  vain  warned  his  countrymen 
against  the  formidable  spy-system  of  Germany), 
souvenirs  under  the  title  L^entre-deuof  guerrea 
and  Bora  du  joug  allemand.  General  Canong[e'8 
Biatoire  de  Vinvaaion  allemande  en  1870-11  is  a 
remarkable  account  of  German  atrocities  in  the 
nrevious  war.  Gabriel  Langlois's  L'Allemagne 
oarbarCf  also  dealing  with  the  Germans  in  1870, 
contains  a  striking  chapter  showing  how 
the  famous  anthropologist  Quatrefages  had  re- 
fused to  believe  accounts  of  German  barbarities 
until  he  saw  Germans  stupidly  trying  to  destroy 
the  magnificent  collections  in  the  Museum  of 
Paris.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  J. 
Reinach's  Querre  de  19H-15y  oommentairea  de 
Polybe,  an  anthropological  study  of  the  German 
race;  and  of  Alphonse  S6ch6's  Lea  guerrea 
d^enfer,  discussing  such  problems  as  H.  G.  Wells 
deals  with  in  his  Anticipationa — ^the  war  of  the 
future,  not  chiefly  on  the  earth,  but  under 
ground,  under  water,  and  in  the  air. 

Among  books  on  Belgium  properly  to  be  con- 
sidered here  are:  Verhaeren,  La  Belgique  aang- 
lante;  P.  Nothomb,  La  Belgique  martyre;  H. 
Charriant,  Le  droit  contre  la  force,  la  Belgique 
terra  d^h^roiame;  Maxweiler,  La  Belgique  neutre 
et  loyale;  R.  de  Gourmont,  La  Belgique  littSr- 
aire, 

LrrERART  Criticism.  In  this  department  the 
production  is  slight.  There  are  to  be  mentioned, 
however:  a  belated  book  by  Benedetto,  Madame 
de  Warena  d'apr^a  dea  documenta  nouveauw,  an 
attack  on  Rousseau's  friend  in  Annecy  and  at 
the  Charmettes;  and  two  little  books  on  Charlea 
P^9^y  (see  Year  Book,  1914),  one  by  Suarte,  one 
by  Seippel.  The  unexpurgated  publication  of 
the  Journal  dea  Qoncourt  was  to  take  place  this 
winter;  the  editors  postponed  it  on  account  of 
the  war. 

Literary  Events.  The  transfer  to  the  Pan- 
theon of  the  renmins  of  Rouget  de  I'Isle,  tiie  au- 
thor of  the  Maraeillaiae,  took  place  on  the  14th 
of  July.  The  most  notable  deaths  which  oc- 
curred during  the  year  and  are  not  directly  con- 
nected with  the  war,  are:  the  historian  M^ziferes, 
and  the  playwright  P.  Hervieu,  both  of  the 
French  Academy;  R4my  de  Gourmont;  Stuart 
Merrill  (the  Symbolist  poet,  American  by 
birth);  F.  Loli^;  Madame  Lecomte  de  Nouy 
(the  author  of  AmitiS  amoureuae) ;  the  entom- 
ologist J.  H.  Fabre.  Among  the  men  of  letters 
who  gave  their  lives  in  the  war  are:  Rob.  d'Hu- 
miftres  (the  translator  of  Kipling) ;  Lafon  (au- 
thor of  U^Uve  Oillea) ;  Paul  Acker  (author  of 
Soldat  Bernard) ;  L.  Pergaud  (author  of  Oou- 
pil).  llie  French  Academy  decided  to  award  all 
its  prizes  this  year  to  soldiers  who  had  died  in 
the  war.  The  Grand  Prix  de  Litt^rature  went 
to  E.  Nolly;  the  Grand  Prix  Ckmin,  \o  Ch,  Pf 


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guy;  the  Prix  du  Roman  to  Paul  Acker;  the  Prix 
N4e,  to  Psichari;  and  various  other  prizes  to 
Ch.  Dumas,  the  poet,  to  Alain  Founier,  Pierre 
Leroy-Beaulieu,  Robert  d'Humi^res,  Ch.  Picar, 
Andr4  Lafon,  and  others.  The  Goncourt  Acad- 
emy awarded  its  yearly  prize  to  R.  Benjamin  for 
his  SoJdats  de  la  Ouerre,  Oaapard, 
FRENCH  NAVY.    See  Fbance,  Ifavy;  and 

I'^AVALi   PbOOBESS 

FBENCH  SoicALI  COAST.  A  French  pro- 
tectorate on  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Official  report 
gives  area  120,000  square  kilometers,  and  popu- 
lation (1911)  213,000.  Jibuti,  the  capital,  has 
about  17,000  inhabitants.  Imports  (1913),  33,- 
916,843  francs  (21,024,712  francs  in  1910) ;  ex- 
ports, 47,704,148  (33,566,887).  There  are  81 
miles  of  railway  in  the  country.  The  railway 
from  Jibuti  into  Abyssinia  is  being  extended  to 
Addis  Abeba). 

FBENCH  THEATBE  IN  NEW  YOBK. 
See  Dbaica,  Amkmcan  and  Eroush. 

FBENCH  WEST  AFBICA.  A  French  Afri- 
can possession  composed  of  the  following  colonies 
and  territories,  with  estimated  area  and  1911 
population  as  follows: 

8q.  km.  Pop. 

Senegal 191,600  1,247.0«6 

French  Oaine*    289,000  1,927.000 

Ivory  Coast 825.200  1,265,000 

Dahomev    107,000  002,000 

Upper  Senesal  and  Niger 782,700  )  ^  f.^~  ^^^^ 

MiLTer.  o£  the  Niger. 1,888.700  )  6.086,000 

Mauritenia    898.700  250,000 

ToUl *8.922.000  11,626.000 

*  1,514,682  square  miles. 

The  products  and  exports  are  peanuts,  rubber, 
palm  kernels,  palm  oil,  gum  arable,  live  animals, 
etc.  Imports  and  exports  of  the  colonies  in  the 
1913  trade  as  compared  with  the  trade  in  1910 
are  seen  below  (values  in  francs)  : 


four  bodies  of  Friends:  the  Orthodox,  Liberal 
(Hicksite),  Wilburite,  and  Primitive.  The  Or- 
thodox body  is  the  most  numerous.  It  has,  ac- 
cording to  the  latest  statistics  (1914),  98,856 
membo's,  1315  ministers,  and  775  meeting- 
houses. The  Hicksite  body  has  19,597  members, 
99  ministers,  and  211  meeting-houses;  the  Wil- 
burite, about  3880  members,  47  ministers,  and 
48  meeting-houses;  the  Primitive,  about  171 
members,  10  ministers,  and  8  churches.  The 
Liberal  or  Hicksite  branch  has  recently  shown 
much  activity  and  a  considerable  increase  in 
membership.  In  1915  three  summer  schools 
were  held  under  Hicksite  direction  at  Swarth- 
more,  Pa.,  at  Waynesville,  Ohio,  and  in  Can- 
ada. 

FBOHMAN,  GHABLB8.  American  theatrical 
manager,  died  May  8,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
1860,  in  Sandusky,  Ohio,  but  removed  when  still 
a  young  boy  to  New  York  City,  where  he  received 
his  education  in  the  public  schools.  For  several 
years  he  was  employed  in  newspaper  offices,  act- 
ing from  time  to  time  as  an  usher  in  theatres. 
In  1880  he  secured  employment  with  the  Chicago 
Dramatic  Company  with  which  he  remained  for 
two  seasons.  He  then  acted  for  some  time  as 
manager  of  a  minstrel  troupe.  After  several 
years,  he  became  associated  with  his  brother, 
Daniel,  in  the  management  of  the  Madison 
Square  Theatre.  In  addition  to  this,  he  was  in- 
terested in  a  number  of  minstrel  companies, 
which  he  sent  over  the  country,  and  in  several 
touring  dramatic  companies.  His  first  consider- 
able success  was  in  connection  with  his  manage- 
ment of  Bronson  Howard's  war  play  Shenandoah. 
This  brought  him  a  considerable  fortune.  He 
was  now  well  known  among  theatrical  managers. 
He  installed  a  stock  company  which  included 
Maude  Adams,  in  a  theatre  on  23rd  Street,  New 
York  City,  and  there  produced  Men  and  Women, 
by  Belasco  and  De  Mille,  and  other  well-known 


1910 

Senegal   82,607,568 

Upper  Senegal  and  Niger   7,086,901 

French   Guinea    29,562,772 

Ivory  Coast    16.040.454 

Dahomey     17,888.758 

ToUl    158,095,448 


Imports 


Exports 


1918 

1919 

1910 

88.070,795 
10.783,890 
19,418,212 
18,154.499 
15,152,404 

72.987,825 
8,681,987 
16,644,762 
16.401,815 
16,477,478 

64.254.179 
8,996.984 
18,306,405 
15.749,700 
17,886.254 

151,574.800 

126.148.852 

125,198.472 

The  total  value  of  all  imports  for  1912  was 
134,781,892  francs;  of  this  total,  imports  valued 
at  55,336,990  francs  came  from  France,  2,516,518 
francs  from  French  colonies,  and  76,928,474 
francs  from  other  countries.  Total  exports,  118,- 
567,231  francs;  of  which,  exports  valued  at  57,- 
614,182  francs  were  received  by  France,  96,281 
francs  by  French  colonies,  and  60,857,768  francs 
by  other  countries.  At  the  ports  of  Senegal 
there  were  entered  in  the  1912  trade  1081  ves- 
sels, of  2,318,349  tons;  French  Guinea,  730,  of 
724,828;  Ivory  Coast,  397,  of  925,597;  Dahomey, 
441.  of  585,537.  The  total  debt  stood,  Jan.  1, 
1912,  at  156,277,336  francs.  French  West  Africa 
is  administered  by  a  Grovernor-General.  The 
several  colonies  are  under  Lieutenant-Governors. 
Dakar,  in  Senegal,  is  the  capital.  Governor- 
General   (1015),  W.  Merlaud-Ponty. 

For  railways,  etc.,  see  the  articles  on  the  sep- 
arate colonies  and  territories. 

FBENKSEH,  GusTAV.  See  Gebm an  Lttera- 
TUBB,  Poetry. 

FBIi!HDS|  Kisj^iGjous  Society  or.    There  ar^ 


plays.  Of  these  was  Charley's  Aunt,  one  of  the 
most  successful  farces  ever  acted  in  the  United 
States.  Some  years  later  Mr.  Frohman  acquired 
the  Empire  Theatre;  and  he  brought  one  theatre 
after  another  in  New  York  City  under  his  con- 
trol. Then  he  attempted  management  in  Lon- 
don, where,  eventually,  he  controlled  as  many  as 
four  different  theatres.  At  the  time  of  *  his 
death,  however,  he  had  parted  with  all  but  one 
of  his  London  houses.  Mr.  Frohman  was  always 
more  favorably  disposed  to  English  and  French 
playwrights  than  to  those  of  his  own  country. 
Among  his  closest  friendships  was  that  with 
James  M.  Barrie,  and  of  Barrie's  plays  he  pre- 
sented, notably.  The  Little  Minieter  and  Peter 
Pan.  Amonur  the  actors  whom  he  developed  into 
stars  were  Ethel  Barrymore,  John  Drew,  Maude 
Adams,  Billie  Burke,  and  Julia  Sanderson. 
During  the  later  years  of  his  life,  he  gradually 
gave  up  his  theatrical  activities  in  New  York, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  controlled  only 
two  theatres  in  that  city.  He  was,  however,  as- 
Bgciate4  with  o^her  n^anagers  iq  th?  control  of 


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ntOHKAN 


242       QABBAGB  AKD  BBFUSE  BISPOSAL 


theatres  there  and  in  other  cities.  Mr.  Frohman 
was  little  known  outside  the  circle  of  his  most 
intimate  friends.  Practically  all  his  interest 
was  in  the  theatre  and  in  subjects  connected  with 
it.  He  was  traveling  to  Enffland  on  the  Lim- 
tania  when  that  ship  was  sunk  by  a  German  tor- 
pedo. A  friend  who  was  hj  his  side  when  the 
torpedo  struck  said  that  his  last  words  were: 
'*Why  should  we  fear  death?  It  is  the  most 
beautiful  adventure  in  life."  See  Drama,  Amer- 
ican AND  English. 

FBVIT.    See  Hobtioulture. 

FBYE  CASE.  See  United  States  and  the 
War. 

FULIiEB'S  EABTH.  In  1910,  John  Uri 
Lloyd,  of  Cincinnati,  noted  that  fuller's  earth 
when  added  to  alkaloids  diminished  or  abolidied 
their  bitter  taste  and  that  most  alkaloids  could 
be  removed  from  solutions  by  means  of  it.  This 
activity  apparently  resided  in  the  finest  particles 
of  the  earth  which  Lloyd  separated  by  elutria- 
tion  from  the  coarser  particles.  This  prepara- 
tion has  since  been  known  as  Lloyd's  reagent. 
(Lloyd  believed  at  first  that  his  reagent  would 
be  a  universal  antidote  for  alkaloids,  but  Felter, 
in  1011,  showed  that  strychnine  in  combination 
with  Lloyd's  reagent  was  still  capable  of  killing 
a  dog.  Lloyd  then  suggested  that  the  addition 
of  tartaric  acid  to  his  reagent  might  increase  its 
antidotal  value,  and  this  has  beoi  found  to  be 
the  fact.)  It  is  now  proposed  to  use  fuller's 
earth  as  an  antidote  for  poisoning  by  vegetable 
alkaloids.  Bernard  Fantus  has  made  a  study  of 
the  relative  value  of  several  of  the  preparations 
of  fuller's  earth  now  upon  the  market  in  regard 
to  their  absorptive  power  for  alkaloids.  He 
finds  that  Lloyd's  reagent  is  t^e  most  active  in 
this  respect,  whereas  kaolin,  the  fuller's  earth  of 
the  United  States  Dispensatory,  has  compara- 
tively little  or  no  value.  The  alkaloids  tested 
were  morphine,  quinine,  nicotine,  cocaine,  aconi- 
tine,  strychnine,  and  colchicine.  The  antidotal 
value  of  fuller's  earth  in  morphine  poisoning  is 
much  superior  to  that  in  strychnine  poisoning. 
It  has  also  a  marked  antidotal  action  in  cocaine, 
nicotine,  and  ipecac  poisoning.  Although  it  has 
less  value  in  neutralizing  strychnine  and  aconi- 
tine,  even  here  it  may  save  life  if  combined 
with  sodium  dihydrogen.  In  this  connection  the 
work  of  Kraus  and  Barbara,  with  regard  to  the 
action  of  charcoal  and  kaolin  in  deep  wounds, 
may  be  mentioned.  They  found  that  filterable 
viruses  are  taken  up  by  charcoal  so  rapidly  that 
they  lose  their  toxic  properties  for  the  tissues. 
They  suggest  that  kaolin  and  charcoal  might  be 
utilized  to  arrest  infection  in  wounds. 

FUBw  An  interesting  development  of  the  year 
in  the  American  fur  industry  was  the  operation 
of  the  only  sealskin  plant  in  the  United  States, 
which  was  engaged  in  unhairing  and  dyeing  7000 
skins,  the  property  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, and  secured  from  Alaskan  seals  during  the 
closed  season.  This  work  was  being  done  at  the 
warehouse  of  Funston  Brothers  and  Company  of 
St.  Louis,  and  15  experts  from  London  were  en- 
gaged in  this  work.  London  formerly  was  the 
centre  of  the  sealskin  industry,  and  such  work 
as  is  now  done  in  St.  Louis  was  carried  on  there. 
When  the  closed  season  of  five  years  ends,  and 
the  killing  of  seals  can  be  carried  on  by  private 
individuals,  it  was  believed  that  St.  Louis  would 
take  the  place  of  London  as  the  sealskin  market, 
and  the  plant  would  be  increased  to  take  care  of 
the  larger  numbers  being  treated.    In  that  event 


it  was  expected  that  sealskins  would  be  much 
cheaper. 

Alaskan  conditions  as  regards  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals have  become  complex.  The  steady  expan- 
sion of  the  industry  of  fox-farming  has  led  to 
injurious  inroads  on  wild  game,  which  the  United 
States  Department  of  Commerce  has  endeavored 
to  remedy  by  revised  regulations.  Circular  246, 
June  1,  1915.  Fur  shipments  from  Alaska  are 
now  tabulated  for  the  year  ending  November 
15th,  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  annual  take 
in  the  open  season.  The  following  figures  indi- 
cate the  more  important  furs  taken  in  the  years 
1913  (precede)  and  1914  (follows)  respectively: 
Ermine,  6559  and  6873;  red  fox,  10,820  and  14,- 
967;  white  fox,  3756  and  6530;  lynx,  4772  and 
6930;  marten,  9682  and  6497;  mink,  47,062  and 
35,623;  muskrat,  163,616  and  101,202;  land 
otter,  1300  and  1008.  It  is  yet  a  closed  period 
for  fur-seal.  The  value  of  the  Alarican  furs, 
land  and  marine,  for  1915  approximates  $460,- 
000,  including  the  3000  seal-skins  taken  from 
animals  killed  for  food  on  the  Pribilof  Islands. 
No  pelagic  skins  were  reported. 

In  October  the  United  States  initiated  public 
auction  sales  of  its  Alaskan  furs,  which  hitherto 
have  been  sold  abroad.  The  list  was  led  by 
the  513  blue-fox  skins,  which  brought  an  aver- 
age of  $114.45  per  skin,  an  advance  of  about  $72 
over  the  price  at  the  last  sale.  Eight  selected 
lots  of  blue-fox  brought  prices  ranging  from 
$245  to  $273  per  skin.  The  best  grade  of  white- 
fox  sold  for  $30  and  the  lowest  for  $17,  the 
average  being  $24.55  per  skin.  Unprime  beaver 
brought  from  $9  to  $17  per  skin.  Silver-fox 
(non-government)  brought  prices  ranging,  for 
seven  pairs,  from  $1060  to  $2610  per  pair.  See 
also  Alaska. 

OALIdA.    See  Austria-Hunqart. 

QAXmUASI^  General.  See  France,  Eistory, 
passim. 

QALSWOBTHYy  John.  See  Literature, 
English  and  Aicerican,  Fiction. 

OALVBSTON.     See  Hxtrrioanes. 

GAHBIA.  A  British  West  African  colony  on 
the  river  Gambia  (area,  69  square  miles),  with 
a  protectorate  extending  on  both  banks  of  the 
river  for  250  miles  from  its  mouth  (about  4000 
square  miles).  Capital,  Bathurst.  Population 
of  St.  Mary's  Island,  on  which  Bathurst  is  situ- 
ated, 8807;  of  the  protected  districts,  152,000. 
The  cultivation  of  peanuts  is  the  principal  indus- 
try. Imports,  1913,  £1,091,129  (1910,  £578,- 
983).  Imports  of  cotton  goods  in  1913,  £201,- 
797  (£130,611  in  1910);  kola  nuts,  £91,381 
(£65,534);  rice,  £62,512  (£46,087);  sugar,  £19,- 
422  (£9708);  spirits,  £17,141  (£7129);  specie, 
£471,835  (£208,544),  etc.  About  49  per  cent  of 
the  imports  come  from  England.  Exports,  1913, 
£867,187  (1910,  £535,447).  Exports  of  peanuts 
(mostly  to  France)  in  1913,  £622,098  (in  1910, 
£387,943);  hides,  £18,718  (£11,310);  palm  ker- 
nels, £9026  (£5640);  specie,  £204,781  (£112r 
194) ;  etc.  Revenue,  1913,  £124,995  (1910,  £82,- 
880);  expenditure,  £95,211  (£63,301). 

GABBAQE  AND  BBFVSB  DISPOSAL. 
The  general  status  of  the  disposal  of  garbage, 
ashes,  and  miscellaneous  refuse  was  imchanged 
in  1915.  Of  the  larger  cities  of  the  United 
States  that  have  changed  from  primitive  means 
of  garbage  disposal,  most  depend  upon  garbage 
reduction  to  recover  grease  and  fertilizer  base 
from  the  garbage.  Other  cities,  large  and 
small,   employing   improved   means   of  garbage 


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GABBAQE  AND  SBTUSB  DISPOSAL      243 


GABY  SCHOOL  SY8TBM 


dispoflal,  rely  upon  incineration.  The  Chicago 
reduction  pluit,  bought  from  a  company  in  1914, 
and  immediately  improved  by  tiie  city,  was  fur- 
ther improved  in  1915,  and  in  addition,  steps 
were  taken  to  build  incinerating  plants  for  out- 
lying districts.  The  municipally-owned  plants 
at  Cleveland  and  Columbus  continued  in  use,  and 
a  new  one  was  put  in  operation  by  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  year,  and  still 
others  were  being  built  for  Akron  and  for  Day- 
ton, Ohio.  The  privately-built  reduction  works 
for  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  (see  Year  Books  for  1913 
and  1914) ,  of  the  Cobwell  type,  were  put  in  oper- 
ation. At  the  Milwaukee  garbage  retuse-inciner- 
ating  plant  some  progress  seemed  to  have  been 
made  with  the  utilization  of  the  heat  of  com- 
bustion for  the  production  of  more  electric  cur- 
rent than  was  needed  for  works  purposes,  the 
surplus  being  transmitted  two  miles  and  used  to 
pump  water  for  ameliorating  the  condition  of  a 
sewage-polluted  river.  A  much  smaller  refuse 
incinerator  at  Palo  Alto,  Cal.  (5600  population), 
having  a  rated  daily  capacity  of  30  tons,  burned 
a  total  of  1872  tons  in  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1915.  It  cost  $2468  to  collect  the  refuse,  $1606 
to  burn  it,  $654  for  general  expense,  and  $1593 
for  capital  charges,  making  a  total  of  $6322 
yearly  gross  expense  for  collection  and  disposal. 
Householders  were  charged  $3051  for  collection, 
there  was  a  credit  of  $85  for  steam  delivered  to 
a  power  plant,  and  enough  miscellaneous  revenue 
to  bring  the  total  receipts  up  to  $3204.  This 
made  the  net  cost  of  collecting  and  disposing  of 
1872  tons  of  refuse  $3118.  'Hie  scale  of  collec- 
tion charges  was  from  $0.15  a  month  for  collec- 
tions twice  a  month  to  $1.75  a  month  for  daily 
collections.  Beginning  July  1,  1915,  the  charges 
were  raised  to  the  following  rates  per  month: 
Collections  twice  a  month,  $0.26;  once  a  week, 
$0.50;  twice  a  week,  $0.80;  three  times  a  week, 
$1.25;  six  times  a  week,  $2.50. 

In  Canada,  as  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe 
generally,  garbage  is  burned  rather  than  reduced 
— almost  always  combined  with  other  city  re- 
fuse. The  Health  Department  of  Milwaukee,  as 
the  winter  of  1915-16  approached,  suggested  in 
its  Health  Bulletin  that  householders  would  do 
well  to  drain  their  garbage,  wrap  it  in  paper 
after  each  meal,  and  burn  it  in  their  stoves  or 
furnaces  when  fires  were  available.  By  this 
means  decaying,  odor-producing  garbage  would  be 
obviated  and,  it  might  have  b^n  added,  the  bur- 
den on  the  refuse  incinerator  would  be  lessened. 

GABDENING.    See  Hobtictjltubb. 

GABNETT,  Theodobe  Stanford.  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  died  April  27,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  in  1844,  and  received  a  high 
school  education.  He  enlisted  in  the  Confed- 
erate army  as  private  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
captain,  serving  as  aide  on  the  staffs  of  Gens.  J. 
E.  B.  Stuart  and  W.  H.  F.  Lee.  After  1873  he 
practiced  law  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  became  one 
of  the  best  known  lawyers  in  the  State.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  patriotic  societies,  and  trustee 
of  several  important  institutions. 

GA^EtETT,  Mart  E.  An  American  philan- 
thropist, died  April  3,  1915.  She  was  bom  in 
Baltimore,  the  daughter  of  John  W.  Garrett, 
president  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway. 
At  her  father's  death  in  1884  Miss  Garrett  in- 
herited a  third  of  his  large  fortune.  Thereafter 
she  devoted  her  time  and  money  to  education  and 
to  philanthropy,  giving  large  sums  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  medical  education  for  women  and 


to  woman  suffrage.  In  association  with  Miss 
Carey  Thomas,  now  president  of  Bryn  Mawr,  and 
three  other  Baltimore  women,  she  established  in 
1885  a  Bryn  Mawr  School  for  Girls  at  Baltimore. 
In  1890  she  made  it  possible  for  the  medical 
school  of  Johns  Hopkins  to  open  its  doors  and 
secured  the  admission  of  women  to  it  on  equal 
terms  with  men.  She  organized  committees  of 
women  in  manv  States  to  raise  a  subscription  of 
$100,000  to  help  endow  the  medical  school,  and 
herself  contributed  over  $300,000.  Her  gifts  to 
Bryn  Mawr  amounted  to  over  $150,000.  From 
1893  she  gave  annually  to  the  trustees  of  the 
college  $10,000  to  be  expended  for  academic  pur- 
poses. In  1908  she  rebuilt,  decorated,  and  fur- 
nished the  president's  house  at  a  cost  of  over 
$100,000.  She  was  elected  a  director  of  the  col- 
lege in  1906.  She  took  an  active  part  in  fur- 
thering woman  suffrage. 

GABY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM.  During  the  past 
few  years  Superintendent  Wirt  has  developed  a 
system  of  organization  and  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  of  Gary,  Ind.,  that  has  attracted 
much  attention.  During  1914  the  Mayor  of  New 
York  accompanied  by  representatives  of  the 
Boards  of  Education  and  Estimate  visited  Gary 
and  examined  the  system  with  a  view  to  intro- 
ducing it  into  the  New  York  schools.  The  Board 
of  Estimate  employed  Superintendent  Wirt  to 
devote  one  week  in  each  of  10  months  in  1915 
to  supervising  the  introduction  of  his  system 
into  several  city  schools.  Two  schools  were  re- 
organized under  the  Gary  plan,  Public  School 
Number  45,  the  Bronx,  and  Public  School  Num- 
ber 80,  Brooklyn.  The  Board  of  Education  has 
authorized  its  introduction  into  12  other  schools 
in  the  Bronx.  This  reorganization  has  met  with 
some  determined  opposition  on  the  part  of  some 
of  the  school  officials  and  teachers.  Doubtless  it 
will  be  necessary  to  modify  somewhat  the  sys- 
tem used  in  Gary  before  it  will  be  adapted  to 
New  York  conditions. 

One  of  the  chief  features  of  the  organization 
of  the  schools  in  Gary  is  the  economical  use  of 
the  school  plant.  In  ordinary  schools  the  build- 
ing is  used  for  only  a  part  of  the  day.  If,  for 
example,  there  are  eight  classes  in  a  school,  there 
are  eight  class  rooms.  During  the  periods  that 
the  classes  are  in  the  gymnasiiun  or  laboratory 
or  on  the  playgroimd,  these  class  rooms  are  va- 
cant. Superintendent  Wirt  organizes  his  schools 
in  what  has  been  called  the  "two-school"  plan. 
In  place  of  the  8  classes  in  an  8  room  building, 
he  has  16  classes.  One  group  of  8  classes  assem- 
bles at  8:15  A.M.  The  second  group  comes  at 
9:15.  The  activities  of  the  school  are  divided 
into  four  departments.  Department  one  con- 
sists of  language,  mathematics,  history,  and 
geography,  and  the  work  is  conducted  in  class 
rooms  of  the  ordinary  type.  Department  two  in- 
cludes science,  manual  training,  drawing,  and 
music,  and  the  classes  are  conducted  in  the 
shops,  laboratory,  and  studio.  Department  three 
consists  of  mass  instruction  and  is  conducted  in 
the  auditorium.  Department  four  consists  of 
physical  training,  play,  and  application,  and  is 
conducted  in  the  gymnasiums,  swimming  pools, 
playgrounds,  and  playrooms.  The  16  classes 
are  divided  into  4  groups  of  4  classes  each.  If 
one-half  of  the  grades  1-4  are  called  group  A, 
one-half  of  the  grades  5-8  group  B,  the  other 
half  of  the  grades  1  to  4  group  C,  and  the  other 
half  of  the  grades  5  to  8  group  D,  the  plan  of 
operation  can  be  indicated  as  follows: 


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PLAN  OF  OPERATION  OP  POUR  DEPARTMENTS 

Depart-    Depart-  Depart-  Depart- 

Time                ment  1     ment  2     ment  8  ment  4 

8:15 —  9:15              A             B  OD 

9:15—10:16              B              A              C  D 

10:15 — 11:15              C             D              A  B 

11:15 — 12:15  D  C 

12:15 —  1:80  A  B 

1:80—  2:30              B              A              D  0 

2:80—  8:80              0             D              B  A 

8:80—  4:80             DC  AB 


The  above  plan  of  operation  for  a  16 -class 
school  should  be  read  as  follows:  From  8:15 
to  9:16  group  A,  consisting  of  four  classes, 
grades  1  to  4,  is  working  in  the  regular  class- 
rooms. Group  B,  consisting  of  four  classes, 
grades  5  to  8,  is  working  in  the  shops,  labora- 
tories, and  studios.  The  remaining  eight  classes, 
composing  groups  G  and  D,  are  working  in  the 
gymnasiums,  playrooms,  or  on  the  playgrounds. 
From  9:16  to  10:15  group  B  is  working  in  the 
classrooms,  group  A  is  working  in  the  shops, 
laboratories,  and  studios,  group  G,  consisting  of 
four  classes,  grades  1  to  4,  is  working  in  the  au- 
ditorium, and  the  remaining  children,  consti- 
tuting group  D,  are  still  on  the  playgrounds  or 
in  the  gymnasiums  or  playrooms. 

Another  feature  of  the  Gary  plan  is  the  com- 
bining of  elementary  and  high  schools  in  the 
same  building.  One  of  the  main  objects  for  this 
combination  is  the  improved  shop,  laboratory, 
and  auditorium  advantages  that  are  offered  to 
the  elementary  school. 

The  following  quotation  gives  the  Gary  idea 
of  a  school  plant:  "It  is  a  playground,  garden, 
workshop,  social  centre,  library,  and  traditional 
school  combined  under  the  same  management. 
It  is  considered  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
right  conditions  be  provided  for  the  pleasure  and 
recreation  of  the  child  and  adult.  In  addition, 
a  properly  organized  playground,  workshop,  and 
school  secure  the  same  attitude  of  mind  toward 
the  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  that  the 
child  normally  has  for  play.  Also  the  shop  and 
school  features  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the 
plant  as  a  recreation  and  social  centre  for  adults. 

The  school  day  may  be  eight  and  a  quarter 
hours  but  the  organization  is  so  flexible  that 
children  may  get  all  of  their  academic  work  dur- 
ing four  hours  in  the  forenoon  or  four  hours  in 
the  afternoon,  and  if  the  parents  can  convince 
the  school  authorities  that  the  children's  time 
can  be  wisely  used  elsewhere  the  children  are 
excused  from  the  other  four  hours'  attendance. 

The  peculiar  features  of  Instruction  in  the 
Gary  plan  are  departmental  instructors  through- 
out the  entire  school  and  a  system  of  industrial 
education  in  which  artisans  are  employed  as  in- 
structors and  the  regular  repairs  and  additions 
to  school  furniture  and  buildings  furnish  the 
basis  of  instruction.  No  attempt  is  made  to  fit 
the  younger  children  to  specific  vocations.  The 
auditorium  is  used  for  definite  instruction  pur- 
poses. The  buildings  are  open  Saturdays  and 
evenings,  also  for  a  period  during  the  summer. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  number  of  adults  who 
make  use  of  the  school  building  is  larger  than 
the  number  of  children  enrolled  in  the  schools. 

There  are  conflicting  opinions  regarding  the 
comparative  per  capita  cost  of  the  Gary  system 
and  others.  By  some  it  is  claimed  that  the 
school  expenses  are  greatly  reduced  by  the  Gary 
plan.  Others  seem  to  find  that  there  is  a  con- 
siderable   increase   over    the   regular    cost.    No 


data  which  are  entirely  reliable  are  at  present 
available. 

Superintendent  Wirt  has  been  employed  for 
part  time  during  the  year  1916  to  continue  his 
supervision  of  the  work  in  New  York  City. 

A  number  of  cities  have  taken  the  form  of  or- 
ganization and  adapted  it  to  local  needs. 

One  of  the  most  reliable  descriptions  of  the 
organization  of  the  schools  in  Gary  is  found  in 
Bulletin,  1914,  No,  18,  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  entitled  "The  Public  School  System 
of  Gary,  Indiana."  The  best  description  and 
evaluation  of  the  instruction  given  in  the  Gary 
schools  is  to  be  found  in  Schools  of  To-morrow, 
by  John  Dewey. 

GAS  ENGINES.  See  Internal  Combustion 
Engines. 

GASES,  AsPHTXiATiNQ.  See  Chemistbt,  In- 
dustrial, Asphyxiating  Oases. 

GAS-FILLED  LAMP.  See  Electbic  Light- 
ing; and  Photogbaphy. 

GASOLINE.    See  Ciiekistby,  Industbial. 

GAS  WABPABE.    See  Militaby  Pbogbess. 

GEIKIEy  Jakes.  A  Scotch  geologist  and 
educator,  died  March  2,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1839,  and  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh University.  In  1861  he  entered  the  Eng- 
lish Geological  Survey,  becoming  in  1869  a  dis- 
trict surveyor.  He  was  appointed  to  the  Mur- 
chison  chair  of  geology  in  Edinburgh  University 
in  1882,  and  held  this  position  until  his  death. 
In  addition  he  was  dean  of  the  faculty  of  the 
university.  He  received  many  medals  from  geo- 
logical and  geographic  societies,  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  at  one  time  president  of  the 
Royal  Scottish  Geographical  Society.  He  was 
honorary  editor  of  the  Scottish  Oeographical 
Magazine.  His  writings  include:  The  Oreat 
Ice  Age  (1874),  Prehistoric  Europe  (1882), 
Outlines  of  Geology  ( 1884),  Structural  and  Field 
Geology  (1906),  Mountains,  Their  Origin, 
Growth,  and  Decay  (1913),  and  The  Antiquity  of 
Man  in  Europe  ( 1914) . 

GEMS  AND  PBECIOTJS  STONES.  The 
total  value  of  precious  and  semi-precious  stones 
in  the  United  States  in  1914  as  reported  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  was  $124,651. 
A  demand  for  the  gems  at  the  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition  resulted  in  an  increased  production 
of  turquoise  of  $13,370,  as  compared  with  $8075 
in  1913.  No  discoveries  of  unusual  deposits  of 
gem  minerals  were  made  during  the  year,  but  a 
few  prospects  for  the  less  valuable  gems  were 
found.  Among  these  were  the  pink  beryl  in 
Maine,  amazon  stone,  a  variety  of  feldspar,  in 
California,  New  York,  and  Maine,  sunstone  in 
Arizona,  and  turquoise  in  Nevada. 

GENEBAL  EDUCATION  BOABD.  See 
Univebsities  and  Colleges,  section  so  entitled. 

GENEBATOBS.     See  Dtnaico-Electbig  Ma- 

CHINEBT. 

GENETICS.     See  Zoology,  Genetics, 
GEODETIC     STJBVEY.    See    Explobation, 
Oceanic. 

GEOGBAPHICAL  SOCIETY,  Amebican. 
A  scientific  body  organized  in  1852  with  head- 
quarters at  New  York  City.  During  1916  about . 
40,000  persons  attended  the  public  exhibitions 
of  the  society,  at  which  were  displayed  war  maps 
of  Europe,  and  exhibits  on  the  development  of 
the  Philippines  and  of  Alaska.  The  Cullum 
Geographical  Medal  of  the  society  was  awarded 
to  J.  Scott  Keltic,  the  Daly  Medal  to  Prof.  Paul 
Vidal  de  la  Blacbe,    The  society's  BuUeiin  for 


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1915  (984  pages),  which  was  edited  by  Gyrus  G. 
Adams,  coyers  the  new  geographical  investiga- 
tions of  the  year  as  well  as  special  articles  and 
geographic  notes  on  the  European  war.  In  1915 
was  published  the  Memorial  Volume  of  the 
Transcontinental  Excursion  of  1912,  which  was 
announced  as  in  preparation  in  1914.  On  Jan. 
1,  1915,  the  society  had  1127  members.  The  offi- 
cers for  1915  were  as  follows:  Honorary  presi- 
dent, Archer  M.  Huntington;  vice-presidents, 
James  B.  Ford,  John  Greenough,  and  Anton  A. 
Raven;  foreign  corresponding  secretary,  William 
Libbey;  domestic  corresponding  secretary,  Archi- 
bald D.  Russell;  recording  secretary,  Hamilton 
Fish  Keen;  treasurer,  Henry  Parish,  Jr. 

OEOGBAFHIO  SOCIETY^  Nationai..  The 
work  of  the  Society  in  1915  covered  a  wider 
field  than  in  any  previous  year.  Two  scientiflc 
expeditions  were  maintained,  one  engaged  in 
archflpological  and  geographic  research  in  the 
highlands  of  Peru,  and  the  other  in  the  making 
of  Alaskan  studies  in  connection  with  the  de- 
velopment of  that  Territory.  The  Society  ex- 
pended $20,000  as  its  share  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  National-Geographic-Society- Yale-Univer- 
sity-Peruvian  Expedition,  which  was  in  charge 
of  Prof.  Hiram  Bingham.  The  results  of  the 
expedition,  as  thus  far  analyzed,  confirm  the 
opinion  that  Machu  Picchu  was  the  capital  of 
the  Incas  when  their  nation  was  in  its  golden 
age.  During  the  work  of  the  expedition  in  its 
three  years  in  the  field  more  than  12,000  pic- 
tures were  taken,  of  which  1000  were  of  Peru- 
vian Indian  types,  3000  of  ruins,  more  than 
1000  of  manners  and  customs,  and  4000  illus- 
trating the  topography,  physiography,  and  geol- 
ogy of  the  higher  Andes.  O.  H.  Tittmann,  who 
for  48  years  was  connected  with  the  Goast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  was  elected  to  succeed  the  late 
Henry  Gannett  as  president  of  the  Society,  of 
which  Gilbert  H.  Grosvenor  is  the  director  and 
editor.  The  National  Geographic  Magazine  is 
published  monthly  by  the  Society.  The  mem- 
bership was  424,477,  a  net  gain  of  87,031  for 
the  year. 

GEOLOGY.  There  were  no  outstanding  fea- 
tures that  seemed  to  mark  a  definite  trend  in 
research  during  the  year  1915,  but  great  activ- 
ity was  manif^  in  all  departments  of  geology, 
as  indicated  by  the  array  of  periodical  litera- 
ture and  treatises  of  the  most  varied  subject 
matter.  Only  a  few  of  the  contributions  can  be 
noted,  and  attention  will  be  paid  especially  to 
those  of  broad  significance  or  popular  interest. 
A  prominent  place  in  the  record  must  be  as- 
signed to  the  publication  of  a  general  account 
of  the  geology  of  the  world  {Handhuch  der 
regionalen  Oeologie),  which  had  been  under- 
taken by  Steinmann  and  Wilckens  with  the  co- 
operation of  many  assistants  for  the  different 
countries  and  regions  to  be  described.  In  all, 
55  parts  were  to  be  issued,  each  following  a 
common  plan  of  treatment.  The  scope  is  com- 
prehensive, and  includes  consideration  of  the 
morphology,  stratigraphy,  petrology,  geological 
history,  mountain  systems,  and  economic  fea- 
tures, with  a  supplementary  bibliography.  In 
view  of  the  proposed  publication  of  an  interna- 
tional geological  map,  upon  which  work  had  al- 
ready been  begun  by  the  issue  of  the  section 
covering  the  Continent  of  Europe,  the  present 
undertaking  seems  timely,  both  from  scientific 
and  practical  standpoints. 

RADioAcnvrrr  aitd  ths  Aok  or  the  Earth. 


The  possible  relations  of  radioactive  energy  to 
the  rate  of  cooling  of  the  earth,  on  the  assump- 
tion of  a  once  molten  globe,  continue  to  at- 
tract attention  as  further  data  in  regard  to 
the  distribution  of  radium  are  made  known. 
The  researches  of  Strutt  and  Joly  in  this  con- 
nection have  already  been  discussed  (see  Ybab 
Book  for  1909).  Arthur  Holmes  presents  the 
latest  results  that  bear  upon  the  problem  and 
estimates  the  effect  of  radioactivity  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  three-fourths  of  the  present  flow  of  heat; 
the  period  of  cooling  in  consequence  is  raised 
from  22  million  years  to  1600  million  years,  on 
the  basis  of  an  earth  heated  uniformly  to  1000** 
G.  at  the  start.  If  the  quantity  of  radium  that 
has  been  found  to  exist  in  the  surface  rocks  were 
distributed  in  the  same  ratios  throughout  the 
entire  body,  it  would  more  than  supply  the  loss 
of  heat  from  conduction  and  radiation,  and  the 
earth  actually  would  be  getting  warmer,  but 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  radioactive  enersy 
decreases  with  depth,  as  also  it  is  not  equally 
distributed.  The  oldest  igneous  rocks  now  ex- 
posed may  date  back  1500  years,  according  to 
the  ratios  derived  from  the  radioactive  elements. 

IBOSTAST.  Becker  considers  the  geodetic  evi- 
dence in  support  of  isostasy  to  suffice  for  its 
demonstration.  The  level  at  which  compensation 
takes  place  is  the  level  of  easiest  fusion  or  eu- 
texia  in  the  earth,  and  below  that  depth  the  ma- 
terials have  cooled  only  to  a  trifling  extent  or 
are  nearly  in  a  state  of  ease.  The  permanence 
of  the  continental  masses  above  sea  bottom  indi- 
cates that  the  mean  density  of  the  subcontinental 
columns  of  rock  down  to  the  zone  of  compensa- 
tion is  lower  than  the  density  of  the  suboceanic 
columns.  This  difference  is  ascribable  to  a  mod- 
erate excess  in  the  proportion  of  voids  beneath 
the  continents  (about  3  per  cent)  or  to  an  excess 
in  mean  temperature  (some  hundreds  of  de- 
grees) or  to  a  combination  of  the  two  causes. 
It  is  thought  that  the  outer  layer  takes  in  heat 
energy  of  very  high  temperature  and  discharges 
it  by  conduction  and  radiation  at  a  little  above 
zero,  while  a  part  of  the  energy  thus  made 
available  is  converted  into  mechanical  work  im- 
plied in  uplift,  rupture,  and  plication  of  the 
continents.  The  compensation  level,  according 
to  the  calculations  of  geodesists,  is  between  110 
and  140  kilometers  from  the  surface.  The 
smaller  depth  is  unacceptable  as  a  basis  for  the 
calculation  of  the  earth's  age,  leading  to  results 
that  are  insufficient  for  geological  requirements. 
A  depth  of  140  kilometers  indicates  an  age  of 
100,000,000  years  and  the  probable  value  seems 
to  lie  between  this  as  a  maximum  and  68,000,000 
years  as  a  minimum.  On  the  basis  of  100,000,- 
000  years  the  contribution  of  radioactivity 
would  be  26  per  cent  of  the  total  heat  lost. 
Becker  is  inclined  therefore  to  take  a  more  mod- 
erate view  of  the  importance  of  this  energy  than 
the  English  physicists  whose  opinions  have  al- 
ready been  expressed. 

VoLCANiSM.  The  Silliman  lectures  at  Yale 
University  by  Iddings  dealt  with  the  problems  of 
volcanism  and  the  origin  of  igneous  rocks;  they 
developed  no  new  theories  but  afforded  a  critical 
estimate  of  those  already  formulated.  The  view 
is  taken  that  the  source  of  thermal  action  may 
be  found  in  radioactivity,  without  calling  upon 
the  residual  heat  of  a  cooling  globe.  As  to  the 
condition  of  the  earth's  interior  Iddings  holds 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  may  not  be 
solid  and  cold. 


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Phtsiogbaphy.  a  series  of  papers  by  J.  D. 
Falconer  treated  of  the  origin  and  relations  of 
the  earth's  physical  features,  with  a  philosophic 
discussion  of  recent  work  in  this  field.  As  a 
starting  point  for  his  treatment  of  landforms, 
he  assumed  that  "the  face  of  the  earth  was 
orifirinally  fitted  out  with  a  certain  primary  re- 
lief and  that  this  relief  has  been  from  time  to 
time  locally  restored  and  rejuvenated  in  order 
to  counteract  the  activity  of  the  superficial  forces 
of  denudation  which  tend  to  lessen  and  remove 
all  irregularities  in  relief.  In  this  way  we  ad- 
vance to  the  idea  of  Primary  features  or  forms 
of  the  earth's  surface,  whose  origin  may  be 
ascribed  directly  to  the  activity  of  the  subter- 
ranean forces,  as  opposed  to  Secondary  features 
or  forms  which  have  originated  on  the  surface  as 
the  result  of  the  activity  of  the  superficial 
forces."  In  the  place  of  Primary  and  Secondary, 
which  abeady  have  definite  historical  significance 
in  geology,  he  used  the  words  en'dogenetic  and 
exogenetic  for  the  two  main  groups.  Endogen- 
etic  forms  are  divided  into  tectonic  forms,  aris- 
ing from  radial  or  tangential  activity  of  the  sub- 
terranean forces,  and  volcanic  forms,  ascribable 
to  local  igneous  activity  as  a  proximate  cause. 
The  exogenetic  forms  are  divided  into  degrada- 
tion forms  and  aggradation  forms. 

GoBAL  Reefs.  As  the  result  of  his  studies  of 
the  coral  formations  of  Florida  and  the  West 
Indies,  Vaughan  concludes  that  the  coral  organ- 
isms have  played  a  subordinate  part  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  Floridian  plateau.  The  development 
of  coral  reefs  took  place  on  a  subsiding  platform 
which  owed  its  origin  to  causes  other  than  those 
dependent  on  the  growth  of  corals.  The  work 
of  corals  in  the  constructional  way  is  not  so  im- 
portant as  has  been  believed.  All  known  off- 
shore reefs,  which  have  been  investigated,  grow 
on  submerged  platforms  of  recent  depression. 
Furthermore,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that 
long-continued  subsidence  has  taken  place  in  any 
coral-reef  area,  or  that  a  barrier  reef  began  to 
form  as  a  fringing  reef  and  assumed  its  present 
aspect  through  sinking  of  the  land.  This  view 
does  not  accord  with  Darwin's  theory,  but  has 
reference  to  a  single  region  and  perhaps  may  not 
be  broadly  applicable.  Another  important  ob- 
servation made  by  Vaughan  is  that  corals  and 
coralline  algsB  are  less  important  agents  in  the 
abstraction  of  calcium  carbonate  from  sea  water 
than  many  other  kinds  of  organisms;  bacteria 
rank  first  in  this  respect,  followed  by  foramini- 
fera  and  mollusks. 

Origin  of  Dolomite.  As  a  test  of  the  theory 
that  crinoids  secrete  magnesia  and  thus  possibly 
participate  in  the  formation  of  dolomite,  Clarke 
and  Wheeler  analyzed  a  number  of  different 
species  from  various  geological  horizons.  In 
some  recent  species  they  found  from  7  to  13  per 
cent,  those  of  warmer  waters  being  relatively 
richer  in  the  substance,  for  some  unexplainable 
reason.  The  fossil  forms,  from  Ordovician  to 
Eocene  age,  showed  in  one  example  about  20  per 
cent,  but  the  rest  only  from  1  to  2.6  per  cent. 
The  large  result  in  the  one  case  may  have  been 
due  to  a  later  dolomitization  of  the  rock  from 
which  the  sample  came.  The  evidence,  therefore, 
does  not  appear  to  give  much  support  to  the 
theory. 

Sedimentation.  In  connection  with  the  wear 
of  the  lands  by  erosion  and  the  upbuilding  of 
the  continental  platforms  by  deposit  of  the 
waste,  calculations  of  the  amount  of  sediment 


carried  by  the  great  rivers  are  of  pertinent  in- 
terest. Keilhack  contributes  some  data  obtained 
from  measurements  of  the  Yangtse,  near  its 
mouth  at  Wusung.  The  flow  of  the  river  is  esti- 
mated at  3,500,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  flood 
and  1,760,000  cubic  feet  per  second  as  a  mean  for 
the  year.  Filtration  experiments  indicated  that 
37,500  pounds  of  detritus  were  carried  per  sec- 
ond, or  584,000,000  tons  per  year.  The  total 
discharge  of  sediment  is  reckoned  at  8840  million 
cubic  feet,  enough  to  cover  300  square  miles  to 
a  depth  of  1  foot. 

Pbe-Cambbian  Fobmations.  Miller  and 
Knight,  working  in  the  crystalline  rocks  of  On- 
tario, a  region  made  notable  by  Sir  William 
Logan's  early  studies,  submit  a  new  classifica- 
tion of  the  formations  which  embodies  many  in- 
novations, in  fact  amounts  to  a  complete  recast- 
ing of  the  earlier  systems.  Its  most  important 
feature,  perhaps,  is  the  abandonment  of  the  dual 
idea — ^the  division  into  two  main  groups,  Ar- 
chean  and  Algonkian,  adhered  to  in  America — 
which  they  regard,  with  some  reason,  to  be  no 
longer  tenable.  Accordingly,  they  range  the  sev- 
eral parts  in  a  single  series.  At  the  base  of 
the  system,  the  oldest  in  point  of  time,  is  the 
Loganian  division,  composed  of  the  Keewatin 
(igneous)  and  Grenville  (sedimentary).  Next 
in  order  comes  the  Laurentian  intrusives,  mostly 
granitic  gneisses.  After  an  interval  marked  by 
a  great  unconformity  follows  the  Timiskamian 
division.  Another  period  of  igneous  intrusives 
(Algoman)  is  followed  by  a  time  break  or  un- 
conformity and  then  the  Animikean  which  in- 
cludes the  rocks  hitherto  classed  as  Huronian. 
Following  an  unconformity  comes  the  Keweena- 
wan,  the  youngest  of  the  Pre-Gambrian  series. 
The  present,  it  may  be  said,  is  a  transition 
perioa  in  the  study  of  Pre-Cambrian  geology,  and 
although  the  earlier  ideas  have  ]^en  largely 
superseded  by  the  growth  of  knowledge,  opinions 
are  still  far  apart  as  to  the  methods  to  be  used 
in  the  arrangement  of  these  very  complex  forma- 
tions. The  proposed  scheme  formulates  the  re- 
sults of  observations  in  one  of  the  more  import- 
ant areas. 

Glacial  Pkbiod.  Some  recent  contributions 
by  European  geologists  reopen  the  question  as 
to  the  existence  of  more  than  one  general  fflacial 
invasion  during  Pleistocene  time,  which  in  the 
view  of  many  writers — ^perhaps  the  greater  num- 
ber of  those  in  Europe  and  America — should  be 
divided  into  several  stages  of  ice-advance,  sepa- 
rated by  interglacial  epochs.  Six  glacial  stages 
have  been  enimierated  bv  James  Geikie,  of  which 
two,  however,  are  really  post-glacial  climatic 
changes  of  minor  importance.  His  conclusions 
were  based  largely  on  observations  in  the  Baltic 
countiy.  In  opposition  to  his  interpretation  of 
the  evidences.  Hoist  expresses  the  view  that  the 
North  German  drift  has  but  a  single  terminal 
moraine;  whereas  the  so-called  interglacial  de- 
posits occur  locally  and  sporadically,  indicating 
melting  stages  but  not  intervals  between  success- 
ive general  advances  of  the  ice.  A  somewhat 
similar  attitude  is  taken  by  Genitz,  who  main- 
tains the  essential  unity  of  the  invasion  by  the 
ice  over  northern  Europe,  though  there  are  evi- 
dences of  a  prolonged  interval  of  melting,  not, 
however,  to  the  extent  of  bringing  about  a  com- 
plete withdrawal.  He  describes  the  course  of 
events  leading  up  to  the  glacial  period  as  intro- 
duced by  a  relative  uplift  of  the  land  and  re- 
treat of  the  Tertiary  sea,  with  a  climate,  at 


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flrfltt  much  like  the  present  climate  in  that  part 
of  Europe.    Further  uplift  of  the  land  brought 
on  heavy  precipitation  in  the  form  of  snow  and 
the  formation  of  glaciers  and  ice-sheets  which 
pressed  on  from  the  north  in  Scandinavia  and 
drove  the  Arctic  fauna  and  flora  before  it,  result- 
ing in  the  partial  migrations  of  the  life  forms 
that  were  native  to  middle  Europe  and  com- 
mingling of  the  others  with  the  Arctic  types. 
The  pressure  of  the  ice  load  upon  Scandinavia, 
and  perhaps  upon  the  Alps,  lowered  the  gather- 
ing ground  for  the  glaciers  and  brought  on  milder 
conditions  whoi  the  ioe-front  retreated  as  far  as 
the  Baltic  terminal  moraines.    Then  came  a  re- 
newal of  uplift  and  an  increase  of  the  supply 
for  a  time.    A   period   of  long-continued  sub- 
sidence brought  an  end  to  the  invasion,  with 
flooding    of    the   uncovered    stream    valleys   by 
waters  which  issued  from  the  fflaciers,  and  the 
deposit  of  sediment  in  terraced  oeds. 

JuBASSic-CBrrACBOUS  BouiTDABT.  The  delim- 
itation of  the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  systems 
as  developed  in  America  is  one  of  the  lar- 
ger problems  in  stratigraphic  geology  still  to 
be  settled.  Thus,  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
of  Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  other 
States  there  exists  a  series  of  beds,  variously 
named  in  their  local  distribution  but  bearing  the 
general  designation  of  the  Morrison  formation. 
The  beds  have  been  attributed  by  some  writers  to 
the  Upper  Jurassic,  by  others  to  the  Lower  Cre- 
taceous, and  by  still  others  as  containing  mem- 
bers in  each  of  the  systems.  The  question  of 
their  age  has  recently  been  considered  by  a  sym- 
posium of  geologists  who  discuss  it  from  the 
several  viewpoints  of  physiography,  stratigraphy, 
paleontology,  and  paleobotany.  An  introductory 
summary  by  H.  F.  Osborn  presents  the  problem 
with  the  lines  of  possible  evidence,  and  records 
the  belief  that  the  formation  can  not  be  con- 
signed as  a  whole  to  either  the  Jurassic  or  Cre- 
taceous systems,  but  occupies  an  intermediate 
position.  He  thinks  the  problem  can  only  be 
settled  by  a  comparison  of  American  with  Euro- 
pean time  values,  and  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
best  evidence  for  correlation  between  remote 
areas,  like  those  of  different  continents,  is  to 
be  found  in  paleontology.  For  the  changes  of 
life  forms  offer  the  most  stable  and  orderly  phe- 
nomena serviceable  for  correlation  purposes. 
Large  earth  movements  which  have  becai  sought 
as  a  basis,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  uncertain 
value  in  the  want  of  proof  of  their  coincidence 
in  point  of  time.  The  adherents  of  the  latter 
methods  can  only  prove  their  case  by  showing 
the  existoice  of  great  diastrophic  movements  at 
the  close  of  Jurassic  time  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  in  England,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
world. 

Close  of  Cbetackous  Time.  The  prevalent 
views  in  regard  to  the  demarcation  of  the  upper 
limits  of  Cretaceous  time,  bringing  to  a  close 
the  Mesozoic  era  preparatory  to  the  start  of 
the  next  great  era,  the  Cenozoic,  are  given  in  a 
symposium  of  American  geologists,  with  an  in- 
troduction by  Osborn.  The  question  revolves 
largely  about  the  interpretation  of  evidence  and 
the  relative  value  to  be  given  to  earth  move- 
ments and  fossils  for  stratigraphic  correlation,  a 
subject  that  has  already  been  referred  to  in  a 
preceding  paragraph.  The  consensus  of  opinion, 
from  which  some  dissent  is  expressed,  seems  to 
be  that  the  termination  of  the  Cretaceous  should 
be  considered  as  coincident  with  the  passing  of 


the  age  of  reptiles,  indicated  by  the  extinction 
of  the  great  families  of  terrestrial  dinosaurs. 
This  view  accords  with  the  classiflcation  adopted 
by  European  geologists.  As  applied  to  the  Cre- 
taceous formations  of  the  West,  the  plan  is  to 
draw  the  limits  at  the  top  of  the  Lance  beds 
and  to  place  the  Puerco  and  Tor  re  j  on  beds  con- 
taining the  remains  of  the  oldest  mammals  in  the 
Tertiary. 

EooNOMic  Geologt.  Among  recent  works  of 
reference  on  the  economic  aspects  of  geology  is 
an  English  edition  of  the  comprehensive  treatise 
b^  Beyschlag,  Krusch,  and  Vogt.  The  transla- 
tion has  been  made  by  Truscott  and  bears  the 
title.  The  DeposUs  of  the  UeefiU  MineraU  and 
Rooke,  Their  Origin,  Form,  and  Content.  A 
volume  by  Hager,  Practical  OU  Geology,  brings 
together  the  results  of  investigation  in  regard 
to  the  distribution  of  oil-pools  and  the  struc- 
tural features  that  accompany  them,  with  par- 
ticular attention  to  recent  developments  in  the 
American  flelds.  It  also  contains  instructions 
upon  prospecting  and  mapping  of  oil  territory, 
the  placing  of  drill-holes,  and  technical  matters. 

The  methods  by  which  coal  beds  have  been 
formed  have  been  under  investigation  for  a  long 
time,  although  it  has  been  well  established  that 
they  are  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  plant 
remains.  Present  opinion  is  divided,  however, 
in  regard  to  one  important  circumstance — 
whether  the  beds  in  their  actual  position  are  on 
the  sites  of  the  coal-forming  forests,  as  suggested 
by  the  occasional  discovery  of  roots  and  trunks 
of  trees  seemingly  in  place  and  by  the  similarity 
of  the  underlying  clays  to  depleted  soils;  or 
whether  the  plant  materials  may  have  been  trans- 
ported from  the  place  of  growth  by  water  and 
assembled  finally  on  the  bottoms  of  lakes  and 
lagoons,  there  to  be  transformed  into  coal.  In 
support  of  the  latter  view  it  has  been  shown 
that  coals  rich  in  bituminous  matter  consist 
largely  of  spores  and  pollen  that  could  hardly 
accumulate  elsewhere  than  in  standing  water. 
E.  C.  Jeffery  has  taken  up  the  problem  with  tiie 
use  of  the  microscope,  adopting  special  methods 
for  making  the  necessary  thin  sections  which 
ordinarily  are  difficult  to  prepare.  The  examina- 
tion of  many  examples  of  coals  of  different  kinds 
and  from  different  localities  shows  the  almost 
universal  presence  of  spores;  this  the  writer  re- 
gards as  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  the  transport 
or  allochthonous  theory  of  origin.  Present-day 
peat  bogs,  he  considers,  throw  no  light  on  the 
process  of  accumulation  of  plant  material  in  past 
ages,  since  they  are  not  found  in  warmer  cli- 
mates, which  are  thought  to  correspond  to  the 
probable  climate  of  the  Carboniferous  age  when 
the  coal-forming  process  was  at  its  height.  The 
different  kinds  oi  coal  depend  upon  the  relative 
abundance  of  the  spores.  Cannel  coal  and  oil 
shale  are  characterized  by  the  largest  proportion ; 
coking  and  gas  coals  by  a  plentiful  amount; 
whereas  bitimiinous  coals  have  a  relatively  small 
proportion.  Anthracite  is  regarded  as  a  modi- 
fled  bitimiinous  coal,  devolatilized  by  pressure 
and  heat. 

The  character  of  petroleum,  according  to  David 
White,  is  governed  by  the  state  of  carbonization 
of  the  shales  and  coal  with  which  the  oil  may 
be  associated.  Petroleum  pools  are  not  to  be 
looked  for  in  regions  where  the  coals  that  lie  in 
or  above  the  oil  formation  have  reached  the  stage 
of  carbonization  at  which  the  flxed  carbon  ex- 
ceeds 75  per  cent  of  the  whole,  as  in  anthracite 


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districts.  Formations  with  a  relatively  high 
percentage  of  fixed  carbon  yield  the  oils  that 
are  highest  in  saturated  hydrocarbons  and  lowest 
in  gravity,  or  the  oils  of  most  commercial  value, 
such  as  are  found,  for  example,  in  the  Appala- 
chian region.  Formations  showing  lesser  altera- 
tion of  the  organic  debris  produce  oils  of  lower 
grade,  that  is,  with  more  of  the  unsaturated 
and  heavier  hydrocarbons;  the  lignitic  beds  are 
characterized  by  oils  of  the  lowest  grade  of  all. 
It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  as  organic  mat- 
ter is  altered  into  material  with  progressively 
higher  carbon,  through  the  elimination  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  some  carbon,  the  dis- 
tillates in  the  rocks  progressively  become  richer 
in  hydrogen.  Instances  of  the  discovery  of  light 
oils  in  association  with  low-grade  districts,  from 
the  standpoint  of  fixed  carbon  ratio,  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  migration  of  the  distillates  from 
sources  in  more  highly  altered  rocks.  The  fact 
that  oils  are  not  found  in  regions  of  greatly 
altered  rocks  but  seem  to  be  restricted  to  those 
in  which  the  strata  have  not  advanced  beyond 
a  very  moderate  stage  of  alteration,  is  scarcely 
in  agreement  with  the  inorganic  view  of  the 
origin  of  petroleum. 

See  also  Exploration,  Africa, 

GEOPHYSICAL  LABOBATOBY.  See  Cab- 
NEOiK  Institution  op  Washington. 

GBOBGETOWN  TJNIVEB8ITY.  A  Roman 
Catholic  institution  for  higher  education  founded 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1789.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  all  the  departments  in  the  autumn 
of  1915  was  1366.  The  faculty  numbered  201. 
Hon.  Henry  S.  Boutell  was  appointed  professor 
of  statute  law,  and  Rev.  George  F.  Quirk,  S.J., 
professor  of  metaphysics.  No  noteworthy  bene- 
factions were  received  during  the  year.  The 
library  contained  about  120,000  volumes. 

GEOBGE  WASHINGTON  ITNIVEBSITY. 
An  institution  for  his^er  learning,  founded  in 
1827  at  Washington,  D.  C,  as  Columbian  Uni- 
versity. The  totel  enrollment  in  all  departments 
was  1799.  The  faculty  numbered  226.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  membership  of 
the  faculty  during  the  year.  There  was  received 
for  the  establishment  of  the  Knapp  Scholarship 
Fund  $2000.  The  productive  funds  of  the  uni- 
versity amounted  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
1916  to  $136,340,  and  the  income  to  $6489.  The 
library  contained  about  60,000  volumes. 

GEOBOLA  Population.  The  population  of 
the  State,  on  July  1,  1916,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census,  was  2,816,- 
289.    The  population  in  1910  was  2,609,121. 

AOBICULTUBE.  Tlie  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-16  were  as  follows: 


Acreage 

Corn    . . . 

..1915 

4,880,000 

1914 

4,000,000 

Wheat  .. 

..1916 

825,000 

1914 

140.000 

Oats    . . . 

..1915 

905,000 

1914 

450,000 

Rye   . . , . 

..1915 

18.000 

1914 

18.000 

Rice    ... 

..1915 

900,000 

1914 

1,100,000 

Potatoes 

..1915 

16,000 

1914 

18,000 

Hay   .... 

..1915 

800,000 

1914 

250,000 

Tobacco  . 

..1915 

1,700 

1914 

1,900 

Prod.  Bu, 

64.950.000 

56.000,000 

8,575.000 

1,694.000 

17,648,000 

9,000.000 

120.000 

121,000 

26.000 

81,000 

1,040.000 

780.000 

a  345,000 

838,000 

h  1,496.000 

1,900.000 


Value 

$50,661,000 

47.600.000 

4.612.000 

2.270.000 

11,648,000 

6,800.000 

168.000 

182,000 

28.000 

28,000 

1.080,000 

819,000 

5,210,000 

5.476.000 

844.000 

475,000 


Acreage      Prod.  Bu.  Vaiue 

Cotton    1915     4.700.000    « 1,900,000  108,518,000 

1914     5.488,000       2,718,000        89.674,000 
a  Tons,     b  Pounds,     e  Bales. 

MiNEBAi.  Pboduction.  The  total  production 
of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914  was,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  1911,  the  smallest  since  1886.  It 
amounted  to  166,498  short  tons  valued  at  $239,- 
462.  The  production  in  1913  was  266,626  tons, 
valued  at  $361,319. 

Finance.  The  latest  report  available  for  the 
financial  condition  of  the  State  is  for  the  year 
ending  Jan.  1,  1914.  The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  were  $6,907,137,  and  the  expenditures  $7,- 
281,030,  leaving  a  balance  in  the  treasury  of 
$739,626,  which  includes  a  balance  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  of  $1,113,617.  The  interest 
bearing  debt  amounted  on  Jan.  1,  1914,  to  $6,- 
630,702.  Of  this  amount,  bonds,  consisting  of 
the  bonded  debt  of  the  State,  amounting  to  $3,- 
670,000,  matured  in  1913. 

Education.  The  total  population  of  school 
age  in  1913  was  796,484.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  public  schools  was  616,044,  with 
an  average  daily  attendance  of  401,713.  The 
total  number  of  school  houses  was  7768,  and  the 
total  value  of  the  same  was  $613,643.  There 
were  13,927  teachers.  The  average  monthly  sal- 
ary of  white  male  teachers  was  $140,  of  female 
teachers  $60;  of  colored  male  teachers  $67,  of 
colored  female  $30.  These  figures  refer  to  the 
special  systems.  In  the  county  systems  the  aver- 
age monthly  salary  for  white  male  teachers  was 
$70.52,  of  white  female  teachers  $47.80;  of 
colored  male  $28.60,  and  of  female  $23.  The 
total  expenditures  for  school  purposes  in  1914-16 
were  $6,606,296,  and  the  total  expenditures  for 
higher  education  $1,900,648,  making  a  total  ex- 
penditure of  $7,406,943. 

Tbansfoetation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  of  single  track  on  Jan.  31,  1914,  was 
7325.  There  were  in  addition  110  miles  of  double 
track.  Railways  having  the  longest  mileage  are 
the  Central  Georgia,  1330;  the  Southern  Rail- 
way, 909;  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  744;  and  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  484. 

PouTics  AND  Government.  The  Legialature 
in  1915  passed  two  stringent  measures  relating 
to  the  selling  of  liquor  in  the  State.  The  first 
of  these,  an  anti-shipping  bill,  provided  that  a 
person  might  receive  from  outside  of  the  State 
only  two  quarts  of  liquor,  one  gallon  of  wine,  and 
forty-eight  pints  of  beer  each  month.  The  second 
measure  forbade  advertising  liquor  in  any  man- 
ner. Both  these  measures  were  to  become  effect- 
ive on  May  1,  1916.  The  Southern  Express  Com- 
pany, on  November  21st,  announced  that  it  would 
refuse  to  accept  liquor  for  shipment  to  the  State 
after  May  1,  1916,  on  account  of  the  stringent 
provisions  of  these  measures. 

Politics  and  Government.  All  political 
events  in  the  State  for  1916  were  overshadowed 
by  the  case  of  Leo  M.  Frank,  who  was  in  1914 
tried  and  convicted  of  the  murder  of  a  young 
girl,  Mary  Phagan.  The  circumstances  sur- 
rounding the  trial  of  Frank  were  such  that  the 
case  took  on  a  national  interest.  It  was  charged 
by  the  defenders  of  Frank  that  his  trial  had 
been  carried  on  in  an  atmosphere  of  hostility 
both  in  the  courtroom  and  outside  that  made  it 
impossible  for  the  jury  to  render  a  fair  and  im- 
partial verdict.  The  feeling  against  the  prisoner 
was  so  intense  that  he  was  permitted,  by  request 


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of  ooimael,  to  be  absent  when  the  verdict  was  aa- 
nonncecL  An  appeal  was  taken  by  his  counsel 
to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  on 
January  19th  he  was  placed  under  the  protec- 
tion of  that  tribunal.  An  order  issued  oy  the 
Court  forbade  the  execution  of  the  death  sen- 
tence, and  made  the  sheriff  of  Fulton  County, 
Georgia,  responsible  for  Frank's  safety.  The 
attorney  for  Frank  filed  in  the  Supreme  Court, 
February  20th,  briefs  in  Frank's  appeal  from 
the  Court's  refusal  to  release  him  in  habeas 
corpus  proceedings.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  on  April  19th,  by  a  decision  of  7  to  2, 
denied  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  In  denying  this 
appeal  the  majority  of  the  Court  held  that 
Frank's  absence  from  the  courtroom  when  the 
verdict  was  rendered  did  not  deprive  him  of  due 
process  of  law,  and  that  it  was  a  right  he  could 
waive  and  did  waive  inferentially.  The  Court 
also  held  that  the  allegations  of  hostile  disorder 
in  and  about  the  courtroom  had  been  rejected  by 
competent  State  tribunals  as  untrue.  Justices 
Holmes  and  Hughes  dissented  from  this  opinion. 
They  contended  that  there  had  been  interference 
with  the  deliberations  of  the  jury  through  the 
actions  of  the  mob  in  and  about  the  courtroom, 
which  should  entitle  him  to  a  review.  Frank 
through  his  attorneys  on  April  22nd  filed  a  peti- 
tion with  the  State  Prison  Commission  for  the 
commutation  of  sentence  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  On  May  10th  he  was  sentenced  to  be 
hanged  on  June  22nd.  Petitions  were  circulated 
both  in  Georgia  and  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
States  asking  commutation  of  the  death  sen- 
tence. Over  76,000  letters  were  received  by  Gov- 
ernor Slaton,  and  petitions  carrying  over  100,000 
signatures  were  sent  to  him.  The  hearing  for 
the  commutation  on  petition  for  another  sen- 
tence began  on  May  Slst,  before  the  State  Prison 
Commission,  and  on  June  9th  the  Commission 
declined  to  recommend  a  commutation  of  the 
death  sentence.  This  decision  was  not  binding 
on  the  Governor,  and  on  June  21st,  he  commuted 
Frank's  sentence  to  life  imprisonment.  The  de- 
cision was  announced  barely  24  hours  before  the 
time  set  for  the  execution,  and  after  he  had  been 
taken  secretly  from  the  Fulton  County  jail  to 
the  State  Prison  Farm  at  Milledgeville.  Gov- 
ernor Slaton  issued  a  long  and  detailed  state- 
ment giving  his  reasons  for  commuting  sentence. 
He  said:  "Feeling  as  I  do  about  this  case,  I 
would  be  a  murderer  if  I  allowed  this  man  to 
hang.  It  means  that  I  must  live  in  obscurity 
the  rest  of  my  days,  but  I  would  rather  be  plow- 
ing in  a  field  than  to  feel  that  I  had  that  blood 
on  my  hands." 

For  several  days  the  (rovernor's  home  was 
threatened  by  mobs,  and  a  guard  of  troops 
was  maintained.  Governor  Slaton  retired  from 
office  on  June  26th,  and  was  succeeded  by  Nat 
£.  Harris.  On  July  17th  Frank  was  attacked 
while  asleep  by  a  fellow  convict,  William  Green. 
He  was  severely  wounded  in  the  neck,  but  re- 
covered. On  August  16th  he  was  kidnaped 
by  a  band  of  men  who  overpowered  the  prison 
authorities  at  the  State  Prison  Farm  at  Mill- 
edgeville, Ga.,  and  was  taken  by  automobile  to 
Marietta,  where  he  was  hanged  in  a  grove,  within 
a  stone's  throw  of  the  birth-place  of  Mary 
Phagan.  The  mob  numbered  about  25  or  more 
men.  This  act  was  denounced  by  the  newspapers 
and  officials  of  the  State  and  by  Grovemor  Har- 
ris, and  a  grand  jury  carried  on  investigations. 
No  evidence,  however,  was  discovered,  which  gave 


a  clew  to  the  instigators  of  the  deed,  and  in 
September  the  grand  jury  was  discharged. 

State  Oiticebs.  Governor,  Nat.  E.  Harris; 
Secretary  of  State,  Philip  Cook;  Treasurer,  Wm. 
J.  Speer;  Comptroller  and  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, W.  A.  Wright;  Attorney-General,  Clif- 
ford Walker;  Adjutant-General,  J.  Van  Holt 
Nash;  Superintendent  of  Education,  M.  L.  Brit- 
tain;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  J.  D.  Price 
— all  Democrats. 

SuFBEME  CouBT.  Chief  Justice,  Wm.  H.  Fish ; 
Presiding  Justice,  Beverly  D.  Evans;  Associate 
Justices,  J.  H.  Lumpkin,  M.  W.  Beck,  Samuel  C. 
Atkinson,  and  H.  W.  Hill;  Clerk,  Z.  D.  Harrison. 

State  Lboislatttbe: 


Democrats 
RepubUeans 


Democratic  majority. .     42 


S»nat9       Houf      Joint  BaUol 
.      48  180  228 

16  7 


174 


216 


GBOBOIAy  Univebbitt  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  at  Athens, 
Georgia,  in  1785.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1015  was  632. 
There  were  68  members  of  the  faculty.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  university  is  supported  almost 
entirely  by  State  appropriations.  The  produc- 
tive fund  amounts  to  about  $400,000.  The 
library  contains  about  50,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  D.  C.  Barrow,  LL.D.  

GBBMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  THE  XTNITED 
STATES.    See  United  States  and  the  Was. 

GEBMAN  EAST  ATBIOA  A  protectorate 
of  Germany  between  the  East  Africa  Protector- 
ate and  Portuguese  East  Africa,  bordering  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  mouth  of  the  Umba  to 
latitude  10*"  40'  S.  It  borders  Victoria  Nyanza 
at  the  north.  Lake  Nyassa  at  the  south,  and  Lake 
Tanganyika  at  the  west.  The  protectorate  was 
established  by  the  Germans  in  1885.  The  rights 
of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  over  a  strip  of  coast 
territory  were  acquired  in  1890  by  payment  of 
4,000,000  marks.  The  capital  is  Dares-Salaam. 
Tlie  estimated  area  is  905,000  square  kilometers 
(384,170  square  miles).  The  great  extent  of 
the  country  included  within  tne  protectorate 
may  be  better  appreciated  by  pointing  out  that 
it  is  about  equal  to  the  combined  areas  of  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin.  The  native  population  is  esti- 
mated at  7,646,000;  other  colored,  15,000;  whites 
(Jan.  1,  1913),  5336;  total,  about  7,666,000.  Of 
the  whites,  4107  were  German.  The  number  of 
schools  is  reported  at  1944,  with  114,964  pupils. 
Tliere  are  ten  Protestant  and  three  Roman  Cath- 
olic missions.  In  the  year  1912-13,  353  whites 
and  18,868  colored  persons  were  convicted  in  the 
courts.  The  military  in  1914  numbered  260 
Germans  and  2472  colored;  the  police,  67  Ger- 
mans and  2140  colored. 

The  natives  cultivate  the  soil  to  some  extent, 
raising  com,  pulse,  and  bananas  for  their  own 
use;  they  also  practice  grazing.  In  1912,  there 
were  43,617  cattle  and  41,647  sheep  and  goats 
belonging  to  whites,  and  3,950,250  cattle  and 
6,398,300  sheep  and  goats  belonging  to  natives. 
(German  plantations,  mostly  near  the  coast,  pro- 
duce coconuts,  vanilla,  tobacco,   rubber,  coffee, 


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GERMAN  EAST  APBICA 


250 


GEBMAN  UTEBATTTBE 


sugar,  tea,  cacao,  cotton,  sisal,  cardamoms,  etc. 
Imports  and  exports  in  1907  were  valued  at 
23,806,000  and  12,500,000  marks  respectively;  in 
1910,  38,659,000  and  20,806,000;  in  1912,  50- 
309,000  and  31,418;  in  1913,  53,358,000  and  35,- 
550,000.  Imports  from  and  exports  to  Germany 
in  1912  were  valued  at  25,819,000  and  17,827,000 
marks  respectively.  The  principal  exports  in 
1912  and  1913  were  valued  as  follows:  sisal, 
7,359,000  and  10,710,000  marks;  rubber,  8,426,- 
000  and  6,567,000;  hides  and  skins,  4,067,000  and 
5,591,000;  raw  cotton,  2,110,000  and  2,414,000; 
copra,  1,563,000  and  2,348,000;  earthnuts,  1,273,- 
000  and  1,918,000;  insect  wax,  829,000  and  1,- 
415,000.  Vessels  entered  at  the  ports  in  1912, 
1034,  of  1,913,743  tons.  The  Urambara  Railway, 
in  the  north,  from  Tanga  to  Muhesa,  has  a  length 
of  219  miles.  The  Central  Railway,  from  Dar- 
es-Salaam, reached  Kigoma,  on  Lake  Tanganyika, 
Feb.  1,  1914,  the  len^h  being  673  miles.  Total 
length  of  railway  in  operation  in  the  spring  of 
1914,  792  miles;  under  construction,  104  miles. 
In  1913-14,  the  local  revenue  amounted  to  16,- 
506,000  marks;  expenditure,  23,771,000;  in  ad- 
dition, expenditure  from  loan,  37,500,000.  The 
budget  for  1914-15  balanced  at  61,271,068  marks, 
the  estimated  revenue  consisting  of  20,471,068 
marks  local  receipts,  3,300,000  marks  imperial 
contribution,  and  37,500,000  marks  loan. 

HiSTOBT.  In  the  early  part  of  Januarv  the 
British  made  a  descent  upon  the  coast  of  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  but  were  repulsed  with  con- 
siderable losses  by  the  German  defenders.  On 
January  8th  a  British  expedition  from  Mombasa 
occupied  the  German  island  of  Mafia  off  the 
coast  of  German  East  Africa.  The  following  day 
the  German  port  of  Shirati  on  the  east  shore  of 
Victoria  Nyanza  was  captured  by  an  Anglo- 
French  expedition.  The  Germans  concentrated 
in  front  of  Jassin  on  January  12th  and  compelled 
its  surrender,  though  the  British  tried  to  bring 
reinforcements  to  the  town.  On  February  28th 
the  British  declared  a  blockade  on  the  Cferman 
East  African  coast.  In  March  a  German  raiding 
party  of  300  were  repulsed  in  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  region  by  a  party  of  the  King's  African 
Rifles.  Few  casualties  were  suffered  on  either 
side.  Late  in  April  the  Germans  made  several 
efforts  to  destroy  the  connections  of  the  British 
and  French,  and  were  successful  in  one  instance 
in  blowing  up  a  bridge  belonging  to  the  Uganda 
Railway.  The  damage,  however,  was  only  tem- 
porary. Between  May  9th  and  22nd  two  British 
expeditions  managed  to  clear  the  country  of 
the  enemy  for  nearly  30  miles  around  Simbaenti 
and  to  recapture  a  British  steamer  on  Lake  Vic- 
toria Nyanza.  In  the  last  of  June  the  British 
under  Brigadier-General  Stewart  were  success- 
ful in  capturing  Pukoba,  an  important  port  on 
the  west  side  of  the  same  lake,  with  losses  of 
only  10  killed  and  25  wounded.  On  September 
10th  a  troop  of  South  African  Rifles  and  a  com- 
pany of  the  King's  African  Rifles  defeated  a 
German  detachment  south  of  the  Songue  River 
on  the  German  border.  See  also  Wab  of  the 
Nations,  Africa, 

GEBMAN  EVANGELICAL  SYNOD  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA.  Tliere  were  in  this  de- 
nomination in  1915,  290,803  communicants,  1365 
churches,  and  1058  ministers.  Although  com- 
municants of  this  denomination  are  to  be  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  they 
are  most  numerous  in  the  Central  and  North 
Central  States.    The  church  property  is  valued 


at  about  $1,500,000,  and  over  $1,000,000  is  an- 
nually expoided  on  the  maintenance  of  churches. 
The  denomination  supports  missionaries  in  In- 
dia, where  there  are  over  4000  adherents.  Papers 
are  published  in  St.  Louis.  There  is  a  college 
at  Eunhurst^  III.,  with  a  theological  seminary  at 
St.  Louis.  Among  other  beneficent  agencies  are 
charitable  institutions  for  orphans,  superannu- 
ated ministers,  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
deceased  ministers. 

GBBMANIC  LANGUAGES.  See  Philoloot, 
Modern. 

GEBMAN  LITEBATTJBE.  Comparison  of 
German  literature  in  1915  with  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  shows  that  the  war  has  affected  its 
quality  far  more  than  its  quantity.  For  after 
the  first  paralyzing  effect  had  worn  off,  the  publi- 
cation of  books  and  periodicals  was  resumed 
with  the  customary  enterprise  and  energy,  and 
the  amount  produced  was  hardly  below  that  of 
normal  times  of  peace.  With  a  tidal  wave  of 
high-stnmg  emotionalism  sweeping  across  the 
country  and  carrying  its  infection  into  every  hut, 
it  was  natural  that  lyric  production  should  be 
stimulated  to  an  tmusual  degree.  But  it  was 
hardly  to  be  expected  that  poets  who,  at  other 
times,  allowed  three  or  four  years  to  elapse  be- 
tween their  individual  books  of  verse,  would  now 
produce  two  or  more  volumes  in  a  single  year. 
The  nationalistic  Leitmoiiv,  too,  was  natural 
under  the  circumstances,  and  that  it  dominated 
even  drama  and  fiction  was  not  surprising  to 
any  reader  familiar  with  the  German  tempera- 
ment and  with  the  magic  process  of  mass  psy- 
chology. That  this  willing  obedience  to  a  power- 
ful suggestion  indicates  a  reaction  against  that 
individualism  which  not  so  long  ago  scorned  the 
herd  instinct  and  the  herd  impulse,  is  signifi- 
cant; it  can  be  traced  in  most  of  the  lit^ary 
products  of  the  year.  Another  curious  phenom- 
enon, and  one  calculated  to  contradict  the 
vaunted  8€tchlichkeit  of  the  German  mind,  is  its 
inabilitP^  at  this  time  to  dissociate  the  emotional 
mood  of  the  moment  from  that  intellectual  aloof- 
ness which  alone  makes  for  impartiality.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  purely  critical  liter- 
ary activity  has  perceptibly  diminished,  while 
the  number  of  works,  more  timely  than  literary, 
is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  whole  output 
of  the  book  mart.  It  is  far  more  difficult  to 
separate  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  since  the  main 
source  of  inspiration  is  the  war  and  most  writ- 
ers seem  bent  upon  voicing  only  the  popular 
sentiment  and  reflecting  little  beyond  the  aver- 
age attitude  of  the  masses. 

Fiction.  Two  novels  stand  out  of  the  multi- 
tude of  works  of  flction  and  challenge  serious 
attention.  The  first  is  Das  OansemanncTien  by 
Jacob  Wassermann,  which  derives  its  niEtme  from 
the  figure  familiar  to  visitors  of  Nuremberg,  and 
tells  the  story  of  an  erratic  musical  genius, 
suggesting  remotely  the  influence  of  Romain  Rol- 
land's  Jean  Christophe,  though  far  from  reach- 
ing the  Frenchman's  spiritual  height.  The  sec- 
ond is  Lebensaucher  by  Lily  Braun,  whose  more 
or  less  autobiographical  Memoiren  einer  Sozial- 
isiin  has  become  a  work  of  documentary  import- 
ance for  our  time.  In  her  new  book  the  author 
makes  a  young  aristocrat  the  representative  of 
the  young  generation  seeking  a  new  meaning  and 
new  values  of  life,  touching  here  and  there  upon 
the  race  problem,  the  woman  question,  social 
reforms,  and  other  enerossin^  topics  of  our  time, 
until  the  war  engulfs  the  hero  and  makes  an 


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GEBMAK  LITESATTTBB 


261 


GBBHAN  LITESATUBB 


end  of  his  quest.  A  posthumouB  story  by  Ger- 
hard Oackama  Knoop,  Daa  A  und  O,  is  a  pa- 
thetic reminder  that  no  contemporary  has  ap- 
peared to  take  his  place.  A  new  book  by  the 
Swiss  novelist  Jacob  Schaffner  has  always  some 
feature  of  interest  and  his  latest,  Der  Bote 
Ootiea,  reflects  his  strong  personality.  Wilhelm 
Fischer-Graz  has  published  a  story  of  the  Styrian 
yinelands.  Die  Fahri  der  IAebe9g5tim.  Hans 
Land's  novel,  Siaaisamcali  Jordan  is  a  picture 
of  contemporary  society.  Alfred  Schirokauer's 
Die  eiebenie  Chrosemacht  belongs  to  the  same 
class,  but  is  of  cruder  calibre.  Walter  Bloem 
successfully  strikes  a  popular  note  in  Daa  ver- 
larene  Vaierland.  Laurids  Bruun's  Die  freud- 
lose  Wittwe  and  Emil  Ertl's  Dae  Lioheln  Oin- 
evra*s  are  of  more  finished  literary  quality  and 
of  more  limited  appeal.  The  spirited  grace  of 
Felix  Salten's  work  makes  Die  klingende  8chelle 
fascinating  reading.  Arthur  Schnitsler's  Der 
blinde  Oeronimo  und  sein  Bruder  lacks  none  of 
the  qualities  that  have  endeared  him  to  a  large 
circle  of  readers.  Anton  Ohom  has  given  us 
Hans  Holger's  Liehesirrungen,  Ewald  Gerhard 
Seeliger  Der  gelbe  Beedieb,  Richard  Skowronnek 
Das  grosse  Feuer,  Hanns  von  Zobeltitz:  Der 
Alte  auf  Topper,  and  Johannes  von  Dewall  Auf 
verlorenem  posien.  Kurt  Aram  has  substituted 
Die  Kuevne  aue  Amerika  for  the  traditional  and 
much  abused  American  uncle.  Another  story  by 
the  same  author  is  entitled  Der  Schaiten.  Kurt 
Martens  is  a  name  that  always  merits  attention ; 
his  new  story  is  Hier  und  drilben.  Wilhelm 
Hegeler,  too,  has  sent  out  a  new  novel.  Die 
goldene  Keiie,  The  indefatigable  Richard  Voss 
has  written  a  novel  with  the  catchy  title  Der 
heilige  Ease.  Max  May  is  a  newcomer  whose 
Alsatian  story  Die  RourtlUme  has  attracted  much 
attention.  Bruno  Frank,  who  had  so  far  been 
known  only  as  a  writer  of  lyric  verse,  has 
touched  upon  Russian  revolutionary  intrigues  in 
his  storv  Die  FUratiny  though  its  chief  interest 
lies  in  the  hero.  A  number  of  novels  seem  more 
or  less  directly  inspired  by  the  war,  among  them 
Ulridi  Rauscher's  curious  story  Vierzig  Jahre 
au8  dem  Leben  eines  deutoh-franzdsiachen  OfjU 
ziers  which,  though  set  in  the  Napoleonic  era, 
suggests  many  present  day  inferences.  Others 
are  Karl  Bleibtreu's  Biamarck,  which  he  pon- 
derously calls  Weltroman,  Max  Geissler's  Naoh 
Rueeland  toollen  toir  reiien,  Alexander  Castell's 
Der  Tod  in  den  LUften,  Max  Dreyer's  Der 
deutaohe  Morgen,  Ernst  von  Wolzogen's  Land- 
Sturm  im  Feuer,  Rudolf  Hans  Ba^sch's  Der 
Flieger,  Nanny  Lambrecht's  Die  eiaeme  Freude, 
and  Arthur  Zapp's  Der  Spion  and  Verschollen, 
Margarete  Bohme  has  contributed  a  volume  of 
war  fiction  under  the  title  Kriegabriefe  der 
FamUie  Wvmmel.  Ida  Boy-Ed  has  sent  out  no 
less  than  three  novels:  Stille  Helden,  Vor  der 
Ehe,  and  Aue  einer  Wiege,  Clara  Viebig's  Bine 
Handvoll  Erde  is  of  strongly  emotional  appeal. 
Maria  Janitzschek's  Die  Sterne  dee  Herm  Ezelvn 
has  no  little  charm.  Hans  von  Kahlenberg's 
Misere  is  cleverly  told.  Humor  is  so  rare  a 
quality  in  modem  German  fiction  that  the  Al- 
/  satian  Ren6  Schickele  deserves  special  mention 
for  his  Trimpopp  und  Manaaee,  Freiherr  von 
/  Schlicht,  too,  long  identified  with  humorous  and 
satirical  stories  of  military  life,  continues  in 
his  popular  vein,  both  in  Der  Flitzmajor  and 
Fiiretlich  Blut. 
'  The  short  story  is  represented  by  a  great  num- 

V  her  of  books,  the  majority  of  which  contain  war 


sketches,  which  do  not  often  rise  above  the 
journalistic  level.  Carl  Hauptmann's  Rubeeahl- 
bueh  is  a  noteworthy  exception,  being  a  collec- 
tion of  fanciful  stories  in  legendary  style,  the 
centre  of  which  is  the  famous  spirit  of  the 
Riesengebirge.  The  only  foreign  note  that  en- 
ters into  that  book  is  the  attempt  at  bringing  it 
up  to  date  by  patriotic  allusions.  The  new  iMok 
by  the  author  of  the  inimitable  Florentiniache 
Novellen,  Isolde  Kurz,  is  entitled  Cora  und 
andere  Ergihlungen,  Frits  Blei's  Avalun:  Gee- 
chichten  aue  allerlei  Paradiesen  and  Max 
Dauthendey's  Oeeohichten  aue  den  vier  Winden 
are  distinctive  in  style.  Ewald  Gerhard  Seeliger 
calls  his  collection  of  short  stories  Das  deutsche 
Dekameron,  Albert  Gkiger's  Michael  Purt- 
echeiner  und  andere  Erz&hlungen,  Hermann 
Hesse's  Knulp,  a  book  containing  three  stories, 
Adolf  Schafheitlin's  Dae  hohe  8chu:eigen,  Alfons 
Paquet's  Der  Sendling,  Rudolf  Presber's  Der 
Don  Juan  der  Bella  Riva,  and  Die  dritte  Kugel 
by  Leo  Perutz  are  all  marked  by  some  striking 
individual  features.  The  name  of  Hermann  Ldns 
is  always  greeted  by  his  readers,  for  his  stories  of 
animal  and  hunting  life  stand  apart  from  other 
Carman  fiction.  His  new  book  is  entitled:  Oold- 
hdls.  Tier-und  Jagdgeechichten,  Kurt  Mfln- 
zer,  who  some  years  ago  made  his  d^but  with  a 
curious  mystery  play,  figures  on  the  title-page  of 
two  volumes:  Der  jUngste  Tag  and  Der  graue 
Wod,  That  Marie  Madeleine's  latest  volume 
should  bear  the  title  Rivieranovellen :  Regen- 
bogen  der  Liebe  is  in  keeping  with  the  erotic 
*  character  of  her  lyric  verse.  A  posthumous 
volume  by  Joh.  Victor  Widmann  is  entitled  Ein 
Doppelleben,  Of  the  books  directly  inspired  by 
the  war  must  be  mentioned  Carl  Busse's  Feuer- 
schein  Novellen  und  Skiezen  aus  dem  Weltkrieg 
and  Klar  Schiff,  stories  of  naval  warfare  of 
1914-15,  Lisbeth  Dill's  Der  Tag  in  Nancy,  Felix 
Salten's  Abschied  tm  Sturm,  Emil  Lucka's  war 
anecdotes  entitled  Dcts  brennende  Jahr,  Alex- 
ander Castell's  Der  Kriegspilot,  Dora  Duncker's 
Berlin  im  Kriege  and  the  very  popular,  though 
rather  coarse-grained,  books  by  Karl  Ettlinger. 
PoETRT.  The  most  ambitious  poetical  work 
of  the  vear  is  Gustav  Frenssen's  epic  Bismarck. 
Richard  Schaukal  has  published  Kriegslieder 
aue  Oeeterreioh  19H  and  a  book  of  sonnets  en- 
titled StandbUder  und  Denkmiinzen  191ft,  Gus- 
tav Schttler,  too,  has  two  books  of  verse  to  his 
credit:  UnerschUtterlich  bereit  and  the  sacred 
war  lyrics  Oottes  Sturmflut,  Rudolf  Presber 
appears  with  a  book  of  Neue  Kriegsgedichte. 
The  same  patriotic  note  is  voiced  eloquently  in 
Rudolf  Alexander  Schroeder's  Heilig  Vater- 
land.  Max  Dauthendey's  Des  grossen  Kriegea 
Not,  Gustav  Falke's  Unsere  Helden,  Josef 
von  LaufT's  Singenes  Schtcert,  Ludwig  Gang- 
hofer's  Eiseme  Zither,  Will  Vesper's  Vom 
groeeen  Kriege  19U-15,  Richard  Nordhausen's 
Das  F&hnlein  licht  an  der  -Stange,  Karl  Hans 
Strobl's  Eine  gute  Wehr  und  Waffen,  Katha- 
rina  Botsky's  Ostpreusaens  Peuerzeit,  Rudolf 
Herzog's  Ritter,  Tod  und  Teufel,  Hans  Benz- 
mann's  Kriegsgedichte  fUr  Kaiser  und  Reich, 
and  the  Kriegagedichte  und  Feldpoatbriefa  of 
Walter  Heymann  which  were  published  after 
death  had  claimed  him  on  the  western  battle- 
field. Ren4  Schickele,  the  Alsatian,  avoids  di- 
rect reference  to  the  war  in  his  little  book  of 
lyrics  Mein  Herz,  mein  Land,  Emanuel  Bod- 
mann,  however,  entitles  his  volume  Mein  Vater- 
land  and  Alfons  Petzold,  the  Austrian  proletarian 


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GEBMAK  IJTESAT17BE 


poet,  strikes  a  more  humanitarian  note  in 
Volk,  mein  Volk,  while  his  Johanna  is  a 
purely  personal  document.  Other  books  of  verse 
are  Hermann  Hesse's  Musik  des  Einsamen,  Kurt 
Martens's  Verse,  Marie  Vafirting's  Dursiige 
Heokenrosen  am  Meer,  Robert  Walser's  Kleine 
Dichiungen,  Karl  Ernst  Knodt's  Vom  Bruder 
Tod,  Hans  Schmidt-Kestner's  Oedichie,  Franz 
WerfePs  Einander,  and  Borries  von  MUnch- 
hausen's  Alie  und  neue  Balladen  und  Lieder. 

Drama.  One  of  the  stron^t  plays  of  the 
year  is  Emil  Ludwig's  historical  drama  Fried- 
rich,  Kronprim  von  Preuesen,  dealing  with  the 
tragic  youth  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  remark- 
able for  the  excellent  portrayal  of  his  friend 
Katte.  Another  historical  drama  is  Dietrich 
Eckart's  Heinrich  von  Hohenataufen,  and  Julius 
Baumann  has  undertaken  to  dramatize  scenes 
from  the  memoirs  of  Bismarck.  Plays  directly 
owing  their  inception  to  the  war  are  Des  Kaiser's 
Soldaien  by  Hermann  Essig,  a  drama  of  mobil- 
isation, Paul  Enderling's  Osipreussen,  Paul 
Ernst's  Preussengeist,  and  Theodor  Wundt's 
Dissfiplin,  a  three-act  drama  of  soldier  life.  An 
interesting  work  is  Carl  Hauptmann's  volume 
of  one-a^  plays,  entitled  Aus  dem  grossen 
Kriege.  The  scene  shifts  from  Silesia,  where 
the  watchman  on  the  mountains  first  proclaims 
the  news  of  war,  to  the  western  and  eastern 
front  and  the  dramatic  climax  is  almost  invari- 
ably accompanied  by  an  outburst  of  patriotic 
song.  Otto  Burchard  has  chosen  to  make  Judith 
und  Holofemes  the  medium  of  his  patriotic 
sentiment.  Otto  Steinbach  has  written  a  poetic 
drama:  Baldur's  Tod,  Eduard  Stucken,  who  a 
few  years  ago  attracted  attention  by  a  poetic 
drama  on  a  subject  of  mediseval  lore,  presents  in 
Die  Hochzeii  des  Adrian  Brouweis  a  story  of 
artist  life,  strong  in  details,  but  ineffective  as  a 
whole.  Ernst  Hardt,  the  one  time  winner  of 
the  Schiller  prize  through  his  Taniris  der  Narr, 
has  sadly  aisappointed  his  admirers  by  his 
trivial  treatment  of  an  old  familiar  theme  in  his 
three-act  drama  Konig  Salomo,  Karl  Sch(5nherr, 
also  a  prize-winner  of  some  years  ago,  scored  a 
success  with  his  five-act  drama  Der  Weihsteufel. 
Franz  von  K5nigsbrunn  has  revised  and  adapted 
Otto  Julius  Bierbaum's  Fortuna,  a  drama  of 
adventure.  Erich  Oesterheld  calls  his  play  Die 
einsamen  Bruder  a  sentimental  comedy.  Rudolf 
Hans  Bartsch  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at 
a  problem  play  in  the  tragedy  of  a  mother,  Ohne 
Gott,  while  Marie  VaSrting's  Das  Bechi  des 
Kindes  holds  out  promise  of  better  work  to  come. 
A  powerful  first  play  was  Armui  by  Anton 
Wildgans,  an  Austrian  so  far  known  only  as  the 
author  of  lyric  verse  of  strong  individuality. 
Herbert  Eulenberg  perseveres  in  courting  the 
dramatic  muse,  but  has  not  made  a  profound 
impression  by  his  latest  effort:  Der  Frauen- 
iausoh.  Felix  Philippi  has  proved  by  Der  FM 
Ravelli,  which  is  founded  upnon  a  criminal  plot, 
that  he  has  lost  none  of  his  clever  constructive 
power.  Hans  Miiller's  Die  hlaue  Kuste  failed  to 
rouse  the  interest  which  his  earlier  work  had 
called  forth.  The  mood  of  the  time  does  not 
make  for  comedy  and  only  a  few  authors  have 
attempted  it.  Hermann  Bahr,  the  indefatigable, 
has  written  a  farce:  Der  munire  Beifen^eder, 
Siegfried  Trebitsch,  the  translator  of  Shaw,  calls 
his  comedy  Oefdhrliche  Jahre,  Ernst  Kamnitzer 
has  written  Die  Nadel,  and  Carl  Stemheim 
figures  as  the  author  of  two  plays:  Die  Schar- 
mante  and  1919*    Heinrich  Mohr  has  edited  a 


volume  of  two  war  farces:  Kriegsschu>anke  aus 
alter  Zeit. 

CttmciBu,  liiTEBART  HiSTOBT,  ETC.  The  year 
has  seen  the  publication  of  remarkably  few  im- 
portant works  of  criticism.  The  most  note- 
worthy are  Erwin  Rhode's  Der  griechische  Roman 
und  seine  Vorldufer,  Max  Zobel  von  Zobeltitz's 
Georg  Bilchner,  sein  Lehen  und  Schaffen,  Dr. 
Otto  Ritter's  Geschichte  der  franzdsisohen  BaUa- 
denform,  Dr.  Ernst  Falk's  D€ts  romantische  EXe- 
ment  in  Prosper  Merimi€^s  Roman  und  Novellen. 
E.  Heusermann  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  Schil- 
ler's dramas.  Dr.  Bruno  Busse  is  the  author  of 
Dew  Drama,  a  work  in  three  volumes,  tracinsr 
the  development  of  the  drama  from  romanticism 
to  the  present  time.  Dr.  Alois  Brandl  has  em- 
braced the  occasion  to  allude  to  the  England  of 
to-day  in  the  book  entitled  Byron  im  Kampfe 
nUt  der  englischen  Politik  und  die  englisehe 
Kriegslyrik  von  heute,  Adolf  Schafheitlin  holds 
up  the  mirror  to  modernism  in  his  Lehrhuch  des 
Lachens.  Thomas  Mann  has  forsaken  fiction 
for  a  serious  and  readable  historical  work: 
Friedrich  und  die  grosse  Koalition,  Jacob  Was- 
sermann,  too,  has  produced  a  historical  volume 
of  interest:  Deutsche  Charaktere  und  Begehen- 
heiten.  Julius  Bab  has  written  Preussen  und 
der  deutsehe  Geist, 

BiOGBAPHT,  Memoirs,  Letters.  Ricarda  Huch 
is  the  author  of  a  valuable  study  of  the  char- 
acter of  Wallenstein,  Adolf  Paul  has  published 
the  memoir  and  letters  of  August  Strindberg. 
Of  Bismarck's  biography  there  have  beai  pub- 
•  lished  several  new  editions.  The  Letters  of  Jo- 
hanna von  Bismarck  have  also  been  reissued. 
New  editions  of  Ooethe's  correspondence  with 
Marianne  von  Willemer  and  with  Zelter  are  on 
the  market.  Theodor  Storm's  Brief  e  an  seine 
Braut  refiect  the  admirable  personality  of  the 
poet-novelist.  Josef  Victor  von  Scheffel's  Briefe 
an  Anton  von  Werner,  with  annotations  by  the 
latter,  are  interesting  reading.  Wilhelm  Bode 
has  published  a  volume  of  Btunden  mit  Goethe, 
in  which  he  collected  Goethe's  opinions  of  the 
French  and  English.  Richard  Wagner's  Auto- 
hioffraphy  has  appeared  in  a  new  ^ition. 

Travel.  Alfons  Pacquet,  whose  verse  was  in- 
spired by  various  climes  and  derived  much  of 
his  diarms  from  his  exotic  subjects,  has  now 
written  a  book  of  travel  in  prose:  In  Paldstina, 
Norbert  Jacques,  a  Luxemburgian  by  birth,  is 
the  author  of  Die  FlUehtUnge,  in  which  he  de- 
scribes a  journey  through  Holland  behind  the 
Belgian  front.  Hans  Hoffman's  Lander  und 
Leute  is  another  readable  book  of  its  kind.  Her- 
mann Bahr  entitles  an  invitation  to  Salzburg: 
Das  oesterreichisehe  Wunder, 

Current  Events.  So  voluminous  is  the  lit- 
erature called  forth  by  the  war  and  so  difiieult 
to  classify,  that  it  is  necessary  to  consider  it 
separately.  The  author  responsible  for  the 
greatest  number  of  books  of  this  kind  is  ^r. 
Hans  F.  Helmolt,  who  has  written  among  otber 
works,  Der  Weltkrieg  in  BUdem  und  Dokumeft\ 
ten  nebst  einem  Kriegstagebuch,  Die  geheime^ 
Vorgesohichte  des  Weltkrieges  auf  Grund  ur-  '' 
kundlichen  Stoffes,  and  a  study  of  Bismarck,  \ 
who  is  being  referred  to  more  and  more  fre- 
quently. The  Wagnerites,  too,  have  been  busy 
airing  their  opinions,  Houston  Stewart  Cham- 
berlain having  published  a  new  volume  of 
Kriegsaufs&tze,  and  Hans  von  Wolzogen,  Ge- 
danken  zur  Kriegszeit.  Of  war  diaries  may  be 
mentioned  Dr.  Artur  Kutscher's  Kriegstagebuch, 


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263 


GEBMAN  NEW  GUINEA 


and  Aage  Madelung's  Mem  Kriegsiagehuch,  the 
work  of  a  Danish  author  writing  in  German. 
Other  works  dealing  with  the  campaign  in  the 
East  or  West  are  Karl  Hans  Strobl's  Zwiaehen 
Weieh$el  unde  Karpathen;  Artur  Holitsdter's 
In  England^  Ostpreuasen  u,  8.  to,;  Adolf  Ros- 
ter's Der  Tod  in  Flandem;  Norbert  Jacques's 
London  und  PoHb  im  Kriege;  Ludwig  Gang- 
hofer's  Reiae  smr  Front  1915;  Alfons  Pacquet's 
Naoh  Oaten;  Bernard  Kellermann's  Der  Krieg 
im  Weaten;  and  Kriegafahrten  einea  Johannit- 
eramit  friedUchem  Zwiachenapiel,  by  Fedor  von 
Zobeltitz.  The  political  aspects  of  the  war  are 
treated  in  Dr.  Karl  Notzel's  Der  entlarvie  Pan- 
alaviamua  und  die  groaae  AuaaShnung  der  Slaven 
und  Oermanen;  Dr.  Karl  Fedem  in  Die  PolUik 
dea  Dreiverbandea  und  der  Krieg;  Gustav  F. 
Steffen  in  Weltkrieg  und  Imperialiamua ;  Karl 
Bleibtreu  in  Englanda  groaae  Waterlooluge;  Al- 
fons Pacquet  in  Der  Kaiaergedanke,  and  others. 
Otto  Hauser,  too,  has  turned  from  his  purely 
literary  labors  to  the  all-engrossing  problems  of 
the  day  in  Raaae  und  Raaaefragen  in  Deutsch- 
land.  The  spirit  of  books  like  Deutachland  ala 
Welterzieher,  by  Johann  August  Lux,  Friedrich 
Lienhard's  Deuiachlanda  europaiache  Sendung, 
and  Walter  von  Molo's  Deuiach  aein  heiaat 
Menach  aein,  is  evident  from  the  titles.  Oskar 
A.  G.  Schmitz  offers  a  forecast  of  the  Germany 
that  is  to  be  after  the  war  in  D€ta  wirkUche 
Deutachland,  Karl  Joel's  Neue  Weltkultur,  Carl 
Hauptmann's  Die  uralte  Sphina,  and  Alexander 
Schneider's  Kriegageatalten  und  Todeagetcalten 
are  other  interesting  contributions  to  the  lit- 
erature of  the  war.  Appreciations  of  the  mili- 
tary leaders  are  numerous,  among  them  Unaer 
Hindenburg,  by  Paul  Bliss,  and  Von  Hannihal 
eu  Hindenburg,  by  Karl  Strecker.  A  contri- 
bution to  the  psychology  of  war  is  offered  by 
Dr.  Magnus  Hirschfeld  in  Warum  haaaen  aich 
die  Volkerf  Friedrich  Lienhard  has  written 
Daa  deutaohe  Elaaaa,  A  lighter  note  is  struck 
by  Hermann  Bahr  in  Kriegaaegen,  Eberhard 
Buchner  in  Kriegahumor,  and  Rudolf  Greinz  in 
Die  eiaeme  Fauat:  Marterln  auf  unaere  Feinde. 
Women  have  contributed  a  number  of  books: 
Dr.  Gertrud  B&umer,  Der  Krieg  und  die  Frau, 
Leonore  Niessen-Deiters,  Kriegabriefe  einer 
Frau,  and  Lena  Christ,  Unaere  Bayem  1914. 
The  ])eaee  problem  has  been  touched  in  Heinrich 
Lhotzky's  Um  den  Vdlkerfrieden.  More  re- 
motely related  to  the  war  are  Peter  Altenberg's 
Feohaung,  Felix  Poppenberg's  Der  Sommerhut 
von  1915,  and  the  essays,  Wege  und  Umwege, 
by  Annette  Kolb,  who  deserves  credit  for  hav- 
ing publicly  denounced  the  press  for  sowing 
hatred  and  creating  national  prejudices. 

New  Editions.  It  is  curious  to  note  that 
neither  Goethe  nor  Schiller  is  represented  by 
as  many  new  editions  as  in  other  years,  Goethe's 
Ifovellen  und  Marchen,  with  an  introduction  by 
Paul  Ernst  being  the  only  important  addition. 
On  the  other  hcmd,  a  writer  whom  the  young 
generation  had  forgotten,  if  not  deliberately  ig- 
nored, has  come  into  astonishing  prominence: 
Emanuel  Geibel,  the  singer  of  innocuous  senti- 
ment and  hollow  pathos.  A  volume  of  his  lyr- 
ics has  been  reissued:  Heroldarufe,  his  drama 
Sophoniabe,  and  there  are  new  complete  editions 
of  his  poems  and  his  dramas.  Selections  from 
the  writings  of  Nietzsche  have  been  published 
under  the  title  Nietgache-Worte,  Selections 
from  the  writings  of  Richard  Wagner  are  of- 
fered under  the  title,  Waa  iat  deutaohf    There  is 


also  a  popular  edition  of  Richard  Wagner's  Com- 
plete Worka,  The  German  tales  by  the  Grimm 
brothers  have  made  their  annual  reappearance 
in  a  new  form.  There  have  been  new  editions 
of  Wilhelm  Heinse's  Ardinghello  oder  die  ^Zuofc- 
aeligen  Inaeln,  of  Gottfried  August  Bttrger's 
poems  in  two  volumes,  of  Clemens  Brentano's 
Oeaohichte  vom  braven  Kaaperl  und  achoner 
Annerl,  of  Klaus  Groth's  letters  on  High  and 
Low  German,  of  the  complete  works  of  Heine 
and  of  Wildenbruch.  It  is  not  far  to  seek  the 
reason  of  sudi  reprints  as  the  letters  of 
BlUcher,  Fichte's  Uber  den  Begriff  dea  wahr- 
kaften  Kriegea,  selections  from  the  writings  of 
Gorres  under  the  title  Flammenzeichen,  the  sol- 
dier and  war  stories  of  Johann  Peter  Hebel, 
and  selections  from  the  robust  preachments  of 
the  worthy  capuchin  Abraham  a  Santa  Clara, 
entitled  Kreigabuch  fur  die  Seele.  The  most  at- 
tractive new  edition  is  that  of  Gottfried  Kel- 
ler's Heimat  und  Dichtung,  with  drawings  by 
Emil  BoUmann. 

Tbanslationb.  Translations  have  been  nu- 
merous. Among  American  authors  so  honored 
are  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  whose  poems  translated 
by  Hedwig  Lachmann  and  Heada  MoUer-Bruck 
complete  the  G^man  edition  of  his  works. 
Only  one  American  novel  has  appeared  on  the 
market:  Meredith  Nicholson's  Houae  of  a  Thou- 
aand  Candlea.  The  only  English  author  repre- 
sented is  Conan  Doyle.  Paul  Claudel,  who  had 
been  introduced  to  the  Germans  by  Emil 
Jacques-Dalcroze  in  the  festival  hall  of  his 
school  at  Dresden-Hellerau,  is  represented  by 
his  Tranafiguration.  Other  French  authors  of 
whom  translations  have  appeared  are,  Count 
Gobineau,  Henri  Bordeaux,  Gustave  Flaubert, 
Felicien  Mallefille,  and  Le  Sage.  There  are 
translations  from  the  Danish  of  Holger  Drach- 
mann,  EArin  Michaelis,  and  Johannes  V.  Jen- 
sen; from  the  Norwegian  of  Knut  Hamsun; 
and  from  the  Swedish  of  Selma  Lagerl(5f.  There 
is  a  new  translation  of  the  works  of  Sappho. 
The  Trojan  Women  of  Euripides  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Franz  Werfel.  A  collection  of  Chi- 
nese novels  has  appeared,  and  a  volume  of  the 
memoirs  of  Li  Hung  Chang.  The  only  book 
from  the  Turkish,  Emin  Mehmed's  Turka  Awake, 
seems  a  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
war. 

Obituabt.  Among  the  writers  who  have  died 
within  the  past  year  are  Albert  Geiger,  poet, 
novelist,  and  dramatist;  Carl  F.  Glasenapp,  the 
biographer  of  Wagner;  Dr.  Max  Friedl&nder, 
editor  of  Kladderadatach ;  Dr.  Franz  Schnorr 
von  Carolsfeld,  former  director  of  the  royal  li- 
brary at  Dresden,  and  author  of  a  history  of 
Meiatergeaang ;  Kslte  Sebaldt,  who,  under  her 
pseudonym  Miriam  Eck,  was  known  as  a  writer 
of  lyrics  and  an  excellent  translator;  Dr.  Karl 
Lamprecht,  the  historian;  Georg  Busse-Palma, 
brother  of  Carl  Busse,  and,  like  him,  a  lyric 
poet;  Felix  Poppenberg,  the  essayist;  Fritz 
Marti,  the  Swiss  writer;  and  Walter  Heymann, 
the  lyric  poet,  one  of  a  number  of  less  known 
writer^  who  fell  on  the  battlefield. 

GEBMAN  NEW  GUINEA.  A  protectorate 
of  Germany,  including  Kaiser- Wilhelmsland  and 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  with  the  German 
Solomon  Islands.  Estimated  area,  240,000 
square  kilometers  (92,664  square  miles).  De- 
pendencies are  the  Caroline,  Palan,  Mariana, 
and  Marshall  islands;  area,  2476  square  kilo- 
meters   (956  square  miles).    The  total  native 


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0EBKAN  NEW  GUIKEA 


254       GEBMAN  SOUTHWEST  AFSIOA 


colored  population  of  protectorate  and  depend- 
encies is  estimated  at  600,000;  other  colored, 
2000;  whites,  Jan.  1,  1913,  968  in  the  protec- 
torate and  459  in  the  dependencies  (of  whom, 
German  746  and  259).  Missions,  four  Protes- 
tant and  five  Roman  Catholic.  Schools,  616, 
with  18,486  pupils.  The  trade  of  the  protec- 
torate was  valued  at  5,299,000  marks  imports, 
and  4,109,000  marks  exports  in  1911;  in  1912, 
5,872,000  and  5,041,000.  The  chief  export  is 
copra,  amounting  to  3,332,000  marks  in  1911 
and  4,052,000  in  1912.  Imports  from  and  ex- 
ports to  Germany  in  1911,  were  valued  at  2,- 
554,000  and  3,330,000  marks;  in  1912,  2,221,000 
and  4,489,000.  Imports  and  exports  of  the  de- 
pendencies in  1911,  1,729,000  and  6,271,000 
marks;  in  1912,  1,963,000  and  6,164,000.  The 
chief  export  is  phosphate,  valued  at  5,308,000 
marks  in  1911,  and  3,468,000  in  1912.  Imports 
from  and  exports  to  Germany  in  1911,  462,000 
and  2,616,000  marks;  in  1912,  441,000  and  1,- 
613,000.  Local  revenue  (for  protectorate  and 
dependencies)  in  1912-13,  1,760,000  marks;  in 
1913-14,  2,096,000;  expenditure,  3,410,000  and 
3,830,000.  The  budget  for  1914-15  balanced  at 
3,833,886  marks,  the  estimated  receipts  includ- 
ing an  imperial  contribution  of  1,717,022 
marks.  The  capital  is  Rabaul,  in  Neu-Pom- 
mern.  A  German  protectorate  was  declared 
over  Kaiser-Wilhelmsland  and  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago  in  1884;  Germany  acquired  the  de- 
pendencies in  1899. 

In  1914  German  New  Guinea  was  occupied  by 
British  Colonial  troops.    See  1914  Yeab  Book. 

GERMAN  PLOTd.  See  Canada,  History; 
and  United  States  and  the  Wab. 

GEBMAN  BEPOBMED  CHTJBCH.  See 
Reformed  Chusoh  in  the  United  States. 

GEBMAN  SAMOA.  A  protectorate  of  Ger- 
many in  the  South  Pacific,  consisting  of  the  is- 
lands of  Savaii  (652.9  square  miles),  Upolu 
(335.5),  Manono  (3.3),  and  Apolima  (1.8). 
Total  area,  993.5  square  miles.  Besides  the  is- 
lands mentioned  there  are  several  islets  of  in- 
considerable area.  Estimated  native  popula- 
tion, 38,000;  whites,  Jan.  1,  1913,  544,  of  whom 
329  Grermans.  There  is  one  Protestant  and  one 
Roman  Catholic  mission.  Imports  and  exports 
increased  from  2,826,000  and  1,770,000  marks 
respectively  in  1907,  to  3,462,000  and  3,534,000 
in  1910,  4,066,000  and  4,390,000  in  1911,  4,994,- 
000  and  5,045,000  in  1912,  and  5,676,000  and 
5,339,000  in  1913.  The  chief  export  is  copra, 
valued  at  4,070,000  marks  in  1912  and  4,121,000 
in  1913;  next  is  cacao,  840,000  and  1,063,000. 
Imports  from  and  exports  to  Germany  in  1912, 
986,000  and  2,536,000;  in  1913,  1,199,000  and 
2,973,000.  Local  revenue  in  1912-13,  970,000 
marks;  in  1913-14,  1,190,000;  expenditure,  1,- 
130,000  and  1,138,000.  The  budget  for  1914-15 
balanced  at  1,374,354  marks.  The  administra- 
tive headquarters  is  Apia,  in  Upolu. 

In  1914  German  Samoa  was  occupied  by 
British  Colonial  troops.    See  1914  Yeab  Book. 

GEBMAN  SOUTHWEST  AFBICA.  A  pro- 
tectorate of  (^ermany  on  the  Atlantic,  between 
Angola  and  the  Cape  Province  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  (excepting  Walfish  Bay,  which  be- 
longs to  the  Cape  Province).  Estimated  area, 
835,100  square  kilometers  (322,432  square 
miles),  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  area  of 
Washington,  Oregon,  and  California.  Esti- 
mated native  population,  81,000;  other  colored, 
3000;  whites,  Jan.  1,  1913,  14,830,  of  whom  12,- 


292  Germans.  Missions,  two  Protestant  and 
two  Roman  Catholic.  Schools,  20,  with  775 
pupils;  about  3000  persons  are  said  to  receive 
mission  instruction.  In  1912-13,  494  whites 
and  3194  natives  were  convicted  in  the  courts. 
The  military  in  1914  numbered  1967  Germans 
and  589  natives;  police,  516  and  370.  The  Ger- 
mans, who  established  the  protectorate  in  1884, 
have  met  with  much  vigorous  resistance  from 
the  natives.  Stock  raising  exceeds  agriculture 
in  importance.  The  number  of  cattle  increased 
from  73,331  in  1908  to  121,139  in  1910,  171,784 
in  1912,  and  205,643  in  1913.  In  the  latter  year 
there  were  also  53,691  wool  sheep,  17,171  Per- 
sian sheep,  11,194  karakul,  472,585  mutton 
sheep,  485,401  goats,  31,503  Angora  goats,  15,- 
916  horses,  13,618  mules  and  asses,  7772  swine, 
709  camels,  and  1507  ostriches.  Copper  is 
mined  and,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ltideritz- 
bucht,  diamonds  are  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  diamond  output  in  1910-11 
was  814,322  carats,  and  in  1911-12,  766,465  car- 
ats. Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as 
follows:  in  1907,  32,396,000  and  1,616,000 
marks;  in  1910,  44,344,000  and  34,692,000;  in 
1912,  32,499,000  and  39,035,000;  in  1913,  43,- 
426,000  and  70,302,000.  Diamond  export  in 
1912  and  1913,  30,414,000  and  58,910,000  marks; 
copper  ore,  6,523,000  and  7,929,000  (in  metric 
tons,  42,775  and  47,345);  tin  ore,  9000  and 
632,000  (in  metric  tons,  9  and  209);  hides  and 
skins,  298,000  and  521,000;  wool,  150,000  and 
136,000;  ostrich  plumes,  97,000  and  125,000. 
Imports  from  and  exports  to  Germany  in  1911, 
37,259,000  and  24,360,000  marks;  in  1912,  26,- 
442,000  and  32,454,000.  The  length  of  railway 
in  operation  increased  from  20  kilometers  in 
1897  to  194  in  1900,  631  in  1905,  1598  in  1909, 
and  2104  (1307  miles)  in  1912.  Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  great  war  in  1914  the  British 
decided  for  military  purposes  to  connect  the 
railway  systems  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
and  German  Southwest  Africa.  The  connect- 
ing line,  completed  in  1915,  is  314  miles  long, 
extending  from  Prieska,  on  the  Orange  River  in 
the  Cape  Province,  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
river  to  a  point  opposite  Upington,  where  the 
river  is  crossed;  from  Upington  the  line  runs 
to  Nakob  and  thence  west  to  Kalkfontein,  ter- 
minus of  the  railway  from  LQderitzbucht. 

Local  revenue  in  1912-13  and  1913-14,  31,- 
910,000  and  23,500,000  marks;  expenditure,  46,- 
570,000  and  40,340,000;  in  addition,  there  were 
loans  of  15,950,000  and  7,481,000  marks.  The 
budget  for  1914-15  balanced  at  47,820,000 
marks,  estimated  local  receipts  amounting  to 
28,199,000  marks,  imperial  contribution  12,140,- 
000,  and  loan  7,481,000.  Windhuk  is  the  ad- 
ministrative headquarters. 

HiSTOBT.  Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  in  1914,  the  forces  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  under  General  Louis  Botha  b^gan  an  inva- 
sion of  German  Southwest  Africa.  Two  divisions 
of  the  Boer  troops  landed  at  Walfish  and  Llideritz 
Bays  and  began  to  advance  by  rail  from  these 
points,  while  a  third  concentrated  its  strength 
in  Northern  Cape  Colony  and  advanced  north- 
ward. On  Christmas  Dav  (1914),  Walfish 
Bay,  which  had  been  raided  by  the  (jlermans  in 
September,  was  reoccupied  by  the  troops  of  the 
Union.  The  first  action  to  take  place  in  the 
new  year  was  on  January  5th,  when  the  invad- 
ing forces  occupied  Scuit  Drift,  a  crossing  place 
on  the  Orange  River  between  South  Africa  and 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


1 


J' 


Digitized  by 


Google 


GEEMANY 


266 


GEBHAKY 


Bremen  (/c)  . . 
Hamburg  {fe)  . 
Alsace-Lorraine 

Total     . . 


(r). 


Sq.m, 
99.0 
160.0 
6,606.9 


Pop.  1900 
224,882 
768.849 

1,719,470 


Pop.  1910 

229,626 

1.014.664 

1.874.014 


208,826.2  66,867,178  64,926,998 


POPULATION   TOTALS  Ol*  THI  BMPIBX  IN  VOEKKB  TXAB0 


Total  .. 
Total  . . 
Total  .. 
Total  .. 
Total  .. 
Total   .. 


..1906.. 
..1900.. 
..1890.. 
..1880.. 
..1871.. 
..1870.. 


..60,641,489 
.66,867,178 

.  .49.428,470 
.46.284.061 
.41.058,792 
.40,818,000 


I860.. 
1850.. 
1840.. 
1880.. 
1820.. 
1816.. 


.  .87.747.000 
.85.897,000 
.82.787.000 
.  .29,520,000 
,.26.294.000 
..24,888,000 


The  population  totals  for  former  years  given 
above  are  comparable,  since  they  relate  to  the 
Empire  as  constituted  at  present.  The  increase 
from  1871  to  1880  amounted  to  about  10.8  per 
cent;  from  1880  to  1890,  8.9;  from  1890  to  1900, 
13.1;  from  1900  to  1010,  14.1;  from  1871  to  1910, 
58.1.  The  average  density  per  square  mile  in 
1871  was  about  197,  and  in  1910  about  311. 

The  estimated  population  of  the  Empire,  and 
of  the  customs  territory  (Zollgebiet)  respec- 
tively, on  June  30,  1912,  was  66,146,000  and 
66,391,000;  on  June  30, 1913, 66,978,000  and  67,- 
226,000;  on  June  30,  1914,  67,810,000  and  68,- 
069,000. 

The  1910  census  returned  32,040,166  males 
and  32,886,827  females.  The  number  of  males 
18  years  old  and  over  was  18,947,661,  and  of 
females,  19,906,644.  In  view  of  the  war,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  number  of  males  re- 
turned by  the  1910  census  as  having  been  bom 
between  the  vears  1879  and  1894  inclusive,  that 
is,  the  number  of  males  who,  barring  deaths 
from  Dec.  31,  1910,  would  have  been  from  20  to 
36  years  of  age  in  1914;  this  number  was  6,- 
305,901.  Males  bom  in  the  years  1874  to  1878 
inclusive,  that  is,  males,  who,  barring  deaths, 
would  have  been  from  36  to  40  years  of  age 
in  1914,  numbered  2,346,218.  Males  born  in 
1896  and  1896  numbered  1,329,903  at  the  1910 
census.  Thus  the  number  of  males  who,  bar- 
ring deaths  from  the  end  of  1910,  would  have 
been  from  18  to  40  years  of  age  in  1914  was 
9,981,022.  Of  the  total  population  in  1910,  un- 
married males  and  unmarried  females  num- 
bered 19,616,340  and  18,691,604  respectively; 
married,  11,608,028  and  11,621,686;  widowed, 
866,676  and  2,583,872;  divorced  or  separated, 
49,122  and  88,666. 

The  1900  census  showed  a  foreign  population 
of  778,737,  of  whom  314,463  female;  the  1910 
census,  1,269,880,  of  whom  642,991  female.  Of 
the  total  in  1910,  Auatriana  numbered  634,989, 
Dutch  144,181,  Russians  (including  Finns) 
137,668,  Italians  104,266,  Swiss  68,233,  Hungar- 
ians 32,087,  Danes  26,238,  French  (including 
colonials)  19,137,  British  (including  colonials) 
18,319,  Americans  (including  Filipinos,  Porto 
Ricans,  and  Hawaiians)  17,666,  Luxembur- 
geois  14,356,  Belgians  13,449. 

The  increase  in  population  is  largely  urban. 
Communes  having  less  than  2000  inhabitants 
are  regarded  as  rural.  The  aggregate  popula- 
tion of  such  communes  in  1871  was  63.9  per 
cent  of  the  total;  in  1890,  63.0  per  cent;  in 
1900,  46.6  per  cent;  in  1910,  40.0  per  cent. 
The  aggregate  population  of  communes  having 
100,000  or  more  inhabitants  in  1871  was  4.8 
per  cent  of  the  total;  in  1890,  12.1;  in  1900, 
16.2;  in  1910,  21.3.  On  Dec.  1,  1910,  there 
were  676  communes  with  over  10,000  inhabi- 
tants each.    The  communal  population  of  the 


larger  cities  at  that  time  was  as  follows  (some 
of  the  figures  are  larger  than  the  returns  of 
the  census,  having  been  adjusted  so  as  to  in- 
clude certain  districts  subsequently  annexed) : 
Berlin,  2,071.267  (Greater  Berlin,  3,710,000); 
Hamburg,  932,116;  Leipzig,  626,267;  Munich, 
607,692;  Dresden,  661,697;  Cologne,  616,527; 
Breslau,  614,766;  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  414,- 
676;  DUsseldorf,  358,728;  Nuremberg,  333,142; 
Cliarlottenburg,  306,978;  Hanover,  302,376;  Es- 
sen, 294,663;  Chemnitz,  287,807;  Stuttgart, 
286,218;  Mi^eburg,  279,629;  Bremen,  247,- 
437;  Kdnigsberg,  246,994;  Stettin,  237,419; 
Neukttlhi  (formerly  Rixdorf),  237,289;  Duis- 
burg,  229,483;  Dortmund,  214,226;  Kiel,  211,- 
627;  Mannheim,  206,049;  Halle,  180,843; 
Strassburg,  178,891 ;  Berlin-SchOneberg,  172,- 
823;  Altona,  172,628;  Danzig,  170,337;  Elber- 
feld,  170,196;  Gelsenkirchen,  169,613;  Barmen, 
169,214;  Posen,  156,691;  Aachen  (Aix-la- 
Chapelle),  156,143;  Cassel,  163,196;  Brunswick, 
143,562;  Augsburg,  143,128;  Bochum,  136,931; 
Karlsruhe,  134,313;  Lichtenberg,  133,141;  Kre- 
feld,  129,406;  Erfurt,  123,548;  Plauen,  121,272; 
Mainz,  118,107;  Mlilheim  on  the  Ruhr,  112,- 
580;  Berlin- Welmersdorf,  109,716;  Liibeck,  109,- 
106;  Wiesbaden,  109,002;  Saarbrttdcen,  105,089; 
Mttlhausen  (in  Alsace),  105,448;  Hambom,  101,- 
703;  Mtinster  (in  Westphalia),  90,254;  Ober- 
hausen,  89,900. 

Of  the  total  population  at  the  1910  census, 
about  61.6  per  cent  was  returned  as  Evangel- 
ical and  36.7  per  cent  as  Roman  Catholic,  as 
compared  with  62.6  per  cent  and  36.1  per  cent 
in  1900.  In  1910,  Evangelicals  numbered  39,- 
991,421,  Roman  Catholics  23,821,453,  other 
Christians  283,946,  Jews  615,021,  others  214,- 
162.  The  following  table  shows,  according  to 
the  1910  census,  the  number  of  Evangelicals 
{E.),  of  Roman  Catholics  {R,  C),  of  other 
Christians  (O.  C),  and  of  Jews  (J.),  per  thou- 
sand inhabitants: 


B. 

Prunia     618.2 

Bavaria     282.1 

Saxony    940.5 

Wttrttwnberg    685.6 

Baden    885.6 

Hease    661.5 

Mecklenburg- Schwerin     ....   961.8 

Saxe-Weimar    944.0 

Mecklenbnrg-Streliti    953.7 

Oldenburg     769.4 

Brunswick    989.0 

Saxe-Meiningen    978.7 

Saxe-Altenburg     961.6 

Saxe-Coburg-QoCha 978.9 

Anhalt 952.1 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.    976.9 
Schwarsburg-Rudolstadt    . . .   985.2 

Waldeck    936.9 

H«uss  Elder  Line   968.7 

ReuBS  Younger  Line 964.1 

Sohaumburg-Lippe 951.4 

Lippe    953.8 

Ldbeck    956.6 

Bremen 867.0 

Hamburg    916.3 

Alsace-Lorraine    217.8 

Totol   615.9 


B.C. 

O.G, 

/. 

868.1 

4.7 

10.4 

706.1 

2.0 

8.0 

49.1 

5.3 

8.7 

803.6 

6.3 

4.9 

598.2 

6.2 

12.1 

310.1 

6.2 

18.8 

82.9 

2.0 

2.2 

47.9 

2.0 

8.2 

40.0 

8.8 

2.4 

222.6 

8.8 

8.2 

52.4 

8.6 

8.6 

18.8 

2.2 

4.1 

83.5 

2.2 

0.9 

19.8 

1.2 

8.0 

88.5 

8.8 

4.2 

19.3 

0.6 

2.4 

12.8 

0.8 

0.8 

46.3 

6.4 

9.6 

17.8 

11.9 

0.6 

22.9 

5.1 

2.6 

15.3 

28.2 

4.9 

89.8 

1.8 

5.2 

84.0 

2.4 

5.4 

74.2 

4.8 

6.2 

50.8 

4.2 

19.2 

762.2 

2.1 

16.8 

866.9       4.4       9.5 


From  1906  to  1913  (the  latest  year  for  which 
vital  statistics  are  available),  a  decline  is  no- 
ticeable in  the  marriage  rate,  the  birth  rate, 
and  the  death  rate.  In  1912  and  1913  respec- 
tively, marriages  numbered  523,491  and  513,- 
283;  births  (including  stillbirths),  1,926,883 
and    1,894,598;    deaths    (including   stillbirths), 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


GEBHANY  257 

1,085,996  and  1,060,798;  excess  of  births,  839,- 
887  and  833,800;  living  births,  1,869,630  and 
1,838,750.  The  following  table  shows  for  each 
1000  inhabitants:  m  the  number  of  marriages; 
b  births  (including  stillbirths) ;  d  deaths  (in- 
cluding stillbirths);  e  excess  of  births  over 
deaths;  I  living  births;  and  for  each  100  births: 
i  the  number  of  ill^itimate  births;  9  the  num- 
ber of  stillbirths: 


GEBHANY 


m 

b 

d 

• 

1 

i 

« 

♦1851.60    .. 

..7.8 

86.8 

27.8 

9.0 

85.8 

11.5 

4.0 

1871-80    .. 

..8.6 

40.7 

28.8 

11.9 

89.1 

8.9 

4.0 

1881-90    .. 

..7.8 

88.2 

26.5 

11.7 

86.8 

9.8 

8.7 

1891-1900 

..8.2 

87.8 

28.6 

18.9 

86.1 

9.1 

8.2 

1901-1910 

..8.0 

88.9 

19.7 

14.8 

82.9 

8.6 

8.0 

1900     . 

..8.5 

86.8 

28.2 

18.6 

85.6 

8.7 

8.1 

1905     . 

..8.1 

84.0 

20.8 

18.2 

88.0 

8.5 

d.o 

1910     . 

..7.7 

80.7 

17.1 

18.6 

89.8 

9.1 

2.9 

1911     . 

..7.8 

29.5 

18.2 

11.8 

28.6 

9.2 

2.9 

1912     . 

..7.9 

29.1 

16.4 

12.7 

28.8 

9.5 

2.9 

1913     . 

..7.7 

28.8 

15.8 

12.4 

27.5 

9.7 

2.9 

♦For   tha 

ten-year   periods. 

the   annuel 

average   Is 

Bhoim. 

In  1895  German  overseas  emigrants  numbered 
37,498,  and  foreign  emigrants  from  (German 
ports,  95,074;  in  1900,  22,309  and  160,129;  in 
1905,  28,075  and  284,787;  in  1910,  25,531  and 
254,618;  in  1911,  22,690  and  183,233;  in  1912, 
18,545  and  290,386;  in  1913,  25,843  and  413,- 
857;  in  1914,  11,803  and  150,416.  Of  the  Ger- 
man emigrants  in  1914,  9614  were  bound  for 
the  United  States,  77  for  Brazil,  1821  for  other 
American  countries,  232  for  Australia,  8  for 
Africa.  Of  the  foreign  emigrants  from  German 
porta  in  1914,  131,938  were  bound  for  the 
United  States,  16,077  for  other  American  coim- 
tries,  2075  for  the  United  Kingdom,  223  for 
Africa. 

Education.  Higher  schools  for  males  num- 
bered, in  1911,  1687,  with  22,941  teachers  and 
427,644  students;  for  females,  828,  with  3012 
male  teachers,  9386  female  teachers,  and  234,461 
students  (not  including  2051  boys  under  instruc- 
tion at  the  girls'  schools).  Included  in  the 
higher  schools  for  males  were:  534  gymnasia, 
with  9769  teachers  and  160,237  students;  223 
realgymnasia,  with  3708  teachers  and  70,357  stu- 
dents; 167  oberrealschulen,  with  3473  teachers 
and  75,832  students;  81  progymnasia,  with  570 
teachers  and  9509  students;  63  prorealgymnasia, 
with  384  teachers  and  7252  students;  and  411 
realschulen,  with  4265  teachers  and  89,968  stu- 
dents. Of  the  higher  schools  for  females,  39  were 
gymnasia,  with  432  male  teachers,  607  female 
teachers,  and  22,137  students.  There  are  numer- 
ous institutions  for  higher,  technical,  and  profes- 
sional instruction.  Degree-conferring  technical 
high  schools  number  11,  at  Aachen,  Berlin, 
Breslau,  Brunswick,  Danzig,  Dresden,  Hanover, 
KarlsruJie,  Mimich,  and  Stuttgart.  These  tech- 
nical high  schools,  in  the  winter  semester  of 
1913-14,  had  11,594  regular  students,  while  the 
total  enrollment,  including  attendants  upon  lec- 
tures, etc.,  was  16,871,  of  whom  1877  were  fe- 
males. In  the  winter  semester  of  1914-15,  reg- 
ular students  numbered  9725,  and  the  total  en- 
rollment was  11,722,  of  whom  842  were  fe- 
males. Lyceums,  with  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  Roman  Catholic  theology,  are  established 
at  Bamberg,  Brunswick  (a^Ldemy),  Dillingen, 
Eichstfttt,  Freising,  Passau,  and  Regensburg; 
these  had,  in  the  winter  semester  of  1914-15, 
847  regular  students,  and  a  total  enrollment  of 
957,  of  whom  26  were  females.    The  21  univer- 

Y.  B.— 9 


sities,  together  with  the  Kaiser-Wilhelm  Acad- 
emy at  Ssrlin,  and  the  Posen  Academy,  had,  in 
the  winter  semester  of  1912-13,  59,312  matricu- 
lated students  (including  3213  females),  and  a 
total  enrollment  of  69,277  (including  5316  fe- 
males) ;  in  the  winter  semester  of  1913-14,  60,- 
095  matriculated  students  (3686  females),  and 
a  total  enrollment  of  70,024  (5518  females) ;  in 
the  winter  semester  of  1914-15,  53,074  matricu- 
lated students  (3896  females),  and  a  total  en- 
rollment of  56,644  (4842  females).  The  first 
semester  of  the  newly  established  University  of 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  was  that  of  the  win- 
ter 1914-15;  the  number  of  the  students  is  in- 
cluded in  the  total  just  given.  The  decline  in 
attendance  at  the  technical  high  schools  and 
universities  is  to  be  noted  as  one  of  the  results 
of  the  war.  The  following  table  shows  for  the 
several  universities  the  number  of  matriculated 
students  and  the  total  enrollment  in  the  win- 
ter semesters  of  1913-14  and  of  1914-15: 


1918-14  191418 

Matrie.    Total  Malrie.  Total 

Berlin     9,59d  14,211  8.085  9,808 

Kaiaer-WiUielm  Academy  .       494        494  504  504 

Bonn    4.270  4.550  4.857  4.481 

Breslaa 2,791  8,280  2.709  8,000 

Frankfort  on  the  Main 618  1.009 

Odttingen    2.815  2,941  2,268  2.814 

Qreifswald    1.250  1,899  1,109  1,151 

Halle     2,910  8,108  2.812  2,859 

Kiel    1,847  1,928  1,941  1.971 

Konigsberg   1,568  1.675  1.260  1,281 

Marburg    2,168  2,217  2.049  2.062 

Manster    2,128  2,297  2,861  2,456 

Posen   (Academy) 880  ....  168 

Munich    6.802  7,664  5.589  5,883 

Wfinburg    1,515  1.586  1,208  1,227 

Erlangen     1,841  1,888  1,118  1,186 

Leipjtig    5,582  6,468  4,515  4,938 

Tubingen     1,887  2,018  2,056  2,114 

Heidelberg    2,409  2,567  2,028  2.091 

Freiberg  in  Breiagaa  ....   2,572  2,710  2,287  2,276 

Oiessen    1,840  1,514  1,214  1,248 

Jena    1,862  1,944  1,166  1,708 

Rostock 914  1.009  820  889 

Strassburg    2,092  2,241  1,155  1,180 

Total    60,095  7Q,024  58,074  56,644 

In  the  winter  semester  of  1914-15,  the  num- 
ber of  matriculated  university  students  in  the 
several  faculties  was  as  follows:  Evangelical 
theology,  4018  (including  12  females);  Roman 
Catholic  theology,  1888;  law,  8561  (including 
71  females)  ;  medicine,  15,149  (985) ;  philoso- 
phy (including  science,  etc.),  22,419  (2739). 
The  theological  faculties  at  Mlinster,  Mimich, 
Wttrzburg,  and  Freiburg  are  Roman  Catholic; 
at  Bonn,  Breslau,  TQbingen,  and  Strassburg, 
there  are  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Evangelical 
theological  faculties;  at  the  other  universities, 
the  theolo&rical  faculties  are  Evangelical.  There 
are  many  institutions,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned, for  technical  and  special  instruction. 

AoBicnLTUBB.  The  total  area  of  Germany  is 
stated  at  54,085,760  hectares.  So-called  farm 
land  in  1907  (the  latest  year  for  which  statis- 
tics are  available)  comprised  43,106,486  hec- 
tares. Of  this  land  31,834,874  hectares  (73.9 
per  cent)  were  under  cultivation,  7,679,754  hec- 
tares (17.8  per  cent)  were  profitable  forest,  and 
3,591,858  hectares  (8.3  per  cent)  were  poor  pas- 
ture, waste  lands,  yards,  etc.  Land  under  cul- 
tivation consisted  of  arable  land,  24,432,354  hec- 
tares (56.7  per  cent  of  the  total  farm  land) ; 
meadows  and  sown  pastures,  6,805,436  hectares 
(15.8  per  cent);  gardens,  481,716  hectares  (1.1 
per  cent) ;  and  vineyards,  115,368  hectares  (0.3 


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per  cent).  As  compared  with  1805,  the  year 
1907  showed  an  increase  in  waste  and  forest 
land  and  a  slight  decrease  in  cultivated  land. 
In  1007,  about  28  per  cent  of  the  population 
were  supported  by  agriculture,  as  compared  with 
about  35  per  cent  in  1895. 

For  some  of  the  principal  crops,  the  area,  in 
thousands  of  hectares,  and  the  yield,  in  metric 
tons,  are  reported  as  follows: 


1000  hectares 


Metric  tons 


1919  191S  1914  1918               1914 

Wheat    ...1.925  1,974  1,996  4,655.956     8.971.995 

Rye     6,268  6,414  6.299  12,222,894  10,426.718 

Barley    ...1.590  1,654  1,582  3.678.254     8,187.988 

Oats     4,887  4,488  4.888  9,718,965     9.038,185 

Potatoes   ..3,842  8,412  8,886  54,121,146  45,560,559 

On  account  of  the  war,  figures  for  the  1015 
crops  are  not  available.  In  1913,  about  533,000 
hectares  were  planted  to  sugar  beets,  yielding 
16,030,070  metric  tons;  in  1014,  569,082  hec- 
tares, 16,018,782  metric  tons.  The  output  of 
raw  sugar  in  1013  was  2,706,327  metric  tons;  in 
1014,  2,617,038  (provisional  figure).  In  1013 
and  1014  respectively,  27,048  and  27,685  hec- 
tares were  under  hops;  yield,  106,170  and  232,- 
366  metric  quintals.  The  average  yield  of  hops 
in  1005-14  was  102,307  Quintals.  The  area  un- 
der vines  is  gradually  declining,  from  110,873 
hectares  in  1004  to  105,876  in  1013,  and  102,855 
in  1014;  the  yield  varies  greatly,  having  been 
7.5  hectolitres  per  hectare  in  1010,  26.6  in  1011, 
18.6  in  1012,  and  0.5  in  1013.  The  total  yield 
of  wine  in  the  latter  year  was  1,004,047  hecto- 
litres. The  average  yield  in  1005-0  was  2,628,- 
034  hectolitres. 

Live  stock  has  been  enumerated  as  follows  on 
December  1st,  the  figures  for  horses  not  includ- 
ing those  used  in  the  army  and  the  1014  fig- 
ures being  provisional: 

1904  1918  1914 

Horses     4,267.408  8.441,807 

Cattle    10.456.187  11,820.460  11.316.457 

Sheep     7,907.178  6,o20,887  5,451,570 

Swine    18.920.666  25,659.140  25.889.850 

Goats 8,829,881  8,548,884  8,584,827 

Fisheries.  Fishing  in  1014  was  interrupted 
by  the  war,  and  statistics  for  that  year  have 
not  been  issued.  The  value  of  the  North  Sea 
catch  in  1012  and  1013  respectively  was:  fish, 
21,241,700  marks  and  21,857,200  marks;  shell- 
fish, 708,400  and  062,200;  other  marine  animals, 
6700  and  5700;  salt  herring  and  other  fishery 
products,  8,037,800  and  11,786,100;  total,  30,- 
084,600  and  34,611,200.  Value  of  the  Baltic 
catch,  including  that  of  the  bays  (Stettiner 
Half,  etc.),  in  1012  and  1013:  fish,  10,554,500 
marks  and  10,341,100  marks;  shellfish,  2000 
and  6100;  other  animals  regarded  as  marine 
(chieflv  wild  ducks),  24,700  and  31,000;  total, 
10,582,'^100  and  10,378,200.  Total  value  of  North 
Sea  and  Baltic  catches  in  1912  and  1013,  41,- 
566,700  and  44,989,400  marks. 

Minerals  and  Metals.  The  output  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg  is  included  in  the 
statistics  of  Germany.  The  value  of  the  min- 
eral output  in  1012  is  stated  at  2360  million 
marks,  as  compared  with  2086  million  in  1011, 
and  2000  million  in  1010.  The  production  of 
the  principal  minerals  in  1012  and  1013  are  re- 
ported as  follows,  in  thousands  of  metric  tons: 
coal,   174,875  and   100,100;   lignite,  80,035  and 


87,233;  iron  ore,  27,200  and  28,608;  zinc  ore, 
644  and  642;  lead  ore,  143  and  110;  copper 
ore,  074  and  048;  rock  salt,  1206  and  1302;  po- 
tassium salts,  11,161  and  13,306.  The  output 
of  pig  iron  in  1011  and  1012  is  reported  at  15,- 
574,030  and  15,220,000  metric  tons  respectively; 
zinc,  243,784  and  313,600;  lead,  161,450  and 
165,000;  copper,  37,455  and  45,600;  tin,  12,426 
and  10,600;  sulphuric  acid,  1,724,081  and  1,- 
640,700.  For  1013,  the  total  output  of  pig  iron 
was  reported  at  10,201,020  metric  tons;  for 
1014,  14,380,547. 

Commerce.  The  German  customs  territory 
includes  the  grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg.  On 
account  of  the  war,  commercial  statistics  for 
1014  have  not  been  published.  For  1013  and 
preceding  years,  total  foreign  commerce,  except 
goods  in  transit,  is  shown  below,  in  millions  of 
marks : 

Imports:  1910        1911         1918  1918 

Merchandise     9.585.1  10,880.0  11,572.4  11.654.8 

Coin  and  bullion..       555.0        297.8        827.4        441.3 


Total    10,090.1  10,677.8  11.899.8  12,096.1 

Exports: 

Merchandise     9,585.1   10,880.0  11,572.4  11,654.8 

Coin  and  bullion..       852.9         118.3        142.9  102.8 


Total    8.432.6     8,892.2     9,827.1  10,994.6 

Imports  for  consumption  and  exports  of  Ger- 
man produce  have  been  valued  as  follows,  in 
millions  of  marks: 


Imports:  1910        1911         1918  1918 

Merchandise    8,984.1     9.705.7  10,691.8  10.769.7 

Coin  and  bullion..       875.9         801.8         825.7         436.4 


Total    9,810.0  10,007.0  11.017.6  11,206.1 

Exports: 

Merchandise     7,474.7  8.106.1  8.956.8  10,097.2 

Coin  and  bullion..  169.5  118.8  142.7        101.4 


Total    7,644.2     8,224.4     9.099.5  10.198.6 

In  1912  and  1013,  imports  and  exports  of 
merchandise,  special  trade,  were  valued  by 
great  classes  as  follows,  in  millions  of  marks: 


Imports 


Exports 


1918  1918  1918  1918 

Raw  materials...  4,823.2  5,003.0  1,382.4  1,518.1 

Partly   mfd 1,256.8  1,289.0  1,012.0  1,139.4 

Manufactures 1.410.9  1,487.8  5,763.2  6.896.8 

Food  substances  .  .    2,944.9  1,759.2  789.4  1.086.0 

Live  animals    256.0  289.7  8.0  7.4 


Total 


..10,691.8  10,769.7     8,956.8  10.097.2 


For  1012  and  1013  respectively,  the  values 
in  millions  of  marks,  of  the  principal  imports 
of  merchandise  for  consumption,  were  as  fol- 
lows: cereals,  1130.5  and  1037.0;  hides  and 
skins,  575.5  and  672.4;  cotton,  623.6  and  664.1; 
wool,  527.0  and  511.7;  chemicals  and  drugs, 
305.4  and  421.8;  cooper,  320.0  and  346.7;  tim- 
ber, lumber,  etc.,  355.5  and  325.5;  live  animals, 
252.0  and  201.6;  coal,  275.7  and  280.6;  iron, 
213.3  and  238.3;  copra,  coconuts,  etc.,  105.3  and 
225.0;  coffee,  252.7  and  210.7;  silk,  220.0  and 
103.3;  eggs,  187.5  and  188.2;  fruits,  126.0  and 
148.8;  rubber  and  gutta-percha,  184.2  and 
146.1;  fish,  126.5  and  135.0;  leaf  tobacco,  135.6 
and  134.3;  wheaten  products,  186.8  and  130.3; 
linseed,  104.8  and  120.7;  animal  fats,  111.2  and 
118.9;    butter,    126.3   and    118.7;    oilcake,   116.5 


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and  118.6;  cotton  yarn,  104.0  and  116.2;  flax 
and  hemp,  120.4  and  114.4;  woolen  yarn,  107.6 
and  108.0;  rice,  102.6  and  103.9;  southern 
fruits,  94.2  and  101.2;  tin,  107.2  and  101.1; 
jute,  74.7  and  94.0;  iron  manufactures,  97.9 
and  93.7;  meats,  84.8  and  81.4;  machinery  77.1 
and  80.4. 

For  1912  and  1913  respectively,  the  values, 
in  millions  of  marks,  of  the  principal  exports 
of  domestic  produce  were  as  follows:  iron  man- 
ufactures, 1185.8  and  1337.6;  coal,  611.9  and 
722.6;  machinery,  630.3  and  680.3;  chemicals 
and  drugs,  646.4  and  658.0;  cotton  goods,  421.6 
and  446.5;  cereals,  341.6  and  278.2;  paints, 
dyes,  colors,  etc.,  278.2  and  298.1;  electrical  ap- 
paratus, 239.7  and  290.3;  woolen  goods,  253.4 
and  270.9;  sugar,  132.2  and  266.6;  paper,  232.2 
and  26278;  leather,  230.1  and  242.9;  copper 
manufactures,  184.7  and  240.7;  silk  goods,  205.2 
and  219.5;  furs,  etc.,  182.2  and  193.8;  hides 
and  skins,  182.3  and  178.4;  ships,  155.9  and 
175.2;  woolen  yam,  84.2  and  166.3;  glass  and 
glassware,  119.5  and  146.1;  apparel,  118.3  and 
132.0;  rubber  manufactures,  120.5  and  128.3; 
leather  manufactures,  98.1  and  114.2;  pottery, 
102.0  and  112.8. 

The  value  of  imports  of  merchandise  for  con- 
sumption and  of  exports  of  domestic  produce  by 
countries  in  1912  and  1913  was  as  follows,  in 
millions  of  marks: 


Importa 

1912  1918 

United    States    1.586.0  1,711.5 

Russia 1,527.9  1,424.6 

United  Kingdom    .  .     842.6  876.1 

Austria-Hungary    .  .     830.0  827.8 

France     552.2  584.2 

British  India    533.8  541.8 

Argentina    444.9  494.5 

Belgium     386.6  844.6 

Netherlands     845.4  833.0 

Italy    804.6  817.7 

Australia   276.7  296.1 

Brazil    818.2  247.9 

Du.  £.  Indies 214.9  227.6 

Sweden    214.0  224.1 

SwiUerland 205.7  21S.3 

Chile    209.7  199.8 

Spain     189.8  198.7 

Denmark 202.2  191.9 

Br.  W.  Africa 118.6  184.5 

China     115.6  180.0 

Kgypt    117.7  118.4 

Norway 63.9  82.0 

Rumania     188.2  79.8 

Turkey    77.8  78.9 

U.  of  S.  Africa 67.2  69.6 

Br.  N.  America   ...       68.1  64.1 

Japan    43.1  46.6 

Finland     86.9  45.2 

Total  including 

other     10,691.8  10.769.7 


BxporU 


1919 

1918 

697.6 

718.2 

679.8 

880.0 

1,161.1 

1,438.2 

1,035.8 

1,104.8 

689.4 

789.9 

107.5 

150.7 

289.4 

265.9 

493.3 

551.0 

608.6 

693.5 

401.2 

893.5 

87.6 

88.5 

192.8 

199.8 

74.5 

98.6 

197.4 

229.8 

520.5 

586.1 

112.0 

97.8 

118.0 

148.0 

254.2 

283.9 

15.2 

16.7 

81.7 

122.8 

88.0 

48.4 

144.7 

161.7 

181.7 

140.0 

118.2 

98.4 

44.5 

46.9 

54.3 

60.6 

110.6 

122.7 

83.4 

97.6 

8,956.8 

10.097.2 

By  Imperial  orders  dated  July  31,  1914,  the 
export  of  wheat,  wheat  flour,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
maize,  rice,  and  cotton  from  that  date,  and  of 
linseed  from  August  19th,  was  prohibited.  Ex- 
ceptions might  be  granted. 

Shipping.  Num&r  and  registered  tonnage 
(metric)  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  the 
ports,  in  the  foreign  trade,  in  1913: 


Vessels  entered 
No.  Tons 

Oerman   .  .  .    89,329     21,281,342 
Foreign   .  . .    26,637     15,640,885 


Vessels  cleared 

No.  Tons 

90.456  21,276,587 

26,919  18,645,219 


Total  .  . , 
1912. 
1903 . 
1898 . 


115,966 

114,407 

90,829 

66,656 


34,772,177 
82,541,458 
20,886.048 
14,621,684 


117,875 

118,931 

91,610 

67,219 


84,921.806 
82,606,658 
20,978,515 
14,784.658 


Number    and    tonnage    of    steam    vessels    in- 
cluded in  the  1913  figures  above: 


Vessels  entered 
No.  Tons 

German   .  .    59.900        18,596.887 
Foreign  ..    16.651       12,710,212 


Vessels  cleared 

No.  Tons 

60,892     18.618,425 

16,751     12.802.919 


Total  . . 
1912. 
1908. 
1898. 


76,551 
75.079 
58,862 
81,032 


81,807,049 
29,001.122 
18,268.828 
12,406,770 


77.148 
74,026 
58,574 
81,189 


81.421,844 
29,046.505 
18.848.669 
12.482.780 


Of  the  foreign  shipping  entered  in  1913,  Brit- 
ish vessels  numbereid  5285,  of  6,178,714  tons; 
Swedish,  5931,  of  2,172,577  tons;  Danish,  8101, 
of  1,703,232  tons;  Norwegian,  2184,  of  1,356,- 
681  tons;  Dutch,  3635,  of  1,022,585  tons;  Fin- 
nish, 512,  of  207,215  tons;  Russian,  517,  of 
197,031  tons. 

Of  the  total  in  1913  there  were  entered  at 
Hamburg  14,054  vessels,  of  13,141,362  tons;  at 
Breraerhaven,  1803,  of  2,298,689  tons;  at  Bre- 
men, 3310,  of  1,928,950  tons;  at  Stettin,  4900, 
of  1,893,434  tons;  at  Rostock  (Warnemllnde), 
3423,  of  1,409,908  tons;  at  Cuxhaven,  1777,  of 
1,305,900  tons;  at  Sassnitz,  3277,  of  1,235,117 
tons;  at  Lttbeck,  4047,  of  958,239  tons;  at  Neu- 
fahrwassar  (Danzig),  2811,  of  781,498  tons;  at 
Emden,  1870,  of  779,031  tons. 

The  table  below  shows  the  number  of  vessels, 
with  their  roistered  net  tonnage,  comprising 
Germany's  merchant  marine  Jan.  1,  1914  (ex- 
cluded are  steamers  of  less  than  15  tons  and 
sail  of  less  than  22  tons) : 

Vessels  Of  whieh.  steam 

No.  Tons  No.  Tons 

Hamburg    .1.466  1,908,279  822  1,640,828 

Bremen     713  937,610  461  810.275 

Prussia    2.329  818.646  687  261,924 

Oldenburg     298  60,476  80  87,288 

Liibeck    64  49,168  68  48,876 

Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin     75  45,907  67  48.671 

Recapitulation : 

North    Sea    8,948  2,988,216  1,687  2,620,609 

Baltic   Sea    987  881,855  588  811,708 

Total     4.935  8,820.071  2,170  2.882,812 

1918    4,850  8,158,724  2.098  2.666,496 

1912    4,782  8,023,725  2,009  2.518,666 

1901    8,883  1,941,645  1,890  1,847,876 

Communications.  The  following  table  shows 
the  length  in  kilometers  of  state  and  private 
normal-gauge  railway  in  operation,  together 
with  the  average  number  of  kilometers  of  rail- 
way per  thousand  square  kilometers  of  area,  as 
officially  reported  for  March  31,  1913: 

Stats  Private  Total  Aver. 

Pmssia     35,808.1  2,209.8  87,610.4  107.6 

Bavaria    8,116.8  241.9  8,867.2  110.2 

Saxony     2,656.4  20.2  2,676.6  178.5 

Wttrttemberg    1.881.1  162.5  1,998.6  102.2 

Baden     1,856.0  285.7  2,091.7  188.8 

Hesse     1,863.8  180.2  1.498.5  194.8 

Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin    1,167.1  9.1  1,166.2  88.8 

Saxe-Weimar   409.9  61.1  461.0  127.7 

Mecklenburg- 

StreliU    160.0  121.8  281.5  96.0 

Oldenburff    644.1  40.8  684.9  106.5 

Brunswick    489.5  208.8  647.8  176.4 

Alsace-Lorraine    ...    1,822.1  16.6  1.887.7  126.6 

Total  including         _^_—  ^_ 

other     67,605.7  8,658.1*61.158.8  118.1 

.    1912     66,859  8,662         60,621  111.9 

1911     56,062  8,701         59,762  110.5 

1910     65.858  8,678        69.081  109.1 

1906     60,614  4,166         54,680  100.9 

*  In  addition  862.8  km.  abroad,  belonging  to  the  Oer- 
man state  railways. 


Digitized  by 


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aBBKANY 


Bolides  the  normal-gauge  railway  Bhown  in  cokqu«.d  Railway  TnuTomng 

the  foregoing  table,  there  were  in  operation  on  (Beloium  and  P^Sno!)  i^ 

March   31,   1913,  2218.6  kilometers  of  narrow-  Apui«,  1915 

gauge  railway,  of  which  1076.3  kilometers  were  <in  round  figures) 

state  railway  and   1143.2  kilometers  private.  l.    Distance  in  kilometers  (kilometer=.621  mile)  st  the 

The  railway  service  in  Germany  during  1916,  «nd  «'  the  month-.  n^HU^uiins  Taua 

and  in  the  previous  y«ir,  was  handled  under  ^     ^^        milit«y.      ^0^  ""T^Sl)        7m 

military    conditions.    The    German   government  ^^    Leased 450  160  600 

maintained  a  complete  military  organization  of  0.    Not  in  use 550  20  570 

its  railway  lines,  and  construction  was  primar-  g-    gSi^^JSj^^iiiii;       ^^  H  l\l 

ily  for  strategic  purposes  and  military  opera-  

tions.     From  the  time  that  war  was  declared  Total    4,490        4,805        8.795 

on  AujB[.  2,  1914,  the  mobilization  of  the  troops  

was  effected  rapidly  by  railway  service  which  As  a  result  of  the  war  and  the  military  opera- 
included  not  only  the  actual  moving  of  military  tion  of  the  railways,  the  usual  train  service  in 
units,  but  also  bringing  men  to  their  homes  or  Germany  was  considerably  reduced.  The  time- 
appointed  places,  while  at  the  same  time  a  large  table  itself  showed  a  high  percentage  of  trains 
number  of  tourists  were  transported  to  fron-  withdrawn.  The  reduced  service  for  the  most 
tiers  or  elsewhere.  part,   however,   carried   on   by   employees   over 

The  early  movements  of  the  railway  lines  in-  military  age  was  very  satisfactory  and  well  or- 
cluded  the  elimination  of  loading  and  unloading  ganised.  In  many  ticket  offices  women  were 
freight  cars  that  were  not  needed  for  the  trans-  employed,  and  the  usual  dining  and  sleeping 
port  of  military  material.  The  operation  of  ^ars  were  operated  on  the  more  important  ex- 
troop  trains  began  a  few  hours  after  the  actual  press  trains  between  large  cities.  All  the  Ger- 
mobilization  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  of  i^an  railways  were  being  worked  on  one  single 
the  military  railway  organization  and  his  staff,  system,  which  was  extended  to  the  whole  of 
under  whom  all  railways  became  immediately  Belgium  under  German  occupation,  as  well  as 
subject,  as  he  was  empowered  to  issue  all  or-  to  the  occupied  portions  of  France  and  of  Rus- 
ders  for  relating  the  war  traffic,  and  had  at  gia^  Pohmd.  Direct  express  trains,  with  sleep- 
his  disposal  the  railway  sections  of  the  great  ing  and  dining  cars,  were  run  from  Berlin  to 
railway  staff  in  Berlin.  Germany's  railway  Metz-Charleville-Meziferes,  and  also  to  Brussels 
systems  were  soon  augmented  by  the  railways  and  Lille,  so  that  a  civilian  with  proper  official 
in  the  conquered  territory,  which  had  to  be  re-  papers  could  travel  to  the  occupied  territory  to 
paired  in  case  of  damage  to  track,  and  put  in  the  west  to  places  as  far  as  Koyon,  Laon,  and 
working  order  and  connected  with  the  German  Qhauny,  just  as  he  could  travel  eastward  to 
lines.    The  organization  of  the  railway  traffic  Lodz. 

in  the  conquered  district  was  on  a  basis  similar  The  German  military  authorities,  only  11  days 
to  the  railway  administration  in  Germany,  after  the  capture  of  Warsaw,  put  on  a  lille- War- 
Two  military  railway  administrations  were  gaw  express  train  connecting  the  two  extremes  of 
formed  for  this  purpose.  One  of  these  had  its  occupied  enemy  territory,  some  800  miles  apart, 
headquarters  at  Aachen  previous  to  proceed-  Thjg  train  left  Lille  at  6.40  A.M.,  Brussels  at 
ing  to  Belgium,  and  straightway  the  lines  8.30,  Berlin  at  midnight,  and  arrived  in  War- 
of  the  conquered  district  were  repaired  so  rap-  ga^  j^  time  for  luncheon  the  next  afternoon, 
idly  that  German  rolling  stock  could  be  sent  Late  in  the  year  the  German  railway  administra- 
even  as  far  as  Louvain,  filled  with  troops,  and  tion  issued  the  new  time-tables  for  the  Berlin- 
empty  trains  returned,  even  under  fire.  The  Munich-Constantinople  trains.  These  were  not 
second  military  administration  was  set  up  on  to  go  through  Belgrade,  as  the  bridge  over  the 
Auff.  20,  1914,  at  Ulflingen,  and  gradually  Save  and  the  Ripanj  tunnel  were  still  unusable, 
pushed  forward,  while  railway  commandos  were  but  were  to  follow  the  route  Berlin-Munich- 
established  in  Luxemburg?,  and  in  the  East,  at  Budapest-TemesvAr-Verschez,  crossing  the  Danube 
Lodz,  to  take  care  of  the  conquered  districts  of  at  Semendria,  and  reaching  Nish  by  a  secondary 
Russian  Poland.  line.    Thence  they  would  proceed  to  the  Turkish 

As  was  natural,  the  construction  operations  capital, 
of  the  German  railway  troops  consisted  during        The  imperial  administration  of  ports  and  tele- 

the  first  months  of  the  war  in  replacing  tracks  graphs  embraces  all  the  German  states  except 

and  restoring  damaged  railway  buildings  and  Bavaria    and    Wttrttemberg;     these    kingdoms 

other   plants,  or  laying  new  lines  where  they  operate,   under   certain    limitations,   their   own 

were  required  by  the  military  authorities.    The  postal  and  telegraph  systems.    In  addition  to 

nature  of  the  operations  required  the  construe-  the  state  telegraph  lines,  there  are  railway  tele- 

tion  of  small   field  railways  to  bring  up  am-  graph   lines  and  some  private  lines.    The  fol- 

munition    and    provisions    to    the    particular  fowing  table  relates  to  the  year  1013  (the  figures 

places  where  German  troops  were  located,  and  for  the  empire  do  not  include  those  for  Bavaria 

these  lines  became  increasingly  important  with  j^^d  Wttrttemberg) :     A  number  of  post  offices; 

the  development  of  French  fighting.    Many  of  b  state  telegraph  offices;  O  railway  and  private 

the  bridges  which  were  destroyed,  and  which  had  telegraph  offices;   D  total  telegraph  offices;    E 

been  temporarily  repaired,  were  repUced  by  per-  length  in  kilometers  of  state  tdegraph  lines;  F 

manent  structures,  various  tunnels  were  restored,  length  of  state  telegraph  wire;    Q  number  of 

and  a  lar^  number  of  lines  opened  to  traffic,  places  (towns,  etc.)  having  telephonic  communi- 

this  requiring  in  manv  cases  the  construction  of  cation: 

stations  and  increased  station  facilities.  [ 

The  German  official  report  gave  the  follow-  p««*w«  irflr«-«A-*«  T«i-i 

tag  BtetisticB  for  the  operation  of  German  mm-  ^    ^if^*     "^^ '"m^*"*'^. 

tary  lines  m  Belgium  and  France  for  the  month  b    sslais        6;o28        2.847        411685 

of  April,  1916,  the  figures  being  approximate:  0    6.194        8,118  21  8)828 

Digitized  by  VnOOQlC 


OEBMAHT                           Mi  OEBHAVT 

Bmpirt     Botttm  WSrUtmbtrg  Toimt  1^31,000;     Reusa    Elder    Line,    none;     SeuM 

D  S8,S09       9,186       3,888     *  60,018  Younger    Line,     1,040,600;     Schaumburg-Lippe, 

?    ItlUl      llflt      19 5I?      'If-m  387,100;     Lippe,    970,600;     LObeck     (city    and 

G   ::;::::::::  slim       ml       1:111       'i;'!?  state),   74.906,300;    Bremen    (dty   and   state), 

W^-Sr-"^  ""-""""'"•*•"""  •"*"'-  Kf^iaSSHLltWoo"****'-  '''•■ 
Abmy.    See  Milttart  Pboobebs,  jxuAxrn, 

Finance.    The    Btandard    of    value    is   gold.  J^T^-    Authentic   information   is   not   avail- 

The  monetary  unit  is  the  mark,  whose  par  value  fWe  m  regard  to  naval  construction  since  the 

is  23.821  cents.    The  Imperial  revenue   (ordin-  beginning  of  the  war  in   1914.    The  following 

ary,   extraordinary,   and   total)    for   the   fiscal  summary   is   taken   from    a    statement   of   the 

vears  1912  and  1913  and  the  estimates  for  1914  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence  at  Washington  and 

(including  supplementary  estimates)    and  1915  relates  to  July  1,  1914.    Number  and  displace- 

are  reported  as  follows,  m  thousands  of  marks:  ments  of  warships  of  1500  or  more  tons,  and  of 

1 [ torpedo   craft  of   60   or   more  tons,   built   and 

1918          1918             1914              191B  building:     Dreadnoughts    (battleships  having  a 

Revenne-  ™*^"  battery  of  all  big  guns,  that  is,  11  or  more 

Ord.    ..2.827,194  8.194.899        8.405.178         8.828.081  ^^<^^^  ^^/^^^""^J':  ^^*^*'  ^^*  "^^  ^®  x'7  5  ^^''^  ^^^' 

Extr.    .      88,190     190,292  *  10,892,752     10,042.842  placement;    builamg,    none.     Coast-defense   ves- 

sels,   2,   of  8168  tons:    building,   none.    Battle 

Tot.1.2.916.884  8.884,691     18.797,980     18,865.428  ^^^(^^^   (armored  cruisers  having  guns  of  lar- 

Expenditure:  gest  calibre  in  main  battery  and  capable  of  tak- 

Ord.  ..2,707.865  8.408.084       8,405.178       8.828.081  ing  a  place  in  line  of  battle  with  the  battle- 

Extr.    .    185,978      117.868  f  10,892,752  1 10.042,842  ships):   built,  4,  of  88,749  tons;  building,  4,  of 

ToUl.2.898.888  8.520.902       18.797.980      18,866.428  "^'?2^  ,*^"*-   v^,T'^    cruiserS:     built,    9,    of 

94,245    tons;    building,   none.    Cruisers:    built, 

am;^'^C'ti^"!fao5.'ooT'i^^^^^^  i'^^'^^^f^,^''  building   6,  Of  26,900  ton^ 

Aug.  4  and  Dec.   8.   1914.    f  Extraordinary  war  «c-  Torpedo-boat   destroyers:    built,    130,   of   67,094 

penditnre  was  placed  at  10,800,000.000  marks  in  the  tons:    building,    24,    of    14,400    tons.     Torpedo 

1914  and  10,000,000,000  marks  in  the  1915  bndget.  ^^^^    ^^j^^   ^^jj^    0^    building.     Submarines: 

built,  27,  of  14,140  tons;  building,  18,  of  14,400 

The  larger  ordinary  expenditures  in  1912  and  tons.    Total  tonnage:   built,  951,713;   building, 

1913  respectively  were:  military  administration,  354,864.    Excluded   from    the   foregoing:    ships 

684,182,900    and    747,047,100    marks;    Imperial  over  20  years  old  from  date  of  launch,  unless 

posts  and  telegraphs,  675,861,300  and  713,458,-  reconstructed  and   rearmed   within   five  years; 

800    (revenue    from    Imperial    posts   and    tele-  torpedo-boat  destroyers  over  15  years  old;  ves- 

graphs,  792,870,500  and  833,314,600) ;  debt,  225,-  sels   not   actually   begun   or   ordered,   although 

471,200  and  239,391,300;  naval  administration,  authorized;    transports,    colliers,    repair    ships, 

183,676,900    and    204,426,300;     pensions,     143,-  torpedo-depot  ships,  and  other  auxiliaries.    After 

834,000    and    146,336,900;    railway   administra-  the   outbreak    of   the   war,   the   battle    cruiser 

tion,  104,406,200  and  111,938,300  (revenue  from  Ooehen   (22,640  tons)   and  the  cruiser  Brealau 

railway    administration,    156,105,000   and    153,-  (4550  tons)  were  reported  as  sold  to  Turkey. 

580,200) ;  general  administration  of  finance,  97,-  In  the  summer  of  1914,  the  active  personnel 

031,500  and  107,473,400   (revenue  from  general  of  the  navy  was  reported  at  79,197,  including 

administration  of  finance,  which  includes  cus-  2  admirals  of  the  fleet,   6  admirals,   12  vice- 

toms,  stamps,  etc.,  1,792,761,000  and  2,095,196,-  admirals,   22    rear-admirals,    154   captains   and 

200) ;   interior  department,  90,750,700  and  96,-  commanders,  2220  other  line  officers,  340  medical 

805,400.  officers,  276  pay  officers,  162  naval  constructors. 

The  annual  ordinary  expenditures  of  the  con-  30  chaplains,  3183  warrant  officers,  65,797  en- 

stituent  states  amount  to  a  sum  far  larger  than  listed  men,  177  marine  officers,  and  5791  ma- 

the  Imperial  expenditures;   the  latter  are  ex-  rines.    See  also  Naval  Proobess. 

ceeded  by  those  of  Prussia  alone.  Government.    The  empire  is  a  federal  state. 

The  Imperial   debt,   as  reported  for   Oct.   1,  Its  constitution  bears  date  of  May  4,  1871,  and 

1913,  was  5,177,225,300  marks,  of  which  the  in-  was  amended  March  19,  1888.    This  instrument 

terest-bearing  debt  was  4,897,226,300  marks;  the  vests  the  executive  authority   in   the  King   of 

non-interest-bearing  debt  consisted  of  treasury  Prussia  as  German  Emperor;  he  is  authorized 

bonds  160,000,000  marks  and  paper  money  120,-  to  conclude  treaties,  to  declare  war    (if  defen- 

000,000  marks.    The  interest-bearing  debt  plus  sive)    and   peace,   and  to  appoint   and   receive 

outstanding  paper  money  has  stood  as  follows  diplomatic  representatives.    In    1916,   the   Em- 

( March  31st) :    1880,  377,526,600  marks;    1890,  peror  was  William  II,  who  was  born  Jan.  27, 

1,240,908,800;   1900,  2,418,517,700;   1905,  3,323,-  1859,  and   succeeded  his   father    (the   Emperor 

500,000;    1910,    5,013,600,000;    1912,   6,014,012,-  Frederick  III)   June  16,  1888.    The  heir-appar- 

900;  1913,  4,925,796,200.  ent  or  Crown  Prince  is  Prince  Frederick  Wil- 

The  interest-bearing  debt  of  Prussia  in  1913  Ham,  bom  May  6,  1882. 

was   9,901,769,100   marks;    Bavaria,    2,286,976,-  The  legislature  consists  of  the  Bundesrat,  a 

100;    Saxony,   861,109,900;    Wtirttemberg,   621,-  federal  Council  (61  members  appointed  for  each 

377,000;  Baden,  686,355,500;  Hesse,  434,632,400;  session  of  the  governments  of  the  several  states), 

Mecklenburg^Schwerin,    144,674,400;     Saxe-Wei-  and  the  Reichstag  (397  members  elected  for  five 

mar,  2,222,600;  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  2,680,200;  years  by  direct  manhood  suffrage). 

Oldenburg,    82,689,800;    Brunswick,    43,763,800;  The  Imperial  ministers,  or  secretaries  of  state, 

Saxe-Meiningen,  7,287,800;  Saxe-Altenburg,  882,-  do  not  form  a  ministry  proper,  but  act  inde- 

700;   Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  6,004,600;   Anhalt,  6,-  pendently  of  each  other  under  the  general  super- 

329,300;  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  1,672,200;  vision  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor.    The  Chan- 

Schwartzburg-RudoliSadt,    4,560,200;    Waldoek,  cellor,  who  is  the  highest  official  of  the  empire 


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OERKANY  26 

and  president  of  the  Bundesrat,  is  appointed  by 
the  Emperor  without  reference  to  the  political 
majority  in  tlie  Reichstag,  and  to  the  Emperor 
he  is  directly  responsible.  The  Imperial  Chan- 
cellor (and  Prussian  Prime  Minister)  in  1915 
was  Theobald  von  Bethmann-Hollweg  (from  July 
14,  1909).  Imperial  secretaries  of  state  in 
1916:  foreign  affairs,  Gottlieb  von  Jagow  (he 
succeeded  Alfred  Kiderlin-Waechter,  who  died 
Dec.  30,  1912) ;  interior,  Klemens  DelbrUck 
(from  July  14,  1909);  marine,  Grand  Admiral 
Alfred  von  Tirpitz  (from  June  16,  1897)  ;  jus- 
tice, Hermann  Lisco  (from  Nov.  1,  1909)  ; 
treasury,  Karl  Helfferich;  posts  and  telegraphs, 
Reinhold  Kraetke  (from  1901);  colonies,  VVil- 
helm  Solf   (from  Dec.  20,  1911). 

HiSTOlIT 

The  Food  Supply.  Considering  that  the  ulti- 
mate issue  of  the  war  must  depend  in  part  at 
least  upon  the  ability  of  the  British  navy  to 
"starve  Germany  out"  by  cutting  off  the  food 
supplies  which  had  formerly  been  imported  from 
abroad,  vital  importance  attaches  to  the  meas- 
ures which  the  German  government  instituted 
for  the  conservation  of  the  food  supply  in  Ger- 
many. Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  war  maximum 
prices  had  been  fixed  for  some  commodities,  like 
cereals  and  potatoes;  but  still  the  prices  of  food 
continued  to  rise,  and  the  drastic  action  of  the 
government  was  obviously  demanded  to  cor- 
rect two  glaring  abuses — the  extravagance  of 
consumers  and  the  manipulation  of  the  market 
by  speculators — ^which  manifestly  aggravated 
the  misery  of  the  poorest  classes  and  caused 
widespread  discontent.  In  January,  therefore, 
the  government  decided  to  lay  its  hands  upon 
the  food  supply,  to  stop  speculation,  and  to 
regulate  consumption.  To  this  effect  ordinances 
were  published  in  the  Reichsanzeiger  of  Janu- 
ary 25th,  providing  that  all  supplies  of  wheat  or 
rye,  pure  or  mixed,  threshed  or  not,  were  to  be 
confiscated  and  taken  over  from  private  indi- 
viduals by  the  War  Grain  Association;  at  the 
same  time  all  supplies  of  flour  were  to  be  taken 
charge  of  by  the  Communal  Association  in  each 
town.  In  compensation,  private  owners  would 
be  paid  the  average  price  which  prevailed  be- 
tween Jan.  1-15,  1915,  except  in  cases  where  a 
maximum  price  had  been  fixed  by  the  govern- 
ment. Dealers  and  trade  mills  would  be  per- 
mitted to  handle  half  the  amount  of  flour  per 
month  that  they  had  sold  from  January  1-15. 
Bakers  and  confectioners  were  limited  to  three- 
fourths  the  amount  they  had  been  accustomed 
to  use.  The  consumption  of  cereals  was  to  be 
regulated  under  the  general  supervision  of  an 
Imperial  Distributing  Bureau,  composed  of  16 
delegates  to  the  Bundesrat,  in  addition  to  one 
representative  of  the  German  Agricultural  Coun- 
cil, one  representative  of  the  German  Commer- 
cial Congress,  and  one  representative  of  the 
German  Municipal  Congress.  While  the  Dis- 
tributing Bureau  in  cooperation  with  the  War 
Grain  Association  controlled  the  general  distri- 
bution of  the  grain  and  flour  supply,  local  con- 
sumption was  to  be  regulated  by  Communal  As- 
sociations, which  would  have  the  power  to  dis- 
tribute flour  to  bakers,  confectioners,  and  re- 
tailers, to  determine  the  composition  of  bread,  to 
prohibit  the  baking  of  cakes,  to  regulate  the  de- 
livery of  bread  and  flour  by  dealers,  subject  to  the 
general  principles  of,  and  limited  by  the  maxima 


2  OEBMANY 

established  by,  the  Distributing  Bureau.  The 
ordinance  also  contained  a  clause  that  foreign 
grain,  if  imported,  could  be  sold  only  to  the 
War  Grain  Association  or  to  the  Central  Pur- 
chasing Association,  or  to  the  Communal  Asso- 
ciations; but  this  provision  was  rescinded  on 
February  6th.  On  the  same  day  that  the  con- 
fiscation of  grain  and  flour  was  decreed,  Janu- 
ary 25th,  an  order  was  issued  obliging  towns  of 
over  5000  inhabitants  to  acquire  and  maintain  a 
supply  of  preserved  meat  adequate  to  suffice  for 
the  needs  of  the  population  in  case  of  emer- 
gency. In  February,  a  further  step  was  taken 
for  the  regulation  of  the  bread  supply.  Each 
individual  was  given  a  *'bread  card"  with  cou- 
pons calling  for  25,  50,  and  100  grams  of  bread, 
enough  amply  to  supply  his  or  her  needs  for 
the  week,  but  not  to  permit  the  purchase  of  a 
large  supply  for  future  use.  The  cards  were 
to  be  presented  and  the  appropriate  number  of 
coupons  clipped,  before  bread  could  be  pur- 
chased at  restaurants,  bakeries,  or  grocery 
stores.  In  this  manner,  by  enforcing  the  strict- 
est economy,  the  German  government  hoped  to 
minimize  the  hardship  occasioned  by  the  short- 
age of  food  until  the  next  harvest.  It  was  an- 
ticipated that  as  time  progressed,  in  case  of  a 
long-drawn-out  war,  the  situation  would  become 
more  instead  of  less  favorable.  Potatoes  could 
be  much  more  extensively  cultivated  and  used 
to  feed  live  stock  as  well  as  to  supply  the  table. 
Grain  hitherto  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
starch  or  of  alcohol  could  be  saved  for  food.  A 
yeast-process  was  invented  that  would  help  sup- 
ply albuminous  fodder.  Instead  of  producing  a 
surplus  of  rye  and  of  beet  sugar,  Germany 
could  raise  more  wheat  and  more  beans  and 
peas.  Moreover,  there  were  at  least  33,000,000 
acres  of  moorland  which  could  be  converted  into 
valuable  grainfields  if  men  could  be  found  to 
perform  the  labor  and  if  sufficient  quantities  of 
fertilizer  could  be  applied;  and  what  with  the 
invention  of  new  fertilizers  and  the  increasing 
number  of  prisoners  of  war  (at  the  beginning 
of  January  there  were  586,000  prisoners  of  war 
in  Germany;  in  March,  810,000;  at  the  end  of 
July,  1,900,000),  it  began  to  appear  that  neither 
the  fertilizers  nor.  the  labor  would  be  lacking. 
See  also  Food  and  Nutrition. 

Effect  of  the  Food  Reguiations.  By  the 
beginning  of  June,  the  effect  of  the  regulation 
of  the  bread-supply  had  become  apparent.  On 
June  5th  the  Prussian  minister  of  the  interior 
announced  that  the  bread  problem  was  practic- 
ally solved.  There  would  even  be  a  surplus  of 
grain  to  carry  over  into  the  next  harvest  year, 
so  that  no  anxiety  need  be  felt  if  the  coming 
harvest  should  not  be  extraordinarily  plentiful. 
Moreover,  and  this  was  a  most  important  result 
of  Germany's  military  successes,  grain  and  po- 
tatoes had  been  planted  in  large  quantities  in 
conquered  territory,  so  as  to  relieve  the  pressure 
upon  German  agriculture.  In  August  it  was 
calculated  that,  thanks  to  the  bread  cards,  and 
thanks  to  the  increased  supply  of  grain  from 
conquered  territory,  the  next  year  it  would  be 
possible  to  allow  a  very  generous  increase  in  the 
individual  consumption  of  wheat  and  rye  flour. 
Meantime,  as  the  bread  question  became  less 
pressing,  the  shortage  of  meat  began  to  cause 
the  gravest  anxiety.  In  Berlin,  May  29th,  hotels 
were  ordered  to  abolish  tahle-d^hdte  dinners,  to 
encourage  the  use  of  more  vegetables  and  less 
meat,  to  substitute  boiled  meat  for  roast  meat 


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THEOBALD  VON  BETHWANN  MOLLWES 
Chino«llor  of  Qermin  Empire 


Admiral  ALFRED  VON   Tl 
S«cr«tary  of  th«  Navy.  Gn 


PbfOtograpti  by  i'uul  i  uuiupHuu 

Baron  STEPHAN  BURIAN  VON  RAJECZ 

Premier  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 

Austria- Hungary 


GOTTLIEB  VON  JAGC 

Secretary  of  State  fo 

Foreign  Affairs,  Germa 


GERMAN  AND  AUSTRIAN  MINISTERS,  1915 


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where  poesiblf^  and  to  use  fat  and  lard  spar- 
ingly. To  relieve  the  shortage  of  meat  would 
not  be  BO  easy  as  to  solve  the  bread  question. 
The  creation  of  an  Imperial  Fodder  Board,  to 
supply  cattle,  swine,  and  fowl  raisers  with  oat, 
barley,  and  molasses  substitutes  for  oat  fodder, 
and  the  appointment  of  a  certain  number  of 
days  in  the  week  when  meat  should  not  be  eaten, 
were  helpful  measures  but  not  complete  solu- 
tions of  the  problem. 

The  Reichstag  in  March.  After  eight 
months  of  the  war,  the  Reichstag  met  again  on 
March  10th  for  its  third  war  session.  The  fear 
that  Germany  stood  in  immediate  danger  of 
being  crushed  by  an  iron  ring  of  foes  had  by 
this  time  proved  groundless;  in  its  stead  new 
problems  had  arisen,  regarding  the  financial 
burden  of  a  long  and  exhausting  war,  antici- 
pating the  political  consequences  of  the  war, 
and  most  of  all  respecting  the  economic  crisis  in 
Germany.  In  opening  the  session,  the  president 
of  the  Reichstag,  Dr.  Kaempf,  declared:  "Never 
can  it  be  too  frequently  repeated  that  a  people 
which  is  capable  of  such  sacrifices,  such  devotion 
to  the  Fatherland,  can  not  be  conquered  or 
destroyed.  As  the  Almighty  Lord  of  Hosts  has 
thus  far  blessed  our  banners  with  victory,  so 
also,  we  are  sure,  the  final  victory  will  be  ad- 
judged to  our  righteous  cause.  And  on  the 
blo^y  battlefields  in  the  east  and  in  the  west, 
a  lasting  peace  will  be  achieved,  which  will 
bring  new  blossoming,  new  might,  and  a  new 
greatness  to  our  beloved  Fatherland.''  This  was 
the  key-note  of  the  session.  The  first  business 
on  the  programme  was  the  budget.  The  Im- 
perial secretary  of  the  treasury,  Dr.  Helffer- 
ich,  delivered  his  maiden  speech  as  a  govern- 
ment representative  in  the  tribune  of  the  Reich- 
stag, clearly  revealing  in  his  lucid  explanation 
of  the  financial  situation  the  expertness  he  had 
acquired  as  director  of  the  Deutsche  Bank.  A 
further  war  credit  of  10,000,000,000  marks,  to 
be  raised  by  loan,  was  demanded  and  received 
the  Reichstag's  consent.  Interest  on  the  war 
debt,  Dr.  Helfferich  insisted,  should  be  met 
from  current  revenues;  as  for  the  rest,  he 
cherished  the  hope  ''of  being  able  to  present 
the  bill  for  otu*  war  expenditures  to  our  enemies 
at  the  conclusion  of  peace."  German  financial 
conditions,  the  secretary  asserted,  were  on  a 
soiuider  basis  than  those  of  France  or  England. 
In  spite  of  the  loss  of  her  external  trade,  worth 
over  20,000,000,000  marks  a  year,  Germany  was 
still  able  to  endure.  "As  long  as  our  own  soil 
remains  to  us,  no  hunger  and  throttling  policy 
will  succeed  in  cutting  off  our  necessaries  of 
life,"  he  believed.  Germany  was  determined  to 
persevere,  and  at  the  end  to  demand  ''a  reward 
of  victory  that  is  worthy  of  this  huge  sacrifice." 
Following  Dr.  Helfferich,  Deputy  Herr  Haase,  a 
Social  r^ocrat,  mounted  the  tribune  to  offer 
some  trenchant  criticism  of  the  government. 
Hie  right  of  free  speech  and  the  li^rty  of  the 
press,  said  Herr  Haase,  had  been  arbitrarily 
and  unjustifiably  interfered  with.  Moreover,  the 
government  had  been  too  reluctant  to  adopt  the 
measures  of  government  control  which  the 
Socialists  had  been  indefatigably  suggesting  to 
give  the  people  an  adequate  supply  of  food  at  a 
fair  price.  Food  speculators  should  have  been 
relentlessly  prosecuted.  War  profits  should  be 
taxed.  In  conclusion  the  Socialist  deputy  de- 
livered an  eloquent  plea  for  peace.  "In  all  lands 
the  horrors  of  war  strengthen  the  desire  to  put 


263  QEBMANY 

an  end  to  the  frightful  butchery  of  nations.  To 
express  this  desire  is  no  sign  of  weakness  and 
can  least  of  all  be  so  interpreted  in  our  own  case, 
for  our  military  successes  are  incontestable,  our 
economic  life  has  developed  in  an  amazing  man- 
ner, and  our  finances  have  remained  firm.  It  is 
the  strongest  who  may  first  desire  peace.  My 
party  as  the  representative  of  international  So- 
cislism  has  always  been  the  party  of  peace,  and 
it  knows  that  the  Socialists  of  other  countries 
have  the  same  idea.  Our  desire  is  for  a  lasting 
peace  that  will  not  contain  within  itself  the 
germs  of  new  entanglements  and  new  dissension. 
It  must  be  established  that  no  nation  may  op- 
press another,  and  above  all  that  all  nations 
shall  perceive  their  peaceful  mission  in  the  ex- 
change of  cultural  goods."  Against  this  peace 
manifesto  an  immediate  protest  was  raised  by 
Dr.  Spahn  in  the  name  of  all  the  other  parties 
excepting  the  Poles,  on  the  ground  that  it  would 
"lead  to  misunderstandings  abroad."  "We  are 
waging  war,"  he  continued,  "not  for  the  sake  of 
war  but  for  the  sake  of  peace;  but  it  must  be  a 
peace  that  more  than  hitherto  will  ensure  tho 
prosperous  development  of  German  labor  and 
the  German  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  give  the 
Fatherland  a  permanent  guaranty  and  protection 
for  its  greatness.  The  achievement  of  this  goal 
demands  still  more  victorious  battles."  The 
Social  Democrats  continued  to  perturb  the  other- 
wise unruffled  confidence  of  the  Reichstag.  Herr 
Schmidt,  a  Socialist  from  Berlin,  called  attention 
to  the  sufferings  of  the  very  poor.  Millions  of 
families,  he  said,  had  nothing  to  rely  upon  but 
their  war  allowance  of  12  marks  per  month  with 
6  marks  additional  for  every  child.  "How  shall 
these  families  subsist,"  he  asked,  "when  the  loaf 
of  bread  that  formerly  cost  50  pfennigs  in  Berlin 
now  costs  95,  and  the  potatoes  which  used  to  sell 
for  3-3%  pfennigs  a  pound  now  have  risen  to 
7-10  pfennigs?  In  the  Rhine  country  the  cost 
of  living  has  increased  even  more."  Another 
Socialist,  Herr  Ledebour,  occasioned  an  uproar 
in  the  Reichstag  by  making  a  plea  in  behalf  of 
the  Poles,  Danes,  and  Alsatians  and  by  denounc- 
ing the  threat  which  the  German  military  au- 
thorities had  made,  that  for  every  German  vil- 
lage in  East  Prussia  destroyed  by  the  Russians, 
three  Russian  villages  in  Poland  would  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  Germans.  Amidst  vehement  in- 
terruptions, the  presiding  officer  of  the  Reichstag 
reminded  the  speaker  that  "criticism  of  the 
military  authorities  under  the  present  circum- 
stances during  the  war  cannot  be  allowed."  Dr. 
Karl  Liebknecht  (Socialist)  was  reprimanded 
for  exclaiming  "barbarism!"  when  Ledebour  re- 
ferred to  the  German  threat  regarding  the  burn- 
ing of  Polish  villages.  Representatives  of  the 
non-Socialist  parties  protested  formally  against 
the  insult  which  had  been  uttered  against  the 
German  General  Staff.  Even  the  Socialist 
group,  or  a  majority  of  the  group,  speaking 
through  its  chairman,  Herr  Scheidemann,  was 
constrained  to  disavow  Herr  Ledebour's  remarks, 
and  after  a  brief  recess,  Herr  Scheidemann  an- 
nounced that,  for  the  same  reasons  which  had 
actuated  them  on  Aug.  4  and  Dec.  2,  1914,  the 
Social  Democrats  this  time  would  again  vote  for 
the  budget.  The  final  vote  on  the  budget  was 
therefore  unanimous,  with  the  exception  of  two 
rebellious  Socialists,  Liebknecht  and  Ruehle. 

Mat  Session  of  the  Reichstag.  The  brief 
session  of  the  Reichstag  in  May,  concerned  chiefly 
with  the  economic  measures  necessary  to  carry 


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on  the  war,  gave  new  proof  of  the  solidarity  of 
the  various  parties.  Only  a  few  Socialists  con- 
tinued to  oppose  the  war.  The  comment  of  the 
Frankfurter  Zeitung  is  worth  noting:  'The  great 
majority  of  the  Social  Democrats  think  and  feci 
about  this  war  just  as  does  the  rest  of  the  Ger- 
man nation.  That  they  have  a  passionate  wish 
that  a  good  peace  should  speedily  follow  the  war. 
in  no  way  differentiates  them  from  the  rest  of 
the  Germans.  For  all  Germans  would  have  pre- 
ferred peace,  and  would  rather  see  a  speedy  than 
a  distant  peace;  but  all  know,  also,  that  the 
possibility  of  peace  does  not  depend  on  us  alone, 
and  that  only  such  a  peace  is  possible  for  Ger- 
many as  will  insure  us  against  the  danger  of 
new  wars  for  all  time."  As  far  as  the  demand 
of  the  Socialists  for  democratic  reforms  was  con- 
cerned, the  Frankfurter  Zeitung  observed  that 
it  would  be  impossible  for  everything  to  "slip 
back  again  into  the  old  ways'*  after  the  war; 
that  the  German  nation  must  be  organized 
democratically  if  the  splendid  spirit  of  solidar- 
ity and  fraternity  that  had  manifested  itself 
during  the  war  was  to  be  preserved,  so  that  Ger- 
many could  become  a  leader  and  a  model  for 
all  nations. 

The  Chancellor's  Speech.  The  close  of  the 
Hay  session  was  signalized  by  a  great  speech 
of  Chancellor  von  Bethmann-Hollweg,  May  28th. 
The  German  Chancellor  in  vehement  terms  de- 
nounced the  infidelity  of  Italy  (Italy  had  just 
declared  war  against  Austria-Hungary;  see  ar- 
ticle Wab  of  the  Nations,  Italy's  Entry  into 
the  War).  Without  sheddin^^  a  single  drop  of 
blood,  Italy  could  have  obtamed,  according  to 
Von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  land  in  the  Tyrol  and 
on  the  Isonzo,  "as  far  as  the  Italian  language 
is  spoken,"  "satisfaction  of  her  national  desires 
in  Trieste,"  "a  free  hand  in  Albania,"  and  the 
Albanian  harbor  of  Valona.  "Germany  pledged 
her  word  that  the  concessions  would  be  carried 
out.  There  was  no  ground  for  distrust."  This 
reference  to  Germany's  word  of  honor,  after  the 
events  of  August,  1914,  called  forth  no  little 
sarcastic  comment  from  the  Entente  press.  In 
defining  Germany's  position,  the  Chancellor 
hinted  that  the  great^  the  odds  that  Grermany 
had  to  fight,  and  the  harder  the  combat,  the 
greater  would  be  the  German  determination  to 
persevere  "until  we  have  won  all  possible  real 
guarantees  and  assurances  that  none  of  our 
enemies,  singly  or  in  coalition,  shall  again 
hazard  an  armed  conflict  with  us." 

A  Yeab  of  the  War.  On  July  Slst,  after 
just  one  year  of  the  war,  the  Emperor  issued  a 
proclamation  "to  the  German  people,"  reaflSrm- 
ing  Germany's  innocence  in  the  striking  words, 
"&fore  God  and  history  my  conscience  is 
clear.  I  did  not  want  the  war."  With  pious 
ffratification  the  Emperor  declared  "with  grate- 
ful hearts  we  may  say  to-ddju  God  was  with 
us."  As  for  the  terms  of  peac^^e  referred  to 
"military,  political,  and  economi^^uarantees 
for  the  future"  and  "conditions  forSjje  unre- 
stricted expansion  of  our  creative  enewes  at 
home  and  on  the  free  seas."  The  newspapelie>  in 
summing  up  the  results  of  the  first  year  of  ?^e 
war,  pointed  out  that  Germany  had  won  a) 
most  2,000,000  prisoners  (Russians,  1,518,000; 
French,  268,000;  Serbians,  60,000;  Belgians, 
40,000;  English,  24,000).  To  balance  the  loss 
of  her  colonies,  she  had  conquered  extensive  ter- 
ritories in  Europe,  including  68  per  cent  of  the 
coal  resources  of   France,  90  per   cent  of  her 


iron  ore,  68.7  per  cent  of  her  textile  industry, 
and  43  per  cent  of  her  total  industry.  The  sun- 
ply  of  metals,  cotton,  and  other  raw  materials 
in  Germany  had  been  seriously  curtailed,  so 
that  it  had  been  necessary  to  commandeer,  Feb- 
ruary 1st,  all  supplies  of  copper,  tin,  aluminum, 
nickel,  antimony,  and  lead  for  military  pur- 
poses, thus  crippling  certain  industries;  never- 
theless German  indiutry  was  givinjf  evidence  of 
remarkable  vitality.  Tlie  great  fair  at  Leipzig 
in  the  spring  had  furnishMl  a  magnificent  dis- 
play of  German  industries.  The  industrial 
r^on  of  Westphalia  was  described  as  a  vast 
workshop,  busy  night  and  day,  supplying  the 
material  equipment  of  war.  Finally,  the  Ger- 
man press  was  not  slow  to  boast  that  although 
German  commerce  had  been  temporarily  driven 
from  the  seas,  Germany's  enemies  had  suffered 
more  than  three  times  as  heavily,  both  in  mer- 
chant- and  in  war-ships,  comparing  the  tonnage 
of  ships  actually  lost. 

The  Reichstao  in  August.  The  fifth  war 
session  of  the  Reichstag  was  convened  on  August 
19th.  The  Imperial  Chancellor,  in  a  lonff  re- 
view of  the  causes  of  the  war,  laid  the  guut  at 
the  door  of  the  Triple  Entente,  and  blamed 
France  for  lending  money  to  Russia  for  military 
preparations  against  Germany.  England,  he 
said,  had  suffer^  a  severe  blow  to  her  self-confi- 
dence and  her  hypocrisy.  "The  myth  that  it 
was  only  on  Belgium's  account  that  she  .was 
waging  war,  England  herself  has  abandoned." 
The  claim  of  England  to  be  the  protector  of 
the  freedom  of  small  nations  was  being  dis- 
proved by  her  interference  with  the  freedom  of 
the  seas,  by  her  seizure  of  Greek  islands  in  the 
Mgesxif  and  by  her  attempts  to  involve  Greece 
and  Rumania  in  the  war.  "In  Poland,  where 
Russia  is  fighting  with  her  allies  for  the  free- 
dom of  nations,  the  entire  country  has  been 
devastated  by  the  retreating  Russian  armies. 
Villages  were  burned  down,  grainfields  trampled 
under  foot,  and  the  population  of  entire  com- 
munities, Jewish  and  Christian,  sent  into  exile." 
"That  is  the  way  the  Freedom  and  Civilization 
appear,  for  which  our  enemies  fight."  "We  will 
continue  this  war,"  said  Von  BeUimann-Hollweg, 
"until  the  way  will  be  clear  for  a  new  Europe, 
free  from  French  conspiracies,  from  Muscovite 
liist  for  conquest,  and  from  English  tutelage." 
The  Chancellor  also  made  an  important  declara- 
tion respecting  the  future  of  Poland,  that  the 
Poles  were  to  be  "emancipated  from  the  Rus- 
sian yoke"  and  "given  an  opportunity  to  develop 
their  national  character."  The  declaration  was 
so  worded,  however,  that  while  it  explicitly 
stated  that  the  Poles  were  to  be  free  from  Rus- 
sia, it  left  very  vague  the  relationship  which 
would  exist  between  Poland  and  Germany.  The 
day  after  Von  Bethmann-Hollweg's  speech,  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury  came  forward  with  a 
demand  for  another  war  credit  of  10,000,000,000 
marks.  The  credits  previously  voted  had 
brought  the  total  up  to  20,000,000,000  marks,  a 
sum  equal  to  the  value  of  the  entire  German 
railway  ^stem,  including  equipment  and  rolling 
stock.  More  was  being  spent  in  a  single  month 
than  had  been  expended  in  the  entire  Franco- 
SPrussian  War.  Germany's  war  cost  was  now  ap- 
proximately 70,000,000  marks  a  day,  whereas 
England  was  called  upon  to  supply  80,000,000 
mar'^  a  day.  Germany's  superiority  in  financial 
strength  was  still  asserting  itself,  he  claimed. 
FoUowi^ig  Dr.   Helfferich's   speech   the  various 


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parties  in  the  Reichstag  made  brief  declarations 
of  policy.  Dr.  David,  for  the  Social  Democrats, 
hoped  that  war  profits  would  be  taxed,  and  that 
peace  would  come  soon  enough  to  render  further 
war  loans  unnecessary.  The  food  problem,  he 
complained,  had  not  yet  received  "a  satisfac- 
tory solution."  Concluding  his  remarks,  the 
Socialist  leader  made  a  significant  demand  for 
democratic  reform:  "The  might  that  save  us 
our  interior  strength  cannot  be  employed  by  us 
except  in  the  int^est  of  freedom.  Thus  spoke 
the  Imperial  Chancellor.  He  was  thinkine  about 
external  policy.  We,  however,  expect  that  in- 
ternal freedom  will  not  be  denied  us.  Blqual 
rights  may  not  be  denied  to  the  great  mass  of 
the  people.  In  this  spirit  we  vote  for  the  war 
credit."  Herr  Bassermann,  in  behalf  of  the  Na- 
tional Liberals,  heartily  supported  the  govern- 
ment, and  declared  that  the  German  Emperor 
was  a  Peace  Emperor,  until  the  war  was  forced 
on  Germany  and  he  was  compelled  to  take  the 
sword  in  self-defense.  Herr  Fischbeck,  who 
spoke  for  the  Progressive  People's  Party,  ap- 
proved the  loan,  but  admitted  ruefully  that  "our 
economic  life  has  its  gloomy  side."  The  Con- 
servative spokesman.  Dr.  Oertel,  approved  the 
loan  and  advocated  vigorous  measures  against 
food  speculation,  generous  support  of  the  fam- 
ilies of  soldiers  and  crippled  soldiers,  and  re- 
peated the  phrase  that  was  coming  to  be  stereo- 
typed, "The  magnitude  of  the  reward  of  victory 
must  correspond  to  the  magnitude  of  the  strug- 
gle." Dr.  Spahn,  for  the  Centre,  signified  ap- 
proval of  the  loan.  The  Polish  leader,  Herr 
Seyda,  referred  with  satisfaction  to  Bethmann- 
Hollweg's  promise  of  freedom  for  the  Polish 
people,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  the  war 
would  allow  the  "free  development  of  the  na- 
tional life  of  the  Polish  people."  Dr.  Schultz, 
of  the  Empire  Party,  reiterated  the  Conserva- 
tives' declaration,  that  "our  army  and  oiu:  entire 
nation  desires  a  peace  which  will  be  worth  the 
sacrifice,  and  we  are  confident  that  our  states- 
men will  obtain  for  us  the  kind  of  a  peace  which 
the  nation  desires."  The  declarations  of  the 
parties  in  the  Reichstag  are  cited,  beca.use  they 
indicate  the  progress  of  the  movement  in  favor 
of  territorial  conquests.  It  may  be  added,  that 
the  confidence  of  the  wealthy  and  middle  classes 
in  the  ultimate  success  of  German  arms  received 
new  and  eloquent  confirmation  in  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  third  war  loan  was  subscribed. 
The  loan  was  offered  to  the  public  September 
2nd.  Within  three  weeks  enough  subscriptions 
had  poured  in  to  cover  the  loan,  10,000,000,000 
marks,  with  2,000,000  marks  to  spare.  Nearly 
45,000  depositors  of  the  Berlin  Savings  Bank 
subscribed  to  the  new  loan,  compared  with  35,- 
000  for  the  March  loan.  (For  a  discussion  of 
the  attitude  of  the  Socialists  in  the  Reichstag, 
see  SociAiJSM.) 

The  Debate  or  Peace  Terms.  The  discus- 
sion of  the  terms  which  Gkrmany  should  de- 
mand at  the  conclusion  of  the  war  reached  a 
climax  in  the  historic  Reichstag  debate  of  Decem- 
ber. The  debate  was  opened  by  Dr.  Scheide- 
mann,  spokesman  of  the  Social  Democrats,  who 
interpellated  the  government  on  the  subject  of 
possible  peace  terms.  Inasmuch  as  Germany 
had  demonstrated  her  amazing  strength  and 
determination,  as  she  unquestionably  has  done, 
she  could  now  afford  to  make  the  first  move  in 
the  direction  of  peace,  certain  that  her  desire 
for  peace  would  not  appear  as  weakness.    In 


reply  to  the  Socialist  interpellation,  the  Imperial 
Chancellor  delivered  a  long  speech,  dwelling  at 
length  upon  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  unut- 
terable folly  and  hypocrisy  of  the  Entente 
Powers.  Pretending  to  fight  for  "the  destruc- 
tion of  Prussian  militarism"  and  for  the  free- 
dom of  small  nations,  the  Entente  Powers  were 
really  striving,  and  striving  in  vain,  to  dis- 
member Germany  and  to  advance  their  own 
selfish  interests.  But  Germany  was  invincible. 
As  for  the  terms  upon  which  Germany  would 
consent  to  make  peace,  he  refused  to  go  into 
detail.  The  Entente  Powers,  having  b^  the 
ones  to  begin  the  war,  must  be  the  ones  to  ask 
for  peace.  Aa  soon  as  they  were  ready  to  admit 
defeat,  however,  and  to  approach  Germany  with 
peace  proposals  "which  are  in  consonance  with 
Germany's  dignity  and  security,  we  will  always 
be  ready  to  discuss  them."  While  making  this 
declaration  as  proof  of  Germany's  love  of  peace, 
he  warned  the  Quadruple  Entente  that  "the 
longer  and  more  bitterly  they  wage  the  war,  the 
n'eater  will  be  the  necessary  guarant^s"  which 
Germany  would  demand  to  prevent  future  at- 
tacks. Some  intimation  of  what  Germany  would 
in  any  case  demand  was  given  by  the  following 
passage  of  Dr.  von  Bethmann-Hollweg'B  speech: 
"Neither  in  the  west  nor  in  the  east  must  our 
enemies  of  ^-day  hold  in  their  possession  the 
entrance  gates  to  our  country  through  which 
they  miffht  attack  or  menace  us  anew.  It  is 
known  that  France  gave  loans  to  Russia  only 
on  condition  that  Russia  strengthen  her  rail- 
ways and  fortresses  in  Poland  against  us;  also 
that  England  and  France  regar£d  Belgium  as 
their  route  of  advance  against  us.  Against  this 
danger  we  must  have  military  and  political 
security.  Also  we  must  insure  our  economic 
development.  ...  As  regards  the  means  to  this 
end,  we  must  reserve  complete  freedom  of  deci- 
sion." From  these  vague  sentences  it  might  be 
inferred  that  Germany  would  take  Poland  from 
Russia,  and  Verdun  and  Belfort  from  France; 
Belgium  might  be  annexed  outright  or  placed 
under  a  sort  of  military  and  economic  German 
protectorate;  and  Germany's  economic  future 
might  be  secured  by  annexinff  extensive  colonies, 
or  by  restoring  Egypt  to  Turkey  and  making 
the  Turkish  Empire  a  German  sphere  of  eco- 
nomic exploitation,  or  by  gaining  control  of 
Belgian  seaports  and  mines,  or  by  exacting  huge 
indemnities  from  the  vancjuished  Powers,  or  by 
forcing  them  to  lower  their  tariff  walls  against 
German  manufactures.  In  reference  to  the  c<m- 
dition  of  the  territories  which  had  been  occupied 
by  German  armies,  the  Chancellor  had  the  most 
favorable  reports  to  make.  Belgium,  he  an- 
nounced, was  recovering  from  her  injuries;  Bel- 
gian commerce  and  industry  were  reviving,  coal 
was  being  mined  in  considerable  quantity,  and 
instruction  in  the  Flemish  language  had  been 
made  obligatory  for  all.    As  regards  the  con- 

Siered  Russian  territory,  Dr.  von  Bethmann- 
oUweg  asserted  that  the  German  invaders 
found  "terrible  devastation"  in  Poland,  Lith- 
uania, and  Courland.  The  Germans,  however, 
had  established  new  police  forces,  municipal 
administration,  and  legal  and  sanitary  organiza- 
tion in  the  districts  occupied  by  them.  They 
had  promoted  economic  activity,  rebuilt  rail- 
ways, constructed  roads,  introduced  "municipal 
statutes  which  give  the  people  an  interest  in 
participating  in  public  life."  "The  question  of 
school  teadung  has  everywhere  been  taken  up," 


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he  said,  and  a  university  and  a  technical  insti- 
tute had  been  opened  at  Warsaw.  "Never  in 
history,  when  millions  of  men  were  opposed  in 
a  fight  for  life  and  death,  has  so  much  peaceful 
work  been  accomplished  behind  the  front."  At 
the  conclusion  of  Dr.  von  Bethmann-HoUweg's 
address,  the  non-Socialist  parties  of  the  Reich- 
stag united  in  declaring  their  satisfaction  and 
in  proclaiming  that  "in  complete  unity,  with 
calm  determination,  and  with  confidence  in  €k>d, 
we  await  the  hour  which  will  make  possible 
peace  negotiations  whereby  the  military,  eco- 
nomic, financial,  and  political  interests  of  Ger- 
many will  be  permanently  assured,  to  the  most 
complete  extent,  and  by  all  measures,  including 
such  annexations  of  tco'ritory  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  this  purpose."  The  annexationist  spirit, 
which  had  gradually  increased  in  intensity  and 
in  popularity  during  the  year,  in  December  was 
seen  to  dominate  the  Reichstag.  The  only  dis- 
senting voice  came  from  the  Socialist  benches, 
where  a  small  but  determined  minority  opposed 
"all  schemes  of  conquest,"  and  where  the  ma- 
jority, while  willing  to  vote  war  credits,  and 
unwilling  to  permit  France  to  regain  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  might  be  counted  upon  to  offer  some 
remonstrance  against  the  annexation  of  Belgium 
and  Northern  France.  ( For  a  discussion  of  the 
Socialists'  attitude,  consult  Sociausm.) 

The  Financial  Bubden.  During  the  Decem- 
ber session  of  the  Reichstag,  Dr.  Helfferich 
again  demanded  a  new  war  cr^t  of  10,000,000,- 
000  marks,  and  obtained  the  authorization  of  the 
Reichstag  for  the  issue  of  a  new  loan  to  cover 
the  amount.  Dr.  Helfferich  characterized  the 
(German  plan  of  financing  the  war  as  a  policy 
"based  on  sober  and  cool  consideration  of  all  the 
facts,  and  particularly  on  the  demand  that  the 
productive  energy  of  the  German  nation  shall 
be  maintained  as  efficiently  as  possible  during 
the  war."  He  warned  the  Reichstag,  however, 
that  a  time  was  coming  when  German  capital 
would  be  invited  not  to  invest  in  6  per  cent 
loans,  but  to  pay  heavy  war  taxes.  Regardless 
of  the  amount  of  the  war  indemnity,  the  war 
would  bring  in  its  train  a  "colossal"  tax  bur- 
den, which  the  German  people  would  have  to 
bear  by  increased  taxation.  One  feature  of  the 
new  taxes,  foreshadowed  by  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  would  be  the  taxation  of  war 
profits;  and  companies  doing  a  war  business 
would  be  required  to  lay  aside  50  per  cent  of 
their  war  profits  in  preparation  for  the  tax 
that  would  follow  the  conclusion  of  peace.  The 
statements  of  Dr.  Helfferich  did  not  wholly 
satisfy  the  Socialists.  In  the  Reichstag,  and 
in  their  party  organ,  Vortcaerts  (which,  by  the 
way,  had  been  suppressed  more  than  once  for 
its  criticism  of  the  government),  the  Social- 
Democrats  pointed  out  the  gravity  of  the  finan- 
cial situation.  Where,  they  asked,  was  Germany 
going  to  obtain  the  revenue  sufiicient  to  meet 
the  annual  interest,  amounting  to  two  billion 
marks,  on  the  war  debt  of  forty  billions?  Cer- 
tainly the  ordinary  revenues  and  the  income 
from  customs  duties  would  be  insufficient.  The 
infer^ice  was  of  course  that  taxes  on  large  in- 
comes and  fortunes  should  be  introduced  to  fill 
the  gap. 

The  Poles  and  Danes  in  Prussia.  The 
budget  debates  in  the  Prussian  Diet  gave  rise 
ou  March  9th  to  a  most  interesting  expression 
of  the  attitude  of  the  Poles  and  the  Danes  in 
Prussia.    In    behalf    of    the    Poles,    Dr.    von 


Tramczynski  declared,  "For  more  than  30  years 
the  government  and  the  majority  of  the  Land- 
tag have  regarded  the  Polish  population  as  an 
enemy  within  the  state,  and  have  sought  to 
cripple  the  free  development  of  our  national 
individuality  by  means  of  exceptional  laws  and 
administrative  measures.  More  than  12,000,000 
marks,  towards  which  we  have  been  forced  to 
contribute  in  taxes,  have  been  expended  by  the 
state  for  the  suppression  of  our  nationality.  To 
fight  against  these  efforts  was  our  duty  and  our 
right.  But  although  now  as  hitherto  we  are 
decided  to  defend  our  nationality  to  the  last 
breath,  we  have  never  abandoned  l^[al  methods, 
and  have  always  fulfilled  our  duties  as  citizens. 
We  have  voted  all  the  war  credits  here  and  in 
the  Reichstag.  On  the  battle  fields  more  Polish 
blood  has  b^  slied  for  the  state  than  the  size 
of  the  Polish  population  would  give  reason  to 
expect."  In  return  the  Poles  hi^  expected  no 
longer  to  be  treated  as  enemies.  "In  par- 
ticular we  had  expected  that  the  government 
would  at  least  concede  the  suspension  of  the 
Expropriation  Law  and  the  Settlement  Pro- 
hibition, as  well  as  the  reintroduction  of  Pol- 
ish popular  education.  Nothing  of  the  sort 
happened.  The  government  has  contented  it- 
self with  holding  out  vague  suggestions  of  a 
future  alteration  of  conditions.  .  .  .  Even  this 
year's  budget  contains  all  the  appropriations 
destined  for  the  oppression  of  the  Polish 
nationality.  We  protest  against  this  treat- 
ment." On  these  grounds  the  Poles  voted 
against  the  Prussian  budget.  Next,  Deputy 
Njssen,  a  Dane,  reminded  the  House  that  the 
Danes  had  always  fulfilled  the  duties  of  citizen- 
ship, although  they  had  been  unjustly  accused 
of  many  disloyal  acts.  In  this  war,  "they  have 
bled  by  thousands  on  the  battlefields  in  the  east 
and  in  the  west.  But  even  during  the  war,  the 
exceptional  treatment  of  the  Danish  population 
is  continued,  in  absolute  contradiction  to  the 
Emperor's  declaration  that  there  were  no  longer 
any  parties  in  the  land.  The  budget  contains 
many  items  for  combating  the  Danes  in  North 
Schleswig,  and  therefore  it  is  impossible  for  us 
to  vote  the  budget."  The  Social  Democrats 
joined  with  the  Danes  and  Poles  in  opposing 
the  budget,  and  demanded  that  democratic  fran- 
chise and  the  right  of  free  combination  be 
granted  to  the  masses.  In  the  final  vote  on  the 
budget,  the  Socialists  alone  voted  contra,  while 
the  Danes  and  Poles  abstained. 

The  Socialibtb  in  the  Prussian  Diet.  A 
disquieting  feature  of  the  Prussian  Landtag 
session  in  June  was  the  anti-war  attitude  taken 
by  the  Socialists.  The  House  of  Deputies  was 
thrown  into  an  uproar  when  Herr  Braun,  the 
Socialist  fioor  leader,  proclaimed  his  belief  that 
"it  would  be  a  calamity  for  Germany"  to  carry 
the  ideas  of  annexation  and  conquest  which 
had  been  gaining  ground,  under  the  encourage- 
ment of  selfish  interests  and  short-sighted  polit- 
ical parties.  "The  German  nation  wants  no 
conquests  and  no  annexations,"  he  asserted,  "it 
wants  peace,  and  a  peace  which  neither  hiunili- 
ates  nor  violates  other  nations."  At  the  same 
session  Herr  Liebknecht  cried  out:  "We  have 
the  masses  with  us  and  the  masses  want  peace." 
High  prices,  the  selfishness  of  Prussian  land- 
lords, and  the  criminal  greed  of  food  speculators 
receive  their  due  share  of  denunciation  from 
the  Prussian  Socialists. 

The  EooNoiao  Situation  in  Pbubsia.    Be- 


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fore  terminating  its  flesaion  in  June  the  Prus- 
sian Diet  found  time  to  discuss  the  grave  eco- 
nomic problems  which  the  war  had  created.  Re- 
ports were  made  on  various  phases  of  the  eco- 
nomic situation,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
recommendations  of  the  special  committee  which 
had  investigated  the  matter,  a  series  of  meas- 
ures were  approved  for  the  more  efficient  con- 
servation of  the  kingdom's  resources.  The  War 
Grain  Company,  which  had  hitherto  controlled 
the  purchase  of  food  supplies,  was  now  to  be 
dissolved  and  a  central  committee  instituted, 
representing  consumers  and  producers;  the  com- 
mittee would  assume  control  of  the  purchase  of 
provisions,  acting  in  close  harmony  with  and 
in  subordination  to  the  Imperial  government. 
In  harvesting  the  next  year's  crop,  it  was  an- 
ticipated that  the  labor  of  prisoners  of  war 
would  be  of  valuable  assistance.  As  regards 
the  industrial  situation,  Herr  Hirsch  of  Essen 
reported  that  since  the  outbreak  of  war  the 
production  of  crude  iron  had  increased  by  about 
1,000,000  tons  a  month  and  the  output  of  manu- 
factured steel  and  iron  had  been  doubled.  This 
increase  had  been  largely  absorbed  by  the  enor- 
mous demands  of  the  munitions  factories.  In 
regard  to  Germany's  economic  future,  Herr 
Hirsch  displayed  the  cheeriest  optimism.  Ger- 
many had  withstood  the  shock  of  the  interrup- 
tion of  her  raw  material  supplies,  and  she 
would  emerge  from  the  war  stronger  and  more 
prosperous  than  ever  before. 

Bavabia.  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  made  a 
very  important  speech  June  7th  before  the 
meeting  of  a  Canal  Association  at  Fuerth.  The 
passage  in  which  the  King  advocated  the  an- 
nexation of  new  territory  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  war  was  widely  quoted  by  the  annexation- 
ist party  in  Germany.  "When  the  war  began," 
said  King  Ludwig,  "we  assured  ourselves  that 
it  would  be  a  war  of  short  duration.  But 
events  shaped  themselves  differently.  Upon  the 
war  declaration  by  Russia  followed  the  declara- 
tion of  war  6y  France,  and  when  in  addition 
the  English  fell  upon  us,  I  said  I  rejoice 
thereat,  and  I  rejoice  for  this  reason,  that  now 
we  can  hope — and  this  especially  concerns  the 
Canal  Association — that  ultimately  we  may  as- 
sure for  South  and  West  Germany  more  favor- 
able connections  with  the  sea.  Ten  months 
have  elapsed  since  then.  Much  precious  blood 
has  been  shed.  But  it  shall  not  have  been  shed 
in  vain.  A  strengthening  of  the  German  Em- 
pire and  the  extension  of  its  frontiers  as  far  as 
is  necessary  to  insure  us  against  future  wars, 
that  shall  be  the  fruit  of  this  war." 

Other  Events.  A  university  was  chartered 
August  1st,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  The 
university  included  faculties  of  medicine,  phil- 
osophy, natural  science,  and  social  science,  and 
numbered  on  its  teaching  staff  40  professors,  13 
assistant  professors,  and  18  docents.  In  De- 
cember it  was  estimated  that  during  the  first 
eight  months  of  the  year,  186  counts,  456  bar- 
ons, 592  members  of  the  old  nobility,  and  552 
members  of  the  newer  nobility  had  been  killed 
in  the  war.  Nine  princes  had  been  slain  in  the 
war,  including  Maximilian  of  Hesse,  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  zur  Lippe,  Friedrich  of  Saxe-Meinin- 
gen,  Ernst  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  Ernst  zur  Lippe, 
Otto  Victor  of  SchOnburg-Waldenburg,  Wilhelm 
zu  Schteaich-Carolath,  Wolrad  zu  Waldeck  und 
Pyrmont,  and  Henry  XLVI  of  Reuss. 

Chaivoes  in  Wab  Staff.    General  von  Fal- 


kenhayn  resigned  his  post  as  minister  of  war 
January  21st,  but  continued  as  chief  of  staff. 
As  war  minister  he  was  succeeded  by  Major- 
General  von  Hohenborn.  In  February,  Admiral 
von  Pohl,  chief  of  the  Admiralty  Staff,  suc- 
ceeded Admiral  von  Ingenohl  in  command  of 
the  Grerman  battle  fleet.  Consult  also  United 
States,  Foreign  Relations;  Military  Pboq- 
B£8s;  War  of  the  Nations;  Socialism. 

OEBBITZ'S  CHABT,  Lost  Islands  of. 
See  Exploration,  ^yortft  America, 

OEBVILLE-BEACHE,  Jeanne  (Mrs. 
George  G.  Rambaud).  A  French  opera  singer, 
died  Jan.  6,  1915.  She  was  born  in  1882,  in  the 
Basque  province,  and  she  studied  music  in  Paris. 
In  1899  she  came  to  the  notice  of  Mme.  Emma 
Calv6  who  advised  her  to  study  for  the  operatic 
stage.  At  18  she  became  a  pupil  of  Mme.  Paul- 
ine Viardot-Garcia.  Not  long  after  she  ap- 
peared at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  where  she  sang 
in  the  opera  Orpheus  and  Burydice.  She  sang 
with  great  success  in  various  operas  in  Paris 
until  1907,  when  she  was  engaged  by  Oscar 
Hammerstein  to  sing  at  the  Manhattan  Opera 
House,  and  there  she  continued  until  1910. 
During  this  period  she  created  the  part  of  Cly- 
temnestra  in  Strauss's  Electra.  While  at  the 
Manhattan  Opera  House  she  also  sang  in  Octr- 
men,  Pelleas  and  Melisande,  La  Navarraise, 
and  Samson  and  Delilah,  She  later  joined  the 
Dippel  Opera  Company,  singing  in  Chicago, 
Philadelphia,  and  at  the  Manhattan  Opera 
House.  She  also  made  a  concert  tour  through 
the  United  States  in  1909.  She  married  Dr. 
George  Gibier  Rambaud,  director  of  the  Pas- 
teur Institute  in  New  York  City. 

GIBBALTAB.  A  narrow  peninsula  extend- 
ing southward  from  the  southwest  coast  of 
Spain;  a  British  crown  colony,  naval  and  coal- 
ing station,  and  entrepot  of  the  British  trade 
with  the  Barbary  States.  Area,  1%  square 
miles;  population,  exclusive  of  the  military,  18,- 
448  in  1912.  Practically  a  free  port,  it  has  no 
trade  returns.  Revenue  (1913),  £104,634;  ex- 
penditure, £82,077;  total  tonnage  entered  and 
cleared,  12,476,079  (7,416,876  British).  The 
customs  revenue  in  1913  was  £46,624.  The  Rock 
of  Gibraltar  {Mons  Calpe)  was  captured  by  the 
British  in  1704  from  the  Spanish  kingdom  of 
Granada,  and  in  1713  was  formally  ^ed  by 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht. 

GIFTS  AND  BEQXJIbSTS.  The  gifts  and  be- 
quests made  for  various  purposes  in  1915  show 
a  falling  off  in  amount  as  compared  with  1914. 
This  decrease  was  to  be  expected  on  account  of 
the  immense  sums  which  were  contributed  to 
various  foreign  relief  funds.  Adding  such  con- 
tributions, it  is  probable  that  more  actual 
money  was  giv^n  away  in  1915  than  ever  be- 
fore. The  total  amount  thus  given  could  not 
have  been  less  than  $300,000,000.  Outside  of 
money  given  for  war  relief  and  kindred  pur- 
poses the  total  for  1915  amoimted  to  $146,682,- 
930,  compared  with  $318,599,482  in  1914,  and 
$199,841,442  in  1913.  These  sums  take  into  ac- 
count only  donations  of  a  public  character.  If 
there  should  be  added  all  those  privately  given, 
the  total  would  have  been  more.  These  sums 
are  identified  as  follows:  To  charities  of  vari- 
ous kinds  $79,861,329;  to  educational  institu- 
tions $35,354,338;  to  religious  organizations 
$17,611,862;  to  art  museums,  galleries,  and  va- 
rious municipal  institutions  $12,939,401;  and  to 
libraries    $916,000.     From    the    women    of    the 


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country  there  was  contributed  to  the  total  sum 
$28,304,658.  The  three  largest  contributors  did 
not  give  as  freely  in  1915  as  in  1914.  John  D. 
Rockefeller  gave  in  1915  $1,970,000,  Andrew 
Carnegie  $3,330,000,  and  Mrs.  Russell  Sage 
$341,000. 

This  list  mentions  only  those  gifts  whose 
value  was  $5000  or  over.  We  are  indebted  for 
it  to  the  courtesy  of  the  Chicago  Tribune. 

Adams,  John  Q.,  Long  Beach,  Oal.,  will  to  church, 
$5000. 

Agaasii,  Oeorga  B.,  gift  to  Harvard  Uniycrsity, 
$25,000. 

Alexandria,  Pa.,  will  to  library  by  William  H.  Wool- 
▼erton,  $40,000. 

Allegheny  OoUege,  gift  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  $40,000. 

P.,  Clevela:   '    '^ -.t      .      . 


leveland,  Ohio,  will  to  Oleveland 
^     win  to  Cleveland  Medical  Li- 


Allen,  Dudley 
Art  Museum,   flOO.OOO 
brarv,  $200,000. 

Allen,    James  H.,    St.   Louis,    Mo.,   will   to    charity, 
$1,000,000. 

Allentown,    Pa.,    Woman's  College,   gift  by   various 
donors,  $75,000. 

Allston.    I.    W.,    Philadelphia,    Pa.,    gift   to   church, 
$5000. 

American  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society,  gift  by 
Rockefeller  Foundation,  $60,000. 

American  College  for  Oirls  at  Constantinople,  gift  by 
Grace  Dodge,  925,000. 

American  College  of  Surgeons,  Boston,   Mass.,   gift 
by  various  donors,  $500,000. 

American  Commission  to  Belgian  Belief,  $1,000,000. 

American  hospital,  Paris,  gift  by  William  Lindsay, 
$10,000;   gift  by   Frank  A.   Munsey,   $50,000;   gift  by 


$10,000;  gift  by  various  donors,  New 

gift   by   Bockefeller   Founda- 

House,    Paris,    gift    by 


HI.,  gift  by  Daniel  C.  French, 
~  HUl,  $80^00:  wiU  by  Alex- 
•     -     W.  H.  Ifiner,  $50,- 


various  donors, 
York,  $10,000. 

American    Bed    Cross, 
tion,  $25,000. 

American    Belief    Clearing 
James  Stillman,  $100,000. 

Ames.  Ward,  and  J.  H.  Barnes,  Duluth,  Minn.,  gift 
to  Y.  M.  C.  A..  $60,000. 

Anderson,  Elisabeth,  New  York,  gift  to  Mental  Hy- 
giene Institute,  $50,000. 

Andrews,  Mrs.  J.  M.,  Baleigh,  N.  C,  will  to  church, 
$18,000. 

Animal   diseases,   for  laboratory  for  study  of,   gift 
by  Bockefeller  Foundation,  $1,000,000. 

Animal  protection,  gift  for,  by  Mrs.  Bussell  Sage, 
$15,000. 

Annual   donations   to   Episcopal  board  of  missions, 
$1,067,000. 

Anti-tuberculosis  Association,   gift  by  Elisabeth  C. 
Coolidge,  $100,000. 

Armenian   relief   fund,    gift  by    Bockefeller  Founda- 
tion, $80.000 :  gift  \n  Mrs.  Bussell  Sage,  $5000. 

Armour,  Ogden,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  to  Lying-in  Hos- 
pital, $100,000. 

Art  Institute,  Chicago, 
$11,000;  will  by  Martha  S. 
ander  A.  McKay,  $100,000;  gift  by  ^ 
000 ;  will  by  Albert  A.  Sprague,  $60,000. 

Atkinson,    C.    F.,    Boston,    Mass.,    will    to    charity, 
$81,000. 

Aviation  corps,  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $5000. 

Babcock,  Eugenie  L.,  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  wUl  to  church, 
$75,000. 

Babcock  and  Wilcox  Co.,  New  York,  gift  to  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology.  $25,000. 

Bachman.  Julia  A.,  Columbia.  S.  C,  will  to  church, 
$9000. 

Baden,  J.  P.,  Winfield,  Kan.,  gift  to  Winfleld  Luth- 
eran College,   $75,000. 

Qeorge  r 
versity,  $640,000. 

Bale  Brothers,   Muncie,  Ind., 
lege,  $80,000. 

Ballard,    H.    W.,    Indianapolis,    Ind.,    will    to    New 
Salem  Academy,  $10,000. 

Baptist  missionary  societies,  gift  by  John  D.  Bocke- 
feller, $100,000. 

Bard,    Thomas   B.,   Ventura,    Cal.,    will   to   charity, 
$15,000. 

Barnard.  George  D..  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  will  to  Barnard 
Hospital,  $2,000,000;  to  other  charities,  t20,000. 

Barnard  CoUege,  gift  by  Jacob  H.  Schiff,  $500,000; 
wiU  by  Anne  E.  Smith,  $10,000. 

Barnard    Hospital    St.    Louis,    Mo.,    will   by   Oeorge 
D.  Barnard,  $2,000,000. 

Barnes,  J.  H..  and  Ward  Ames.  Duluth,  Minn.,  gift 
to  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  $60,000. 

Barre  (Vt.),  hospital,  rift  by  Ira  C.  Calef,  $20,000; 
by  various  donors,  $60,000. 

Barton,   Michael,   Chicago,   will  to  church,   $25,000. 


liege,    .    _ ,    _ 
Baker,   George  F.,   New  York,  gitt  to  Cornell  Uni- 

gift  to  Hillsdale  Col- 


BattelL  Joseph,  will  to  charity,  $10,000;  to  Middle- 
bury  College,   $220,000. 

Batterson,  Sarah  E.  F.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
charity,  $100,000. 

Baumgarten,  Bernard,  Chicago,  IlL,  will  to  charity, 
$95,000. 

Beall,  Amelia  G..  Carlisle,  Pa.,  will  to  charity,  $80,- 
000. 

Beall,  James  M.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  will  to  Johns  Hop- 
kins  University,  $87,500. 

Bedford,  Iowa,  gift  of  library  by  Andrew  Carnegie, 
$10,000. 

Beebe,  J.  A.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  charity,  $80,000; 
to  church,  $26,000. 

Belgian  hospital,  gift  by  various  donors,  Chicago, 
111..  $20,000. 

Belgian  professors,  gift  by  Harvard  University  cor- 
poration, $100,000. 

Belgian  relief,  gift  by  American  Commission, 
$1,000,000. 

Belgian  relief  cargoes,  $0,800,000. 

Belgian  relief  fund,  contributions  by  Detroit,  $38,- 
000;  gift  by  various  donors,  $880,000. 

Belgian  relief  fund  vessels,  $4,805,000. 

Belgium,  gift  by  Chicago  Tribune's  moving  picture 
receipts,  $80,000;  gift  by  Kansas,  $500,000. 

Bellows  Falls,  Vt.,  gift  to  charity  by  various 
donors,  $460,000. 

Benedict,  Maria  N.,  New  York,  will  to  charity. 
$10,000. 

Benson,  S.,  Portland,  Oreg.,  gift  for  trade  school, 
$100,000. 

Berry,    H.    W.,    Boston,    Mass.,    will    to    Northiield 


C,    Los   Angeles,    Cal.,    will   to   charity. 


schools^  $8000, 

Billok,    A     ' 
$80,000. 

Bishop,  Charles  B.,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  will  to  charity, 
$19,400.  .      . 

Bismarck  Garden  Festival,  Chicago,  111.,  to  chanty, 
$80,000. 

Blair,  Mrs.  J.  C,  Huntingdon,  Pa.,  gift  to  hospital, 
$30,000. 

Blind,  gifts  to,  by  various  donors,  $218,000. 

Bliss,  Catherine  A.,  New  York,  will  to  church, 
$20,000.  ,    .       , 

BUss,  Mrs.  W.  H.,  New  York,  gift  to  National 
Aero  fund,  $10,000. 

Block,  Joseph,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  charity,  $21,- 
000. 

Blumenthal,  Ferdinand,  New  York,  will  to  chanty, 
$10,000. 

Board  of  education,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  by  John 
W.  Eckhart,  $10,000. 

Boehne,  John  M.,  Evansville,  Ind.,  gift  to  charity, 
$12,500. 

Bondy,  Emile  C,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $150,- 
000;    to  Columbia  University,  $100,000. 

Boris,  Josephine  L.,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  charity, 
$25,000. 

Boston,  Mass.,  gift  to  charity  by  unnamed  donor, 
$8000. 

Boston  University,  gift  by  various  donors,  $10,000. 

Bowdoin,  JuUa  J.  G.,  New  York,  wiU  to  charity,  $20,- 
000;  to  church,  $30,000. 

Brackenrip,  J.  W.,  San  Antonio,  Texas,  gift  to  Uni- 
versity of  Texas,  $100,000. 

Bradford,  Me.,  will  to  library  by  J.  B.  Curtis,  $20.- 
000. 

Brady,  Joseph  B.,  New  York,  gift  to  Johns  Hop- 
kins Hospital,  $220,000. 

Brady,  Nicholas,  New  York,  gift  to  church  work, 
$110,000.  ^     , 

Brigham,  Mrs.  S.  W.,  New  York,  gift  to  schools, 
$10,000. 

Brinks,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  and  Mrs.  Donald  McKay,  gift  to 
hospital,   Englewood,   N.  J.,   $100,000. 

Brooklyn  Academy  of  Music,  will  by  Charles  A. 
Schieren.  $100,000. 

Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arte  and  Sciences,  will  by 
Charles  A.  Schieren,  $22,975 ;  will  by  B.  B.  Woodward, 
$160,000. 

Brown,  Augustus  C,  New  York,  will  to  chanty, 
$182,500. 

Brown,  Phoebe  C,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  chanty, 
$6000. 

Brown,  Sarah  A.,  Nashua,  N.  H.,  will  to  church, 
$10,000. 

Brown,  Waldron  P.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $10,- 
000;  will  to  church,  $10,000. 

Brown.  W.  W.,  Bend,  Greg.,  will  to  charity, 
$500,000. 

Browne,  W.  W.,  Oregon,  will  to  church,  $500,000. 

Brown  University,  gift  by  Jessie  L.  Bosenbeyer, 
$7000;  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $10,000. 

Brubaker,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  will  to  charitv,  $5000. 

Brunt,  James  A.  B.,  Anderson,  Ind.,  gift  to  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  $125,000. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Chenango  County,  $1,000,000;  to  iShAron,  Pa.,  $500,- 
000. 

Bnsch,  Mm.  Adolphns,  gift  to  Hanrsrd  Uniyersity. 
950,000. 

Cadman,  Robert,  Portland,  Me.,  gift  to  churoh,  960,- 
000. 

Cadwalader,  John  L.,  New  York,  will  to  Harrard 
UniYeraity,  $20,000;  to  New  York  Public  Library, 
9151,000;  to  New  York  Zoological  Society.  $20,000; 
to  Prineeton  UniTorsity,  |2 6,000. 

Cains,  James  W.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $5000. 

Caldwell,  Mrs.  W.  E.,  Maoomb,  111.,  gift  to  IlUnois 
Holiness  Association.  $20,000. 

Calef,  Ira  C,  Washington,  D.  C,  gift  to  Barre 
(Yt.)  hospital,  $20,000. 

California,  UniTersity  of,  gift  by  Cowell  estate, 
$400,000;  by  Ellen  B.  Bcripps,  $100,000. 

Calumet  and  Hecla  Mining  Company,  gift  to  em- 
ployees, $500,000;   to  miners,   $120,000. 

Canada  Bed  Cross,  gift  by  Henry  Ford^  $10,000. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  gift  to  Allegheny  Oollege,  $40.- 
000;  to  benefit  of  blind,  $100,000;  to  Carnegie  Insti- 
tution, $2,700,000;  to  Emory  and  Henry  College.  $25,. 
000;  to  Wellesley  College,  $05,000:  gift  of  library 
to  Bedford,  Iowa,  $10,000;  gift  of  library  to  Dimba, 
Cal.,  $8000;  gift  of  Ubrary  to  Greensboro.  Oa.,  $6000; 
gift  of  library  to  Beading  Mass^  $15,000. 

Carnegie  Foundation,  gift  to  Stevens  Inst,  of  Tech- 
nology, $250,000. 

Carroll  College,  will  by  I.  e.  Tripp,  $5000. 

Carson,  Henry,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  will  to  charity,  $10,. 
000. 

Chenango  County.  N.  Y.,  gift  to  llTe  cities  in,  by 
Frank  H.   Buhl,  $1,000,000. 

Chicago,  111.,  gift  to  charity  by  unnamed  donor, 
$5000;  gift  to  charity  by  Tarious  donors,  $158,825; 


t^ 


000. 


ft  to  church  by  unnamed  donor,  $16,000;  gift  to 
iying-in-HoR>ital  by  yarious  donors,  $25,000. 

Chicago  Art  Institute,  unclaimed  fund  giyen  by 
Columbian  Exposition,  $47,000;  by  Mrs.  A.  A.  Sprague, 
$90,000. 

Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra,  Chicago,  HL,  gift  by 
unnamed  donor,  $5000;  gift  by  Elisabeth  8.  Coolidge, 
$100,000. 

Chicago  Tributu's  moving  picture  receipts  to  Bel- 
gium. $80,000. 

Chicago  Uniyersity.  gift  of  land  to,  $25,000. 

Children,  benefit  of,  gift  by  yarious  donors,  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  $48,000. 

Children's  HospiUl,  gift  by  E.  T.  Stotesbury,  $50.- 
00. 

Cincinnati  Medical  College,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$1,000,000. 

Cincinnati  Orchestra,  win  of  Cora  Dow,  $700,000. 

Clark,  Charles  H.,  Brattleboro,  Yt..  will  to  charity, 
$50,000. 

Clark,  Sarah  M.,  Chicago,  HI.,  will  to  charity. 
$5000;  to  church.  $20,000. 

Cleveland  Art  Museum,  gift  by  Dudley  P.  Allen. 
$100,000. 

Cleveland  Medical  Library,  will  by  Dudlnr  P.  Allen. 
$200,000. 

Cobb,  John  B.,  New  York,  gift  to  University  of 
Virginia,  $50,000. 

Cobham,  Henry,  Warren,  Pa.,  will  to  Salvation 
Army,   $100,000. 

Coffin,  L.  S.,  Port  Dodge,  Iowa,  will  to  charity. 
$7000;  to  Lenox  College,  $15,000;  to  Storm  Lake  Col- 
lege. 820,000. 

Colby.  H.  F.,  Dayton,  Ohio,  will  to  church,  $8000. 

Coleman,  Emma,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $6750. 

Coles,  William  W,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$100,000. 

College  of  St.  Andrew,  will  by  E.  C.  Walker,  $10,- 
025. 

Columbian  Exposition,  unclaimed  fund  given  to  Chi- 
cago Art  Institute,  $47,000. 

Columbia  University,  gift  by  Emile  C.  Bondy, 
$100,000;  rift  by  Amos  F.  Eno.  $80,000;  gift  by 
Albert  F.  Plant.  $15,000;  will  by  George  W.  Mill- 
orth,  $5000. 

Combs.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  J.  F.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift 
to  charity,  $50,000. 

Compton,  Lixsie.  Elkhart,  Ind.,  gift  to  Y.  W.  C.  A.. 
$10,000. 

Connell,  Agnes  A.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $40.- 
000. 

Connell.  Amanda.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  Draw 
Seminary,  $5000. 

Conrad,  Norman.  New  Orleans,  La.,  will  to  Tulane 
Library.  $5000. 

Coolidge,    SU4»l>9tb    C    PiUffield,    Mass.,    gift   to 


Cornell  University,  gift  by  George  F.  Baker,  $540,- 
000. 

Coward,  Martha  A.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$5500. 

Cowell  estate,  San  Francisco,  Cal..  gift  to  University 
of  California.  $400,000. 

Cudahy  heirs,  Pasadena,  Cal..  gift  to  Sisters  of  Holy 
Name  Academy,  $100,000. 

Oullamore,  Helen,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  charity. 
$685,000;  to  Institute  of  Technology,  $500,000;  to 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  $100,000;  to  Radcliffe  College, 
$20,000;  to  Simmons  College.  $100,000. 

Currier,  Hannah  M.,  Manchester,  N.  H.,  will  for  art 
gallery.   $1,000,000. 

Curtis.  J.  B..  Bradford,  Me.,  will  to  library,  $20,- 
000. 

D.  A.  R.  Museum,  gift  by  Mrs.  A.  H.  Strong,  $50.- 
000. 

Dartmouth  College,  gift  by  W.  H.  Hunt,  $20,000; 
will  of  Walter  W.  Hodges,  $25,000. 

Dato,  Henry,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  Methodist  mis- 
sions, $40,000. 

Davenport,  Orlando  H.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to 
charity.  $500,000. 

Davidson,  Sarah,  Sanbornton,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity, 
$85,000. 

Davies,  Annie  B.,  New  York,  gift  to  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  $50,000. 

Davis,  Thomas  A.,  MaysviUe.  Ky.,  will  to  school 
library,   $7000. 

Darlington,  S.  C,  will  to  charity. 


gift  by  unnamed  donors,   $900,- 


Dean,  Edmund  H., 
$80,000. 

De  Forrest,  Mrs.  M.  F..  Atchison.  Kan.,  gift  to 
hospital,  $60,000. 

Delaware   College, 
000;  by  various  donors,  81,000,000. 

Del  Drago,  Josephine,  New  York,  gift  to  lulian  re- 
lief fund,   $2,000,000. 

Delehanty,  Cornelius,  Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  will  to 
charity.   $21^00. 

Denham,  William  R.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$450,000. 

Denison  University,  gift  by  Rockefeller  Foundation. 
$125,000;  by  unnamed  donor.  $100,000. 

Denver,  University  of,  gift  by  Jacob  Haish,  $100.- 
000. 

Detroit,  contributions  to  Belgian  relief  fund,  $88.- 
000. 

Detroit  Art  Museum,  will  bv  E.  C.  Walker.  $25,000. 

Dickson.  Samuel.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  $100,000. 

Diehl,  Elisabeth,  New  York,  wiU  to  charity,  $10,- 
000. 

Diggins,  Mrs.  D.  F.,  Cadillac,  Mich.,  will  to  hos- 
pital, $20,000. 

Dimba,  Cal.,  gift  of  library  by  Andrew  Carnegie. 
$8000. 

Dobbs,  Samuel  C,  Atlanta.  Ga..  gift  to  Emory  Uni- 
versity. $50,000. 

Dodge,  Grace  E.,  New  York,  win  to  American  Col- 
lege for  Girls  at  Constantinople,  $25,000;  to  charity, 
$50,000:  to  church,  $50,000;  to  Teachers  College. 
Columbia  University,  $500,000;  to  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  $25,- 
000;  to  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  $700,000. 

Doran,  Ellen  M.,  Brookline,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$6000. 

Dow,  Cora,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  will  to  Cincinnati 
Orchestra,  $700,000. 

Draper  family,  Medford,  Mass..  gift  to  charity. 
$100,000. 

Drew  Seminary,  will  of  Amanda  Connell,  $5000. 

Duke,  J.  B.,  Durham,  S.  C,  will  to  Methodist 
Church,  South,  $100,000. 

Dunham,  Eliza  A.,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$12,000. 

Dunn,  Moses  F.,  Bedford,  Ind.,  will  to  Purdue  Uni- 
versity, $150,000. 

Dunwoody,  Kate  L.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  will  to 
charity,  $241,000;  to  Dunwoody  Institute,  $1,500,000. 

Dunwoody  Institute,  will  by  Kate  L.  Dunwoody, 
$1,500,000. 

Dupont,  Pierre  S..  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  Uni- 
versity museum.  $25,000;  to  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, $25,000. 

Durfee,  Sarah  C,  Providence.  R.  I.,  will  to  church, 
$86,000. 

Dyckerhog,  A..  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  will  to  orphans* 
home,  $25,000. 

Eastland  steamer  relief  fund,  gift  by  Chicago,  lU. 
$846,180;  toUl  contributions,  $891^67. 

Eastman,  George,  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  gift  to  Friendly 
Home,  $50,000;  to  hospital,  $8QO.0O0. 


GIFTS  AND  BEQUESTS 

East  St.  Lonia,  111.,  gift  to  church  by  Tarioai 
donors,  $19,000. 

Eekhart,  Charles,  Anbnrn,  Ind.,  will  to  Western 
Advent  Publications  Society,  $12,600. 

Eekhart,  John  W.,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  to  board  of 
education,   $10,000. 

Eddy,  Isaac  H.,  Dorchester,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
9102500. 

Eddy,  Bebecca,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  charity,  $85,- 
000. 

Educational  purposes,  gift  by  John  Handley,  fl.SOO,- 
000;  gift  by  Mrs.  D.  H.  Moore,  $100,000. 

EUis.  Charles  E.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  wiH  for  school 
for  fatherless  girls,  $1,000,000. 

Emerson,  Charles  W.,  Newton,  Mass.,  will  to  church, 
$400,000;   to  charity,  $25,000. 

Emerson,  Frederick,  Denver,  Colo.,  gift  to  Red 
Cross,  $20,000. 

Emery,  Mary,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  gift  to  hospital, 
$50,000. 

Emory  and  Henry  College,  gift  by  Andrew  Carnegie, 
$25,000. 

Emory  University,  gift  by  Samuel  C.  Dobbs,  $50,- 
000. 

Employees,  gift  to,  by  Kebler  Piano  Company,  $35,- 
000;  gift  to,  by  Joseph  E.  Widener,  $100,000. 

Endicott,  H.  B..  Boston,  Mass.,  gift  to  charity, 
$50,000. 

Engineering  research,  gift  for,  by  Ambrose  Swasey, 
$100,000. 

Eno,  Amos  F.,  New  York,  will  to  charities,  $200,000- 
to  Columbia  University,  $80,000;  to  Mechanics  ana 
Tradesmen,  $1,800,000;  to  Metroi^olitan  Museum, 
$200,000;  to  Museum  of  Natural  History.  $200,000;  to 
New  York  Public  Library,  $20,000;  to  New  York  Uni- 
versity, $200,000. 

Episcopal  board  of  missions,  annual  donations  to, 
$1,067,000. 

Episcopal  board  of  missions,  New  York,  gift  by 
various  donors,   $70,790. 

Episcopal  Church,  general  mission  board  of,  gift 
by  various  donors,  $250,000. 

Episcopal  Church  home,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  gift  by 
unnamed  donor,  $5000. 

Episcopalian  emergency  fund,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$400,000. 

Evansville  Seminary,  will  by  Cecilia  Mygatt,  $10,- 
000. 

Ewen,  Caroline  O.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $800,- 
000. 

Exeter  Academy,  gift  by  various  donors,  $51,000. 

Fannely,  Mrs.  Patrick,  Norristown,  N.  J.,  will  to 
charity,   $10,000. 

Farrar,  Sarah  J.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $85,- 
000;   to  church,  $18,000. 

Fatherless  girls,  school  for,  will  by  Charles  E. 
Ellis.  $1,000,000. 

Fecht,  L.  H.,  Birdsboro,  Pa.,  gifts  to  church,  $15.- 
000. 

Fennell,  Frederick,  New  York,  will  to  charity. 
$6620. 

Ferry  Museum,  gift  by  Henry  Hewitt.  $15,000; 
by  Mrs.  B.  L.  McCormick,  $10,000. 

Fields,  Mrs.  J.  T.,  Manchester,  Mass.,  will  to  edu- 
cation, $6000. 

Finch,  John  A.,  Spokane,  Wash.,  will  to  charity, 
$1,658,000. 

Fitzgerald,  Johanna,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$12,000. 

Fitshugh,  William  M.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  gift  to 
Golden  Gate  Park  Museum,  $200,000. 

Florscheim,  H.  A.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $10,- 
000. 

Foote,  William  B.,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  wills  to  church, 
$5000. 

Ford,  Henry,  Detroit,  Mich.,  gift  to  Canada  Red 
Cross,  $10,000;  to  peace  fund,  $1,000,000. 

Foreman,  Edwin  G.,  Chicago,  III.,  will  to  charity, 
$50,000;  to  manual  training  schools,  $10,000. 

Forman,  C.  H.,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  will  to  Yale 
University,   $510,484. 

Foster,  L.  M.,  Marysville,  Ky.,  will  to  charity.  $5000. 

Fowler,  Edwin,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  will  to  charity. 
$86,000. 

Frank,  Sarah,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $11,000. 

Frazer,  Harriet  M..  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  char- 
ity. $19,500. 

Freedman,  Andrew,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$2,500,000. 

Freer,  Charles  L.,  Detroit,  Mich.,  gift  to  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  $1,000,000. 

French.  Daniel  C.  memorial  gift  to  Art  Institute, 
Chicago,  111.,  $11,000. 

French,  Sarah  A.,  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  will  to  charity, 
$15,000;    to   church,   $40,000. 

Frick,  Henry,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity,  $167,- 
000. 


270  aiFTS  AKD  BEQIHSSSTS 

Friendly  home,    gift  by   George   Eastman,    $50,000. 

Friendly  home,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $200,000. 

Fund  for  unemployed.  New  York,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $115,000. 

Fumess,  Clementina  A.,  Lenox,  Mass.,  will  to 
charity,  $6000. 

Galbraith,  Matilda.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
charity,  $20,000. 

Galveston  relief  fund,  contributions  to,  $17,000. 

Gamble,  Fannie  M.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  will  to 
preachers'  pensions,  $125,000. 

Gamble,  Mary  A.,  Montpelier,  Yt.,  will  to  charity, 
$6000. 

Gameau  family,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  gift  to  chureh,  $25,- 
000. 

Garrett,  Mary  A.,  Humboldt,  Kan.,  will  to  charity. 
$7800. 

Gary,  E.  H..  and  Charles  M.  Schwab,  gift  of  ar- 
mored train  to  New  York   National  Guard,   $150,000. 

Gates,  H.  T.,  Worcester,  Mass.,  will  to  church, 
$5000. 

General  relief,  gift  by  Julius  Rosenwald,  $100,000. 

Geisinger.  Mrs.  A.  A.,  gift  of  hospital  to  Danville, 
Pa„  $600,000. 

Georgetown  College,  gift  by  Edward  Key,  $15,000. 

Georgia  State  Hospital  for  Cripples,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $100,000. 

German  and  Austrian  widows,  gift  by  various 
donors,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  $100,000. 

Gilder,  Rosina,  Penn  Yan,  will  to  charity.  $5000. 

Gilmartin,  George  E.,  White  Plains.  N.  Y..  will  to 
church.  $10,000. 

Gilton,  O.  J.  M..  Alton,  Mass.,  wUl  to  charity,  $85,- 
000;  to  church,  $20,000;  to  library,  $17,000. 


Golden    Gate    Park    Museum,    gift    by    William    M. 
itzhugh,  $200,000;  gift  by  Jimanese,  $75,000. 
Goldthwaite,    Ellen    A.    R.,    Boston,    Mass.,    will    to 


charity,  $78,000;  to  church,  $14,000. 

Goodman,  George  F.,  Newton,  will  to  Trinity  Col- 
lege, $5000. 

Goodman,  Mrs.  James  J.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  gift  to 
Wadsworth  Aihennum,  $50,000. 

Goodwin,  James  J.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  gift  to  charity, 
$25,000. 

Goodyear,  Mrs.  C.  W.,  BuflPalo,  N.  Y.,  gift  to  Yale 
University,  $10,000. 

Gtordon,  Randell  R.,  Stonington,-  111.,  will  to  church, 
$70,000. 

Gouyon,  Camille,  Keene,  N.  H.,  will  to  church,  $40,- 
000. 

Graham,  James  M.,  Memphis,  Teiin.,  will  to  charity, 
$50,000. 

Gray,  John  C,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, $25,000. 

Gray,  Sarah  E.,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity. 
$6000. 

Greene,  Mary  H..  Dayton,  Ohio,  will  to  charity, 
$10,000;  to  church,  $70,000. 

Greensboro,  Ga.,  gift  of  library  by  Andrew  Car- 
negie, $6000. 

Greenwood,  Mrs.  T.  K.,  Augusta,  Mass..  will  to  hos- 
pital, $6000. 

Gregg,  Edward  B.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  will  to  hospiUl, 
$10,000. 

Griffin,  G.  P.,  Chicago,  HL,  gift  to  Linooln  Park, 
$20,000. 

Griffins,  George  P.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  will  to  charity, 
$15,000. 

Gross,  L.  B.,  Montpelier.  Yt.,  will  to  church, 
$5000. 

Grund,  George  A.,  Kansas  City,  gift  to  city,  $100,- 
000. 

GKiggenheim  Bros.,  New  York,  gift  to  Mount  Sinai 
Hospital,  $250,000. 

Guinnell,  Julia,  New  York,  will  to  church,  $12,656. 

Haines,  Charles.  Aurora,  111.,  will  to  Mercy  Hospital, 
Chicago,  111.,  $888(888;   to  schools.   $166,666. 

Haish.  Jacob,  DeKalb,  111.,  gift  to  University  of  Den- 
ver, $100,000. 

Hale,  Rose  A.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  charity. 
$1000. 

Hall,  Charles  M.,  will  to  Oberlin  College,  $3,000,000. 

Hamilton,  Adelaide,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$8000. 

Hampton  Institute,  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $40.- 
000. 

Hancock,  W.  S.,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  will  to  charity, 
$80,000;    to  hospital,   $500,000. 

Handley.  John,  Scranton,  Pa.,  will  for  educational 
purposes,  $1,500,000;  for  library,  $200,000. 

Harnier.  Jane  H.,  Germantown,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$7600. 

Harris,  Norman  B.,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  to  Northwest- 
ern University,  $50,000. 

Harris,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  N.  W.,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  to 
Mount  Holyoke  College,  $25,000. 


Digitized  by 


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OIVTS  ANB  BBQT7E8T8 


HarT»rd  medieal  Mhool,  gift  by  Tarions  donors, 
$22,908;  will  by  Philip  0.  Loekwood.  $60,000. 

Harrard  UniTenity.  rift  by  Oeorge  R.  Affassis, 
925.000;  by  Mrs.  Adolphus  Buseh,  $50,000;  by 
James  J.  Hill.  $125,000;  eatete  of  Francis  Skinnor. 
$48,000;  estate  of  H.  H.  Wyman.  $76,000;  by  Tarl* 
ons  donors,  $661,000;  will  by  John  M.  Oadwalader. 
$20,000;  will  by  John  0.  Gray,  $26,000;  will  by 
J.  J.  Myers.  $100,000. 

Hanrard  UniTersity  corporation,  gifts  to  Belgian 
professors,  $100,000. 

Haskell  J.  H.,  Portland.  Me.,  will  to  eharity.  $8000. 
Hatel.  W.  0.,  Highland  Parte,  HI.,  gift  to  hospitol, 
$10,000. 

Havghton,  Elisa  H.,  Cambridge.  Mass^  will  to 
chnrch.  $5000. 

Hawley.  J.  L..  Los  Angeles,  Oal..  will  to  charity, 
$110,000. 

Hebrew  relief  fnnd,  Pasadena,  Oal.,  gift  by  Tarions 
donors,  $25,000. 

Hebrew  Technical  Institnto,  New  York,  gift  by 
▼arioQS  donors.  $150,000. 

Hedding  College,  gift  br  unnamed  donor.  $50,000. 

Henderson.  Ky.,  gift  to  hospital  by  unnamed  donor. 
$15,000. 

Hepbnm,  H.  D.,  New  York,  gift  to  Middlebury  Col- 
lege. $200,000. 

Heppe,  F.  J..  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  gift  to  charity, 
$50,000. 

Hercnles  Powder  Co..  Dover,  N.  J.,  gift  of  ehib- 
house  to  emplovees,  $16,000. 

Hernng,  William  P.,  Watertown,  N.  T..  will  to 
fonnd  Herring  College,   $1,000,000. 

Herring  College,  will  to  found,  by  William  P.  Her- 
ring.  $1,000,000. 

Hersey,  8.  -8.,  Auburn,  Me.,  will  to  eharity,  $80.- 
000. 

Hewea.  David,  Santo  Ana.  Oai,  will  to  eharity. 
$6000;   to  Mills  College,  $2oToOO. 

Hewitt.  Henry,  Tacoma,  Wash.,  gift  to  Ferry  Mu< 
seum.  $15,000. 

Hill.  James  J.,  gift  to  Harvard  University,  $125,- 
000:  to  Marquette  University,  $10,000. 

Hill,  Laura  J.,  Lexington.  Mass.,  will  to  eharity, 
$12,000. 

Hill,  Martha  8..  Chicago,  HI.,  will  to  Art  Institute, 
$30,000. 

Hillsdale  College,  gift  by  Eugene  A.  Merrill,  $80,- 
000;  gift  by  Bale  Brothers.  $80,000;  gifts  by  various 
donors,  $80,000. 

Hinchliff,  John,  Patorson.  N.  J.,  will  to  eharity, 
$65,000. 

Hinckley,  Sarah  8.,  Oxford.  Ohio,  will  to  church. 
$19,000. 

Historical  Society,  gift  by  Abram  Nesbit.  $8000. 

Hobart  College,  gift  by  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
$50,000. 

Hobbs,  James  B..  Chicago,  HI.,  will  to  charity,  $7000. 

Hodges.  Walter  W..  Brookline,  Mass.,  win  to  eharity, 
$65,000;  to  church,  $10,000;  to  Dartmouth  College, 
$25,000. 

Holden.  A.  F.,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  will  for  cemetery 
arboretum.  $200,000. 

Holy  Name,  Sisters  of,  gift  by  Oudahy  heirs,  $100,- 
000. 

Home  for  aged,  will  by  Asariah  Buck,  $100,000. 

Home  for  homeless,  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  Boston. 
Mass.,  100.000. 

Home  for  working  girls,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  gift  by 
various  donors.  $16,000. 

Hood,  Eleanor  P.,  Providence,  B.  I.,  will  to  church. 
$20,000. 

Hooker.  Mrs.  Ellen,  Oreenwieh.  Conn.,  gift  to  Vassar 
College,  $25,000. 

Hope,  J.  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  hospitol. 
$25,000. 

Hopp,  C.  J.,  and  Son,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to 
charity.  $10,000. 

Hotchkiss,  J.  H..  New  Haven.  Conn.,  wiU  to  Tale 
University,  $1,000,000. 

Howard,  Alice  M.,  New  York,  will  to  chari^  $29,815. 

Howland  family,  New  York,  gift  to  Yale  University, 
$15,000. 

Hudson,  Joseph,  Detroit,  Mich.,  will  to  University 
of  Michigan,  $75,000. 

Hunt,  John  W.,  Georgia,  will  to  charity,  $1,000,000. 

Hunt.  W.  H.,  Needham.  Mass.,  will  to  Dartmouth 
College,  $20,000. 

Huntington,  A.  M.,  New  York,  gift  to  National  In- 
stitute of  Art  and  Letters,  $77,000. 

Huntington,  Mrs.  H.  E..  gift  of  ehildren's  park  to 
San  Francisco.  $275,000. 

H.  W.  Johns-ManviOe  Co.,  New  York,  gift  to  Stevens 
Technical  Instituto,   $10,000. 

Illinois  Holiness  Association,  gift  by  Mrs.  W.  E. 
Caldwell,  $20,000. 

Illinois  Synod  of  Presbyterian  Church,  gift  by  nn- 


271  aiFTS  AKD  BBQXTBSTS 

donor.    $60,000;    by    various    donors.    $125,- 


named 
000. 

Illinois  University,  gift  by  Edmund  F.  James,  $5000 ; 
gift  by  various  donors.  $40,000. 

Illinois  Wesleyan  College,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$150,000. 

Ingraham,  Robert,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.,  gift  to 
eharity,  $8000. 

Indiana  University,  gift  by  Robert  W.  Long,  $170,- 
000;  gift  by  L.  D.  Waterman.  $100,000. 

Iowa  Methodist  preachers'  relief  fund,  gift  by  vari- 
ous donors,  $22,600. 

Itolian  relief  fund,  gift  by  Josephine  Del  Drago, 
$2,000,000. 

Jackson.  Mrs.  E.  E.,  Salisbury,  Md.,  gift  to  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  $50^00. 

James,  Edmund  F.,  Champaign.  111.,  gift  to  Uni- 
versity of  nUnois.  $5000. 

Japanese  gift  to  Golden  Gato  Park  Museum,  $75,- 
000. 

Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  gift 
by  unnamed  donor.  $100,000. 

Jessop,  Mrs.  Van  Antwerp  DeWitt.  New  York,  will 
to  charity.  $865,608;  to  church.  $1,850,000;  to  edu- 
cation, $516,000:  to  Metropoliton  Museum,  $800,155; 
to  Museum  of  Natural  History,  $5,128,880;  to  Wil- 
liams University,  $800,000;  to  Yale  University,  $800,- 
000. 

Jewell  High  School,  Jewell,  Iowa,  will  by  Benja- 
min Musser,  $80,000. 

Jewish  eharities,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$7000. 

Jewish  contribution.  New  York,  to  war  relief  fund. 
$200,000. 

Jewish  relief  fund,  gift  by  various  donors,  $65.- 
700. 

Jewish  sufferers,  gift  by  various  donors,  $100,000. 

Jewish  work  in  Palestine,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$100,000. 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  gift  by  Joseph  B.  Brady, 
$220,000. 

Johns  Hopkins  Institute,  will  by  J.  T.  Teassler, 
$20,000. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  gift  by  unnamed  donor. 
$100,000;  gift  by  various  donors,  $200,000;  will  by 
James  M.  Beall,  $87,500. 

Johnson,  C.  S.  C,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  will  to  church. 
$200,000. 

Johnson,  O.  T.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  gift  to  charity, 
$100,000. 

Johnson,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  O.  T.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.. 
gift  to  charity,  $100,000. 

Johnson,  Seth,  Moravia,  Iowa,  will  to  charity,  $80,- 
000. 

Joplin,  Mo.,  gift  of  park  to  city  by  Charles  Scheffen. 
decker,  $100,000. 

Joy,  Mrs.  James,  Boston,  Mass.,  gift  to  church, 
$5000. 

Kalamaaoo  College,  gift  by  Rockefeller  education 
board,  $25,000. 

Kansas,  gift  to  Belgium,  $500,000. 

Kebler  Piano  Co.,  New  York,  gift  to  employees, 
$85,000. 

Keep,  Albert,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  Y.  M.  C.  A.. 
$200,000. 

Kellogg,  Mary  B.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  will  to  church, 
$20,000;  to  library,  $20,000. 

Kerens.  Richard,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  gift  to  church, 
$75,000. 

Kerr,  John  J.,  Quincy,  111.,  gift  to  church,  $10,000. 

Key,  Edward,  Baltimore,  Md.,  will  to  eharity,  $20,- 


'to  Georgetown  College,  $15,000. 
~     Philadelphia,  Pa. 


000;   -w  --W.O •-!  - — , 

Kimball,  Ada  R.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$11,000. 

Kimball.  Louise  E..  Chicago.  111.,  will  to  eharity, 
$16,000. 

Kimberg,  Peter  L.,  Sharon,  Pa.,  will  to  chanty, 
$500,000.  „  ^       ^ 

Kinney,  Orlaso,  Norwich,  Conn.,  will  to  church, 
$7000. 

Knickerbocker  Hospital,  will  by  G.  H.  Wright,  $580,- 
000. 

Knights  of  Columbus,  gift  to  Marquette  College, 
$50,000. 

Knox  College,  gift  by  Ellen  B.  Scripps,  $100,000; 
gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $50,000. 

Lafayette  College,  gift  by  Rockefeller  education 
board,  $25,000. 

Land,  Antoinette  W.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  will  to  mis- 
sions, $4000. 

Lathers,  Jane  K.,  Berkeley,  Cal..  gift  to  charity, 
$88,000. 

Lavanburg,  Amelia,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$60,000. 

Lawrence,  Samuel,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $88,- 
668. 

Leach,  Elsie,  New  York,  will  to  eharity,  $81,000. 


Digitized  by 


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OIPTS  AJfD  BEQUESTS 

LeUnd    iStonford    University    art    museiuii,    gift    by 
Thomas  W.  Stanford,  $80,000. 


Lenox  Oollege,  will  by  L.  S.  Ooffln,  $15,000. 
Levy,  "  -       -t        .         ^  .        ... 

$150,000, 


_   ,  J)y  Li. 

Levy,  Herman,  San  Francisco,  Oal.,  will  to  charity, 

will    to    charity, 
gift  to  charity, 


Levy,    Samnel,    Wilkesbarre,    Pa., 
$8120. 

Lewis,   Paul,   Elizabethtown,   N.  J., 
$80,000. 

Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  by  O.  P.  Oriffln, 
$20,000;  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $20,000. 

Lindgren,  John  R.,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  church, 
$500,000;   to  Northwestern  University,  $500,000. 

Lindsay,  William,  Boston,  Mass.,  gift  to  American 
hospital.  Paris,  $10,000. 

Lippe,  Elizabeth  A.,  will  to  charity,  $15,900;  to 
church,  $11,000. 

Lockwood,  Philip  C,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  Harvard 
medical  school,  $50,000. 

Loewenthal,  Julius  W.,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  charity, 
$80,000. 

Long,*  Robert  W.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  will  to  Indiana 
Universitv   $170,000. 

Louisville,  Ky.,  gift  to  charity  by  various  donors, 
$150,000. 

Lusitania  sufferers,  gift  by  various  donors,  New 
York,  $15,000. 

Lying-in  Hospital,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  by  Ogden  Ar- 
mour, $10,000;  a  second  gift  by  Julius  Rosenwald, 
$100,000. 

Lyndon  Institute,  gift  by  Theodore  N.  Wait,  $50,- 
000. 

McCauley.  Sarah  E..  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
charity,  $8000. 

Mccormick,  Mrs.  R.  L.,  Tacoma,  Wash.,  gift  to 
Ferry  Museum,  $15,000. 

MeCullough,  John  G.,  Bennington,  Vt.,  will  to  li- 
brary, $10,000. 

McDowell,  Annie,  Tonkers,  N.  T.,  will  for  spinsters* 
home,  $50,000. 

McEIwell,  Thomas  A.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
charity,  $10^00. 

McHarg,  Harriet  P.,  New  York,  will  to  church, 
$24,000. 

Mcllheney,  John,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  school 
at  Columbus,  Oa.,  $20,000. 

McKay,  Alexander  A.,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  Art  In- 
stitute, $100,000;  to  charity.  $100,000. 

McKay,  Mrs.  Donald,  and  Mrs.  E.  A.  Brinks,  gift 
to  hospital,  Englewood,  N.  J.,  $100,000. 

McKay,  Oordon,  will  to  Harvard,  transfers  to 
chusetts  Polytechnic  Institute,  $5,500,000. 

McLean,  Mary  L.  A.,  White  Plains,  N.  T.,  will  to 
charity.  $5500. 

McMillan,  Mrs.  W.  A.,  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  will  to  charity, 
$2,000,000;  to  Washington  University,  $1,000,000. 

Mair,  Charles  A.,  Chicago,  III.,  will  to  charity, 
$80,000. 

Mair,  C.  A..  Chicago.  111.,  will  to  charity.  $10,000. 

Major,  William  S.,  Harbor  Springs,  Mich.,  will  to 
hospitol,  $50,000. 

Manual  training  schools,  will  by  Edwin  O.  Fore- 
man, $10,000. 

Marquette  College,  gift  by  Knights  of  Columbus, 
$50,000. 

Marquette  University,  gift  by  James  J.  Hill,  $10,- 
000. 

Marshall,  W.  H.,  Harrisonburg,  Ya.,  will  to  hospital, 
$15,000. 

Martin,  John  K.,  Bridgoton,  Me.,  will  to  charity, 
$450,000. 

Masonic  gift  of  hospital  at  Sullivan,  111.,  $50,000. 

Masonic  hospital,  Elixabethtown,  Pa.,  gifts  to.  $58,* 
000. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  gift  by  vari- 
ous donors,  $1,000,000. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  will  by  Gor- 
don  McKay.    $5,500,000. 

Massie,    L.    '      * 


New  York,   will  to  Dart- 


J.,   Long  Beach,    Cal.,    gift   to   charity, 
$10,000. 

Matthewson.   Charles  F., 
mouth  College,  $200,000. 

Maul,  W.  G.,  Chicaco,  111.,  will  to  charity,  $100,000. 

Mayer,  Seligman,  Kew  York,  will  to  charity,  $60,- 
000. 

Mayo,  Drs.  William  and  Charles,  Rochester,  Minn., 
gift  for  medical  research,  $1,000,000;  to  University 
of  Minnesota,  $2,000,000. 

Mechanics  and  Tradesmen,  Society  of,  gift  by  Amos 
F.  Eno,  $1,800,000. 

Medical  research,  gift  for,  by  Drs.  William  and  Charles 
Mayo.  $1,000,000. 

Melton,  Pa.,  gift  to  church  by  unnamed  donor. 
$50,000. 

Mental  Hygiene  Institute,  gift  by  EUsabeth  An- 
derson, $50,000;  gift  by  Mrs.  W.  K.  Yanderbilt,  $40,- 

poo. 


272  OIFT8  Ain>  BEQUESTS 

Merer  Hospital,  Chicago,  Bl.,  wW  by  Oharka  Hainet, 
$888,888. 

Mercy  hospital,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $86,000. 

Mercy  HospiUl,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  by  Tarions 
donors,  $200,000. 

Merrill.  Eugene  A.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  gift  to  Hills- 
dale College,  $80,000. 

Merrill,  Lydia  M.,  Exeter,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity, 
$25,000. 

Messerole,  Evaline  A..  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$75,000. 

Methodist  Church,  Nebraska,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$70,000. 

Methodist  Church,  South,  gift  by  J.  B.  Duke,  Durham, 
S.  C,  $100,000. 

Methodist  missions,   will  by   Henry   Dato,   $40,000. 

Metropolitan  Museum,  gift  by  Annie  B.  Davies, 
$50,000;  gift  by  Amos  F.  Eno,  $200,000;  will  by 
John  M.  Cadwalader,  $48.475 ;  will  by  Mrs.  Van  Ant- 
werp De  Witt  Jessup,  $800,155. 

Meyers,  Mrs.  George  H.,  Lehigh,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity. 
$7000. 

Michigan,  University  of,  gift  by  various  donors, 
Detroit,  Mich.,  $250,000;  will  by  Joseph  Hudson. 
$76,000. 

Middlebury  College,  wiU  by  Joseph  Battell,  $220.- 
000. 

Middlebury  College,  gift  by  A.  D.  Hepburn,  $200,* 
000. 

Miets,  August.  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $9000. 

Miller,  Henry,  New  York,  will  to  hospiUls,  $224,- 
157. 

Millorth,  George  W..  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  $5000 ;  to  University  of 
Columbia,  $5000;  to  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
$5000. 

Mills  College,  will  by  David  Hewes,  $20,000. 

Milton,  Pa.,  gift  to  church  by  unnamed  donor, 
$50,000. 

Miner.  W.  H..  Chicago,  IB.,  gift  to  Art  Institnta, 
$50,000. 

Miners,  gift  by  Calumet  and  Hecla.  $120,000. 

Ministerial  relief,  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  New 
York,   $80,000. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  Tag  day  for  charity,  $24,896. 

Minnesota,  University  of,  gift  by  Mayo  brothers, 
$2,000,000. 

Missions,  will  bv  Ida  Shapley.  $182,500;  will  by 
Edward  A.  Webb,  $400,000. 

Mittelberger,  Augusto,  Cleveland.  Ohio,  will  to 
charity,  $10,000. 

Morgan,  David  N.,  Concord,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity, 
$10,500. 

Morgan,  J.  P.,  New  York,  gift  to  Seaman's  Church 
Institute.  $50,000. 

Momingside  College,  gift  by  various  donors.  $36,000. 

Moore,  Mrs.  D.  H..  Ottawa,  111.,  wiU  for  educa- 
tional purposes,  $100,000. 

Morris,  Edward,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  charities,  $55,. 
000. 

Morristown,  N.  J.,  will  to  city  by  Frances  E.  Wood- 
ruff, $60,000. 

Morse.  Calantha  E.,  Boston.  Mass.  will  to  charity. 
$6500. 

Mosely.  John,  Needham.  Mass..  will  to  church.  $6000. 

Moses,  Galen  C,  Bath,  Me.,  will  to  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
$15,000. 

Moulton,  Charles,  Waltham,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$7500. 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  gift  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  N.  W. 
Harris,  $25,000. 

Mount  Sinai  Hospital,  gift  by  Guggenheim  Bros., 
$250,000. 

Muhlenberg  College,  gift  by  various  donors.  Allen- 
town.  Pa..  $67,000. 

Munsey,  Frank  A.,  New  York,  gift  to  American  hos- 
pital at  Paris.  $50,000. 

Murphy,  Eunice  L.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$20,000. 

Murray,  Mrs.  J.  T.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $871,- 
640. 

Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  Mass..  will  of  Helen 
CuUamore,  $100,000. 

Museum  of  Natural  History,  will  by  Mrs.  Van  Ant- 
werp De  Witt  Jessup,  $5,128.880 ;  gift  by  Amos  F.  Eno. 
$200,000. 

Musser.  Benjamin,  Jewell,  Iowa,  will  to  Jewell  High 
School,  $80,000. 

Myers,  F.  E.  and  P.  A.,  Ashland,  Ohio,  gift  to 
Wittenberg  CoUece,  $20,000. 

Myers,  J.  J.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  Harvard  Uni-^ 
versity,  $100,000. 

Mygatt,  Cecilia,  Evansville,  Ind.,  will  to  Evansville 
Seminary,  $10,000. 

Nagle,  Rosanna  M.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
tSOOO;  to  Phnxoh.  $6000,  ^       ' 


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273 


OIPTS  AKB  BEQXTESTS 


National  A8ro  fund,  gift  by  Mn.  W.  H.  BUaa. 
910.000. 

National  Inttitnte  of  AH  and  Lettera,  gift  by  A.  M. 
Huntington,  $77,000. 

Needle  gnild,  Waahington,  111.,  gift  to  charity, 
96000. 

Nesbit,  Abram,  Wilkeabarre,  Pa.,  gift  to  Historical 
Society,  98000. 

Ness,  Hary  J.,  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  will  to  chnreh, 
980,000. 

NcTil,  George,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  church, 
95000. 

Newcomb,  George  W.,  Bridgton,  Me.,  will  to  charity, 
940.000. 

New  York,  gift  to  charity  by  rarious  donors,  9107,- 
010. 

New  York  National  Guard,  gift  of  armored  train 
to.  by  Charles  M.  Schwab  and  B.  H.  Gary.  9150,- 
000. 

New  York  Public  Library,  will  by  John  M.  Oad- 
waUder,  9151,000;  will  by  G.  H.  Wright,  9100.000. 

New  York  Unirersity,  gift  by  Amos  F.  Eno,  9200,- 
000. 

New  York  Zoological  Society,  will  by  John  M. 
Cadwalader,  920.000. 

New  Salem  Academy,  will  by  H.  W.  Ballard,  910.- 
000. 

Nicholson,  J.  S.,  Salina,  Kan.,  gift  to  Y.  M.  0.  A., 
910,000. 

Northfleld  schools,  will  by  H.  W.  Berry,  98000. 

Northwestern  Unirersity,  gift  by  Norman  B.  Harris, 
950,000  ;j|ift  by  James  A.  Patten,  927,000:  gift  by 
Mrs.  G.  F.  Swift.  98000;  will  by  John  R.  Lindgren, 
9600,000. 

OberUn  Oollege,  will  by  Charles  M.  Hall,  98,000,000. 

O'Connor,  Elisabeth,  New  York,  will  to  church,  980,- 
000. 

O'Donnell,  Edward  R.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  will  to  charity, 
920,000. 

Onarga  Presbyterian  Seminary,  gift  by  W.  A.  E. 
Rankin,  950.000. 

Oppenheim,  J.  E.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
910,000. 

Orphans*  home.  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  will  by  A. 
Dyckerhog,  925,000. 

Osbom,  Mrs.  W.  C,  New  York,  gift  to  Princeton 
UniTorsity,  9100,000. 

Palaehe,  Whitney,  Hartford,  Conn.,  gift  to  charity, 
910,000. 

Park,  W.  G.,  Mineola,  L.  I.,  will  to  church,  9^0,000. 

Parker,  Carrie,  Sioux  Falls,  Iowa,  will  to  charity, 
96450. 

Parkman,  Grace,  Dorchester,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
915,000. 

Paterson,  N.  J.,  gift  to  church  by  rarions  donors, 
925,000. 

Patten,  James  A..  Chicago.  111.,  gift  to  charity.  975,- 
000;  to  Northwestern  Unirersity,  927.000. 

Peace  fund,  gift  by  Henry  Ford,  91.000,000. 

Pearson,  Frederick  S.,  will  to  charity,  9100,000; 
to  Tufts  College,  9500.000. 

Pecker,  Jonathan  E.,  Concord,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity, 
980,000;  to  church,  920,000. 

Peifer,  George  F.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
95000. 

Pennsylrania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  will  by  Susan 
F.  Wharton,  85000. 

PennsyWania  College,  gift  by  various  donors,  930,* 
000. 

Pennsylrania,  University  of,  gift  by  Pierre  S.  Du- 
pont,  925.000;  will  by  Samuel  Dickson,  9100.000;  will 
by  George  Millorth,  95000. 

Persohn,  William,  Chicago,  III.,  will  to  charity,  925,- 
000. 

Peterson,  M.  D.,  Davenport,  Iowa,  will  to  charity, 
91(000,000. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity  by  various  donors, 
9108,500 ;  gift  to  Children's  Hospital  by  various  donors, 
9600,000;  to  church  by  unnamed  donor,  920,000;  to 
church  by  unnamed  donor,  95000;  to  Red  Cross  by  un- 
named donor,  910,000. 

Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  gift  by  William  Thompson, 
9100,000. 

Pierce,  Luther  H.,  Chicago,  111.,  residuary  legacy  to 
charity,  9600,000.  ^  ^,^ 

Pine,  Charles  H.,  Ansonia.  Conn^  will  to  manual 
training  school,  9250,000;  to  Yale  University,  9150.- 
000. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity  (Sacrifice  day),  by 
various  donors,  ilO.OOO. 

Plant,  Albert  F.,  New  York,  will  to  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 915,000. 

Polish  relief,  gift  by  various  donors,  Chicago,  III., 
910,000. 

Pomona  College,  gift  by  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
9100,000;  gift  by  various  donors,  9100.000. 

Powell,  W.  M„  J^eif  Yoyk,  wfll  to  charity,  99000. 


Powers,  W.  J.,  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
916,900. 

Preachers*  pensions,  gift  by  Fannie  M.  Gamble,  9125,- 
000. 

Preger,  Catherine  J.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
962.258. 

Presbyterian  Hospital,  New  York,  will  by  Albert  A. 
Sprague,  950.000. 

Prescott,  Nellie  6.,  Cloverdale.  Cal.,  will  to  charity, 
9860.000;  to  church.  9140.000. 

Princeton  University,  gift  by  Mrs.  W.  0.  Osbom. 
9125.000;  gift  by  Mrs.  Russell  Sage,  9250,000;  gift 
by  unnamed  donor.  9100,000;  gift  by  various  donors, 
9819,252;  will  bv  John  M.  Cadwalader,  925,000. 

Protestant  Orphan  Asylum,  New  York,  will  by  Albert 
A.   Sprague,   95000. 

Purdue  University,  will  by  Moses  F.  Dunn,  9150,000. 

Raintser,  Simon,  New  York,  will  to  charity.  86000. 

Rankin,  W.  A.  E.,  Bloomington,  111.,  gift  to  Onarga 
Presbyterian  Seminary.  950.000. 

Rankin,  W.  A.,  Onarga,  111.,  gift  to  church.  950.000. 

Ransom,  Nathaniel  M.,  Somerville,  Mass.,  will  to 
church,  98000. 

Ratchesky,  A.  C,  Boston,  Mass.,  gift  to  charity, 
9100.000. 

Reading,  Mass.,  gift  of  library  by  Andrew  Carnegie, 
95000. 

Red  Cross  fund,  gift  by  Rockefeller  Foundation.  950,- 
000. 

Red  Cross,  gift  by  Frederick  Emerson,  920,000; 
gifi  by  Rockefeller  Foundation  to  check  typhoid,  920.- 
000;  by  unnamed  donor,  910,000;  by  unnamed  donor, 
Boston,   Mass.,  910,000. 

Reed,  Msrie,  Baltimore,  Md..  will  to  charity.  96000. 

Rehm.  Jacob.  Chicago.  111.,  will  to  charity.  915,000. 

Rehm,  Peter  R.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity. 
920,000. 

Reiff,  W.  E.,  Pottsville,  Pa.,  will  to  charity,  950,000. 

Relief  ship  for  Belgium,  9550.000. 

Relief  ship  cargo  for  Belgium,  9500,000. 

Rensselaer  Institute,  cift  by  A.  T.  White.  950,000. 

Revel.  Augustus,  Norristown,  N.  J.,  will  to  church, 
925,000. 

Rhinelander,  Charles  E.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
950,000. 

Rice.  Mrs.  I.  L.,  New  York,  gifts  for  hoepiul, 
91,000.000. 

Richardson,  C.  L.,  Manchester,  N.  H.,  will  to  charity, 
925,500. 

Ripon  College,  will  by  I.  S.  Tripp,  95000. 

Risdale,  Elisabeth,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
968,000. 

Roberts,  Sarah  E.,  Portland,  Me.,  will  to  charity, 
95500. 

Robeson,  Samuel  J.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  to  charity, 
950,000. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  gift  to  general  hospital  by  various 
donors,  922,000. 

Rockefeller,  John  D..  gift  to  Baptist  missionary  so- 
cieties, 9100,000;  to  Michigan  University  Y.  M.  0.  A., 
960,000;  to  Seaman's  Church  Institute,  950,000. 

Rockefeller,  Mrs.  J.  D.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
92^00,000. 

Rockefeller,  J.  D.,  Jr.,  gift  to  charity,  918,000. 

Rockefeller  education  board  to  Hobart  College,  950,- 
000;  to  Lafayette  College,  9200,000;  to  Kalamasoo 
College.  925.000. 

Rockefeller  Foundation,  gift  for  laboratorv  for  study 
of  animal  diseases.  91.000,000 ;  gift  to  American  Baptist 
Foreign  Mission  Society,  950,000;  to  American  Bed 
Cross,  925,000;  to  Armenian  relief  fund.  980,000; 
to  Denison  University,  9126,000;  to  Mexican  Red 
Cross  fund,  950,000;  to  Pomona  College,  9100.000; 
to  Red  Cross  to  cheek  typhoid,  920,000;  to  Southern 
secondary  schools,  9140.000;  to  unemploved  Colorado 
miners.  9100.000;  to  Yassar  College.  9200,000;  to 
Yale  Chinese  Medical  College,  916,200;  to  Y.  M.  C.  A.. 
9100,000. 

Rodney,  Susan  C,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
912,000. 

Roebling,  F.  W.,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  gift  to  charity, 
920,000. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  New  York,  gift  to  charity,  940,- 
000. 

Rosenbeyer.  Jessie  L.,  Chicago,  HI.,  gift  to  Brown 
University,  97000. 

Rosenwald,  Julias,  Chicago,  111.,  gift  to  colored  Y. 
M.  C.  A.,  925,000;  to  general  relief.  9100,000;  to 
Lying-in  Hospital,  9100,000;  to  Tuskegee  Institute, 
95000;  to  Woman's  Club,  950,000. 

Sage,  Mrs.  Russell,  New  York,  gift  for  animal  pro- 
tection, 915,000;  gift  to  Armenian  relief  fund,  95000; 
gift  to  charity.  960.000;  to  Princeton  University.  9250.- 
000;  to  Syracuse  University,  916,000. 

St.  Louis  flood  relief  fund,  gift  by  various  donors, 
950.000. 

3t.  Xavier  College,  w^Il  hj  JuUfi  IS,  Tunivet.  95000, 


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274 


OIFTS  AHD  BEQUESTS 


St.  Louis,  Mo.,  gift  to  church  by  rarioiit  donors. 
98000. 

San  Francisco,  fift  to  children's  park  by  Mrs.  H.  B. 
Huntington,  $275,000. 

Saul.  Julius,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $5000. 

Scanlon.  J.  K..  Elgin.  111.,  will  to  charity,  $19,000. 

Scattergood,  Elizabeth  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to 
charity,  $10,000. 

Schefer,  Henry,  Philadelphia,  Pa^  will  to  charity, 
$6500. 

Schwab,  Charles  M.,  gift  to  charity,  $15,000. 

Schwab,  Oharles  M.,  and  E.  H.  Gary,  gift  of  armored 
train  to  New  York  National  Guard.  $150,000. 

Schwabacher,  Morris,  Chicago,  111.,  will  to  charity, 
$17,000. 

Scripps,  Ellen  B.,  La  JoUa,  CaK.  gift  to  Knox  Col- 
lege, $100,000;  to  University  of  California.  $100,000. 

Seaman's  Church  Institute,  gift  by  J.  P.  Morgan. 
$50,000;  gift  by  J.  D.  Rockefeller,  $50,000;  gift  by 
rarioua  donors,  $122,202. 

Searle,  Miss  C.  A.,  New  York,  will  to  Seashorehome, 
$10,000. 

Seashorehome,  will  by  Miss  C.  A.  Searle,  $10,000. 

Schieren.  Charles  A.,  New  York,  will  to  Brooklyn 
Academy  of  Music,  $100,000;  to  Brooklyn  Institute  of 
Arts,  $22,975. 

Schiff,  Mrs.  C.  H.,  New  York,  gift  to  University  of 
Virginia,  $50,000. 

Schiff,  Jacob  H..  New  York,  gift  to  Barnard  College, 
$500,000;  to  Jewish  relief  fund,  $25,000;  to  Stevens 
Technical  Institute^  $5000. 

Schiffendecker,  Charles,  Joplin,  Mo.,  gift  of  park  to 
city.  $100,000. 

tSchmidt,  John,  Springfield,  Mo.,  will  to  charity, 
$10,000. 

Schools,  gift  to,  by  Mrs.  S.  W.  Brigham.  $10,000. 

Settlements,  gift  to,  by  various  donors.  New  York, 
$50,000. 

Seventh  Day  Adventists,  Boulder,  Colo.,  gift  to 
church,  $10,000. 

Shapley,  Ida,  Baltimore,  Md.,  will  to  missions, 
$182,500. 

Sharon,  Pa.,  gift  to  town  by  Frank  H.  Buhl,  $500,- 
000. 

Shaun,  Nathan,  New  York,  gift  to  Zion  movement, 
$85,000. 

Shaw,  Samuel  S.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  library, 
$5000. 

Sheftel,  Mrs.  Herbert,  New  York,  gift  to  Yale  Uni- 
versity, $10,000. 

Sheppard,  Marie  J.,  Revere,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$11,150. 

Shirly,  Louise  F.,  San  Diego,  Cal.,  will  to  charity, 
$17,000. 

Simmons  College,  will  by  Helen  Cullamore,  $100,000. 

Sioux  City,  Iowa,  to  church  by  various  donors,  $20,- 
000. 

Siser,  Katherine  M.,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  will  to 
charity,  $50,000. 

Skinner.  Francis,  estate  of,  gift  to  Harvard  Uni- 
versity,  $48,000. 

Slimmer,  Abraham,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  gift  to  charity, 
$25,000;  to  hospital,  $80,000. 

Sloane,  William  D..  New  York,  wiU  to  charity,  $170.- 
000. 

Sloane,  Mrs.  W.  D.,  New  York,  gift  to  charity,  $10,- 
000. 

Slocum,  Charles  E.,  Defiance,  Ohio,  will  to  Washing- 
ton University,  $10,000. 

Smith,  Annie  E.,  will  to  Barnard  College,  $10,000 ; 
to  charity,  $252,000. 

Smith,  Mary  A.,  Chelsea,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$5000. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  gift  by  Charles  L.  Freer, 
$1,000,000. 

Southern  secondary  schools,  gift  by  Rockefeller 
Foundation,   $140,000. 

Southmayd,  Charles  F.,  New  York,  will  to  charity, 
$10,000. 

South  Shore  Country  Club  fair,  Chicago,  111.,  to 
charity,  $75,000. 

Spinsters'  home,  will  by  Annie  McDowell,  $50,000. 

Sprague,  Albert  A.,  Chicago.  111.,  will  to  Art  Insti- 
tute, $50,000;  will  to  Presbyterian  HospiUl,  $50,000; 
wilJ  to  Protestant  Orphan  Asylum,  $5000. 

Sprague.  Mrs.  Albert  A.,  Chicago,  gift  to  Art  In- 
stitute. $90,000;  to  charity.  $100,000. 

Superannuated  ministers,  gift  by  various  donors. 
$880,000. 

Stanford,  Thomas  W..  gift  to  Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity art  museum,  $80,000. 

State  air  craft,  gift  by  various  donors.  New  York, 
$20,000. 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  gift  by  Babcock  and 
Wilcox,  $25,000;  gift  by  Carnegie  Foundation.  $250.- 
000;  gift  by  H.  W.  Johns-Man^lle  Co.,  $10,000;  gift 
by  J.  H.  Schiff,  $5000;  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $10,- 


000;  rift  by  various  donors,  $171,600;  gift  by  Ed- 
ward Weston,  $10,000;  will  by  George  W.  Millorth. 
$5000. 

Stick,  A.  C,  Independence,  Kan.,  will  to  Washburne 
College,  $75,000. 

Stnlman,  James,  New  York,  gift  to  American  Re- 
lief Clearing  House,  Paris.  $100,000. 

Storm  Lake  College,  will  by  L.  S.  Coffin,  $20,000. 

Stotesbury,  E.  T.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  Chil- 
dren's Hospital,  $50,000. 

Stott,  Sophie  F.,  New  York,  will  to  charity,  $87,000. 

Strait,  Mrs.  W.  D.,  Westbury,  L.  I.,  gift  to  church, 
$5000. 

Straus,  Nathan,  New  York,  gift  to  Jewish  relief  fund. 
$50,000. 

Strong,  Mrs.  A.  H.,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  gift  to 
D.  A.  R.  Museum,  $50,000. 

Swartley,  Anna,  Launsdale,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$50,000. 

Swasey,  Ambrose.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  gift  for  en- 
gineering research,  $100,000. 

Swift,  Mrs.  G.  F.,  Chicago,  III.,  gift  to  charity. 
$10,000;  to  Northwestern  University,  $8000. 

Syracuse  University,  gift  by  Mrs.  Russell  Sage. 
$16,000. 

Taylor,  M.  E.,  Louisville,  Ky..  to  charity.  $20,000. 

Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University,  will  by 
Grace  Dodge,  $500,000. 

Teassler,  J.  T.,  Bunbury,  Pa^  will  to  charity,  $6000; 
to  church,  $7000;  to  Johns  Hopkins  Institute,  $20,- 
000. 

Technology,  Institute  of,  will  by  Helen  Cullamore, 
$500,000. 

Texas.  University  of.  gift  by  J.  W.  Brackenrip, 
$100,000. 

Thomas,  Cleo  A.,  Brookline.  Mass.,  wills  to  church, 
$5000. 

Thompson,  Elisabeth,  New  York  (trust  estate),  will 
to  charities,  $8,250,000. 

Thompson,  Jasper,  Forest  City,  Iowa,  gift  of  park 
to  town,  $100  lOOO. 

Thompson,  W.  H.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity, 
$5000. 

Thompson,  William.  New  York,  gift  to  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy,  $100,000. 

Throop  College  of  Technology,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $50,000. 

Thurber,  J.  B.,  New  York,  gift  to  Yale  University, 
$10,000. 

Tilt4>n.  Caroline  S.,  New  Orleans,  La.,  will  to 
charity,  $20,000. 

Tirker,  George  F.,  New  London,  Conn.,  will  to 
charity,  $5000. 

Tolan,  Edwin  F.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$6000. 

Trade  school,  gift  for,  by  S.  Benson,  $100,000. 

Trinity  College,  will  by  George  F.  Newton,  $5000. 

Trinity  College,  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  gift  by  various 
donors,   $7000. 

Tripp,  I.  S.,  Prairie  du  Sac,  Wis.,  will  to  Carroll 
College,  $5000;  to  Ripon  College,  $5000;  to  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  $400,000. 

Tucker,  A.  H.,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  will  to  church, 
$6000. 

Tufts  College,  will  by  Frederick  S.  Pearson,  $500,- 
000. 

Turner,  Abbie,  Randolph,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$27,000. 

Tuskegee  Institute,  rift  b7  various  donors,  $450,000. 

Unemployed  Colorado  miners,  gift  by  Rockefeller 
Foundation,  $100,000. 

University  museum,  gift  by  Pierre  S.  Dupont,  $25,- 
000. 

Union  Bethel,  gift  by  Mrs.  Maunca  White,  $22,500. 

Vandens,  Maria,  Baltimore,  Md.,  will  to  charity, 
$12,000. 

Vanderbilt.  Mrs.  W.  K..  New  York,  gift  to  Mental 
Hygiene  Institute,  f 40. 000. 

vassar  College,  gift  by  Mrs.  Avery  Coonley.  $25,000 ; 
gift  by  Mrs.  Ellen  Hooker.  $25,000;  gift  by  Rocke- 
feller Foundation,  $200,000;  gift  by  various  donors, 
$615,000. 

Virginia,  University  of,  gift  by  John  B.  Cobb,  $50,- 
000;  gift  by  Mrs.  C.  H.  Schiff,  $50,000;  gift  by  un- 
named donor,  $50,000. 

Vowels.  Ann,  New  York,  will  to  church,  $5000. 

VowlesB,  Ann,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  will  to  church, 
$7000. 

Wadsworth  Athennum,  gift  by  Mrs.  Jamee  J.  Good- 


lan,   $50,000 

Wj        ■■   ■■ 


000. 


age  dividends  by  corporations  as  reported,  $5,000.- 

Wait,  Theodore  N.,  Lyndonville.  Vt.,  gift  to  Lyndon 
Institute.  $50,000. 

Walker.  £.  C,  Walkerville.  Mich.,  will  to  charity. 
$20,000;  to  church,  $30,000;  to  College  of  St.  An- 
drew, $10,025;  to  Detroit  Art  Museum,  $25,000. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


OIPTS  AHD  BEQXTESTS 


Ward,  Robert  B.,  New  Bochelle,  N.  Y.,  will  to 
charity.  $1,500,000. 

Waraaw,  Ind.«  gift  to  church  by  rarious  donors, 
$75,000. 

Washbume  Oollege,  will  by  A.  0.  Stick.  $75,000. 

Waahington  Unireraity.  will  by  Mra.  W.  A.  Mc- 
Millan, $1,000,000;  will  by  Oharlei  B.  Sloonm,  $10,000. 

Waterman,  L.  D..  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  rift  to  Indiana 
Unirersity.  $100,000. 

Watson,  Mrs.  H.  W.,  Doylestown,  Pa.,  will  to 
chnrch,  $100,000. 

Watertown.  Mass..  gift  to  college  by  William  P. 
Herring,  $1,000,000. 

Webb,  Edward  A.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  will  to  missions, 
$400,000. 

Webb.  Mrs.  M.  E.,  New  York,  will  to  charity.  $167.- 
586. 

Wellesley  OoIIege,  gift  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  $95,000. 

Wells,  H.  P.,  K^w  York,  will  to  charitj,  $50,000. 

Wentworth,  Samnel  T..  Sandwich.  N.  H..  gift  of 
library  to  town,  $18,000. 

Western  Adrent  Publication  Society,  will  by  Charles 
Eckhart,  $12,500. 

Weston.  Edward.  New  York,  gift  to  Stevens  Tech- 
nical Institute.  $10,000. 

Wharton,  Susan  F..  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  will  to  charity. 
$5000;  to  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  $5000. 

Wherling.  Mrs.  M.  L.  L.  O..  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  will 
to  Miami  University.  $400,000. 

White.  A.  T..  New  York,  gift  to  Rensselaer  Insti- 
tute. $50,000. 

White,  Leila  M.,  Bloomington,  HI.,  will  to  hospital 
$5000. 

White.  Mrs.  Maunca.  Cincinnati.  Ohio,  gift  to  Union 
Bethel.  $22,500. 

Whitney,  Anne,  Boston,  Mass..  will  to  charity.  $5000. 

Whitney.  F.  O.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  charity, 
$5000. 

Widener,  Joseph  E..  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  gift  to  em- 
ployees. $100,000. 

Widener.  P.  A.  B.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  gift  to  charity. 
$10,000. 

Wilcox,  George  C.  Evanston.  III.,  will  to  charity. 
910.000;  to  church.  $10,000. 

Wilder,  George,  New  York,  gift  to  charity,  $5000. 

Williams,  AHce  M..  Williamsport.  Pa.,  will  to 
charitv  $18,000. 

Williams  University,  will  by  Mrs.  Van  Antwerp  De 
Witt  Jessup.   $800,000. 

Wilson,  Mary  A.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  will  to  church, 
$21,000. 

Winfleld  Lutheran  College,  gift  by  J.  P.  Winfleld, 
$75,000. 

Winston-Salem  Academy,  gift  by  various  donors, 
$300,000. 

Wirt  Walker  estate.  Chicago,  111.,  $50,000. 

Wisconsin.  University  of,  will  of  I.  S.  Tripp,  $400,- 
000. 

Wittenberg  College,  gift  by  F.  E.  and  P.  A.  Myers, 
$20,000. 

Woepped,  Ignatz,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  will  to  charity, 
$8500. 

Wolf,  Celestin,  Champaign,  111.,  gift  to  church,  $25,- 
000. 

Wolff.  Edwin,  New  York,  will  to  charity.  $20,000. 

Woman's  Club,  gift  by  Julius  Rosenwald.  $50,000. 

Woodman,  Annie  E.,  Dover,  N.  H.,  will  for  art  in- 
stitute, $100,000. 

Woodman.  Sarah  C,  Dover,  N.  H.,  will  to  church, 
$10,000. 

Woodruff,  Frances  E.,  Morristown,  N.  J.,  will  to  city. 
$50,000. 

woodward,  R.  B.,  New  York,  will  to  Brooklyn  In- 
stitute of  Arts  and  Sciences,  $160,000. 

Woodworth,  Sarah  E.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  to  hos- 
pital. $5000. 

Woolverion,  William  H.,  New  York,  will  to  library 
at  Alexandria.  Pa.,  $40,000.  ^  .  ^    ^    ^ 

Wright,  G.  H.,  New  York,  will  to  Knickerbocker 
Hospital,  $580,000 ;  to  public  library,  $100,000. 

Wursten,  Alfred.  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  will  to  charity, 
$20,000. 

Wyman,  Cyrus,  Langdon,  Kan.,  will  to  charity, 
$200,000.  _ 

Wyman.  H.  M.,  estate  of,  gift  to  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, $75,000. 

Yale  Chinese  Medical  College,  gift  by  Rockefeller 
Foundation,  $16,200. 

Yale  University,  gift  by  Mrs.  C.  W.  Goodvear,  $10,- 
000;  gift  by  Rowland  family,  $15,000  ;gift  by  Mrs. 
Herbert  Sheftel.  $10,000;  gift  by  J.  B.  Thurber.  $10.- 
000;  gift  by  various  donors,  $453,270;  will  by  C.  H. 
Forman,  $510,434;  will  by  J.  H.  Hotchkiss,  $1,000.- 
000;  will  by  Mrs.  Van  Antwerp  De  Witt  Jessup, 
$800,000;  will  by  Charles  H.  Pine.  $150,000. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  gift  by  James  A.  B.  Brunt,  $125,000; 
gift  by  Mrs.  E.  E.  Jackson,  $50,000 ;  gift  by  Galen  C. 


275  OOLD 

Moses.  $15,000;  gift  by  J.  S.  Nicholson,  $10,000;  gift 
by  Rockefeller  Foundation.  $100,000;  win  by  Grace 
E.  Dodge,  $25,000;  will  by  Albert  Keep,  $200,000. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Allentown.  Pa.,  gift  by  various  donors. 
$120,000;  Buffalo.  N.  Y..  gift  by  various  donors.  $82.- 
000;  Chicago,  111.,  gift  by  unnamed  donor,  $20,000; 
Columbus,  O.,  gift  by  various  donors,  $28,000;  Duluth, 
Minn.,  gift  by  J.  H.  Barnes,  $60,000;  Grand  Forks. 
N.  Dak.,  gift  by  various  donors.  $40,000 ;  hotel.  Chicago. 
111.,  gift  by  various  donors,  $685,000;  La  Porte.  Ind.. 
gift  by  various  donors,  $11,896;  Muskogee.  Okla.,  gift 
by  various  donors,  $75,000;  Nashua,  N.  H.,  gift  by  un- 
named donor.  $10,000 ;  Paterson,  N.  J.,  gift  by  various 
donors.  $86,000. 

Y.  W.  C.  A.,  gift  by  Lissie  Eekhart,  $10,000;  will 
by  Grace  Dodge,  $700,000. 

Y.  W.  C.  A.,  Los  Angeles.  Oal.,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $88,000;  Paterson.  N.  J.,  gift  by  various 
donors,  $86,000. 

Yunivet,  Julia  E..  New  York,  will  to  church,  $6200; 
will  to  St.  Xavier  College,  $5000. 

Zion  movement,  gift  by  Nathan  Shaun,  $85,000. 

Zionist  relief  fund,  gift  by  various  donors,  $120,000. 

Zurbmgg,  T.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  will  to  hospitol, 
$250,000. 

GIPSY  MOTH.    See  Entomology. 

QLASSy  Montague.  See  Litebatube,  Eng- 
lish AND  Amebican,  Fiction. 

OOETHALSy  Majob-Genebal  G.  W.  See 
Panama  Canal. 

GOLB.  The  mined  production  of  gold  in  the 
mines  of  the  United  States  for  the  calendar 
year  1914  was  4,484,644  fine  ounces,  valued  at 
$92,703,767.  This  was  an  increase  in  value  of 
$2,715,869  over  the  production  of  1913.  The 
principal  gold  producmg  States  ranked  as  fol- . 
lows  in  1914:  California,  Colorado,  Alaska,  Ne- 
vada, South  Dakota,  Arizona,  Montana,  Utah, 
Oregon,  Philippines,  Idaho,  and  New  Mexico. 
No  other  States  than  these  mentioned  have  pro- 
duced over  $1,000,000  in  the  last  year.  The 
most  notable  increases  in  the  gold  output  in 
1914  were  $1,736,189  in  Colorado,  $624,479  in 
Montana,  and  $503,152  in  the  Philippines.  The 
largest  decreases  were  $313,942  in  Nevada, 
$299,882  in  Utah,  $192,244  in  Idaho,  and  $139,- 
102  in  Washington.  The  imports  of  gold  in  the 
United  States  for  the  calendar  year  1914 
amounted  to  $57,387,741,  and  the  exports  to 
$222,616,156. 

The  gold  production  for  1916  is  estimated  by 
the  director  of  the  mint.  The  table  eiven  be- 
low shows  the  total  mine  production  of  gold  in 
the  various  States  in  1914,  and  the  value  of  the 
increase  or  decrease  as  compared  with  1913. 


8tat§  or  T^rriiory 


Alahama     

Alaska    

Arisona     

California     

Colorado     

Georgia     

Idaho   

Illinois    

Maryland  and 
Pennsylrania 

Michigan     

Missouri    

Montana     

Nevada     

New   Mexico    . . 
North  Carolina 

Oklahoma    

Oregon    

Philipi^nes     . . . 
Porto  Kioo  . . . . 
South  Carolina 
South  DakoU    . 
Tennessee    .... 

Texas     , 

UUh     


Gold 

Quantity 

679.05 
762,596.08  15, 
202,166.62  4, 
999,112.87  20, 
961,845.20  19, 
787.06 
55,748.24     1 


InerMuo 

docroMo  ( — ) 
Gold 

Vdluo       (valus) 
911,970  4-  $876 

,764,259  --  187,446 
,179,155  --  155,244 
,658,496  --  246,538 
,888,105   --1,786,189 

16,270  4-         I.I62 
152,ai5  —    192,244 


10.88 


225  -1- 


226 


199,208.94  4,117,911  -f  624,479 

555,402.47  11,481,188  —  818,942 

56,680.79  1,171,696  -f  289,770 

6,348.94    131,141  +  4,698 


76,986.92 

1,591,461  - 

-   86.249 

66,847.00 

1,871,514  - 

-  508,152 

135.46 

2,800  - 

1,684 

856.04 

7,360  - 

2,479 

854,758.45 

7,888,508  - 

14.214 

299.68 

6,194  —    1,401 

11.82 

234  —     106 

157,961.16 

8,265,847  —  299,882 

D 

gitized  by  V 

^OOQ 

le 


GOLD 


276 


GOLF 


SUUe  or  Territory 
Vermont 

Go\d 
Quantity 

InerMM* 

deer0a»$  ( — ) 
Gold 
ValtM       (voIim) 
—               8 

YirKinia 

WMhington 

Wiseoniln    

Wyoming    

20.76 
26,958.24 

242.17 

429  —           175 
567,178  —    189,102 

6,666  — '  *  19,178 

Total    4,484,544.24  992.70d,757+$2,715,869 

Increaee  (+)  or  de- 
crease   ( — )    in 
Talue     ^ +$2,715,869 

WoBio  PBODUcnoir.  The  world  production 
of  gold  in  1913-14  is  shown  in  the  following 
Uble: 

WOBLD'8    PBODUOTION    OT   OOLD,    1918-1914,   BT 
COUKTBIKS 


1918 


1914 


Country 

North  America: 

United  States $88,884,400     $94,531,800 

Canada    16.216.181  16,925.044 

ICexico     18.250,000  18,000,000 

Cuba    24,600        

Africa    205,875,000     201,000,000 

Anstralasia   63,088.090  49,886.180 

Europe: 

Russia  and  Finland 24,578.576  26.750.000 

Austria-Hungary    2.180,441  1,500,000 

Germany 60,000        

Norway 

Sweden   86,680        

Italy    80.572        

Spam  and  Portugal 2,500        

Turkey    500        

France    1,946,600  1,000,000 

Great  Britain 17,860        

Serbia    250,000  100,000 

South  America: 

Argentina   100.000       

Boliria  and  Chile 800.000  500,000 

Colombia 8.000,000  8.000,000 

Ecuador    289,133        

Braail    8,009,786  8,000,000 

Venesuela   444.800        

Guiana — 

British    1,868.868  1.250.000 

Dutch    470.488  500,000 

French    3,050.600  8.000,000 

Peru     492,200  500,000 

Uruguay 111,000        

Central  America 8,000,000  8,600.000 

Asia: 

Japan    4.470,728  4.476.500 

China     8,658.900  8.800.000 

Indo-China    70,000        

Chosen  (Korea) 8.281.883  8.750,000 

Siam    56.500        

India,    British    11,152,468  11,888,870 

East  Indies,  British 1,852,000  ]       .  -.^  ^^^ 

East  Indies,  Dutch 8.887.100  f      *.750.000 

TV>taI    $454,942,211  $453,000,000 

The  gold  production  of  the  world  in  1916, 
accordinp^  to  the  preliminary  estimates  made  by 
the  Engineerinff  and  Mining  Journal,  New  York, 
in  its  annual  review  of  the  year,  was  greater 
than  for  the  previous  two  years,  and  indicated 
an  excellent  showing  for  the  gold  mining  in- 
dustry, although  it  must  be  considered  that  the 
European  war  did  not  directly  affect  any  of  the 
great  gold  mining  regions  even  in  Russia.  The 
estimated  increase  from  1914  was  $19,397,761, 
the  gain  being  due  chiefly  to  the  increased  pro- 
duction of  the  Transvaal  and  the  United  States, 
though  as  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying 
table,  the  increase  was  evident  for  the  more  im- 
portant producing  districts  except  in  Austral- 
asia and  Mexico.  The  Transvaal  in  1915  pro- 
duced about  40  per  cent  of  the  world's  total, 
the  United  States  about  21  per  cent,  Australasia 
(t  little  over  9  per  cent,  ana  Russia  about  6  per 


cent,  accounting  for  three^uarters  of  the  world's 
supply. 

OOLl)  PBODX70TI0N  OT  THl  WOBLD 

{Enffin§€rinff  and  Mining  Journal,  New  York) 
1914  1915 

Transvaal    $178,176,188     $188,897,707 

Rhodesia     17,745,980         18,853.185 

West    Africa    8,671,871  8,556,550 

Madagascar,  etc 1.980.000  1,865,000 

Total  Africa $201,573,484 

United    States    $94,581,800 

Mexico     18,185,000 

Canada    15.925,044 

Central  America,  etc 8.500,000 

Total   North   America    ..$182,141,844 

Russia,  inc.  Siberia $26,768,000 

Frsnce     1,450,000 

Other  Europe 2,850,000 

Total  Europe   $80,568,000 

British  India $12,827,980 

British  and  Dutch  E.  Indies       4,690.000 

Japan  and  Chosen    7,476.500 

China  and  others 8,625,000 


$217,671,892 

98,891.000 

16.975,000 

15.875.000 

8,750.000 

$187,491,100 

26,750.000 

1.025,000 

1,875,000 

$29,650,000 

11,699.885 

4,825,000 

7,850.000 

8,675,000 

T*!.  Asia,  not  inc.  Siberia  $28,119,480       $28,049,885 

South    America    $18,525,000         18.750.000 

Australasia   45,659,271         44.868.013 

Total  for  the  world $451,582,129     $470,979,890 

See  also  Metallurgy. 

GOLD  COAST.    A  British  crown  colony  and 

Protectorate,  with  Ashanti  and  the  Northern 
'erritories,  situated  on  the  Qulf  of  Guinea. 
Area  of  the  colony,  24,200  square  miles;  of 
Ashanti,  20,000;  of  the  Northern  Territories, 
35,800—total,  80,000.  The  census  (1911)  re- 
turns place  the  population  for  the  colony  at 
853,766;  Ashanti,  287,814;  Northern  Territor- 
ies, 361,806;  but  the  figures  are  believed  to  un- 
derstate the  actual  number  of  inhabitants. 
Accra,  the  capital,  had  (1011)  10,586  inhabi- 
tants; Coomassie,  18,853;  Cape  Coast  Castle, 
11,364;  Seccondee,  7725.  The  chief  products 
and  exports  (1913)  are  cacao,  £2,489,218;  gold 
and  gold  dust,  £1,656,110;  rubber,  £87,915; 
palm  kernels,  £159,128;  palm  oil,  £65,952;  lum- 
ber, £366,094;  kola  nuts,  £144,705.  Cotton 
goods,  provisions,  and  wine  and  spirits  are  the 
main  imports.  Total  trade  (1913):  £4,952,494 
imports,  £5,427,106  exports.  Revenue,  £1,301,- 
566;  expenditure,  £1,363,291.  Tonnage  entered 
and  cleared,  2,986,653.  A  railway  runs  from 
Seccondee  to  Coomassie,  168  miles.  A  railway 
under  construction  from  Accra  to  Akwapim  is 
open  for  traffic  to  a  temporary  terminus  at 
Mangoase,  about  39  miles  distant.  An  exten- 
sion to  Komfrodna  was  to  be  completed  in  1916. 
Total  telegraph  lines,  1492  miles. 

OOLF.  The  names  of  Jerome  D.  Travers  and 
Robert  A.  Gardner  stand  out  in  the  golfing  his- 
tory of  1915.  The  former  captured  the  open 
title  at  Baltusrol  and  the  latter  won  the  ama- 
teur laurels  at  Detroit.  Both  are  veterans  at 
the  game,  and  it  is  noteworthy  in  this  regard 
that  the  year  produced  few  new  players  of  spe- 
cial merit.  The  women's  championship  went  to 
Mrs.  Clarence  H.  Vanderbeck  of  Philadelphia. 
The  victory  of  Travers  in  the  open  tourney  was 
in  the  nature  of  a  "come  back,"  as  it  was  fig- 
ured that  the  winner  of  the  amateur  title  on 
four  different  occasions  had  seen  his  best  davs 
as  a  golfer.  As  it  turned  out,  however,  the 
only  player  to  give  Travers  a  little  was  Tom 
McNamara,  a  professional,  who  covered  the  72 
holes  in  298,  or  one  stroke  leas  than  the  victor's 


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total.  This  marked  the  aecond  time  in  21  years 
that  an  amateur  was  successful  in  the  quest 
of  the  open  title.  The  showing  of  Travers  at 
Baltusrol  made  him  the  favorite  in  the  ama- 
teur tournament.  fVancis  Ouimet  and  Charles 
Evans  also  had  large  foUowings.  All  three  of 
these  were  eliminated  before  the  final  roimd, 
and  Gardner  emerged  the  winner  through  his  de- 
feat of  John  G.  Anderson  of  Mount  Vernon, 
K.  Y.  Gardner  first  captured  the  amateur  hon- 
ors back  in  1909.  The  women's  championship 
tourney  narrowed  down  to  a  bitter  struggle  be- 
tween Mrs.  Vanderbeck  and  Miss  Alexa  Stir- 
ling, the  Southern  title  holder  from  Atlanta, 
Ga.  Mrs.  Vanderbeck  won  only  after  the  de- 
ciding match  had  been  carried  to  the  fourth  ex- 
tra hole.  The  most  promising  of  the  younger 
players  of  the  year  were  Philip  V.  G.  Carter  of 
the  Nassau  Club,  F.  K.  Robeson,  a  Pawling 
schoolboy,  Jesse  Guilford,  Archie  Mcllwaine, 
Roy  D.  Webb,  Reghiald  Lewis,  Nelson  Whitney, 
and  Oswald  Kirk%. 

The  winners  of  Uie  leading  tournaments  were: 
United  States  Amateur,  Kobert  A.  Gardner; 
United  States  Open,  Jerome  D.  Travers;  United 
States  Women,  Mrs.  Clarence  H.  Vanderbeck; 
Metropolitan  Amateur,  Walter  J.  Travis;  Met- 
ropolitan Open,  Gilbert  Nicholls;  Metropolitan 
Women,  Miss  Lillian  B.  Hyde;  Metropolitan 
Junior,  Philip  V.  G.  Carter;  W^tem  Amateur, 
Charles  £.  Evans,  Jr.;  Western  Open,  Thomas 
L.  McNamara;  Westmi  Women,  Miss  Elaine 
Rosoithal;  Western  Junior,  De  Witt  C.  Balch; 
Southern  Amateur,  Charles  L.  Dexter,  Jr.; 
Southern  Women,  Miss  Alexa  Stirling;  Pan- 
ama-Pacific Amateur,  Harry  K.  B.  Davis;  Pan- 
ama-Pacific Open,  Walter  C.  Hagen. 

In  the  intercollegiate  championships  Yale  de- 
feated Princeton  in  the  final  round  by  6  up  and 
4  to  play.  The  individual  winner  was  F.  R. 
Blossom  of  Yale,  who  vanquished  G.  A.  Pea- 
cock of  Princeton,  in  the  final  by  11  up  and  9 
to  play.  The  Western  intercollegiate  champion- 
ship was  won  by  the  University  of  Illinois. 

GOODALE,  Gbeenlbaf  Austin.  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  died  Feb.  17,  1916.  He  was  bom 
in  Orrington,  Me.,  in  1839,  and  was  educated 
in  the  Eastern  Maine  Conference  Seminary. 
He  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  sixth  Maine  in- 
fantry in  1861,  and  served  throughout  the  war. 
He  was  mustered  out  of  volunteer  service  in 
1866  with  the  rank  of  captain.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  lieutenant  in  the  United 
States  infantry,  and  rose  through  various  grades 
until  he  became  brigadier-general  in  1907.  Ho 
received  several  brevets  for  gallant  service  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  From  1868  to  1898  he  took 
part  in  Indian  campaigns.  In  1898-1901  he 
served  in  the  Philippines. 

GOODBICHy  John  Ellsworth.  An  Ameri- 
can classical  scholar,  died  Feb.  24,  1915.  He 
was  born  in  Hinsdale,  Mass.,  in  1831  and  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1853. 
He  served  as  chaplain  of  the  first  Vermont  cav- 
alry in  1864-65.  For  many  years  he  was  prin- 
cipal of  academies  in  Massachusetts,  Vermont, 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  from  1868  to  1870 
was  superintendent  of  schools  in  Burlington, 
Vt.  Between  1872  and  1907  he  held  chairs  at 
the  University  of  Vermont,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  for  18  years.  He  was  also  li- 
brarian of  the  university  from  1873  to  1886, 
and  was  dean  of  the  department  of  arts  from 
1903   to   1907.    He  contributed  to   several   en- 


cyclopedias,  and   edited   the    Vermont   Revolu- 
tionary RolU  in  1904. 
OORICAB,     Joseph.    See     United     States 

AND  THE  WaB. 

QOBZ     and     ORADISCA.    See     Austbia- 

HUNOABT. 

OOUU),  Elgin  Ralston  Lovell.  An  Amer- 
ican public  officer  and  economist,  died  Aug.  18, 
1915.  He  was  bom  in  Oshawa,  Ont.,  in  1860, 
and  graduated  from  the  University  of  Toronto 
in  1881.  He  afterwards  studied  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins, taking  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1886.  From 
1892-97  he  was  lecturer  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and 
from  1895-96  professor  in  the  University  of 
Chicago.  In  1896  he  became  president  of  the 
City  and  Suburban  Homes  Company  of  New 
York,  and  worked  on  plans  to  improve  the  lives 
and  surroundings  of  wage  earners  and  at  the 
same  time  provide  a  profitable  commercial  in- 
vestment. In  1901-02  he  was  a  lecturer  on 
political  economy  in  Columbia  University.  He 
was  appointed  city  chamberlain  of  New  YoVk 
in  1902,  holding  office  until  1904.  In  1907-08 
he  was  vice  chairman  of  the  New  York  Charter 
Revision  Committee.  He  was  active  in  finan- 
cial, philanthropic,  and  religious  affairs,  and  in 
reform  movements  in  New  York,  and  was  a 
member  of  many  learned  societies.  His  writ- 
ings include:  Housing  of  Working  People;  Pop- 
u&r  Control  of  the  Liquor  Traffio;  The  Gothen- 
burg System  of  Liquor  Traffio;  and  The  Social 
Condition  of  Labor,  He  also  contributed  on 
economic  subjects  to  magazines. 

GOUBMOKT,  R£my  db.    See  French  Liteba- 

TUBE. 

GOVEBNMENT.  See  section  so  entitled 
under  various  countries. 

GOVEBNOBS'  CONFEBENCE.  The  eighth 
annual  meeting  of  this  body,  known  also  as  the 
"House  of  Governors,"  was  held  in  Boston,  Aug- 
ust 24  to  27.  The  topics  considered  were,  penol- 
ogy, greater  efficiency  in  State  administration, 
conservation,  and  the  relation  of  the  State  to 
the  national  defense.  Important  addresses  on 
these  and  other  subjects  were  made.  The  next 
meeting  of  the '  conference  will  be  in  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah. 

GBAIN.    See  Agbicultube. 

GBAND  HAL.    See  Efilepst. 

GBANTy  Robebt.  See  Litebatube,  English 
AND  Amebican,  Fiction, 

GBAPES.    See  Hobticultube. 

GBAPHITE.  The  total  production  of  graph- 
ite in  1914  was  4336  short  tons,  valued  at  $324,- 
118.  Of  this  1725  was  amorphus,  and  5,220,639 
pounds  were  crystalline.  The  greater  P&rt  of 
the  latter  is  produced  in  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Alabama.  The  imports  of  graphite 
during  the  year  were  22,002  short  tons,  valued 
at  $1,398,261.  The  largest  amount  .came  from 
Ceylon.  Japan  and  Mexico  furnished  also  large 
quantities. 

GBAY,  John  Clinton.  An  American  jurist, 
died  June  28,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  New  York 
City  in  1843,  and  studied  at  the  University  of 
Berlin  in  1860-61.  In  the  latter  year  he  en- 
tered the  Harvard  Law  School,  graduating  in 
1864.  He  afterwards  took  a  course  in  law  at 
New  York  University.  After  practicing  for 
several  years  in  Boston  he  removed  to  New 
York,  where  he  became  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent lawyers.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  by  Governor  Hill  in  1888,  and 
in  November  of  that  year  was  elected  to  a  full 


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GBEAT  BBITAIK 


term  of  14  years.  He  wrote  opinions  in  sev- 
eral of  the  most  important  cases  tried  in  New 
York  City  during  his  term  on  the  boich.  He 
was  reelected  in  1902,  but  retired  in  1913. 

QBEAT  BRITAIN.  The  Unitbd  Kingdom 
OF  Qbeat  Britain  and  Ireland.  A  constitu- 
tional monarchy.  Capital,  London.  Great 
Britain  consists  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales.  The  term  ''Great  Britain,*'  however,  is 
often  used  to  mean  "United  Kingdom."  At- 
tached to  the  United  Kingdom,  but  not  properly 
a  part  of  it,  are  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Chan- 
nel Islands. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  including  inland  water,  is 
stated  at  121,331  square  miles;  including  the 
Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands,  121,633 
square  miles,  an  area  less  than  that  of  New 
England,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey  (123,852 
square  miles).  England  and  Wales,  which  are 
often  regarded  as  a  unit,  comprise  58,340  square 
miles,  or  in  land  area  alone  58,029  square  miles; 
Scotland,  30,405  square  miles,  or  in  land  area 
29,796  square  miles.  By  divisions  the  area,  the 
population  according  to  the  censuses  of  April 
1,  1901,  and  April  3,  1911,  and  the  density  per 
square  mile  in  1911,  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

Sq.M.    Pop.  1901    Pop.  1911    Dont. 

England*     50,874  80,818,048  84,045.290      669 

Wales    7,466     1,714,800     2,025.202      271 

Scotland    80,405     4,472,108     4,760,904      156 

Ireland    82,586     4,458,775     4,890,219      186 

U.  Kingdom  ..121,881  41,458,721  45,221.615      878 

Isle  of  Man 227  54,752  52,016      229 

Channel  Isles  ...  75  95,618  96,899  1,292 

Total     121,688  41,609,09145,870,580      874 

*  Including  Monmouthshire. 

The  population  figures  represent  persons  pres- 
ent; no  census  of  the  resident,  or  legal,  popula- 
tion is  taken  in  the  United  Kingdom,  ana  there- 
fore the  fif;ures  above  do  not  include  British 
soldiers,  sailors,  and  merchant  seamen  abroad. 

The  estimated  population  of  the  United  King- 
dom, June  30,  1013,  was  46,026,483;  June  30, 
1914,  46,407,037  (England  and  Wales,  37,302,- 
983;  Scotland,  4,728,500;  Ireland,  4,375,554). 
The  population  of  Qreat  Britain  and  Ireland 
was,  at  different  periods,  as  follows: 


1841  .. 
1871  .  . 
1881  .. 
1891  .  . 
1901  .. 
1911  .  . 

E.iiW.         Scot.             Ire.             U.K, 
. .    15.914,148  2,620,184  8,196.597  26,780,929 
.  .  22.712,266  8.860,018  5,412,877  81.484,661 
.  .  25.974,439  8,785.578  5.174.886  84.884,848 
.  .  29,002.525  4,025,647  4,704.750  87.782,922 
.  .  82.527.848  4.472,108  4,458.775  41,458,721 
.  .  86,070.492  4.760,904  4.890,219  45,221,615 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of 
population  in  the  several  divisions  and,  in  the 
last  two  columns,  the  percentage  of  increase  in 
the  decennial   periods   1891-1901    and   1901-11: 


1841  1891  1901 

England     ..   56.1  72.8  74.8 

Wales    8.4  4.0  4.1 

Scotland    ...      9.8  10.7  10.8 

Ireland    80.7  12.o  10.8 

*  Decrease. 


1911  '91'01  '01*11 

75.8  12.1  10.5 

4.5  18.8  18.1 

10.5  11.1  6.4 

9.7  *5.2  *1.7 


In  England  and  Wales,  the  increase  per  cent 
by  births  in  the  period  1901-11  was  28.56;  de- 
crease by  deaths,  16.13;  natural  increase,  12.43. 


The  actual  increase  per  cent  was  10.89,  the  dif- 
ference between  actual  increase  and  natural  in- 
crease being  accounted  for  by  excess  of  emi- 
grants over  immigrants. 

In  1911  the  number  of  males  and  females 
were,  respectively:  England,  16,421,298  and 
17,623,992  (or  1073  females  to  1000  males); 
Wales,  1,024,310  and  1,000,892  (977  females  to 
1000  males) ;  Scotland,  2,308,839  and  2,452,065; 
Ireland,  2,192,048  and  2,198,171. 

In  England  and  Wales,  the  population  of  ur- 
ban districts  in  1901  numbered  25,058,355,  and 
of  rural  districts  7,469,488;  in  1911,  28,162,936 
and  7,907,556.  In  1851  the  percentage  of  popu- 
lation in  urban  districts  in  England  and  Wales 
was  approximately  50.2;  in  1881  the  actual  per- 
centage was  67.9;  in  1891,  72.0;  in  1901,  77.0; 
in  1911,  78.1.  While  the  general  increase  per 
cent  in  England  and  Wales  was  10.89  in  the  pe- 
riod 1901-11,  the  urban  increase  was  11.1  and 
the  rural  10.2;  in  the  period  1891-1901,  the  ur- 
ban increase  was  15.2  per  cent,  and  the  rural 
2.9  per  cent.  England  and  Wales  had  at  the 
1911  census,  97  urban  districts  (including  the 
administrative  county  of  London  as  one  dis- 
trict) with  a  population  exceeding  50,000  each. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  districts  in  1891  num- 
bered 13,779,848;  in  1901,  15,886,874;  in  1911, 
17,251,009;  the  increase  per  cent  in  the  first  pe- 
riod being  15.3,  and  in  the  second  8.3.  London 
(that  is,  the  administrative  county,  embracing 
74,816  acres,  or  117  square  miles)  had,  in  1911, 
4,521,685  inhabitants,  as  compared  with  4,536,- 
267  in  1901,  or  a  decrease  of  0.3  per  cent.  The 
term,  ''Greater  London,"  is  used  to  describe  the 
area  covered  by  the  Metropolitan  and  City  of 
London  police  districts;  this  area  embraces,  be- 
sides the  administrative  county  of  London,  a 
wide  belt  of  suburban  towns  and  districts, 
known  as  the  "outer  ring."  The  outer  ring  had 
in  1901,  1,405,852  inhabitants;  in  1911,  2,729,- 
673.  The  area  of  the  outer  ring  is  368,608 
acres,  or  576  square  miles.  Greater  London  em- 
braced 443,424  acres,  or  693  square  miles,  with 
7,251,358  inhabitants  in  1911,  as  compared  with 
6,581,402  in  1901  and  5,633,806  in  1891 ;  the  in- 
crease from  1891  to  1901  being  16.8  per  cent, 
and  from  1901  to  1911  10.2  per  cent.  In  1911 
the  population  of  the  larger  cities  of  England 
and  Wales,  after  London,  with  percentage  of 
increase  of  1901,  was  as  follows:  Birmingham, 
525,833  (0.5)— -with  districts  annexed  Nov.  9, 
1911,  840,202;  Liverpool,  746,421  (6.0);  Man- 
chester, 714,333  (10.8) ;  Sheffield,  454,632  (11.1) 
— with  districts  annexed  April  1,  1912,  459,916; 
Leeds,  445,550  (3.9);  Bristol,  357,048  (5.3); 
West  Ham  (in  the  outer  ring),  289,030  (8.1) ; 
Bradford,  288,458  (3.1.);  mngston-upon-Hull, 
277,991  (15.7);  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  266,603 
(7.9);  Nottingham,  259,904  (8.4);  Stoke-on- 
Trent,  234,534  (9.2);  Salford,  231,357  (4.7); 
Portsmouth,  231,141  (22.3);  Leicester,  227,222 
(7.4);  Cardiflf  (in  Wales),  182,259  (10.9);  Bol- 
ton, 180,851  (7.5) ;  Croydon  (in  the  outer  ring), 
169,551  (26.6);  Willesden  (in  the  outer  ring), 
154,214  (34.3);  Rhondda  (in  Wales),  152,781 
(34.3);  Sunderland,  151,159    (3.5). 

A  large  part  of  the  population  increase  in 
Scotland  from  1901  to  1911  was  in  the  suburbs 
of  Glasgow.  The  larger  municipal  boroughs, 
with  1911  population  and  increase  per  cent  over 
1901,  are:  GWow,  784,455  (1.1);  Edinburgh, 
320,315  (0.9);  Dundee,  165,006  (1.2)— in  1913, 
Brou^ty  Ferry,  which  had  11,058  inhabitants 


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in  1911,  was  annexed  to  Dundee;  Aberdeen,  163,- 
331  (6.2);  Gk>van,  89,725  (9.2);  Paisley,  84,447 
(6.4);  Leith,  80,489  (3.9);  Greenock,  75,140 
(9.0);  Partick,  66,848  (23.1);  Coatbridge,  43,- 
287    (17.0);  Motherwell,  40,378   (29.6). 

In  Ireland,  the  population  decreased  between 
1901  and  1911  in  all  counties  except  Dublin, 
Down,  Kildare,  and  Antrim,  where  the  increases 
were  6.4,  5.2,  4.6,  and  3.7  per  cent  respectively. 
Dublin  had  in  1911  304,802  inhabitants;  with 
suburbs,  403,030  (increase  7.4  per  cent).  Popu- 
lation of  Belfast  in  1911,  386,947;  Cork,  76,- 
673;  Londonderry,  40,780;  Limerick,  38,518; 
Waterford,  27,464. 

The  rate,  per  thousand  inhabitants,  of  births, 
of  deaths,  and  of  marriages  (that  is,  persons 
married),  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Births    1900 28.7  29.6 

1905 27.8  28.6 

1910 26,1  26.2 

1912 23.8  25.9 

1913 28.9  25.5 

Deaths    1900 18.2  18.5 

1905 15.8  16.2 

1910 13.6  15.3 

1912 18.8  15.8 

1918 18.7  15.5 

Marriages  1900 16.0  14.6 

1905 15.8  18.6 

1910 15.0  18.0 

1912 15.5  18.7 

1918 15.5  14.8 


Number  of  passengers  that  arrived  in  or  left 
the  United  Kmgdom  from  or  for  countries  out 
of  Europe,  distinguishing  British  and  aliens 
(the  last  column  shows  Sie  number  of  British 
passengers  from  and  to  the  United  States) : 


Ir: 

V,K. 

22.7 

28.2 

28.4 

27.1 

28.8 

25.0 

28.0 

24.0 

22.9 

28.9 

19.6 

18.4 

17.1 

15.6 

17.1 

14.0 

16.5 

18.8 

17.1 

14.2 

9.5 

15.1 

10.6 

14.7 

10.1 

14.8 

10.6 

14.8 

10.2 

14.9 

Arnvals  1900.. 
1905 . . 
1910.. 
1912.. 
1918.. 


In  Scotland,  for  the  year  ended  Aug.  31,  1913, 
there  were  3177  primary  schools  in  receipt  of 
grants,  accommodations  for  1,052,659  pupils, 
816,055  enrolled,  and  729,089  in  average  attend- 
ance (3164  schools,  1,042,703  accommodations, 
820,171  enrolled,  733,792  average  attendance  in 
1912).  Attendance  at  continuation  classes  was 
143,942  in  1913  (144,815  in  1912).  Higher 
grade  schools  in  1912  and  1913  respectively,  194 
and  193;  accommodations,  41,166  and  40,922; 
enrollment,  24,544  and  25,372;  average  attend- 
ance, 24,201  and  24,817.  In  the  training  col- 
leges and  centres  there  were  in  1913,  508  male 
and  1876  female  students. 

In  Ireland,  primary  schools  at  the  end  of 
1013  numbered  8299  (8255  at  the  end  of  1912) ; 
school  accommodations,  771,974  (769,697);  pu- 
pils enrolled,  682,011  (668,974);  average  at- 
tendance, 502,622  (499,038).  In  the  training 
colleges  there  were  467  male  and  725  female 
students. 

ASBIOULTUBB.  The  area,  including  rivers  and 
lakes,  but  not  including  foreshore  and  tidal 
waters,  of  the  United  ^ngdom,  with  the  Isle 
of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands,  is  stated  at 
77,716,633  acres.  The  acreage  for  Great  Brit- 
ain is  returned  at  56,799,635  and  Ireland  20,- 
731,244.  The  cultivated  area,  as  reported  for 
the  first  week  of  June,  1913,  was  46,740,904 
acres»  of  which  31,927,301  in  Great  Britain  and 
14,691,147  in  Ireland.  The  area  under  principal 
crops  in  1913,  indudinff  that  in  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Channel  Islands,  and  the  production  in 
1912  and  1913,  were  as  follows: 


BrMUK      A{i«iw  Total    17.  ^. 

.  .  97,687  74,681  175,747  54.819 

..122.712  77,908  205.198  61.878 

..897,848  221,011  618,859  182,192 

..199,181141.515  840,696  71.498 

..227,643  144,975  872,618  77.014 


Departures  1900 168.825  124.722  298,561  102,797 

1905 262.077  188,422  459.662  122,870 

1910 897,848  221.011  618,859  182,192 

1912 467,666  189,169  656.885  117.810 

1918 469,640  232,051  701.691  129,169 

PuBOc  Education.  The  educational  system 
in  the  United  Kingdom  is  partly  under  state 
and  local  control  and  partly  private.  Elemen- 
tary education  is  compulsory  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  14,  and  is  provided  free  by  the  local 
authorities  aided  by  state  grants.  Secondary 
education  is  still  largely  of  a  private  charac- 
ter, but  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  organization  of  a  secondary-school  system. 
The  schools  here  treated  are  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  many  private,  and  often  ex- 
pensive, institutions  known  as  "the  public 
schools." 

In  England  and  Wales,  on  July  31,  1913,  ac- 
commodations in  the  ordinary  public  elemen- 
tary schools  numbered  6,940,196,  with  average 
attendance  of  88.73  per  cent  (6,862,876  and 
88.79  per  cent  in  1912).  At  evening  and  sim- 
ilar schools,  there  were  798,881  pupils  enrolled 
(784,984  in  1912).  In  the  training  colleges  and 
hostels  there  were  1976  male  and  3665  female 
students.  The  so-called  higher  elementary 
schools  numbered  52,  with  accommodations  for 
14,810  pupils. 


Acr«# 

BvMKd9 

BwheU 

Com  crops: 

191Z 

1919 

1918 

Wheat 

Barley  . . . . 
OaU    

Rye 

Beans    .... 
Peas    

. .    1,791,669 

. .    1,982,821 

. .    8,988,488 

68,566 

275,626 

166,121 

57,402,802 

68,207,198 

164,800,638 

66,696,400 

65,682,581 

165,282,285 

7,784.046 
8,924,494 

7.602.476 
8,885,877 

ToUl  ... 

. .    8,211,641 

Other  crops: 

T<m* 

Tofu 

Potatoes    .. 
Turnips     .  . 
Mangold    .. 

Hay 

Hops 

..    1,184,857 

. .    1,770,079 

601,088 

..    9,845.011 

86,676 

5,726,842 

24,061,857 

10,187,766 

14,024,222 

^378,488 

7.604.804 
25,819,517 

9.276,129 

14,507,169 

«266,641 

*OwU. 

Acreages  for  1914  and  (subject  to  revision) 
for  1915  are  reported  as  follows:  wheat,  1,904,- 
930  and  2,334,090;  barley,  1,871,170  and  1,523,- 
980;  oaU,  3,877,960  and  4,148,050;  poUtoes, 
1,197,010  and  1,202,520;  turnips,  1,752,570  and 
1,617,460;  mangold,  515,860  and  500,490.  See 
also  Agriculture. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  live 
stodL  in  the  first  week  of  June  for  four  years. 
Hie  figures  for  horses  include  only  those  used 
for    agriculture,    unbroken    horses,    and    brood 


Horses 
Cattle 
Sheep 
Swine 


1912  1918  1914  1915 

.  .  1,994,607  1,874,264  1,842.560  1.699.640 
,.11,914,635  11,936.600  12.144.660  12.131,370 
..28,967,495  27.629.206  27,886.090  28,181.640 
.  .    3,992,549     8,305,771     3.939,890     3.788,780 


Mining  and  Metals.  The  total  value  of  the 
minerals  raised  in  1912  was  £131,220,853,  and 
in  1913  £160,112,607.  In  the  Utter  year,  the 
spot  value  of  the  minerals  raised  in  England 


Digitized  by 


Google 


G&EAT  BBITAIK 


280 


G&EAT  BRITAIK 


was  £109,443,999,  Wales  £27,982,687,  Scotland 
£22,436,444,  Ireland  £229,209,  and  the  Isle  of 
Man  £20,268.  By  far  the  most  important  min- 
eral is  coal,  and  the  most  important  metal,  iron. 
The  following  table  shows  the  amount  in  tons 
of  coal  produced  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  its 
spot  value  in  pounds  sterling,  and  the  amount 
and  value  of  pig  iron  produced,  distinguishing 
the  pig  iron  produced  from  British  and  from 
foreign  ores: 


for  the  year  1914  are  subject  to  slight  revision. 
Total  imports,  imports  reexported,  and  net  im- 
ports (that  is,  imports  for  home  consumption) 
have  been  valued  as  follows  (exclusive  of  specie 
and  bullion,  of  foreign  merchandise  transshipped 
under  bond,  and  of  diamonds  from  the  Union 
of  South  Africa) : 


Pig  iron 

Coal 

BriHoh 

Foreign 

1900  . 

. .  .tons 

225,181,800 

4,666,942 

4,292,749 

...  £ 

121,652,596 

19.596,910 

18,025.639 

1905  . 

. .  .tons 

236.128.9d6 

4,760,187 

4,847.899 

...  £ 

82,088,658 

14,992,868 

15,268,619 

1910  . 

..  .tons 

264,488,028 

4,975.785 

5.036,868 

...  £ 

108,877,567 

17,008.812 

17,216,059 

1911  . 

. .  .tons 

271.891,899 

5,020.510 

4,505,762 

...  £ 

110,788,682 

16,146,840 

14,490,872 

1912  . 

. .  .tons 

260,416,388 

4,451,686 

4,299.828 

...  £ 

117,921,128 

16,419,298 

15,859,872 

1913  . 

. .  .  tons 
...  £ 

287.430,473 
145,585,669 

Total  imports 

1905    £565,019,917 

1910    678,257,024 

1912    744,640.631 

1913    768,784,789 

1914    697,432,649 


BeSxports 

£  77,779.918 

108,761,045 

111«787,691 

109,575,037 

95,489,586 


Net  imports 
£487.240,004 
574,495,979 
682,902.940 
659,159,702 
601,943.068 


In  1910  imports  of  gold  and  silver  specie  and 
bullion  amounted  to  £71,422,077;  in  1912,  £69,- 
467,185;  in  1913,  £74,028,598;  in  1914,  £62,596,- 
632.  Total  exports,  reexports  of  foreign  and 
colonial  produce,  and  domestic  exports  (that  is, 
exports  of  British  produce)  have  been  valued  as 
follows  (exclusive  of  specie  and  bullion  and  of 
foreign  merchandise  transshipped  under  bond) : 


In  1914  the  coal  output  amoimted  to  253,195,- 
000  tons.  The  value  of  metals,  aside  from  iron, 
produced  from  British  ores  in  1912  was  as  fol- 
lows: white  tin,  £1,116,738;  lead,  £349,561; 
zinc,  £158,622;  fine  copper,  £22,714;  silver,  £14,- 
382;  gold,  £5103. 

FiSHEBiES.  Wet  fish  (exclusive  of  salmon 
and  shell  fish)  landed  on  the  coasts  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1912  amounted  to  24,092,- 
862  cwts.;  in  1913,  24,657,116  cwts.  The  val- 
ues are  stated  at  £12,779,717  and  £14,229,311 
respectively.  The  herring  catch  in  1913  was 
valued  at  £4,572,295;  cod,  £2,300,119;  hake, 
£678,981;  soles,  £474,127.  The  value  of  shell 
fish  landed  in  1912  was  £454,709,  and  in  1913 
£463,642. 

GoHMEBGB.     Returns    of    trade    shown    below 


Total  exports 

1905  £407,596.527 

1910  534.145,817 

1912  598.961.130 

1913  634,820,326 

1914  525,720,811 


Reexports 
£77.779,913 
108,761,045 
111,737,691 
109,575,037 

95,489,586 


Dom.  exp, 
£829,816.614 
430,884,772 
487,228,489 
525,245,289 
480,230.725 


Exports  of  gold  and  silver  specie  and  bullion 
in  1910  amounted  to  £64,724,213;  in  1912,  £64,- 
871,488;  in  1913,  £62,142,038;  in  1914,  £41,488,- 
126. 

Total  imports  of  merchandise,  domestic  ex- 
ports of  merchandise,  and  foreign  and  colonial 
exports  of  merchandise  in  1913  and  1914  are 
shown  by  classes  in  the  following  table,  in  thou- 
sands of  pounds  sterling  (figures  for  1914  sub- 
ject to  revision) : 


Total  Imports 

I.  Food,  drink,  and  tobacco:  1918  1914 

Grain  and  flour 85,495  79.685 

Meat,  including  animals  for  food 56.726  63,101 

Other  food  and  drink 

1.  Non-dntiable    81  265  78,513 

2.  Dutiable    58.683  69,150 

']\)bacco    8,003  7,491 

Total    290,202  297,940 

II.  Baw  materials  and  articles  mainly  unmanu- 
factured : 

Ooal,  coke,  and  manufactured  fuel 87  41 

Iron  ore,  scrap  iron,  and  steel 7,483  5,488 

Other  metaUio  ores    10,197  9,528 

Wood   and  timber    88,789  25,837 

Baw  cotton 70.571  55,346 

Wool,  including  rags,  etc 87,736  34,216 

Other  textile  materials '.  19,751  15,867 

Oil  seeds,  nuts,  oils,  fats,  and  gums.  . . .  41,577  41,376 

Hides  and  undressed  skins 15,067  12,719 

Materials  for  paper  making 5,816  5,958 

MisceUaneous     89,849  81,095 

Total     281,828  236,471 

III.  Articles  wholly  or  mainly  manufactured: 

Iron  and  steel  and  manufactures  thereof.  15,282  10.865 

Cutlery,  hardware,  implements,  and  in- 
struments           7,878  5,197 

Electrical  goods  and  apparatus  * 1,587  1,242 

Machinery    7,283  6,704 

Ships  and  boats  (new)    84  82 

Manufactures  of  wood  and  timber,  includ- 
ing  furniture    8,583  2,337 

Tarns  and  textile  fabrics: 

1.  Cotton     12,250  9,367 

2.  Wool    10,491  7,647 

8.  Silk     15,115  18,391 

4.  Other  materials   9,129  7,358 


54,292 

7,972 

5,386 

37,018 

11,026 

2,042 

127,162 

87,677 

2,158 

14,828 


Foreign 
ColoiM 

and 

Dom.  Exports 

Exports 

1918 

1914 

1918 

1914 

8,562 

8,101 

1.655 

2,677 

1,239 

1.140 

2,180 

2,791 

24.411 

18,988 

.... 

.... 

5,680 

4.478 





6,262 

7,324 

8,376 

8,707 
26,936 

265 

276 

82.588 

15,942 

17,446 

53,660 

42.201 

8 

1 

411 

299 

9 

12 

180 

109 

564 

417 

841 

277 

888 

675 



9,148 

7.356 

4,624 

4,449 

13,574 

18,718 

484 

421 

5.279 

3,655 

4,468 

8,978 

5,670 

5,644 

1,886 

1,478 

8,411 

6.084 

958 

845 

298 

176 

2,998 

2,650 

20,254 

16,179 

69,905  56,711  64,088 


41,719 

6,603 

3.018 

81,885 

6,825 

1,565 

103,275 

81,548 

1.866 

12,984 


821 

1,641 

239 

1.307 

5 

589 

2,288 
1,288 
1,768 
2.377 


58,867 


256 

1,022 

186 

1,058 

820 

1,798 
1,152 
2.126 
2,111 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


OBEAT  BRITAIN                       281  GREAT  BRITAIN 

ForHgnand 

Total  ImpofU  Dom.  Export*               CoUnM  Eaoporti 

1918               1914  1918             1914             1918              1914 

Apparel,  including  boots,  shoes,  and  haU     6,980             4.257  16,424         14,540               842                606 

Cbemicals,    drun,    dyes,    and   colors 12,906           12,087  21,974          19,630            1,641             1,600 

Leather  and  m^.,  ezcl.  boots  and  shoes.    18,481           18,454  5,648           4.685           2,895             1.828 

Earthenware  and  gUss 4,546             2,988  5,218            4,149               196                185 

Paper  and  manufactures  thereof 7,674             6,788  8,679           8,189               276                209 

Railway    Carriages    and   trucks    (not   of 

iron),  motor  ears,  cycles,  earU,  etc..      8,357             7,267  11,866          10,740               942                981 

Miscellaneous 26.524            19.862  84,229          80,408            8,191             2,481 

Total     193,602         160,878  411,868        888.152          29.458           24,092 

IT.  MiscelUneous  and  Unclassified  f 8,108             2,644  11.884           8,482               137                  85 

Grand    total    768,735         697,488  625,245       430,281        109,575           95,490 

*  Other  than  machinery  and  telegraph  and  telephon  e  wire,     t  Including  parcel-post  goods  not  liable  to  duty. 


Some  of  the  principal  articles  of  import  not 
shown  separately  in  the  table  were  valued  as  fol- 
lows in  1913  and  1914,  in  thousands  of  pounds 
sterling:  Wheat,  43,849  and  44,741;  sugar, 
23,067  and  32,988;  butter,  24,084  and  24,013; 
beef,  18,874  and  23,265;  bacon,  17,420  and  18,- 
226;  fruits,  15,886  and  16,000;  maize,  13,770  and 
11,763;  mutton,  11,112  and  11,696;  tea,  13,783 
and  14,337.  The  domestic  exports  of  cotton 
piece  goods  in  1913  was  07,776  thousand  pounds 
sterling,  and  in  1914,  79,183;  cotton  yarn,  15,- 
006  and  11,073;  other  cotton  manufactures,  12,- 
819  and  11,137;  woolen  tissues,  14,467  and  11,- 
598;  worsted  tissues,  6186  and  6205;  linen  piece 
goods,  5969  and  5481. 

The  table  below  shows  the  total  imports  con- 
signed to  and  the  total  exports  consigned  from 
the  principal  countries,  in  thousands  of  pounds 
sterling: 

Imports  Exports 

1912  1918  1919  1918 

United  States 184.579  141.652  64.637  59.458 

Germany     70,048  80,411  59.572  60.500 

British  India 52.149  48.420  59,775  71,670 

France     45,505  46,853  87,582  40.882 

Argentina     40,808  42,485  21,325  28,487 

Russia     40,589  40,271  21.786  27,694 

Canada     26.881  80,488  27.320  27,807 

Australia     36,112  88,065  38,281  87.829 

Belgium    28.616  28,382  19.556  20,660 

Denmark     22,806  24,029  6.171  6.589 

Netherlands     21.484  23.578  19.864  20.522 

Egypt    25.790  21.395  9,597  9,964 

New  Zealand 20,302  20.338  11,186  11,790 

Spain     14,552  14,394  7,678  8.631 

Sweden    13.236  14,213  8,104  9,285 

Switserland     10,627  11,070  4,758  5.088 

Italy    8,239  8,127  15,011  15,622 

Austria-Hungary    ...      7.019  7,706  6,158  5,780 

Straits    Settlements*.    18.289  19,378  5,156  7.888 

U.  of  S.  Africa  t   .  .  .    11,276  12,301  23.280  24.846 

Japan  t     8,938  4.888  12,471  14,827 

China     4.938  4,672  10.889  15,010 

BrazU     9,860  10,008  13,172  13,021 

Total,    including 

others    744,640  768,735  598,961  684.820 

*  Including  Federated  Malay  States,  t  Imports  do  not 
include   diamonds.     %  Including   Formosa. 

Shipping.  The  total  net  tonnage  (exclusive 
of  the  coasting  trade)  entered  at  the  ports,  with 
cargo  and  in  ballast,  was  76,190,616  in  1912  and 
82,148,569  in  1913;  cleared,  76,266,429  and  82,- 
661,012.  The  British  tonnage  entered  in  1912 
was  44,291,842,  and  in  1913,  46,602,920;  Ger- 
man, 7,761,144  and  9,073,855;  Norwegian,  5,523,- 
796  and  5,883,316;  Swedish,  2,991,136  and  3,400,- 
660;  Dutch,  3,027,243  and  3,169,375;  Danish,  2,- 
987,971  and  3,149,675;  French,  1,888,246  and  2,- 
248,981.  In  1913,  the  British  merchant  marine 
consisted  of  12,602  steamers,  of  18,683,039  tons 
gross,  and  8336  sail,  of  846,504  tons  gross;  total. 


20,938    vessels,    of    19,529,543    tons    gross.    In 

1913,  909  steamers,  of  1,170,107  tons  net,  and 
338  sail,  of  30,382  tons  net,  were  built  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  exclusive  of  warships;  the  war- 
ship tonnage  built  was  193,785  for  the  British 
navy  and  56,024  for  the  navies  of  other  countries. 

CoKMUNicATiONS.  The  length  of  railway 
open  to  traffic  in  the  United  Kingdom  on  Dec.  31, 

1914,  was  23,701  miles,  as  compared  with  23,691 
miles  at  the  end  of  1913,  and  23,205  at  the  end 
of  1912.  The  paid-up  capital,  Dec.  31,  1914,  was 
£1,421,848,000;  total  receipts  during  the  year, 
£139,098,000;  working  expenses,  £88,173,000;  net 
receipts,  £50,926,000  (£52,011,000  in  1913).  The 
length  of  tramway  and  light  railway  at  the  end 
of  1913  was  2675  miles;  paid-up  capital,  £77,- 
198,680;  net  receipts,  £5,588,121. 

A  summary  for  the  year  1914,  with  compara- 
tive figures  for  1913,  was  issued  during  the  year 
by  the  commercial  department  of  the  British 
board  of  trade  and  gave  the  following  statistics 
of  the  railways  of  the  United  Kingdom,  for  the 
calendar  year  1914,  with  comparative  figures 
for  the  previous  year.  It  was  stated  that  on 
account  of  the  war  no  further  statistics  for  the 
year  would  be  published. 

Mileage  of  Lines  Open  for  Traffic.  1914  1918 

Running  Lines:  MUes  MUos 

First  track   28,701  28.691 

Second  track    18.408  18,892 

Third  track    1,648  1,619 

Fourth   track    1,277  1,254 

Over  four  tracks  reduced  to  single 

track    706  700 

Sidings  reduced  to  single  track 14.928  14,749 

Total  of  single  track,  including 

sidings     55,668     65,405 

Authorised  Capital: 

Shares  and  stock  ...$5,046,116,500  tM,885,481,250 
Loans  and  debenture 

stocks    1,989,110,520        1,979,621,740 

Total     $7,085,227,020     $6,866,002,990 


Paid-up-Capital.  (The 
figures  preceded  by 
*  show  the  nominsl 
additions  to  capital 
included  in  the 
figures  abore.) 
Ordinary     $2,  SQ9\ 

*  453, 
Preferential    173, 

*  313. 
Guaranteed     601 , 

*  i4, 

Loans    92. 

Debenture  stock IJli. 


824,260 
520,620 
990,430 
703,920 
£Gri,240 
BB4,1S0 
S10,6I0 

5a«.4ao 


Total 


13,395.291.040 

*  451,134,360 
lJ34,aOS,560 

*  213,752,520 
604,S§a,100 

*  84.384,180 
5i,B20,680 

1.699,505,180 


..$6,518,888,920   $6,488,298,460 
*  968,026,680  *  965,784.060 


Digitized  by 


Google 


OBEAT  BRITAIN 


Revena«  Beeeipts  and 

Ezpenditore: 
Total  reeeipU  (inelnd- 

ing      nuscellaneoiit 

net    receipts) 9676,016,280 

Expenditure    428,620,780 


282 


QBSAT  BBITAIK 


B§v»nu€ 
Property  and  income  tax. 
Land    Talue    duties 


}9677,731,860 
424,875.200 


Net  income 


$247,495,500        9268.856,660 


t  Including  nominal  additions  to  the  amount  of  9142,- 
470,000  which  were  excluded  from  the  total  for  1918. 

t  Including  the  estimated  amount  receirable  by  the 
companies,  under  agreement  with  the  gorernment,  in  re- 
spect of  the  control  of  British  railways  during  the  period 
from  August  6  to  December  81. 


191818 
44,806,000 
455,000 


1918-14 

47,Sr49.000 
715,000 


Tax  rerenue   £154,758,000     £163,029,000 


Postal    serrice £  20,800,000     £ 

Telegraph    seryiee    8,100,000 

Telephone  serrice    -  --  *  '^'^'^ 

Crown  lands    (net) 

Receipts  from  Sues  Oanal 
shares  and  sundry  loans 

Fee   and   patent   stamps . . 

Receipts  by  ciril  depart- 
ments,  etc 


5,755,000 
580,000 

1,418,900 
1,066,000 

1,859.099 


21,190,000 

8,080.000 

6,580.000 

530,000 

1,579,972 
1,078.000 

1,225,925 


According  to  the  railway  returns  for  1913, 
there  were  on  December  Slst  of  that  year  12,118 
tender  engines,  8697  tank  engines,  and  12,315 
tmders  on  the  railways  of  England  and  Wales; 
2043  tender  engines,  806  tank  engines,  and  2049 
tenders  in  Scotland,  and  631  tender  engines,  340 
tank  engines,  and  607  tenders  in  Ireland. 

The  first  application  in  the  British  Isles  of 
electric  locomotives  for  heavy  goods  traffic  was 
inaugurated  on  the  North-Eastern  Railway  on 
the  electrified  section  from  Shildon  to  Newport. 
This  electrified  line  has  no  steep  grades,  and 
the  traffic  consists  of  heavy  freight  for  the  blast 
furnaces  at  Erimus  sidings,  Newport,  near  Mid- 
dlesborough.  An  overhead  system  is  employed 
with  two  bow  collectors  on  each  locomotive. 
There  were  10  locomotives,  which  are  eight- 
wheeled,  with  a  motor  driving  each  axle,  and 
capable  of  hauling  a  load  of  1000  tons.  The 
power  is  supplied  at  1500  volts  to  the  overhead 
conductors,  which  will  be  about  17%  feet  above 
rail  level.  The  first  section  of  the  London  and 
South- Western  Railway's  newly  electrified  lines 
from  Waterloo  Station,  in  London,  to  Wimble- 
don (through  East  Putney),  was  opened  for 
traffic  on  Oct.  25,  1916,  while  the  second  por- 
tion of  the  electrified  system,  which  includes 
Waterloo,  Barnes,  Richmond,  Kingston,  Wimble- 
don, Glapham  Junction,  Waterloo,  was  nearly 
ready  for  operation  at  that  time.  Up  to  Aug. 
31,  1915,  92,668  employees  of  the  railways  of 
the  United  Kingdom  had  enlisted  in  the  British 
army,  this  being  not  less  than  14.9  per  cent  of 
the  total  621,588  men  who  were  employed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war. 

On  March  31,  1913,  there  were  75,042  miles  of 
state  telegraph  and  telephone  line,  with  2,661,- 
378  miles  of  wire.  Post  offices,  March  31,  1914, 
24,447. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  pound 
sterling,  whose  par  value  is  $4.86666.  Ordinary 
revmue  (actual  receipts  into  the  exchequer)  and 
ordinary  expenditure  (actual  issues  out  of  the 
exchequer  chargeable  against  revenue)  have  been 
as  follows,  in  years  ended  March  3l8t:  in  1900, 
£129,804,666  and  £143,687,068;  in  1906,  £153,- 
182,782  and  £161,768,875;  in  1910,  £131,696,456 
and  £157,944,611;  in  1912,  £186,090,286  and 
£178,646,100;  in  1913,  £188,801,999  and  £188,- 
621,930;  in  1914,  £198,242,897  and  £197,492,969. 
The  table  below  shows  receipts  into  the  ex- 
chequer, under  the  principal  heads  thereof,  in  the 
fiscal  years  1913  and  1914: 


RBvenu$  1918-18  1918-14 

Gustomt     £  33,485,000     £  85,540,000 

Excise      88.000,000  89,590,000 

Estate,    etc.,    duties 25,248,000  27,859,000 

Stamps*    10,059,000  9,966,000 

Land    tax    700,000  700,000 

Honse    duty    2,000,000  2,000,000 


Total    revenue    £188.801,999     £198,242,897 

*  Exclusive  of  fee  and  patent  stamps. 

Receipts  into  the  exchequer  in  1914-15  and  the 
estimates  for  1915-16  are  as  follows: 


Revenue  1914-15 

Customs     £  88,662,000 

Excise     42,818,000 


Estate,   etc.,   duties.  . 


28,882,000 


Stamps  *     7,577,000 


Land   tax 

House    duty    

Property  and  income  tax. 
Land    value    duties 


630,000 

1,980,000 

69,899,000 

412,000 


191516 

£  88.950.000 

56,250,000 

28.000,000 

6,500.000 

660,000 

1,990,000 

108,000,000 

850.000 


Tax  revenue   £189,805,000     £285,700,000 


Postal    senrice    £  20,400,000     £ 

Telegraph    service    8,000,000 

Telephone   service    6,260,000 

Crown   lands    (net) 545,000 

Receipts  from  Sues  Canal 

shares  and  sundry  loans  1,277,000 

HiscellaneouB    5,917,000 


20,600,000 

8,100,000 

6,700,000 

530,000 

2,002,000 
1,700,000 


Total   non-tax    revenue. £  87,889,000 
Total  revenue 226.694,000 

*  Exclusive  of  fee  and  patent  stamps. 


£  84,682,000 
270,882,000 


Issues  out  of  the  exchequer  in  the  years  1913- 
14  and  1914-15  are  reported  as  follows: 


Expenditure 

National  debt  services. .  .£ 

Road    improvement    fund. 

Payments  to  local  taxa- 
tion accounts,   etc 

Other  consolidated  fund 
services   

Army    

Navy    

Civil   services  *    

Revenue  departments  .... 

Postal  service 


191415 
£  28,500,000 
1,545,000 

9,885,000 

1,706,000 
28,885.000 
51,550.000 
58,885.000 

4,741,000 
26,227,000 

Total   expenditure    £197,492,969     £206,924,000 

Expenditure    against    cap- 


191814 

24,500,000 

1,894,951 

9,784,128 

1,698,890 
28.346,000 
48,888,000 
58,901,000 

4,483,000 
24,607,000 


ital 


4,220.749 


5,265,000 


*  Including  expenditure  on  education,  science,  and 
art  (£19,450,000  in  1918-14)  and  old-age  pensions, 
etc.   (£19,666,000  in  1913-14). 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1914-15  the  issues  out 
of  the  exchequer,  £206,924,000,  aggregated  less 
than  the  revenue,  £226,694,000;  but  between  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  in  August,  1914,  and  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year.  Mar.  31,  1915,  votes  of 
credit  were  taken  amounting  to  £362,000,000; 
The  war  budget  submitted  by  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  on  Sept.  21,  1916,  shows  esti- 
mated revenue  for  the  fiscal  year  1916  amount- 
ing to  £272,000,000,  a  sum  a  little  larger  than 
the  total  given  in  the  table  above.  The  expend- 
iture was  estimated  at  £1,690,000,000,  the  esti- 
mated deficit  being  £1,318,000,000.  See  para- 
graph The  Budget  under  section  History. 

On  Nov.  16,  1915,  the  prime  minister  moved  a 
vote  of  credit  for  £400,000,000,  this  amount  rais- 


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ing  the  total  of  the  five  votes  taken  up  to  that 
time  during  the  fiscal  year  (that  is,  since  April 
Ist)  to  £1,300,000,000.  Add  to  this  sum  the 
total  of  the  votes  of  credit  between  August,  1914, 
and  March  31,  1015,  and  the  total  votes  of  credit 
during  the  war  up  to  Nov.  16,  1015,  are  seen  to 
be  £1,662,000,000.  And  the  fiscal  vote  of  credit 
was  expected  to  carry  the  war  only  to  the  middle 
of  February,  1016. 

The  nominal  amount  of  the  funded  debt  on 
March  31,  1014,  was  £586,717,872;  estimated 
capital  liability  in  respect  of  terminable  ameni- 
ties, £29,552,210;  unfunded  debt,  £35,000,000  (in- 
cluding treasury  bills  temporarily  paid  off,  but 
renewable  not  later  than  June  30) ;  total  "dead- 
weight" debt,  £651,270,091.  The  net  increase  of 
the  debt  during  1014-15  was  £457,546,085,  so 
that  on  March  31,  1015,  the  "dead-weight''  debt 
was  £1,108,816,076.  And  it  was  expected  that  a 
sum  about  double  this  amount  would  represent 
the  "dead-weight*'  debt  on  March  31,  1016. 

Abmt.    See  Military  Progress,  pa89im. 

Navt.  Additions  to  the  navy  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  in  August,  1914,  cannot  be 
stated.  The  following  statement  issued  by  the 
Ofiice  of  Naval  Intelligence  at  Washington  re- 
lates to  July  1,  1914.  Number  and  displacement 
of  warships  of  1500  or  more  tons,  and  of  tor- 
pedo craft  of  50  or  more  tons,  built  and  build- 
ing: Dreadnoughts  (battleships  having  a  main 
battery  of  all  big  guns,  that  is,  1 1  or  more  inches 
in  calibre)  :  built,  20,  of  423,350  tons;  building, 
16,  of  421,750  tons.  Pre-dreadnoughts  (battle- 
ships of  about  10,000  or  more  tons,  whose  main 
batteries  are  of  more  than  one  calibre) :  built, 
40,  of  589,385  tons;  building,  none.  Coast-de- 
fense vessels  (smaller  battleships  and  monitors), 
none  built  or  building.  Battle  cruisers  (ar- 
mored cruisers  having  guns  of  largest  calibre  in 
main  battery  and  capable  of  taking  a  place  in 
line  of  battle  with  the  battleships) :  built,  9,  of 
187,800  tons;  building,  1,  of  28,500  tons.  Ar- 
mored cruisers:  built,  34,  of  406,800  tons;  build- 
ing, none.  Cruisers  (unarmored  warships  of 
1500  or  more  tons)  :  built,  74,  of  382,815  tons; 
building,  17,  of  67,000  tons.  Torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers: built,  167,  of  125,850  tons;  building, 
21,  of  21,770  tons.  Torpedo  boats:  built,  49,  of 
11,488  tons;  building,  none.  Submarines:  built, 
75,  of  30,362  tons;  building,  22,  of  17,236  tons. 
Total  tonnage:  built  2,157,850;  building,  556,- 
256.  Excluded  from  the  foregoing:  ships  over 
20  years  old  from  date  of  launch  unless  recon- 
structed and  rearmed  within  five  years;  torpedo 
craft  over  15  years  old;  ships  not  actually  be- 
gun or  ordered  although  authorized;  transports, 
colliers,  repair  ships,  torpedo-depot  ships,  and 
other  auxiliaries.  The  active  personnel,  July  1, 
1914,  was  reported  at  150,609  officers  and  men. 
See  also  Naval  Progress. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  the  King,  acting  through  his  ministers. 
The  legislative  power  devolves  upon  the  Parlia- 
ment, which  consists  of  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  peers  entitled  to 
sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  1915  numbered  654, 
including  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal,  and 
three  princes  of  the  blood  royal.  The  second 
Parliament  of  George  V,  which  convened  Jan. 
31,  1911,  had  670  members  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. England  is  represented  by  465  members, 
Wales  30,  Scotland  72,  and  Ireland  103. 

The  King  in  1915  was  George  V,  born  June 
3,  1865;  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  May  6,  1910, 


as  the  second  but  only  surviving  son  of  Edward 
VII.  He  married  July  6,  1893,  Princess  Victoria 
Mary,  only  daughter  of  the  late  Duke  of  Teck. 
Heir-apparent,  Edward  Albert,  Prince  of  Wales, 
bom  Dec.  14,  1895. 

History 

The  Government's  Task.  ITie  endeavors  of 
the  government  to  find  money,  men,  and  muni- 
tions for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  constituted 
the  outstanding  feature  of  British  politics  dur- 
ing the  year  1915.  It  was  comparatively  easy 
to  supply  the  money,  although  the  increasing 
burden  of  the  war  debt  might  well  give  rise  to 
solicitude  for  the  future.  Guns  and  ammunition 
were  less  readily  obtained:  the  construction  of 
new  munition  factories  and  the  organization  of 
the  industry  entailed  painful  delay,  and  the  rules 
of  the  trade-unions  hampered  the  work.  Even 
more  arduous  was  the  task  of  suddenly  creating 
an  enormous  army  without  doing  violence  to  the 
cherished  traditions  of  the  people  by  establish- 
ing compulsory  military  service.  These  three 
great  problems — finance,  the  supply  of  muni- 
tions, and  the  recruitment  of  the*  army — are 
separately  discussed  in  the  paragraphs  that  fol- 
low. 

The  Cost  of  the  War.  Providing  the  huge 
sums  required  to  defray  her  own  and  part  of  her 
allies'  expenses  in  the  war  was  the  least  of 
Great  Britain's  difficulties.  In  his  budget 
speech  of  May  4th,  the  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, Mr.  David  Lloyd  George,  informed  the 
House  of  Commons  that  the  daily  cost  of  the 
war  to  Great  Britain,  not  including  the  sums 
advanced  to  colonies  and  allies,  then  stood  at 
about  £2,100,000  a  day.  The  total  expenditure 
for  the  year  1915-16,  if  the  war  continued, 
would  amount  to  about  £1,322,654,000 — more 
than  double  the  expenditure  for  1914-15. 
About  one-third  of  this  sum  would  be  raised  by 
taxation;  the  deficit  would  be  no  less  than 
£862,322,000,  and  would  have  to  be  raised  by 
internal  loans.  The  estimate  of  the  war's  cost 
made  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  May  was  soon  ex- 
ceeded in  fact.  Hardly  a  month  after  Lloyd 
George  had  stated  the  daily  expenditure  to  be 
£2,000,000,  Mr.  Asquith  announced  that  the 
daily  cost  had  risen  to  an  average  of  £2,660,000, 
and  that  during  the  next  three  months  at  least 
£3,000,000  a  day  would  be  expended.  At  the 
request  of  the  government,  Parliament  author- 
ize an  issue  of  securities  up  to  a  maximum 
total  of  £1,000,000,000,  at  4%  per  cent  interest. 
In  order  to  induce  the  middle  and  lower  mid- 
dle classes  to  invest,  five  shilling  shares  of  the 
new  loan  were  offered  on  sale  at  post  offices. 
The  effect  of  the  war  expenditure  upon  Great 
Britain's  economic  life  was  explained  by  Mr. 
Asquith  in  a  speech  in  the  Guildhall  June  27th. 
Before  the  war,  the  annual  income  of  the  na- 
tion had  attained  a  figure  somewhere  between 
£2,250,000,000  and  £2,400,000,000;  the  annual 
expenditure  of  the  nation  was  estimated  at 
about  £2,000,000,000.  Thus  there  was  a  surplus 
of  from  £250,000,000  to  £400,000,000  which 
could  be  saved  or  invested,  and  which  would 
ordinarily  be  available  for  the  purchase  of  gov- 
ernment loans.  But  the  amount  needed  for  the 
war  was  now  £1,000,000,000  a  year.  The  bal- 
ance of  trade,  moreover,  had  turned  against 
Great  Britain.  Comparing  board  of  trade  sta- 
tistics for  the  first  five  months  of  the  year  1915 


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with  those  for  the  same  period  a  year  ago,  it 
appeared  that  imports  had  increased  by  £35,- 
600,000  while  exports  and  reexports  had  fallen 
off  by  £73,760,000.  These  figures  signified,  the 
speaker  went  on  to  say,  that  in  five  months 
nearly  110  millions  sterling  had  been  added  to 
Great  Britain's  foreign  obligations,  "and  if  that 
rate  continued  until  we  reached  the  end  of  a 
completed  year,  the  figure  of  our  indebtedness 
would  rise  to  over  260  millions."  In  order  to 
correct  this  balance  of  trade,  imports  of  lux- 
uries must  be  rigorously  curtailed;  tea,  tobacco, 
wine,  sugar,  and  petrol  must  be  used  sparingly, 
if  at  all:  and  the  nation  must  learn  thrift  and 
save  money  to  invest  in  the  war  loans.  In  this 
connection  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark  that 
the  need  for  economy  was  hardly  less  pressing 
in  England  than  in  Germany,  for  although  the 
seas  remained  free  to  British  trade,  the  cost 
of  living  had  increased  at  an  alarming  rate.  In 
London  the  price  of  wheat  had  risen  from  34«. 
lid.  just  before  the  war  to  46«.  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1916. 

Kitchener's  Abmt.  The  result  of  Lord 
Kitchener's  labors  as  minister  of  war,  in  rais- 
ing, drilling,  and  equipping  a  vast  volunteer 
army  to  reinforce  the  puny  original  expedi- 
tionary force  of  three  army  corps,  was  indi- 
cated in  April  when  the  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, Mr.  David  Lloyd  George,  speaking  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  revealed  the  fact  that 
altogether  36  divisions  or  about  760,000  men 
had  been  sent  to  the  front.  "Kitchener's  army" 
was  a  wonderful  achievement,  in  the  face  of  al- 
most insuperable  obstacles,  such  as  the  difliculty 
of  raising  a  large  army  on  a  purely  voluntary 
basis,  and  the  absence  at  the  outset  of  any  or- 
ganization or  equipment  adequate  to  deal  with 
such  numbers  of  men.  Nevertheless  when 
"Kitchener's  army"  was  compared  with  Joffre's 
army,  and  the  length  of  the  battle  line  held  by 
British  troops  was  compared  with  the  length 
held  by  the  French,  it  was  patent  that  Great 
Britain  was  not  doing  her  full  share.  Two  or 
three  million  men  were  needed.  Hints  of  con- 
scription were  heard.  Newspaper  correspondents 
asserted  that  complaints  were  beinj^  raised  in 
France  at  Englana's  failure  to  furnish  a  larger 
contingent.  (M  May  18th  Lord  Kitchener  is- 
sued a  call  for  300,000  new  recruits.  In  June 
Premier  Asquith  announced  that  the  total  num- 
ber of  men  for  army  and  navy  sanctioned  by 
Parliament — 3,200,000 — ^would  not  be  exceeded 
without  the  authority  of  Parliament.  Mean- 
while enlistment  continued  regularly,  but  with- 
out the  alacrity  and  spontaneous  enthusiasm 
which  might  have  been  desired.  It  was  neces- 
sary for  eloquent  speakers  to  tour  the  country, 
addressing  mass  meetings,  to  urge  young  men 
to  enlist.  Still  recruiting  lagged.  On  August 
16th  a  National  Register  or  census  was  taJcen 
of  all  persons,  of  both  sexes,  between  the  ages 
of  16  and  66,  so  that  the  government  might 
have  exact  information  of  the  numbers  available 
both  for  service  in  the  army  and  for  labor  in 
munitions  factories.  On  the  following  day, 
August  16th,  the  journals  owned  by  Lord  North- 
cliffe  opened  a  campaign  in  favor  of  compulsory 
"National  Service."  The  London  Times  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  in  favor  of  National  Service, 
signed  by  a  number  of  prominent  men,  including 
Sir  F.  G.  Banbury,  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  the 
Bishop  of  Birmingham,  Lord  Denman,  Sir  Ed- 
ward   Elgar,    Sir    Rider    Haggard,    Sir    Starr 


Jameson  (author  of  the  "Jameson  Raid"),  Lord 
Northcliffe,  Sir  Arthur  Pinero,  and  Sir  William 
Ramsay.  The  Daily  MaU  published  the  same 
manifesto,  accompanied  by  a  furious  editorial 
attack  upon  voluntary  service,  and  a  suggestion 
that  local  committees  organize  mass  meetings  to 
demand  compulsion.  From  the  middle  of  Aug- 
ust to  the  end  of  the  year,  the  campaign  for 
National  Service  increased  in  intensity,  and  the 
hot  debate  between  advocates  of  compulsion  and 
defenders  of  free  enlistment  loomed  larger  and 
larger  upon  the  political  horizon. 

The  Shortage  of  Munitions.  More  serious 
than  either  the  question  of  finance  or  the  diffi- 
culty of  recruiting  was  the  shortage  of  muni- 
tions. According  to  a  statement  made  by  Mr. 
David  Lloyd  George  in  the  House  of  Conunons, 
Great  Britain  had  made  wonderful  progress  in 
manufacturing  artillery  ammunition:  if  20  be 
taken  as  representing  the  output  in  September 
of  1014,  in  October  8ie  output  was  90;  in  No- 
vember, 90;  in  December,  166;  in  January,  186; 
in  February,  266;  in  March,  388.  Still  the  sup- 
ply was  insufficient,  and  the  shortage  of  muni- 
tions was  undeniable.  On  March  16th  Lord 
Kitchener  gravely  warned  the  House  of  Lords 
that  "the  work  of  suppljring  and  eauipping  new 
armies  depends  largely  on  our  ability  to  obtain 
the  war  material  required."  Armament  firms, 
to  be  sure,  and  most  of  the  employees  had  re- 
sponded nobly  to  the  demands  laid  upon  them, 
but  still  the  minister  of  war  was  obliged  to  ad- 
mit that  "the  output  is  not  only  not  equal  to 
our  necessities,  but  does  not  fulfill  our  expecta- 
tions." Orders  had  not  been  filled  on  time. 
The  lack  of  labor  was  hampering  the  munitions 
factories.  Idleness,  slack  work,  drunkenness, 
and  trade-union  restrictions  were  responsible  for 
the  dire  plight  in  which  the  nation  found  itself, 
in  so  far  as  they  hindered  work  on  munitions 
orders.  Perhaps  the  laboring  classes  were  mis- 
led by  the  fatuous  confidence  in  Great  Britain's 
ability  to  win  the  war  without  half  trying. 
Lord  Kitchener  suggested.  His  only  comment 
on  such  confidence  was  this:  "I  can  only  say 
that  the  supply  of  war  material  at  the  present 
moment  and  for  the  next  two  or  three  months 
is  causing  us  very  serious  anxiety,  and  I  wish 
all  those  engaged  in  the  manufacture  and  sup- 
ply of  these  stores  to  realize  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  not  only  that  the  arrears  in  the 
deliveries  of  our  munitions  of  war  should  be 
wiped  off,  but  that  the  output  of  every  round  of 
ammunition  is  of  the  utmost  importance  and 
has  a  large  influence  on  our  operations  in  the 
field."  A  new  Defense  of  the  Realm  Bill,  which 
was  being  submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the 
House,  would  fielp.  Lord  Kitchener  hoped,  to  ex- 
pedite the  manufacture  of  munitions.  As  for 
the  complaint  of  the  laborers  that  they  were  un- 
justly treated.  Lord  Kitchener  observed,  "Labor 
may  very  rightly  ask  that  their  patriotic  work 
should  not  be  used  to  inflate  the  profits  of  the 
directors  and  shareholders  of  the  various  great 
industrial  and  armament  firms,  and  we  are 
therefore  arranging  a  system  under  which  the 
important  armament  firms  will  come  under  gov- 
ernment control,  and  we  hope  that  workmen 
who  work  regularly  by  keeping  good  time  shall 
reap  some  of  the  benefits  which  the  war  auto- 
matically confers  on  these  great  companies." 
The  new  Defense  of  the  Realm  Act,  submitted  to 
Parliament  in  March,  to  which  the  war  min- 
ister  referred,   gave  the  government   power   to 


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r . 


JAMES  KEIR  HARDIE 

Labor  Leader  in  House  of  Commont 

Died  September  a6,  1915 


Admiral  SIR  HENRY  R.  BRADWARDINE  JACKSON 
First  Sea  Lord  of  th«  Admiralty 


WINSTON  SPENCER  CHURCHILL  EARL  OF  DERBV 

Pirtt  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  1911-1915  Author  of  Recruiting  Bin 

FOUR  FIGURES  PROMINENT  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  1915 


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take  and  exercise  control  over  manufactories 
capable  of  being  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
munitions,  as  well  as  over  factories  already  en- 
gaged in  that  work.  In  the  hope  of  securing 
more  loyal  cooperation  from  the  laborers,  Mr. 
Lloyd  (xeorge  and  Mr.  Runeiman  (president  of 
the  board  of  trade)  conferred  with  representa- 
tives of  the  trade  unions,  March  17th  and  March 
19th.  The  agreement  was  reached  that  (1) 
during  the  war  there  was  to  be  no  stoppage  of 
work  on  the  munitions  and  equipment  ordered 
by  the  government;  (2)  disputes  were  to  be  set- 
tled by  conferences  between  the  men  and  their 
employers,  or  in  case  of  deadlock  referred  either 
to  the  Ck>mmittee  on  Production,  to  a  single  ar- 
bitrator appointed  by  the  board  of  trade,  or  to 
a  Court  of  Arbitration  representing  equally 
capital  and  labor;  (3)  an  advisory  committee 
representing  the  munitions  workers  was  to  be 
appointed  by  the  government;  (4)  trade-union 
regulations,  especially  the  restrictions  upon  the 
employment  of  semi-skilled  and  female  labor  in 
union  shops,  were  to  be  relaxed  during  the  war, 
on  the  assurance  that  no*  diminution  of  pay 
would  result  from  the  introduction  of  cheaper 
labor.  During  March  also  a  strong  movement 
was  set  on  foot  to  restrict  or  prohibit  the  use 
of  alcohol,  so  that  the  labor  of  the  munitions 
workers  would  be  more  efficient.  Kipg  George 
himself  set  an  example  to  the  nation  in  this  re- 
spect by  announcing,  the  first  week  in  April, 
that  henceforth  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages 
would  be  prohibited  in  the  royal  household.  In 
May  the  Parliament  authorized  the  government 
to  regulate  the  sale  of  liquor  in  areas  where  the 
munitions  of  war  were  being  made,  and  a  Cen- 
tral Board  of  Control  was  nominated,  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Lord  D'Abemon.  In  spite  of 
the  measures  taken  by  the  government  to  in- 
crease the  output  of  munitions,  the  shortage 
continued  to  cause  complaint  and  criticism  in 
the  press.  The  London  Times'  military  corre- 
spondent asserted  May  12th  that  in  attacks  at 
Fromelles  and  Richebourg,  "the  want  of  an  un- 
limited supply  of  high  explosive  was  a  fatal 
bar  to  our  success."  To  break  through  the  hard 
crust  of  the  German  line  in  France  and  Bel- 
gium, he  asserted,  ''we  need  more  high  explo- 
sives, more  heavy  howitzers,  and  more  men.'^ 

Attitude  of  the  Independent  L^bob  Pabtt. 
The  difficulty  experienced  by  Great  Britain  in 
meeting  the  demand  for  more  men  and  more 
munitions  was  partly  due  to  the  attitude  of  the 
laboring  classes.  The  Socialist  Independent  La- 
bor Part^^,  although  representing  only  a  fraction 
of  organized  labor,  was  influential  in  propagat- 
ing doubt  as  to  the  justice  of  Great  Britain's 
cause,  and  in  raising  the  question  in  the  minds 
of  at  least  a  few  workingmen,  whether  after  all 
democracy  was  to  be  furthered  by  waging  war  in 
alliance  with  the  Tsar.  A  conference  of  the 
Independent  Labor  Party  met  at  Norwich,  April 
6th,  reelected  Mr.  Jowett  as  chairman,  and  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote  resolved:  '^That 
this  conference  expresses  its  strong  disapproval 
of  the  action  of  the  Labor  Party  [the  Labor 
Party,  it  should  be  noted,  represented  the  bulk 
of  the  trade  imions,  whereas  the  Independent 
Labor  Party  represented  the  Socialist  minority] 
in  takiiu^  part  in  a  recruiting  campaign,  and  of 
Independent  Labor  Party  members  of  Parlia- 
ment speaking  from  platforms  on  which  at- 
tempts were  made  to  justify  the  war  and  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  laberal  government  which 


led  up  to  the  war."  While  they  were  at  Nor- 
wich, many  of  the  Independent  Labor  Party 
delegates  attended  the  meeting  of  the  Union  of 
Democratic  Control,  whose  object  was  to  abolish 
secret  and  undemocratic  diplomacy.  Mr.  Ram- 
say McDonald,  who  presided  over  the  meeting, 
declared  that  Russia  was  fighting  for  power  in 
the  Balkans  and  France  for  revenge;  that  Prus- 
sian militarism  could  not  be  crushed  by  war, 
but  must  be  destroyed  from  within.  This  ex- 
tremely diffident  attitude  towards  the  war,  let 
it  be  repeated,  was  not  shared  by  the  majori^ 
of  the  workingmen.  Nevertheless  it  must  be 
admitted  that  a  very  widespread  discontent  was 
manifested,  chiefly  as  a  result  of  the  increase  in 
the  cost  of  living  without  a  simultaneous  com- 
mensurate increase  of  wages.  During  the  pe- 
riod from  January  to  May,  286  labor  disputes, 
strikes,  or  lockouts  were  reported,  affecting 
109,693  men.  Two-thirds  of  the  strikes  were 
caused  by  the  demand  for  higher  wages,  and  at 
least  12  by  the  attempt  of  employers  to  main- 
tain the  ''open  shop"  system.  The  total  time 
lost  amounted  to  762,900  days.  In  the  coal- 
mines, and  in  the  munitions  industry,  the 
workers  complained  that  they  were  being  forced 
to  work  long  hours,  without  an  adeqiuite  in- 
crease of  pay,  while  the  cost  of  living  had  in- 
creased, and  the  employers  were  enjoying  un- 
precedented profits.  Any  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  government  to  coerce  munitions  workers, 
or  to  introduce  compulsory  military  service, 
would  encounter  the  most  stubborn  opposition 
from  organized  labor. 

The  Coalition  Cabinet.  In  May  a  cabinet 
crisis  was  precipitated  by  the  quarrel  (see 
below,  GhurohilVs  Resignatum)  between  Wins- 
ton Spencer  Churchill,  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty, and  Lord  Fisher,  first  sea  lord.  The 
latter  resigned  May  14th;  at  the  same  time  Mr. 
Churchill  offered  to  resign.  In  view  of  the  de- 
mand which  had  of  late  become  insistent,  that 
the  Opposition  be  allowed  some  voice  and  some 
responsibility  in  the  cabinet  during  the  war, 
Mr.  Asquith  decided  to  take  this  opportunity 
for  the  reconstruction  of  the  cabinet  and  the 
formation  of  a  Coalition  government.  Lord 
Haldane,  Lord  Beauchamp,  Mr.  Hobhouse,  Mr. 
Herbert  Samuel,  Mr.  Pease,  Mr.  Montagu,  Lord 
Lucas,  and  Lord  Emmot  were  asked  to  resign 
their  posts,  and  in  their  stead  eight  Unionists 
were  brought  into  the  cabinet.  By  creating  2 
new  places  in  the  cabinet,  bringing  the  total 
up  to  32,  room  was  made  for  a  Labor  mem- 
ber and  another  Liberal;  so  that  the  Coali- 
tion cabinet  included  12  Liberals,  8  Unionists, 
1  Labor  member,  apd  Lord  Kitchener.  The  ap- 
portionment of  portfolios,  as  announced  May 
25th,  was  as  follows:  Prime  minister  and 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Asquith  (Lib- 
eral) ;  minister  without  portfolio.  Lord  Lans- 
downe  (Unionist) ;  lord  chancellor.  Sir  S. 
Buckmaster  (Liberal) ;  lord  president  of  the 
council,  Lord  Crewe  (Liberal) ;  lord  privy 
seal.  Lord  Curzon  (Unionist) ;  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  Mr.  Reginald  McKenna  (lib- 
eral) ;  secretary  of  state  for  home  affairs.  Sir 
John  Simon  (Liberal) ;  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs.  Sir  Edward  Grey  (Liberal) ; 
secretary  of  state  for  colonies,  Mr.  Andrew 
Bonar  Law  (Unionist);  secretary  of  state  for 
India,  Mr.  J.  Austen  Chamberlain  (Unionist); 
secretary  of  state  for  war.  Lord  Kitchener; 
minister  of  munitions    (a  newly  created  port- 


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folio),  Mr.  David  Lloyd  George  (Liberal);  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty,  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Balfour 
(Unionist)  ;  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
Mr.  Walter  Rundman  (Liberal) ;  president  of 
the  Local  Government  Board,  Mr.  Walter  Hume 
Long  (Unionist) ;  chancellor  of  the  Ehichy  of 
Lancaster,  Mr.  Winston  Spencer  Churchill  (Lib- 
eral) ;  resigned  November,  1915,  succeeded  by 
Mr.  Herbert  Samuel  (Liberal) ;  chief  secretary 
for  Scotland,  Mr.  McKinnon  Wood  (Liberal); 
president  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fish- 
eries (not  previously  a  cabinet  office).  Lord  Sel- 
borne  (Unionist) ;  first  commissioner  of  works, 
Mr.  Lewis  Harcourt  (Liberal) ;  president  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson 
(Labor) ;  attomey-eeneral.  Sir  Edward  Carson 
(Unionist),  resigned  October,  1915,  succeeded  by 
Sir  Frederick  Edwin  Smith  (Unionist) ;  chief- 
secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Mr. 
Augustine  Birrell  (Liberal).  Outside  of  the 
cabinet,  important  ministerial  positions  were  as- 
signed to  Mr.  H.  Samuel  (postmaster-general), 
Mr.  F.  E.  Smith,  (solicitor-general),  and  Mr. 
Montagu  (financial  secretary  to  the  treasury). 
In  respect  of  the  new  cabinet,  it  should  be  noted 
that  Unionists  were  placed  in  charge  of  India, 
the  colonies,  the  navy,  and  agriculture;  that 
the  Labor  member,  Mr.  Henderson,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  not  assigned  to  a  post  where  his  par- 
tisan convictions  were  likely  to  find  expression; 
that  Mr.  Winston  Churchill  was  removed  from 
the  admiralty  and  given  a  post  without  special 
responsibility;  that  the  Irish  Nationalist  leader, 
Mr.  Redmond,  although  offered  a  place  in  the 
Coalition  cabinet,  refused  to  accept  a  govern- 
ment office  while  Home  Rule  was  still  denied 
to  Ireland,  and  an  Ulster  Unionist  (Sir  Edward 
Carson)  sat  in  the  cabinet;  and,  finally,  that 
after  seven  historic  years  as  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  Mr.  David  Lloyd  C^rce,  the  elo- 
quent Welsh  land-reformer,  resigned  the  minis- 
try of  finance  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  McKenna, 
and  undertook  a  new  and  arduous  responsibility 
as  minister  of  munitions.  Of  interest  to  stu- 
dents of  constitutional  history  was  the  bill  in- 
troduced immediately  after  the  formation  of  the 
Coalition  government,  to  render  the  re<Slection 
of  newly  appointed  cabinet  officers  unnecessary 
during  war  time.  The  reason  which  led  to  this 
important  departure  from  a  venerable  precedent 
was  the  obvious  inexpediency  of  requiring  a 
newly  appointed  minister  to  undertake  an  elec- 
toral campaign,  distracting  his  attention  from 
his  ministerial  functions,  just  at  the  time  when 
his  undivided  energies  were  demanded  by  the 
nation. 

LLOTD  GEOitOB  AND  MUNITIONS.  The  bill  to 
establish  and  define  the  powers  of  the  minister 
of  munitions  was  introduced  in  the  House  of 
Commons  the  first  week  in  June,  by  the  home 
secretary,  Sir  John  Simon.  The  extraordinary 
character  of  the  powers  which  the  bill  con- 
ferred upon  the  new  minister  evoked  violent 
criticism  in  the  House  of  Commons,  June  7th. 
Mr.  Pringle  (Liberal)  expressed  his  abhorrence 
of  the  provisions  Miiich,  he  claimed,  would  give 
the  minister  of  munitions  power  to  "socialize" 
labor.  A  Labor  member,  Mr.  Philip  Snowden, 
vigorously  opposed  compulsion  and  "forced  la- 
bor." An  Irish  Nationalist  believed  that  the 
bill  would  force  "slavery"  upon  the  working 
classes,  and  demanded  to  know  of  wliat  avail  it 
would  be  to  destroy  German  militarism,  if  lib- 
erty were  deliberately  abolished  in  the  United 


Kingdom;  Mr.  Hobhouse  warned  the  govern- 
ment against  introducing  compulsory  labor. 
Mr.  Crooks  (Labor)  expressed  the  fear  that 
"conscript  labor"  was  contemplated.  Sir  John 
Simon  quelled  the  storm  of  criticism  by  dis- 
claiming any  intention  on  the  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  impose  any  compulsion  upon  labor. 
In  course  of  the  debate  Sir  R.  Cooper  made  the 
astonishing  statement  that  he  had  offered,  as 
long  ago  as  April  21st,  to  supply  5,000,000 
shells,  and  desired  to  know  why  his  offer  was 
not  accepted.  Despite  hostile  criticism,  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions  Bill  was  passed  by  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  and  received  the  royal 
assent,  June  9th.  With  an  energy  that  prom- 
ised well  for  the  future,  Mr.  David  Lloyd 
George  now  threw  himself  into  the  work  of  his 
new  department.  On  June  23rd  he  came  for- 
ward with  a  Munitions  Bill,  which  embodied 
the  chief  points  of  his  programme:  (1)  Strikes 
and  lockouts  were  to  be  made  illegal  in  the 
munitions  plants,  and  industrial  disputes  were 
to  be  settled  by  compulsory  arbitration;  (2) 
the  short-sighted  policy  which  had  permitted 
skilled  workers  to  be  drafted  into  the  army 
from  the  munition  plants  was  now  to  be  re- 
versed, and  the  skilled  munitions  workers  who 
had  enlisted  were  to  be  brought  home  again; 
(3)  seven  days  were  to  be  allowed  for  the  vol- 
untary enrollment  of  skilled  men  in  a  mobile 
munition  corps,  the  enrollment  being  conducted 
by  the  trade  unions,  and  the  recruits  being  given 
a  certificate  instead  of  a  uniform  to  show  that 
they  were  engaged  in  patriotic  service;  (4)  gov- 
ernment control  over  munitions  workshops  was 
to  be  established,  "slackers"  were  to  be  fined, 
and  a  Munitions  Court  was  to  be  constituted; 

(5)  trade  union  regulations,  in  so  far  as  they 
hampered  the  work,  were  to  be  suspended;  and 

(6)  employers'  profits  were  to  be  limited.  Dur- 
ing the  debate  on  the  Munitions  Bill,  an  impor- 
tant revelation  was  made  by  Mr.  Pease,  former 
minister  of  education.  The  government  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  he  affirmed,  had  no  idea 
of  the  large  proportion  of  high  explosives  or  the 
number  of  machine-gUns  or  the  type  of  hand 
grenade  which  would  be  used  in  trench-warfare. 
Lord  Kitchener,  he  implied,  had  been  more  far- 
seeinff  than  the  other  ministers,  and  had  con- 
tinuallv  urged  the  necessity  of  providing  in  ad- 
vance for  the  materials  which  might  be  required 
in  a  long  and  stubbornly  contested  war.  The 
Munitions  Bill  was  finally  passed  by  Parliament 
the  first  week  in  July,  with  an  amendment  some- 
what weakening  the  government's  power  to  en- 
force the  arbitration  of  industrial  disputes.  By 
July  12th  90,000  men  had  been  enrolled  as  mu- 
nitions workers  under  the  new  plan.  By  July 
28th  16  national  munitions  factories  had  been 
established  in  England,  and  10  more,  it  was  an- 
nounced, would  soon  be  erected.  Early  in  Aug- 
ust a  board  of  25  scientists  and  engineering 
experts  was  created  to  examine  inventions  and 
improved  appliances  for  the  munitions  ministry. 
On  August  I2th  the  minister  announced  that 
in  addition  to  the  "national"  munitions  plants, 
345  "controlled  establishments"  were  engaged  on 
government  work.  In  "controlled  establish- 
ments" the  owner,  for  his  part,  consented  to 
turn  his  excess  profits  over  to  the  national  ex- 
chequer, while  the  workmen  consented  to  sus- 
pend restrictive  trade-union  regulations.  In 
September  it  became  evident  that  the  govern- 
ment was  living  up  to  the  provision  of  the  Mu- 


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nition9  Bill  which  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Munitions  Courts  to  fine  delinquent 
workmen.  A  large  number  of  Cammell,  Laird 
and  Company's  men  were  fined  for  loss  of  time, 
the  aggregate  loss  of  time  in  20  weeks  having 
amounted  to  about  1,500,000  hours,  and  the 
fines  varying  from  5  to  60  shillings.  The  result 
of  a  little  more  than  two  months'  work  on  the 
part  of  the  able  minister  of  munitions  was  in- 
dicated on  September  15th,  when  the  govern- 
ment announced  that  715  munitions  factories, 
employing  800,000  workmen,  had  been  consti- 
tuted as  "controlled  establishments,"  and  in  ad- 
dition the  ministry  of  munitions  had  con- 
structed 20  shell  factories  and  was  construct- 
ing 18  more. 

Labor  DirFicuLXiES.  In  September  the  fail- 
ure of  the  government  to  enlist  the  hearty  sym- 
pathy and  support  of  the  laboring  classes  be- 
gan to  cause  grave  concern.  Strikes  in  the 
Welsh  coal  mines  threatened  to  tie  up  industry 
in  general  and  to  cripple  the  munitions  trade  in 
particular.  (For  further  information  regard- 
ing the  strike  see  Stbikes  and  Lockouts,  Cheat 
Britain.)  The  minister  of  munitions,  more- 
over, found  that  his  most  eloquent  appeals  were 
unavailing  to  secure  a  sufilcient  supply  of  labor 
for  his  munitions  factories.  In  order  to  stir  up 
enthusiastic  patriotism,  delegations  of  workers 
were  sent  to  visit  the  front.  The  first  of  these 
delegations,  upon,  its  return,  issued  an  appeal  to 
labor — "We  have  brought  the  needs  of  your  fel- 
low workingmen  at  the  front  before  you  .  .  . 
and  we  expect  and  believe  you  will  not  fail 
them."  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  person  attended 
the  Trade  Union  Congress,  September  9th,  so 
that  he  might  answer  the  complaints  of  the 
trade  unionists.  In  reply  to  the  charge  that 
the  munitions  workers  were  being  forced  to 
work  overtime  for  the  profit  of  the  factory- 
owners,  Mr.  Lloyd  George  pointed  to  the  na- 
tional arsenals  which  had  been  established,  and 
the  limitation  which  had  been  imposed  on  profits 
in  "controlled  establishments."  He  in  his  turn 
complained  that  by  insisting  upon  the  strict  ob- 
servance of  their  rules,  the  trade  unions  were 
fatally  hampering  a  most  vital  work.  For  ex- 
ample, at  Woolwich  Arsenal  the  engineers  had 
refused  to  allow  semi-skilled  persons  to  do  the 
work  of  qualified  mechanics.  In  South  Wales, 
the  unions  had  refused  to  permit  the  operation 
of  lathes  by  semi-skilled  workers.  In  a  large 
tool-making  firm  the  workers  had  vetoed  the 
employment  of  women  to  operate  lathes.  Such 
restrictions  on  the  employment  of  unskilled  la- 
bor must  be  abandoned  during  the  war;  and 
the  unions  must  help  the  government  to  find 
the  80,000  skilled  workmen  and  the  200,000  un- 
skilled laborers  who  were  urgently  needed  for 
munitions  work.  Owing  to  the  shortage  of  la- 
bor, Mr.  Lloyd  George  said,  at  least  15  per  cent 
of  the  machines  for  turning  out  rifles,  cannon, 
and  shells  were  standing  idle  every  night.  "If 
the  attitude  of  the  Woolwich  engineers  is  to  be 
adhered  to,"  he  declared,  "we  are  making 
straight  for  disaster."  The  same  warning  was 
repeated  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  December, 
when  he  said  that  success  or  failure  in  the  war 
depended  upon  his  securing  permission  from 
organized  labor  to  recruit  200,000  unskilled 
workers  for  the  munitions  plants. 

Irish  Home  Rule  and  Welsh  Disestablish- 
ment. Since  the  Irish  Home  Rule  Bill  had  not 
yet  come  into  operation,  although  passed  for  a 


third  time  by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1014 
(consult  the  Year  Book  for  1014)  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  the  Parliament  Act, 
a  certain  amount  of  solicitude  was  expressed  in 
Ireland  lest  a  Unionist  ministry,  coming  into 
power  during  the  war,  might  strike  the  act  from 
the  statute  book  and  cheat  Ireland  of  the  boon 
for  which  the  Irish  Nationalists  had  so  stub- 
bornly fought.  The  emotions  may  well  be  imag- 
ined with  which  the  Nationalists  contemplated 
the  establishment  of  the  Coalition  ministry,  in 
which  Sir  Edward  Carson,  the  leading  antag- 
onist of  Home  Rule,  occupied  an  honorable  posi- 
tion. By  the  Suspensory  Act  of  September, 
1914  (consult  the  Year  Book  for  1914,  Great 
Britain,  History,  The  War  and  the  Irish 
Qne8tion)i  the  Irish  Home  Rule  Act  had  been 
suspended  until  the  expiration  of  12  months 
from  the  date  of  passing,  i.e.  until  Sept.  18, 
1915,  or  "until  such  later  date  (not  being  later 
than  the  end  of  the  present  war)  as  may  be 
fixed  by  His  Majesty  by  Order  in  Council." 
The  anticipation  of  the  Irish  Nationalists  that 
the  Coalition  cabinet,  instead  of  permitting  the 
act  to  come  into  effect  in  September  would  take 
advantage  of  the  loophole  permitting  a  further 
suspension,  was  realized  when  on  Sept.  14,  1915, 
the  government  published  an  Order  in  Council 
as  follows:  '*If  at  the  expiration  of  12  months 
from  the  date  of  the  passing  of  the  said  acts 
(Irish  Home  Rule  and  Welsh  Disestablishment) 
the  present  war  is  not  ended — (1)  No  steps 
shall  be  taken  to  put  the  Government  of  Ireland 
Act,  1914,  into  operation  until  the  expiration 
of  18  months  from  the  date  of  the  passing  of 
that  act  unless  the  present  war  has  previously 
ended*  nor  if  at  the  expiration  of  those  18 
months  the  present  war  has  not  ended  until 
such  later  date,  not  being  later  than  the  end  of 
the  present  war,  as  may  hereafter  be  fixed  by 
Order  in  Council.  (2)  The  date  of  disestab- 
lishment under  the  Welsh  Church  Act,  1914, 
shall  be  postponed  until  the  end  of  the  present 
war." 

Further  War  Credits.  When  the  House  of 
Commons  reassembled,  September  14th,  after  its 
summer  recess,  it  was  called  upon  to  consider 
two  principal  problems,  finance  and  recruiting. 
The  London  Times  editorially  remarked,  "Upon 
its  (Parliament's)  decisions  during  the  next 
few  weeks  may  depend  the  fortunes  of  the  war 
and  the  future  of  the  civilized  world."  A  war 
credit  of  £250,000,000  was  d^nanded  by  Pre- 
mier Asquith,  September  15th,  to  cover  expenses 
up  to  November  15th.  The  total  credits  to  date 
amounted  to  £1,262,000,000,  since  Aug.  6,  1914. 
The  government,  it  was  announced,  had  repaid 
£50,000,000  to  the  Bank  of  England,  and  had 
lent  £28,000,000  to  the  dominions,  £250,000,000 
to  other  belligerents,  and  £30,000,000  to  other 
foreign  governments.  The  average  daily  cost 
of  the  war  had  shown  a  steady  tendency  to  rise, 
from  £2,700,000  during  the  period  from  April 
1st  to  June  30th,  to  £3,000,000  from  July  1st 
to  July  17th,  and  £3,500,000  from  July  17th  to 
September  Uth.  During  the  next  month  Great 
Britain's  gross  daily  expenditure  would  not  ex- 
ceed, on  the  average,  £5,000,000. 

Regruitino.  In  asking  for  the  new  credit, 
Mr.  Asquith  made  the  important  but  very  vague 
statement  that  from  first  to  last,  including  both 
army  and  navy,  ''not  far  short  of  3,000,000 
men"  had  offerc»d  themselves  for  service.  The 
total    casualties    numbered    380,000,    although 


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GBEAT  BBZTAIN  21 

many  of  these  had  been  slight  wounds  from 
which  recovery  was  speedy.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  the  debate  on  the  war  credits  became 
a  debate  on  conscription.  In  the  House  of  Lords, 
September  15th,  Ix>rd  Kitchener,  while  express- 
ing his  satisfaction  at  the  "large  increase  in  the 
number  of  heavy  guns"  which  had  been  supplied, 
and  reporting  that  11  new  divisions  haa  been 
sent  to  occupy  an  additional  17  miles  of  the 
front  in  France,  acknowledged  that  recruiting 
had  recently  declined,  and  anxious  consideration 
was  being  given  to  the  best  means  of  securing 
recruits. 

L^BOB  Opposition  to  CJonscbiftion.  While 
Parliament  and  the  press  in  September  seemed 
to  incline  towards  compulsory  military  service 
as  a  solution  for  the  recruiting  problem,  organ- 
ized labor  put  itself  on  record  as  absolutely  op- 
posed to  any  such  scheme.  On  September  7th, 
the  Trade  Union  Congress  at  Bristol  resolved: 
"That  we,  the  delates  to  this  Congress,  repre- 
senting nearly  3,000,000  organized  workers,  re- 
cord our  hearty  appreciation  of  the  magnificent 
response  made  to  the  call  for  volunteers  to  fight 
against  the  tyranny  of  militarism.  We  emphat- 
ically protest  against  the  sinister  efforts  of  a 
section  of  the  reactionary  press  in  formulating 
newspaper  policies  for  party  purposes  and  at- 
temptinff  to  foist  on  this  country  conscription, 
which  Mways  proves  a  burden  to  the  workers, 
and  will  divide  the  nation  at  a  time  when  abso- 
lute unanimity  is  essential.  .  .  .  We  believe  that 
all  the  men  necessary  can,  and  will,  be  obtained 
through  a  voluntary  system  properly  organized, 
and  we  heartily  support  and  will  give  every  aid 
to  the  government  in  their  present  efforts  to  se- 
cure the  men  necessary  to  prosecute  the  war  to 
a  successful  issue."  Something  in  the  nature  of 
a  threat  was  conveyed  in  the  words  which  Mr. 
J.  H.  Thomas,  as  the  representative  of  the  rail- 
way men,  uttered  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
September  I6th— "The  first  day  this  principle 
(compulsory  service)  was  introduced  the  gov- 
ernment would  have  to  deal,  not  with  compul- 
sory service,  but  perhaps  imfortunately  with  in- 
dustrial revolution."  The  British  workingmen 
were  engaged  in  a  fight  against  Qerman  mili- 
tarism :  tiiey  did  not  want  militarism  introduced 
into  Great  Britain.  The  same  confident  belief 
that  the  voluntary  system  would  and  must  suf- 
fice was  expressed  by  a  conference,  September 
30th,  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee  of  the 
Trades  Union  Congress,  the  Management  Com- 
mittee of  the  General  Federation  of  Trade  Un- 
ions, the  Executive  of  the  Labor  Party,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Parliamentary  Labor  Party.  It  was 
largely  as  a  result  of  this  obstinate  opposition 
to  conscription  expressed  by  labor  organizations, 
that  Lord  Derby's  recruiting  campaign  was 
launched  in  October  as  the  last  and  final  effort 
of  the  government  to  maintain  the  army  on  a 
voluntary  basis  (see  below,  The  Derby  Recruit- 
ing Campaign). 

The  Budget.  The  third  budget  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war,  and  the  largest  in  the  world's 
history,  was  presented  to  Parliament,  Septem- 
ber 21st,  by  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
Mr.  Reginald  McKenna.  He  estimated  that  the 
army  lUone  would  cost  £715,000,000  during  the 
ooming  year;  the  navy  would  cost  £190,000,000; 
advances  to  dominions  and  allies  would  amount 
to  £423,000,000;  food  supplies,  miscellaneous  ex- 
penditures, and  outstandinff  obligations  would 
require  £92,000,000;  while  for  the  ordinary  ex- 


18  GBEAT  BBITAIN 

penses  of  government  only  £170,000,000  was  de- 
manded. The  total  expenditure  would  be  £1,- 
590,000,000.  To  furnish  this  stupendous  sum, 
Mr.  McKenna  counted  upon  regular  taxes  to  the 
amount  of  £272,110,000;  new  taxes  to  the 
amount  of  £30,924,000;  postal  changes  to  bring 
in  £1,980,000;  and  loans  to  cover  £1,285,000,000. 
By  the  end  of  March,  1916,  Great  Britain's  pub- 
lic debt  would  reach  the  staggering  figure  of 
£2,200,000,000.  The  new  taxes  which  Mr.  Mc- 
Kenna proposed  may  be  briefiy  summarized: 
(1)  a  40  per  cent  increase  of  the  income  tax, 
with  a  lowering  of  the  exemption  from  £160  to 
£130,  so  that  persons  earninff  £2  10«.  a  week 
would  have  to  contribute,  and  so  that  the  rate 
on  an  earned  income  of  £200  a  year  would  be 
£7,  3«.,  4(2.;  (2)  an  increase  in  the  supertax 
on  incomes  over  £8000,  so  that  the  possessor  of 
an  income  of  £100,000  would  be  taxed  £34,000; 
(3)  a  50  per  cent  tax  on  war-profits,  which  was 
expected  to  bring  in  £30,000,000;  (4)  duties  in- 
creased 50  per  cent  on  tea,  tobacco,  cocoa,  coffee, 
and  chicory,  and  1(M)  per  cent  on  motor-spirit 
and  patent  medicine;  (5)  a  new  ad  valorem  duty 
of  33  V^  per  cent  on  imported  motor-cars,  motor- 
cycles, cinema  films,  clocks,  watches,  musical  in- 
struments, plate  glass,  and  hats;  and  (6)  in- 
creases in  the  rates  for  post,  telegraph,  and  tele- 
phone. It  is  worth  noting  that  item  5  marked 
a  step  towards  tariff  reform.  It  is  also  signifi- 
cant that  the  army  was  now  costing  £115,000,<MM) 
more  than  Lloyd  Gteorge  had  estimated  in  the 
spring. 

The  Besionation  of  Sib  Edwabd  Cabson. 
On  October  18th,  Sir  Edward  Carson  announced 
his  intention  of  resigning  his  post  as  attor- 
ney-general in  the  cabinet.  Two  days  later  he 
explained  the  reason  for  his  resignation  as  his 
inability  to  concur  in  the  Balkan  policy  re- 
cently enunciated  by  Sir  Edward  Grey.  Not  un- 
til a  month  later  did  the  public  learn  the  de- 
tails of  the  split.  At  the  last  War  Committee 
meeting  (a  small  committee  of  the  cabinet  had 
been  selected  to  direct  the  war  policy)  before 
his  resignation,  it  seemed,  the  decision  had  been 
taken  that  it  was  too  late  to  send  assistance  to 
Serbia  (consult  War  or  the  Nations,  The 
Drive  Through  Serbia) ;  as  he  had  believed  it 
to  be  both  possible  and  necessary  for  Great 
Britain  then  to  aid  Serbia,  Sir  Edward  had 
tendered  his  resignation.  Later,  he  sarcas- 
tically added,  when  M.  Millerand  (Frendi  war 
secretary)  "came  over  here  with  a  view  to  in- 
ducing  the  government  to  change  this  policy" 
of  non-assistance  and  when  Qeneral  Joffre  him- 
self urged  it,  Mr.  Asquith  had  decided  that  as- 
sistance to  Serbia  would  even  then  be  oppor- 
tune. In  reply  to  Sir  Edward  Carson's  im- 
plied criticism,  Mr.  Asquith  stated,  November 
18th,  that  assistance  had  been  sent  to  Serbia 
without  the  slightest  delay. 

Chubchill'8  Resignation.  Less  than  a 
month  after  Sir  Edward  Carson's  resignation, 
the  cabinet  lost  another  member,  Mr.  Winston 
Spencer  Churchill,  who  had  quarreled  with 
Lord  Fisher  in  May,  it  will  be  recalled,  and 
had  been  transferred  from  the  important  post 
of  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  old  Lib- 
eral cabinet  to  the  minor  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  in  the  Coalition 
cabinet.  Mr.  Churchill's  resignation  was  pre- 
cipitated by  the  formation  of  a  War  Council  or 
inner  cabinet  composed  of  Mr.  Asquith,  Mr. 
Balfour,  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  Mr.  McKenna,  and 


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GfiEAT  BAITAIK  28 

Mr.  Lloyd  Greorffe.  The  premier  had  offered 
him  a  place  in  the  War  Council,  Mr.  Churchill 
admitted,  but  he  had  been  unwilling  to  share 
in  the  general  responBibility  for  the  govern- 
ment's war  policy  without  any  personal  share  in 
its  control.  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Asquith  dated 
November  11th,  Mr.  Churchill  informed  the 
prime  minister  of  his  resignation;  in  a  speech 
before  the  House  of  Commons  on  November  15th 
he  made  a  public  and  spirited  defense  of  his 
conduct  while  in  o£Sce.  He  had  been  criticized 
as  personally  responsible  for  (1)  the  destruc- 
tion of  Rear  AcUniral  Craddock's  fleet  in  the 
battle  off  Coronel,  (2)  the  loss  of  the  cruisers 
Cressfft  Hogyte,  and  Ahaukir,  (3)  the  disastrous 
failure  of  the  expedition  sent  to  relieve  Ant- 
werp, and  (4)  the  Dardanelles  fiasco.  On  all 
four  points,  Mr.  Churchiirs  defense  was  vigor- 
ous and  convincing.  In  regard  to  the  Coronel 
battle,  the  Admiralty  arrangements  had  been 
made  with  the  full  consent  of  naval  experts, 
and  were  ''probably  the  best  that  could  have 
been  made."  The  exposure  of  the  three  cruis- 
ers to  the  peril  of  submarines  was  not  his  mis- 
take, and  he  was  willing;  to  have  the  Admiralty 
memoranda  on  the  subject  published,  although 
"the  papers  might  do  injury  to  officers  who  are 
now  serving  and  to  others."  (3)  The  Antwerp 
expedition  had  been  undertaken  without  con- 
sulting him,  and  had  originated  with  Lord 
Kitchener  and  the  French  government;  he  had 
taken  an  energetic  part  in  perfecting  arrange- 
ments for  it,  but  could  not  be  held  responsible; 
moreover,  the  expedition  could  not  be  called  an 
unmitigated  failure,  for  although  it  had  not 
saved  Antwerp,  it  had  the  effect  of  "causing  the 
great  battle  to  be  fought  on  the  line  of  the 
Yser  instead  of  20  or  30  miles  further  south." 
As  for  the  Dardanelles  campaign,  it  had  been 
undertaken  with  the  approbation  of  naval  ex- 
perts, but  had  not  received  the  hearty  and  loyal 
support,  after  it  had  been  begun,  which  the 
first  sea  lord.  Lord  Fisher,  should  have  given 
it.  Had  the  Dardanelles  expedition  been  prop- 
erly supported,  Mr.  Churchill  believed  it  might 
have  achieved  a  brilliant  victory  and  vitally 
affected  the  issue  of  the  war.  (A  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  expedition,  and  of  Mr.  Church- 
iirs comments  upon  it,  will  be  found  under  the 
Wab  of  the  Nations.)  Mr.  Churchill  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Herbert  L.  Samuel,  November 
25th. 

Parliament  in  Decbmbeb.  In  December  the 
government  introduced  a  bill  to  prolong  the  life 
of  Parliament  12  months  beyond  its  normal 
duration,  until  Jan.  31,  1917.  To  the  principle 
of  this  very  important  departure  from  constitu- 
tional practice,  which  involved  the  question  of 
whether  sovereignty  rested  in  Parliament  or  the 
electors,  little  objection  was  raised;  consider- 
able opposition  was  encountered,  however,  be- 
cause the  proposed  extension  of  iJie  mandate  of 
the  present  Parliament  would  make  it  possible 
for  the  Plural  Voting  Bill,  which  had  already 
been  passed  twice  by  the  House  of  Commons 
and  twice  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords  (see 
the  1914  Year  Book,  p.  324),  to  be  passed  a 
third  time  by  the  House  of  Commons  and  en- 
acted imder  the  provisions  of  the  Parliament 
Act.  In  consequence  of  this  opposition,  Mr. 
Asquith  found  it  necessary  to  propose,  as  a 
compromise,  that  the  prolongation  of  Parlia- 
ment's life  be  made  for  8  instead  of  for  12 
months.    In  December  Parliament  was  informed 

Y.  B.— 10 


9  GREAT  B&ITAIK 

that  as  an  object  lesson  to  the  nation,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  had  decided  to  reduce  their 
own  salaries.  A  rumor,  of  prime  importance 
if  true,  but  probably  without  foundation,  was 
given  great  prominence  in  the  press  towards  the 
close  of  the  year,  that  Sir  Edward  Carson  was 
endeavoring  to  form  a  new  group  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  to  pursue  a  more  vigorous  and  a 
more  clearly  defined  policy  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  war  to  a  successful  conclusion. 

The  Debbt  Recruiting  Campaign.  The  close 
of  the  year  was  mrade  memorable  by  a  great 
campaign  for  recruits,  conducted  under  the  di- 
rection of  Lord  Derby.  The  Derby  campaign, 
begun  in  October  and  continued  into  the  mid- 
dle of  December,  was  the  final  effort  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  find  a  method  of  securing  a  sufli- 
cient  number  of  recruits  for  the  army  without 
forcing  compulsory  military  service  upon  the 
unwilling  workingmen.  With  blue  cards  con- 
taining names  copied  from  the  National  Regis- 
ter, soldiers  and  civilians  made  a  personal  can- 
vass of  the  men  who  had  not  enlisted.  In  order 
that  the  "slackers"  who  refused  to  volimteer 
might  be  made  more  ignominiously  conspicuous, 
armbands  of  khaki  were  to  be  given  ( 1 )  to  men 
who  had  enlisted  and  were  waiting  to  join  the 
colors,  (2)  to  men  who  were  willing  but  phys- 
ically unfit  to  serve  in  the  army,  and  (3)  to 
soldiers  incapacitated  for  further  service.  Each 
class  was  to  be  distinguished  by  a  different  type 
of  armband.  To  stimulate  patriotism.  King 
George  issued  an  appeal  to  the  nation  calling 
for  volunteers.  The  men  who  hesitated  were 
warned  that  if  the  voluntary  system  failed,  com- 

Eulsion  would  be  introduced.  The  premier  pub- 
dy  announced  that  if  the  unmarried  men  held 
back,  he  would  use  compulsory  methods  to  bring 
them  forward,  before  he  would  ask  the  married 
men  to  go  to  the  front.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  Derby  campaign  in  the  middle  of  December, 
before  any  definite  announcement  of  the  results 
was  made,  the  fact  was  already  patent  that,  in 
spite  of  entreaties  and  warnings,  a  very  con- 
siderable number  of  the  single  men  had  not 
come  forward;  consequently  the  British  press 
urgently  and  insistently  called  upon  Mr.  As- 
quith to  make  good  his  "pledge  to  the  married 
men,"  by  introducing  a  conscription  bill.  Later 
in  December  while  the  result  of  the  Derby  cam- 
paign was  still  a  matter  of  speculation.  Parlia- 
ment was  adced  to  authorize  an  increase  of  the 
maximum  strength  of  the  army  from  3,000,000 
to  4,000,000.  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Asquith  on 
this  occasion  announced,  was  maintaining  1,- 
250,000  men  in  the  field;  and  since  about  15 
X>er  cent  of  the  men  were  lost  or  disabled  every 
month,  at  least  2,250,000  men  must  be  kept  in 
reserve  to  maintain  the  field  army  at  its  actual 
strength  during  the  year  1916.  The  army  in- 
crease was  voted  before  Parliament  adjourned 
for  the  Christmas  holidays,  but  not  before  the 
Irish  Nationalists  and  the  Laborites  had  found 
occasion  to  declare  that  they  would  oppose  any 
resort  to  compulsory  military  service.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  Derby  campaign,  official  reports 
stated,  1,150,000  bachelors  and  1,679,263  mar- 
ried men  had  presented  themselves;  428,853  of 
these  volunteers  had  been  rejected  as  physically 
unfit,  and  many  more  would  be  unavailable  for 
military  service.  Lord  Derby  estimated  the  net 
yield  of  his  campaign  at  831,062  men,  including 
215,431  actually  enlisted  and  615,631  available 
men  "attested"  for  future  service.    Over  1,000,- 


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GREAT  BRITAIN 


200 


GRBECS 


000  bachelors  and  a  slightly  larger  number  of 
married  men  had  refused  to  enroll  themselves; 
to  be  sure,  827,878  of  these  "sladcers"  were 
"starred"  men,  who  could  not  be  spared  from 
industry,  but  651,160  unmarried  men  who  had 
not  responded  to  Lord  Derby's  call,  it  was  esti- 
mated, would  be  available  if  they  could  be  in- 
duced to  volunteer.  The  demand  of  the  Na- 
tional Service  advocates  was  that  these  651,160 
irresponsible  bachelors  be  compelled  to  enlist. 
The  question  was  destined  to  be  finally  decided 
when  Parliament  resumed  its  sittings,  b^inning 
Jan.  4,  1916.  Press  reports  at  the  very  close 
of  December  indicated  that  although  the  gov- 
ernment was  determined  to  introduce  compul- 
sory service  for  unmarried  men,  the  ministry 
was  badly  divided  and  certain  members  of  the 
cabinet,  notably  Sir  John  Simon  and  Mr.  Ar- 
thur Henderson,  had  decided  to  offer  their  res- 
ignations. 

Spies  and  Suspects.  Numerous  German 
spies  were  detected  in  treasonable  activities 
during  the  year.  One  of  the  most  notorious 
cases  was  that  of  Anton  Kuepferle,  a  self-con- 
fessed German  soldier,  who  committed  suicide 
in  prison,  May  20th,  rather  than  submit  to  the 
humiliation  of  public  execution.  Two  other 
spies,  F.  R.  Muller  and  Hahn,  were  arrested 
with  Kuepferle,  and  one  of  them,  Muller,  was 
executed  in  the  Tower  June  23rd.  On  July  15th 
a  naval  spy,  Robert  Rosenthal,  was  executed. 
A  number  of  spies,  whose  names  were  not  di- 
vulged, were  also  executed  after  trial  by  court- 
martiaL  One  alleged  spy,  Gustav  Triest,  a 
freshman  at  Princeton  University,  was  acquit- 
ted and  released,  November  19th.  As  a  result 
of  the  activity  of  spies,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  violent  popular  excitement  caused  by  Ger- 
man Zeppelin  raids  and  submarine  exploits,  a 
veritable  panic  of  anti-German  sentiment  swept 
over  the  British  public.  Anti-German  riots 
were  of  frequent  occurrence  until  the  Germans 
resident  in  England  were  interned  in  concen- 
tration camps.  After  the  sinking  of  the  Lfusi- 
tenia  the  names  of  the  German  Emperor,  the 
Crown  Prince,  and  other  German  and  Austrian 
royalities  were  ordered  stricken  from  the  list 
of  Knights  of  the  Garter.  Sir  Edffar  Speyer, 
in  consequence  of  the  accusations  of  disloyalty 
which  were  popularly  brought  against  him,  was 
constrained  to  resign  his  office  of  privy  coun- 
cilor. Sir  Ernest  Gassel,  likewise  of  German 
birth,  felt  it  incumbent  upon  himself  to  issue  a 
public  declaration  of  his  unabated  loyalty  to 
Great  Britain.  Even  Lord  Haldane,  who  had 
rendered  the  country  such  conspicuous  serv- 
ices as  a  statesman,  was  regarded  with  sus- 
picion. See  also  International  Peace  and 
Arbitbation;  Habdie,  James  Keir;  United 
States  and  the  Wab;  and  War  of  the 
Nations. 

GKEECE.  A  constitutional  European  mon- 
archy, situated  between  the  Ionian  and  j^gean 
seas.  It  consists  of  26  nomes,  or  departments, 
besides  Crete  and  the  new  Turkish  cession.  The 
capital  is  Athens. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  previous  to 
the  Balkan  wars  was  given  at  64,657  square 
kilometers  (24,964  square  miles),  with  a  popu- 
lation in  1907  of  2,631,952.  The  area,  popula- 
tion (1907),  and  density  of  the  26  nomes,  and 
also  of  Crete,  together  with  figures  of  the  new 
Turkish  cession  are  given  in  the  following 
Uble: 


Pep. 


8q.  km. 

Acarnanift  and  iBtolia 5,225 

Achaia    3.136 

Arcadia    4,857 

Argolia     2,585 

Arta     1,888 

Attica     8,127 

BcBotia     8,117 

Cepbalonia     763 

Oopfu     681 

Oorinthia     2,870 

Oyclades    2,719 

Elit    2,014 

JlaboBa     8,895 

Eurytania    2,822 

Karditsa    2,647 

Lacedasmon    8,164 

Laconia    1,278 

Larisaa     8,878 

Leucat   457 

Mairnesia   2,034 

Measenia    1,674 

Phocia    2,157 

PhthiotiB    4,622 

TrikkaU     8,055 

Triphylia     1,598 

Zante    410 

Turkish  ceeaion,  including 

Cret«    55,400 


Pop. 

9q, 

km. 

141.405 

27 

150,918 

48 

162,824 

87 

81,948 

32 

41,280 

30 

841,247 

108 

65,816 

21 

71.285 

98 

99,571 

146 

71,229 

80 

180.878 

48 

103,800 

51 

116,903 

80 

47.192 

20 

92,941 

85 

87,106 

28 

61,522 

48 

95,066 

25 

41,186 

90 

102,742 

51 

127,991 

76 

62,246 

29 

112.828 

24 

90,548 

30 

90.528 

67 

42,502 

104 

2,066,647 

87 

4,698,599 

89 

t  46,845  Bquare  miles. 


Besides  Crete,  with  an  area  of  8618  square 
kilometers,  the  area  acquired  from  Turkey  in- 
cludes the  insular  districts  of  Lesbos,  Samos, 
and  Chios,  the  estimated  area  of  which  is  4018 
square  kilometers,  and,  on  the  mainland,  the 
districts  of  Salonica,  Kozani,  Fiorina,  Serres, 
Drama,  Janina,  and  Prevesa,  aggregating  about 
42,760  square  kilometers.  The  principal  towns 
with  their  1907  population,  follow:  Athens, 
167,479;  Pir©us,  71,606;  Patras,  37,724;  Corfu, 
27,397;  Volo,  23,563;  Larissa,  18,041;  Trikkala, 
17,809;  Hermoupolis,  17,773;  Pyrgos,  13,690; 
Zante,  13,680;  Kalamata,  13,123;  Chalcis,  10,- 
958;  Tripolitsa,.  10,789;  Laurion,  10,007.  Ap- 
proximate population  of  the  principal  towns  in 
the  territory  ceded  by  Turkey:  Salonica,  158,- 
000;  Candia,  or  Iraklion  (Crete),  25,000; 
Canea  (Crete),  24,200;  Kavala,  23,400;  Serres, 
18,700;  Janina,  16,800;  Drama,  12,900. 

Industries.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, though  the  methods  are  antiquated;  the 
chief  crops  are  currants,  grapes,  cereals,  to- 
bacco, citrus  fruits,  olives,  and  figs.  The  area 
of  old  Greece  under  cultivation  is  given  at  about 
5,563,000  acres— 1,112,000  under  cereals,  1,200,- 
000  fallow,  2,025,400  under  forests.  There  are 
in  addition  5,000,000  acres  under  pasture.  The 
principal  crop  is  currants,  with  an  annual  aver- 
age yield  of  150,000  tons,  which  far  exceeds  the 
export;  the  surplus  is  utilized  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  denatured  alcohol.  The  law  limiting 
the  output  has  resulted  in  the  uprooting  of 
many  large  plantations.  The  cereals  grown  are 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  corn,  and  maslin.  The  out- 
put of  currants  in  1913  was  160,000  tons; 
olives,  50,000,000  okes  (1  oke  equals  2.85 
pounds);  wheat,  12,593  bushels;  tobacco  (1912), 
86,355  hundredweights,  and  in  the  new  terri- 
tories 274,000  hundredweights;  figs  (1912), 
240,000  hundredweights;  grapes  (1912),  140,- 
£51,000  okes.  Currant  crop  (1910-11),  262,- 
500,000  pounds,  of  which  225,130,412  pounds 
were  exported. 

Live  stock,  as  reported  for  1914:  horses,  149,- 
000;  mules,  79,500;  asses,  132,800;  cattle,  300,- 


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000;  aheep,  3,646,600;  goats,  2,698,000;  swine, 
227^00.    Sericulture  is  carried  on. 

llie  output  of  the  principal  minerals  pro- 
duced is  reported  as  follows  for  1912  and  1913 
respectively:  iron,  431,632  and  423,669  tons; 
manganese  iron,  14,311  and  21,477;  iron  pyrites, 
29,767  and  26,286;  lead,  27,347  and  24,918; 
nickel,  16,111  and  16,416;  zinc,  30,570  and  26,- 
862;  magnesite,  62,996  and  52,502;  chromite, 
6310  and  6930;  emery,  8268  and  6649.  Some 
of  these  outputs  are  considerably  below  the 
amounts  produced  before  the  Balkan  wars. 
Mining  concessions  cover  a  total  of  about  20,- 
000  acres. 

GoMMEBCE.  Import  and  export  values  are 
stated  as  follows,  in  thousands  of  drachmas 
(the  par  value  of  the  drachma  is  19.296  cents) : 

1909         1910         1911         1918         1918 
Imports     ..187,649  160.586  178,510  157,657  177,088 
Exports     ..101,687   144,571  140.908  146,168  119,001 

The  principal  imports  are  grains,  yarn  and 
textile  fabrics,  coal,  timber,  chemicals  and 
drugs,  minerals  and  metal  wares,  sugar,  fish, 
and  coffee.  The  exports  for  1910  of  the  prin- 
cipal products  are  given  below  in  drachmas, 
with  the  share  of  the  United  Kingdom,  France, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States  in  thousands 
of  dradimas;  a  few  only  of  the  articles  are 
given,  and  totals  for  each  country  named: 

Exports  U.  K. 

Onrrmntg    22,497 

Wine,    etc 1,525 

Olive  oil    816 

Tobacco  leaf 90 

Figi    64 

Arg.  Lead 1,292 

Zinc    208 

Hematite     2,828 

Other   

ToUl    38,084 

As  will  be  seen.  Great  Britain  is  the  leading 
country  of  origin  and  destination.  In  the  1911 
trade,  she  contributed  imports  valued  at  40,- 
680,000  drachmas,  and  received  exports  to  the 
amount  of  33,777,000  drachmas;  Russia,  34,- 
449,000  and  2,601,000;  Austria-Hungary,  23,- 
721,000  and  13,520,000;  Bulgaria,  14,146,000 
and  360,000;  Germany,  13,336,000  and  16,364,- 
000;  France,  10,438,000  and  13,733,000.  In  1913 
the  export  of  currants  was  valued  at  40,063,000 
drachmas;  tobacco,  19,616,000;  olive  oil,  15,317,- 
000;  wine,  12,510,000.  The  trade  of  Crete  for 
1911  was  valued  at  21,359,000  drachmas  imports 
and  16,631,000  exports. 

Ck>MMT7NiGATiONS.  Railways  (1912),  1609 
kilometers.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Balkan  War  in  1912,  lines  from  Leontari  to 
Gythion  (70  miles)  and  from  Olympia  to  near 
Leontari  (23  miles)  were  under  construction. 
The  Gravia  to  Volo  line  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth 
was  also  under  way.  In  1915  the  railway  sys- 
tem of  Greece  in  its  extent  of  line  open  to  traf- 
fic, included  about  950  miles  in  the  so-called 
"Old  Kingdom,"  or  territory  occupied  by  Greece 
before  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Balkan  war, 
while  the  new  provinces  contributed  a  further 
1720  miles.  Notwithstanding  the  hostile  con- 
ditions, an  extensive  programme  of  new  lines 
was  drawn  up  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  to 
develop  the  country  which  the  Turks  had  left 
entirely  without  railway  facilities,  especially  in 
Epirus  and  Crete,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Mace- 


donia, where  only  a  few  main  lines  absolutely 
necessary  had  been  built.  The  scheme  of  con- 
struction proposed  was  two  lines  with  a  length 
of  60  miles  for  Crete,  while  five  lines  were  to 
be  built  in  Macedonia,  with  a  total  length  of 
320  miles,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
Oalambaka-Sarowitz  line,  100  miles  in  length. 
This  last  not  only  was  to  run  through  a  coun- 
try entirely  devoid  of  modern  transportation 
facilities,  but  possessed  sreat  strategical  im- 
portance, as  it  would  enable  troops  to  be  con- 
centrated on  the  northern  frontiers.  During 
1916  20  heavjr  (2-ft-2)  locomotives  were  built 
by  the  American  Locomotive  Company  in  the 
United  States  for  the  Greek  government  rail- 
ways. For  other  data  concerning  railroads,  and 
for  mileage  of  telegraph  lines,  etc.,  see  1914 
Yeab  Book. 

Finance.  The  total  revenue  for  the  year  1911 
amounted  to  136,277,463  drachmas,  and  the  ex- 
penditure to  136,094,473.  The  budget  for  1912 
estimated  the  revenue  at  144,118,646  drachmas 
and  the  expenditure  at  143,326,620.  Estimated 
revenue  for  1913,  201,162,000  drachmas;  ex- 
penditure, 263,967,000.  The  gold  debt  amounted, 
Dec.  31,  1912,  to  833,681,000  and  the  paper  to 
160,009,666  drachmas. 

Navt.  The  fieet  included  (July,  1913)  4 
ironclads,  1  modem  cruiser,  14  destroyers,  4 
corvettes,  13  torpedo  boats,  2  submarines,  and 
miscellaneous      minor      craft.    The      Salamia, 


Fr. 

Qsr. 

U.8. 

Toeol 

1.064 

5.189 

4.876 

40.528.474 

6,154 

8,109 

289 

18.688,504 

2,667 

62 

698 

17.465.554 

74 

1,595 

180 

12.051.045 

16 

822 

221 

5.887.184 

2.689 

.... 

.... 

10,110.240 

258 

642 

.  .  •  . 

5.144,776 

.... 

518 

176 

4,296,150 

15,468 


15,097 


10,540         144,671.070 


launched  1914,  has  a  displacement  of  19,600 
tons;  its  principal  armament  is  eight  14-inch 
guns  and  12  6-inch  guns;  torpedo  tubes,  5;  horse- 
power, 40,000;  maximum  speed,  23  knots.  In 
the  summer  of  1914  the  Greek  navy  was  strength- 
ened by  the  battleships  Mississippi  and  Idaho, 
purchased  from  the  United  States,  and  renamed 
Lemnos  and  KUkia.  These  are  sister  ships,  laid 
down  by  the  Cramps  (Philadelphia),  May  12, 
1904,  and  commissioned,  one  Feb.  1,  and  the 
other  April  1,  1908.  The  Mississippi  was  built 
at  a  total  cost  of  $5,832,801,  and  the  Idaho  $5,- 
892,821.  Their  displacement  is  13,000  tons; 
mean  draft,  24  feet  8  inches;  speed,  17  knots; 
main  armament,  4  12-inch  and  8  7-inch  guns. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  the  King,  who  is  assisted  by  a  re- 
sponsible ministry.  The  legislative  body  con- 
sists of  a  single  Chamber  of  316  members,  elected 
by  manhood  suffrage.  The  reigning  King,  Con- 
stantine  I,  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the 
assassination  (March  18,  1913)  of  his  father, 
George  I,  son  of  Christian  IX  of  Denmark,  who 
was  elected  King  by  the  Greek  National  Assem- 
bly in  1863.  Heir-apparent,  Prince  George,  born 
July  19,  1890.  Constantino  married,  Oct.  27, 
1889,  Sophia,  Princess  of  Prussia,  sister  to  the 
German  Kaiser. 

HiSTOBT 

The  Question  of  Gbeek  Keutbalitt.  The 
vexed  question  whether  Greece  should  intervene 


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in  the  great  European  war  completely  over- 
shadowed all  other  issues  in  Greek  polities  dur- 
ing the  year  1916.  The  successive  cabinet  crises 
through  which  Greece  passed,  and  the  informa- 
tion subsequently  divulged  by  M.  Venizelos,  nuide 
it  patent  that  the  indecision  of  the  Greek  gov- 
ernment was  in  large  part  due  to  the  fact  that 
while  on  one  hand  the  party  of  M.  Venizelos, 
which  controlled  the  majority  of  the  Greek 
Parliament,  was  ardently  in  favor  of  the  Entente 
and  eager  to  enter  the  war  in  the  hope  of  acquir- 
ing territory,  the  King,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
the  support  of  the  German-trained  army  offi- 
cers, and  with  the  approval  of  a  considerable 
element  of  the  people,  was  stubbornly  determined 
not  to  join  forces  with  the  Entente.  King  Ck)n- 
stantine's  refusal  to  intervene  in  the  war  was 
perhaps  partly  ascribable  to  the  influence  of  his 
wife^  Queen  Sophia,  a  sister  of  the  German  Em- 
peror; doubtless  also  the  admiration  for 
German  military  methods  to  which  he  had  fre- 
quently given  outspoken  expression  before  the 
war  (for  example,  consult  the  Yeab  Book  for 
1913,  p.  292)  now  made  him  extremely  reluctant 
to  hazard  his  own  army  in  a  struggle  against  the 
Central  Powers,  especially  since  the  Entente 
armies  had  given  no  convincing  proof  as  yet  of 
their  ability  to  win  the  war. 

The  First  Resignation  of  Prekieb  Venize- 
los. The  conflict  between  the  policy  of  the  King 
and  the  policy  of  the  cabinet  was  clearly  re- 
vealed by  the  resignation  of  M.  Venizelos  in 
March,  1915.  Up  to  that  time,  although  nego- 
tiations for  a  new  Balkan  alliance  had  been 
rumored,  comparatively  little  information  had 
been  vouchsafed  the  public  in  respect  of  the 
secret  negotiations  by  which  the  Entente  Powers 
were  endeavoring  to  enlist  the  active  cooperation 
of  Greece  against  Turkey.  The  most  important 
statements  of  policy  by  M.  Venizelos,  as  head 
of  the  Greek  government,  had  been  declarations 
of  neutrality.  When  the  Austro-Hungarian 
armies  invading  Serbia  had  taken  Belgrade,  and 
the  Entente  Powers  had  inquired  whether  Greece 
considered  herself  bound  to  aid  Serbia  under 
the  terms  of  the  Serbo-Greek  treaty  of  1913, 
Venizelos  had  affirmed  the  decision  of  the  Greek 
government  to  remain  neutral.  Just  before  the 
Christmas  holidays  (Old  Style),  when  during 
the  course  of  the  budget  debates  an  Opposition 
leader,  M.  Theotokis,  had  pointed  to  the  recent 
loan  advance  of  20,000,000  francs  accepted  from 
France  as  a  violation  of  Greek  neutrality,  M. 
Venizelos  had  again  declared  that  the  neutrality 
of  Greece  was  inviolate.  The  Anglo-French  at- 
tack on  the  Dardanelles  forced  Greece  to  recon- 
sider her  neutrality.  As  it  afterwards  appeared, 
the  Triple  Entente  was  willing  to  pay  a  high 
price  for  Greek  participation  in  the  campaign, 
and  Premier  Venizelos  of  Greece  was  quite  will- 
ing to  make  the  bargain.  Rumors  of  an  im- 
pending decision  aroused  the  liveliest  excite- 
ment in  Greece  during  the  first  week  of  March. 
Four  former  premiers  of  Greece,  Theotokis, 
Ralli,  Mavromichalis,  and  Dragoumis,  were 
called  to  the  palace  to  consult  with  the  King 
and  the  prime  minister  in  a  formal  Grown  Coun- 
cil. Unable  to  obtain  the  approval  of  the  King 
for  his  policy  of  intervention,  M.  Venizelos 
handed  in  the  resignation  of  his  cabinet,  March 
6th.  M.  Zaimis,  former  Cretan  high  commis- 
sioner, who  was  recommended  by  Venizelos  as 
the  best  man  to  head  a  new  cabinet,  declined  to 
accept  the  responsibility.    Then  the  King  turned 


to  M.  Gounaris,  who  had  been  minister  of  finance 
in  the  Theotokis  cabinet  of  1908.  M.  Gounaris 
succeeded  in  forming  a  cabinet,  March  9th,  in 
whidi  the  portfolios  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Premier  and  minister  of  war,  Gounaris; 
foreign  minister,  Christakis  Zographos;  com- 
munications, Baltadjis;  instruction,  Vozikis; 
finance,  Protopapadakis ;  interior,  TriantafiUa- 
kos;  national  economy,  Eutaxias;  justice, 
Isaldaris;  marine,  Stratas.  The  declaration  of 
policy  issued  by  the  new  cabinet,  March  10th, 
contained  the  significant  statement  that  Greece 
should  "seek  the  satisfaction  of  her  interests" 
without  "compromising  the  integrity  of  her 
territory.*'  The  government  officially  implied 
that  the  outgoing  premier  had  been  willing  to 
surrender  a  portion  of  Gredc  territory  to  Bul- 

Sria,  the  most  bitter  foe  and  rival  of  Greece, 
dignant,  and  anxious  to  justify  himself  be- 
fore the  country,  M.  Venizelos  now  made  inter- 
esting revelations.  In  an  interview  with  tlie 
Carriere  della  Sera  March  16th,  he  admitted 
that  when  the  Anglo-French  operations  at  the 
Dardanelles  were  first  undertaken,  he  had  advo- 
cated sending  Greek  troops  to  aid  the  Allies, 
in  response  to  the  informal  invitation  of  the 
Entente  Powers.  In  return,  he  hoped  to  gain 
the  vilayet  of  Smyrna  for  Greece.  This  pro- 
posal, he  asserted,  the  Crown  Council  had  been 
too  faint-hearted  to  accept,  since  it  feared  that 
Greece  would  be  exposed  to  invasion  by  hmd. 
On  March  3l8t  M.  Venizelos  addressed  a  letter 
to  the  foreign  minister  (M.  Zographos);  asking 
the  government  to  den^  that  the  Venizelos  cabi- 
net had  planned  to  alienate  a  portion  of  Greek 
territory.  Instead  of  the  desired  dementi,  the 
King  sent  a  letter  to  M.  Venizelos,  maintaining 
that  he,  M.  Venizelos,  had,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
proposed  the  cession  of  Sari  Shaban,  Drama, 
and  Kavala  in  order  to  bribe  Bulgaria  to  join 
the  Entente  Powers  in  conjunction  with  Greece. 
This  all^ation  Venizelos  indignantly  denied;  he 
had  only  proposed  certain  frontier  rectifications 
to  be  effecteci  only  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  when  Greece  would  obtain  ample  compensa- 
tion— about  140,000  square  kilometers  in  Asia 
Minor.  To  substantiate  his  statements,  M.  Veni- 
zelos published  a  memorandum  which  he  had  sub- 
mitted to  King  Constantine  on  January  24th, 
communicating  the  British  offer  of  territory  in 
Asia  Minor  in  return  for  Greek  aid.  Greece 
was  asked  also  to  withdraw  any  objections  which 
she  might  have  to  the  cession  of  part  of  Serbian 
Macedonia  by  Serbia  to  Bulgaria.  In  his 
memorandum,  M.  Venizelos  argued  that  Greece 
might  as  a  last  resort  give  up  Kavala  in  order 
to  obtain  the  very  desirable  ends  in  view — 
Smyrna,  reconciliation  with  Bulgaria,  and  the 
aid  of  Bulgaria  and  Rumania  in  creating  a 
Greater  Greece  and  in  warding  off  the  Austro- 
German  peril.  The  King,  however,  had  refused 
to  r^^rd  the  Bulgarian  question  seriously,  and 
had  instructed  Venizelos  to  enter  into  negotia- 
tions with  Rumania,  disregarding  Bulgaria.  A 
second  memorandum,  which  had  been  submitted 
to  the  King  on  January  30th,  was  published  by 
M.  Venizelos,  April  4th.  In  this  document  M. 
Venizelos  set  forth  the  contention  that  inasmuch 
as  Rumania  was  reluctant  to  join  with  Greece 
and  Serbia  unless  Bulgaria  were  included  in  the 
new  Balkan  alliance,  it  would  be  criminally 
short-sighted  on  the  part  of  the  Greek  govern- 
ment to  balk  at  the  cession  of  Drama,  Kavala, 
and  Sari  Shaban — only  2000  square  kilometers 


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VtMZkLOS 


Prim*  Minist«r  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  Greece 
Resigned  October  5,   1915 


M.  SKOULOUDIS 


Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  Greece 
November  7,  1915 


M.  TAKE  JONESCU 
Leader  of  Conservative-Oemooratic  Party — Rumania 


i)  American  Press  Association 

M.  RADOSUkVOFF 
Prime  Minister  of  Bulgaria 


FOVR  BALKAN  STATESMEN  PROMINENT  IN  1W5  Digitized  by 


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293 


OBEECE 


in  all,  inhabited  by  30,000  Greeks— when  it  was 
possible  thereby  to  gain  the  friendly  cooperation 
of  Bulgaria  and  Rumania  in  securing  for  Greece 
in  Asia  Minor  over  100,000  square  kilometers 
of  territory  with  a  Greek  population  of  about 
800,000.  According  to  M.  Venizelos's  state- 
ment, King  Constantine  withdrew  his  ob- 
jections to  the  cession  of  Kavala  and  authorized 
negotiations  with  Bulgaria  on  the  lines  indi- 
cated in  the  second  memorandum.  But  the  an- 
nouncement that  Bulgaria  had  accepted  a  loan 
from  German  bankers,  supervening  just  at  this 
juncture,  upset  all  the  plans  of  Greece,  and  con- 
vinced M.  Venizelos  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  gain  the  co5peration  of  Bulgaria  against  the 
Central  Powers  and  Turkey,  even  by  the  offer 
of  territorial  concessions.  The  offer  was  there- 
fore not  made.  M.  Venizelos  further  admitted 
that  the  Allies  had  asked  Greece  to  assist  Serbia 
alone,  and  that  Greece  had  refused,  for  the  reason 
that  the  Allies  were  unwilling  to  send  more  than 
two  divisions  of  infantry  to  protect  Greece 
against  a  possible  Bulgarian  attack.  As  a  coun- 
terblast to  the  ex-premier's  revelations,  King 
Constantine  issued  a  oommuniquS,  April  6th, 
flatly  denying  that  he  had  ever  authorized  Veni- 
zelos to  negotiate  any  agreement  which  would 
involve  the  alienation  of  Greek  territory.  The 
controversy  now  narrowed  itself  down  to  a  clear- 
cut  question  of  fact.  M.  Venizelos,  regarding 
the  royal  statement  as  an  impeachment  of  his 
own  veracity,  showed  his  resentment  by  absent- 
ing himself  from  the  Te  Deum  service,  April  7th, 
when  the  court  celebrated  the  national  holiday 
of  Greece.  Venizelos  furthermore  addressed  a 
letter  to  the  King,  threatening  to  retire  from 
political  life  entirely,  unless  the  oommumquS 
were  corrected.  The  denial  was  not  made,  how- 
ever, nor  was  the  threat  fulfilled. 

The  Rettjrn  of  Ve;vizelos  to  Power.  Par- 
liamentary elections  were  held  in  June.  The 
government  platform  promised  a  long  list  of 
important  measives,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned: proportional  representation,  decentral- 
ization of  public  authority,  greater  economy  in 
public  finance,  tariff  revision,  the  increase  of 
direct  and  the  reduction  of  indirect  taxation, 
amelioration  of  labor  conditions,  and  encour- 
agement of  peasant-proprietorship.  In  respect 
of  foreign  policy,  the  government  promised  to 
make  no  territorial  concessions,  but  to  watch  for 
every  opportunity  to  increase  the  greatness  of 
Greece.  In  spite  of  this  strong  bid  for  popular 
support  on  the  part  of  the  Gounaris  cabinet, 
the  victory  of  the  Venizelist  party  was  practi- 
cally a  foregone  conclusion.  Almost  200,  out 
of  the  total  of  316  deputies  elected  to  consti- 
tute the  new  Parliament,  were  supporters  of  M. 
Venizelos.  The  minister  of  finance  in  the 
Gounaris  cabinet  having  lost  his  seat  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  resigned  his  portfolio  in 
the  ministry,  June  loth.  The  premier  himself 
delayed  his  resignation  only  until  the  meeting 
of  the  newly  elected  Parliament,  which  took 
place  August  16th.  A  fortnight  before  his 
resignation,  M.  Gounaris  received  a  visit  from 
the  British,  French,  Italian,  and  Russian  minis- 
ters at  Athens,  presumably  to  urge  upon  Greece 
the  necessity  for  making  concessions  to  Bul- 
garia. A  few  days  later  M.  Gounaris  publicly 
reaffirmed  his  determination  not  to  cede  a  single 
inch  to  Bulgaria.  When  M.  Gounaris  resigned, 
August  16th,  the  question  arose  whether  King 
Constantine  would  consent  to  reinstate  M.  Veni- 


zelos as  premier,  disregarding  th«  recent  quar- 
rel. An  agreement  was  reached  between  the 
King  and  the  politician,  August  22nd,  on  the 
basis  of  (1)  benevolent  neutrality  towards  the 
Entente  Powers;  (2)  fulfillment  of  treaty  obli- 
gations toward  Serbia;  (3)  no  cession  of  Greek 
territory.  As  a  result  of  this  understanding, 
M.  Venizelos  was  able  to  resiune  his  post  as 
premier  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  August 
23rd.  His  colleagues  were  as  follows:  Minister 
of  war.  General  Danglis;  marine,  Miaoulis; 
finance,  RepouUs;  interior,  Graf  ay  r  is;  justice, 
Raktavin;  communications,  Diamantidis;  pub- 
lic instruction,  Tsirimokos;  national  economy, 
Michalakopoulos. 

The  Second  Rbsionation  of  Venizelos.  A 
new  crisis  arose  in  the  latter  part  of  September 
when  Bulgaria  mobilized  against  Serbia  (see 
BULQABIA,  History)  and  the  Greek  government 
was  confronted  by  two  problems;  first,  whether 
Greece  should  fulfill  her  treaty  obligations  by 
aiding  Serbia  against  Bulgaria;  second,  whether 
Greece  should  allow  Anglo-French  troops  to  pass 
through  Gredc  territory  on  their  way  to  fight 
with  the  Serbians.  On  these  two  points  the 
King  and  the  premier  were  absolutely  disagreed. 
According  to  M.  Venizelos's  own  statement 
{Corriere  delta  Sera,  November  23rd),  the  Greek 
premier  acted  upon  the  belief  that  by  persisting 
in  neutrality  Greece  would  not  avert,  but  simply 
postpone,  war  with  Bulgaria;  hence  the  course 
of  wisdom  would  be  to  fight  Bulgaria  in  alliance 
with  Serbia  and  with  the  aid  of  Anglo-French 
troops.  Accordingly,  in  the  latter  part  of  Sep- 
tember, M.  Venizelos  not  only  ordered  Greek 
mobilization,  September  25th,  but  furthermore 
adced  France  and  England  if  they  were  willing 
to  send  150,000  troops  to  the  support  of  Serbia. 
The  King,  however,  refused  to  consider  any  such 
proposition.  Venizelos  communicated  the  King's 
refusal  to  the  Entente  Powers.  In  reply,  he  re- 
ceived a  note  from  the  French  minister,  October 
2nd,  announcing  that  the  first  contingent  of 
French  troops  had  already  arrived  at  Saloniki, 
and  that  other  French  and  English  troops  would 
be  sent  through  Gredc  territory  to  aid  Serbia. 
"As  the  caeus  foederis  justifying  Greek  inter- 
vention in  favor  of  Serbia  had  not  yet  occurred" 
(as  Bulgaria  had  not  yet  attacked  Serbia),  said 
M.  Venizelos,  "I  protested  against  the  landing 
of  the  Anglo-French  troops  at  Saloniki  because 
Greece  was  still  neutral.  I  could  not  but  be 
glad  however,  because  I  was  certain  that  Bul- 
garia was  on  the  point  of  attacking  Serbia.  .  .  . 
On  October  5th,  however,  I  was  compelled  to  re- 
sign, as  the  King  disapproved  what  I  had  done.'' 
The  text  of  the  Greek  protest  against  the  Anglo- 
French  landing  at  Saloniki  was  as  follows:  "In 
answer  to  your  letter,  I  have  the  honor  to  de- 
clare to  Your  Excellency  that,  being  neutral  in 
the  European  war,  the  Royal  government  (of 
Greece)  could  not  possibly  sanction  the  pro- 
ceeding in  question,  for  it  constitutes  a  breach 
of  Greece's  neutrality,  the  more  manifest  since 
it  comes  from  two  great  belligerent  Powers.  It 
is  ther^ore  the  duty  of  the  Royal  government 
to  protest  against  the  passage  of  foreign  troops 
across  Greek  territory." 

The  Zaimis  Cabinet  and  the  Ctfbus  Offer. 
Following  the  resignation  of  M.  Venizelos,  which 
occurred  October  5th,  Alexander  Zaimis  accepted 
the  post  of  premier  and  formed  a  cabinet,  Octo- 
ber 7th,  in  which  the  portfolios  were  distributed 
as  follows:     Foreign  affairs,  Zaimis;   interior, 

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Gounaris;  war,  Yanakitaas;  marine,  Goun- 
touriotis;  finance,  Dragoumis;  public  instruc- 
tion, Theotokis;  justice  and  communications, 
Rhallis.  The  Zaimis  cabinet  lasted  less  than  a 
month,  but  during  its  short  term  of  office  it 
decided  two  important  questions.  In  the  first 
place,  when  Bulgaria  attacked  Serbia,  October 
14th,  M.  Zaimis  refused  to  involve  Greece  in 
the  war,  and  announced  that  in  view  of  changed 
circumstanoes,  the  Serbo-Greek  treaty  did  not 
now  bind  Greece  to  aid  Serbia  against  Bulgaria. 
In  the  second  place,  the  Zaimis  government  had 
to  consider  an  offer  made  by  Great  Britain, 
October  17th,  whereby  in  return  for  active  Greek 
military  support,  Greece  would  obtain  the  im- 
portant Island  of  Cyprus  from  Great  Britain. 
Greece  rejected  the  offer.  The  Zaimis  govern- 
ment never  commanded  the  majority  of  the 
Greek  Parliament,  but  existed  merely  at  the 
will  of  the  King  and  at  the  sufferance  of  M. 
Venizelos.  A  violent  debate,  following  a  speech 
which  the  minister  of  war  chose  to  regard  as  a 
personal  insult,  led  to  a  vote  of  no  confidence 
(147-114)  and  to  the  resignation  of  M.  Zaimis, 
November  4th. 

The  Skouloitdis  Cabinet.  M.  Zaimis  was 
succeeded  by  a  former  foreign  minister  of 
Greece,  M.  Skouloudis,  who  had  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  London  Conference  of  1913. 
The  cabinet  formed  by  M.  Skouloudis,  November 
7th,  was  almost  identical  with  that  of  his  pre- 
decessor: Foreign  affairs  and  premier,  Skou- 
loudis; public  instruction,  Micheledkis;  justice 
and  communications,  Rhallis;  interior,  Gou- 
naris;  national  economy,  Theotokis;  war» 
Yanakitsas;  marine,  Countouriotis;  finance, 
Dragoumis.  With  the  Skouloudis  cabinet  the 
question  was  no  longer  whether  Greece  should 
help  Serbia — ^that  question  had  been  settled  in 
the  negative.  The  question  now  was  whether 
the  Anglo-French  expeditionarv  forces,  and  the 
defeated  Serbian  armies,  should  be  allowed  to 
operate  freely  upon  Greek  territory,  instead  of 
being  interned,  as  a  strict  interpretation  of  Greek 
neutrality  might  require.  The  whole  question 
is  treated  in  the  article  Wab  of  thb  Nations 
(q.v.).  In  this  place,  it  is  necessary  only  to 
point  out  that  inasmuch  as  Venizelos  still  com- 
manded a  majority  in  the  Greek  Parliament,  it 
was  necessarv  for  the  King  to  dissolve  Parlia- 
ment November  11th,  in  order  to  forestall  a 
conflict  between  the  ministry  and  the  majority. 
New  elections  were  called  for  December  19th. 
Against  this  step  the  Venizelists  most  strenu- 
ously protested.  The  King  was  violating  the 
constitution,  they  claimed,  in  refusing  to  recog- 
nize the  results  of  the  June  elections,  which  had 
expressed  the  country's  approbation  of  M.  Veni- 
selos  and  his  policies.  M.  Venizelos  therefore 
announced  that  he  would  regard  the  December 
elections  as  unconstitutional,  and  urged  his  fol- 
lowers to  take  no  part  in  the  balloting.  The 
result,  as  might  easily  have  been  foreseen,  was 
the  return  of  a  majority  pledged  to  support  the 
government.  In  his  political  duel  with  M.  Veni- 
zelos— ^for  in  that  way  the  events  of  the  year 
may  be  epitomized — King  Constantine  had 
triumphed.    Greece  had  not  joined  the  Entente. 

OSfeiENE,  Edwabd  Lee.  An  American  bot- 
anist and  educator,  died  Nov.  10,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Hopkinton,  R.  I.,  in  1843,  and  graduated 
from  Albion  College  in  1866.    He  was  an  Episco- 

Sal  dernrman  in  1871-^6,  and  then  became  a 
toman  Catholic  layman.    He  was  professor  of 


botany  at  the  University  of  California  from 
1885  to  1895,  and  at  the  Catholic  University  of 
America  from  189&-1904.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  associate  in  botany  at  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  His  writings  include:  Manual  of 
Botany  for  the  Region  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
(1894),  West  American  Oake  (1887),  Pittonia 
(5  vols.  1887-1903),  Landmarke  of  Botanical 
Hiatory  (1909). 

GREENLAND.  A  Danish  Arctic  colony. 
Estimated  area,  2,200,000  square  kilometers 
(849,420  square  miles).  Area  of  settlements 
(colony  proper)  88,100  square  kilometers  (34,- 
015  square  miles).  Population  of  colony  proper 
in  1901,  11,893  (11,621  Eskimos  and  272  Euro- 
peans);  Feb.  1,  1911,  13,459  (13,075  Eskimos 
and  384  Europeans).  In  1912  births  and  deaths 
among  the  Eskimos  were  482  and  389  respect- 
ively; in  1913,  666  and  877.  Trade  is  restricted 
to  Denmark.  Imports  from  Denmark  in  1912 
and  1913  were  valued  at  482,873  and  608,875 
kroner  respectively;  exports  to  Denmark,  899,- 
451  and  965,802.  Principal  exports:  seal  and 
fish  oil,  valued  in  1912  and  1913  at  490,000  and 
467,900  kroner;  seal  skins,  81,800  and  90,600; 
blue  fox  skins,  121,350  and  161,300.  The  di- 
rector resides  at  Copenhagen. 

GBEGOBT,  Daniel  Seeltb.  An  American 
clergyman  and  editor,  died  April  14,  1915.  He 
was  bom  in  Carmel,  N.  Y.,  in  1832,  and  gradu- 
ated from  the  State  Normal  College  at  Albany 
in  1850  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
in  1860.  In  the  following  year  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  from  then  till 
1871  served  various  pastorates.  From  1871  to 
1878  he  was  professor  of  metaphysics,  logic,  and 
English  literature  at  the  University  of  Wooster, 
and  was  president  of  Lake  Forest  University 
from  1878-86.  From  1890-94  he  was  managing 
editor  of  the  Standard  Dictionary.  He  edited 
the  HomUetic  Review  from  1895-1904,  and  from 
that  year  until  his  death  was  general  secretary 
of  the  Bible  League  of  North  America,  and 
managing  editor  of  the  Bible  Student  and 
Teacher.  His  writings  include  Christian  Ethics 
(1875),  The  Crime  ^  Christendom  (1900),  and 
Constructioe  Studies  in  John,  the  Chspel  for 
the  Christian  (1909). 

O&EOOBYy  Eliot.  An  American  artist  and 
writer,  died  June  1,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  1854 
in  New  York  City  and  graduated  from  Yale  in 
1880.  For  several  years  he  studied  art  in  Paris, 
and  one  of  his  paintings  received  honorable  men- 
tion at  the  Salon.  On  his  return  to  New  York 
City  he  established  one  of  the  first  studios  on  the 
European  model.  This  became  a  meeting  place 
for  artists,  musicians,  and  persons  prominent  in 
social  life  in  the  city.  Mr.  Gregory  also  wrote 
on  a  variety  of  subjects.  For  many  years  his 
Idler  Papers  appeared  in  the  New  York  Evening 
Post.  A  number  of  his  essays  were  gathered 
into  two  volumes,  Worldly  Ways  and  Bv-Ways 
and  The  Ways  of  Men.  He  was  regarded  as  an 
authority  on  art  and  literary  subjects.  His 
work  as  an  artist  consisted  mostly  of  portrait- 
ure. His  portrait  of  Ada  Rehan  as  "Katherine" 
in  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  painted  for  Augus- 
tin  Daly,  is  now  in  the  Shakespeare  House  in 
Stratford-on-Avon. 

GBENADA.  A  British  West  Indian  colony, 
consisting  of  the  Island  of  Qrenada,  which  is  the 
most  southerly  of  the  Windward  Islands  group, 
and  some  of  the  Grenadines.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  about   119  square  miles;  the  Grena- 

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dines  hare  an  area  of  about  14  square  miles 
(Carriacou,  the  largest,  8467  acres);  so  that 
the  area  of  the  colony  is  stated  at  133  square 
miles.  At  the  1911  census,  the  population  of  the 
colony  was  66,750  (6886  in  Carriacou) ;  esti- 
mate of  Dec.  31,  1913,  69,307.  The  capital  and 
chief  town  is  St.  George's  (population,  1911, 
4916) ;  it  has  an  excellent  harbor.  About  2  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony  are  Euro- 
peans, almost  all  the  rest  being  negro.  In  1913, 
there  were  30,200  acres  under  cultivation. 
Sugar  culture  is  declining,  and  the  cacao  is  the 
crop  of  chief  commercial  importance.  Imports 
and  exports  in  1913-14  were  valued  at  £282,927 
and  £367,149  respectively.  Revenue  in  that 
year  amounted  to  £91,258  (of  which  £53,900  from 
customs) ;  expenditure,  £85,827.  Public  debt, 
£123,670. 
OBENADINES.     See  Grenada;  and  Saint 

ViNCJENT. 

OBET,  Sib  Edwabd.  See  United  States  and 
THE  War. 

OBOTON,  William  Mansfield.  An  Ameri- 
can theologian  and  educator,  died  May  25,  1915. 
He  was  born  in  Waldoboro,  Me.,  in  1850,  and 
graduated  from  Harvard  University  in  1873. 
He  studied  theology  in  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
School,  graduating  in  1876.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  He  was  rector  of  several 
churches  in  Canada,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode 
Island  until  1898,  when  he  became  professor  of 
systematic  theology  in  the  Divinity  School  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in  Philadel- 
phia. From  1900  until  his  death  he  was  dean 
of  that  school.  He  was  a  member  of  many  im- 
portant committees  at  general  conventions  of 
his  church.  In  1912  he  was  lecturer  at  Phila- 
delphia on  the  Bohlen  Foundation.  He  was  the 
editor  of  the  Sunday  School  Teaoher*$  Manual 
(1909). 

OITADELOUFE.  A  French  colony  composed 
of  the  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Area, 
1780  kilometers  (687  square  miles) ;  population 
(1911),  212,430.  The  capital  is  Basse-Terre. 
In  1912,  imports  and  exports  were  valued  at 
19,524,116  and  26,084,302  francs  respectively; 
in  1913  imports  came  to  20,174,930  francs  (of 
which  11,196,908  francs  represents  imports  from 
France)  and  exports  amounted  to  18,287,489 
francs  (of  which  16,401,932  francs  represents 
exports  to  France).  The  leading  exports  are 
cacao,  coffee,  and  sugar. 

GTJATEMAIiA.  The  most  northwesterly  of 
the  Central  American  republics.  The  capital  is 
Guatemala  City. 

Area,  Population,  etc.  The  Guatemalan- 
Honduran  boundary  has  not  been  entirely  fixed, 
but  in  the  spring  of  1915  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  the  two  governments  looking 
toward  a  settlement  of  the  lonff-standing  bound- 
ary dispute.  On  account  of  the  unsettled 
boundary,  the  area  of  Guatemala  has  been  vari- 
ously stated;  one  estimate  is  48,290  square 
miles,  and  another  43,641  square  miles.  The 
population,  as  calculated  for  the  end  of  1913, 
was  2,119,165,  as  compared  with  1,842,134,  the 
figure  returned  by  the  census  of  Dec.  31,  1903. 
The  1903  census  showed  about  60  per  cent  of 
the  population  Indian  and  most  of  the  re- 
mainder mestizo.  Varying  estimates  are  made 
for  urban  populations.  Guatemala  City,  with 
suburbs,  is  supposed  to  have  upwards  of  100,000 
inhabitants;  Quezaltenango,  34,000;  Cobftn,  31,- 


000;  Totonicapftn,  29,000;  Esquintia,  Zacapa, 
Chiquimula,  and  Jalapa,  about  18,000  each; 
Santa  Cruz  del  (Juich^,  17,000;  Jutiapa,  16,- 
000;  Antigua,  Salamft,  and  Huehuetenango, 
about  15,000  each;  Amatitlfln,  12,000;  Sololft, 
11,000.  The  number  of  births  reported  for  1913 
and  1914  respectively  was  75,593  and  76,551; 
deaths,  38,320  and  40,878;  excess  of  births,  37,- 
273  and  35,673;  marriages,  5274  and  5873. 

The  reported  number  of  public  primary 
schools  in  1912  was  1837,  with  59,631  pupils; 
in  1913  pupils  numbered  61,136;  in  1914,  there 
were  1878  public  primary  schools,  with  64,387 
pupils.  At  the  normal  schools  343  male  and 
370  female  students  were  enrolled  in  1014. 
There  are  a  few  secondary  schools,  a  medical 
school,  a  law  school,  and  several  other  educa- 
tional institutions.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
prevailing  religion.    There  is  no  state  church. 

Production  and  CoMiiEBCE.  Guatemala  is  a 
fertile  country  and  produces  crops  of  corn,  sugar 
cane,  bananas,  cacao,  tobacco,  etc.  Commer- 
cially the  most  important  product  is  coffee.  Es- 
timated yield  for  1914  is  reported  as  follows  in 
quintals:  coffee,  918,522;  com,  4,611,292;  wheat, 
546,532;  rice,  237,523;  potatoes,  308,733;  beans, 
184,426;  brown  sugar,  100,000.  The  banana 
yield  was  estimated  at  7,933,487  bunches. 
Grazing  is  of  considerable  importance;  cattle 
in  1914,  1,407,223.  There  are  valuable  forests, 
in  which  are  worked  rubber,  chicle,  dye  woods, 
cedar  and  mahogany.  Some  gold  placers  are 
worked,  but  mining,  as  well  as  manufacturing,  is 
little  developed. 

Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as  fol- 
lows^  

1911  1913  1918  1914 

Imp.  .  .$8,166,670  $9,822,462  $10,062,828  $9,831,115 
Exp.  ..11.005,835  18,166.588   14,449,926  12.764.027 

To  the  actual  invoice  value  of  imports  at  the 
maritime  customs  houses,  the  Guatemalan  au- 
thorities add  25  per  cent — an  estimate  covering 
freights,  insurance,  commissions,  etc.  This  ad- 
dition is  included  in  the  above  import  values. 
In  1912  and  1913  respectively,  the  principal  ex- 
ports were  as  follows,  values  expressed  in  thou- 
sands of  dollars:  coffee  clean,  9126  and  9905; 
coffee  in  parchment,  1863  and  2350;  bananas, 
667  and  826;  cattle  hides,  190  and  455;  sugar, 
565  and  349;  woods,  241  and  248.  The  princi- 
pal countries  that  have  shared  in  the  trade 
are  as  follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

Importt  Exports 

1918      1914  1918      1914 

United  States 6,068     4,879  8.928     4,874 

Germany     2,048     1,848  7.654     6.418 

United  Kingdom    1,660     1,890  1,600     1.477 

France     402        818  21          84 

Communications.  The  reported  length  of 
railway  in  operation  in  1914  was  502  miles. 
San  Jos^  and  Champerico,  on  the  Pacific,  have 
rail  connection  with  Guatemala  City,  and  the 
latter  with  Puerto  Barrios,  on  the  eastern 
coast.  Connection  was  made  with  the  Mexican 
railway  system  in  1914.  Telegraph  lines,  over 
4200  miles;  telegraph  offices,  236;  post  offices, 
about  380. 

Finance.  Revenue  and  expenditure  for  the 
fiscal  year  1914  are  reported  at  82,399,925  and 
48,735,805  pesos  (paper)  respectively.  The 
paper  peso  fluctuates  in  value,  but  is  commonly 
regarded  as  being  worth  about  six  cents.    Of 


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the  revenue  in  1914,  63,366,454  pesos  were  de- 
rived from  customs.  Estimated  expenditure  for 
the  fiscal  year  1915,  50,620,617  pesos;  for  1916, 
60,082,637.  The  largest  disbursement  is  on  ac- 
count of  the  public  debt,  24,811,744  as  estimated 
for  the  fiscal  year  1916;  war,  9,629,826;  interior 
and  justice,  6,736,499;  public  instruction,  6,443,- 
638;  public  works,  5,305,391;  foreign  debt,  with 
arrears  of  interest,  £2,357,063. 

Government.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  the  National  Assembly  of  69  members,  elected 
by  direct  vote  for  four  years,  and  in  the  Council 
of  State  of  13  members,  in  part  elected  by  the 
Assembly  and  in  part  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. The  latter  is  elected  by  a  direct  vote  for 
six  years  and  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  six 
members.  The  President  in  1915  was  Manuel 
Estrada  Cabrera  (born  1857),  who  succeeded 
to  the  executive  office  in  March,  1898,  and  sub- 
sequently was  elected  for  terms  ending  March 
15,  1905,  1911,  and  1917.  There  is  a  first  des- 
ignate and  a  second  designate  to  act  as  presi- 
dent in  case  of  the  latter's  death  or  disability. 
On  May  11,  1915,  the  National  Assembly  elected 
Ignacio  L6pez  Andrade  as  first  designate,  and 
Gen.  Manuel  Duarte  as  second  designate. 

History.  In  May  the  National  Assembly 
elected  Ignacio  Ldpez  Andrade  first  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  republic  and  Gen.  Manuel  Duarte 
second  Vice-President.  Presidential  elections 
were  to  be  instituted  Jan.  10,  1916.  The  budget 
for  the  fiscal  year  from  July  1,  1915,  to  June 
30,  1916,  contemplated  a  total  expenditure  of 
60,082,640  pesos  currency,  or  $3,604,958.40.  In 
July  a  boundary  convention  was  concluded  be- 
tween Guatemala  and  Honduras.  As  her  dele- 
gates to  the  commission  to  delimit  the  boundary, 
in  accordance  with  the  July  convention,  Guate- 
mala appointed  Claudio  Urrutia,  Felipe  Rod- 
riguez, Domingo  Conde,  Florencio  Santizo, 
Salvador  Castillo,  and  Eugenio  Rosal.  Marcial 
Pren  was  nominated  legal  adviser  to  the  com- 
mission. By  the  terms  of  the  convention,  if  the 
commission  should  fail  to  reach  a  satisfactory 
settlement,  the  boundary  dispute  between  the 
two  countries  was  to  be  arbitrated  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Early  in  September 
a  violent  earthquake,  which  was  experienced 
also  in  several  South  American  coimtries,  caused 
serious  damage  to  Jutiapa,  the  capital  city  of 
Jutiapa  district  in  Guatemala.  An  insurrection 
in  the  region  of  San  Marco  in  October  failed  to 
achieve  more  than  a  local  significance.  See  also 
International  Peace  and  Arbitration. 

OTJIANA.  See  British  Guiana;  Dutch 
Guiana;  Fbench  Guiana. 

QTJIIiDy  Curtis,  Jb.  An  American  editor 
and  diplomat,  died  April  6,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Boston  in  1860.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
University,  where  he  graduated  with  the  highest 
honors  in  1881.  In  1884,  after  traveling  in 
Europe,  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Boston  Com- 
mercial Bulletinf  the  property  of  his  father. 
In  1902  he  took  entire  charge  of  the  paper,  which 
he  continued  until  his  death.  He  began  his 
political  career  at  the  age  of  21.  In  1895  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Republican  State 
Convention  and  in  the  following  year  was  prom- 
inent as  a  campaign  speaker.  He  also  took  an 
active  part  in  the  campaign  of  1900  and  in  1901 
was  elected  Lieutenant-C^vernor  of  Massachu- 
setts. He  was  elected  Governor  in  1905  and 
was  reelected  for  two  successive  terms.  In  1911 
he  was  appointed  United  States  Ambassador  to 


Russia,  serving  until  1913.    He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Spanish- American  War.    He  con- 
tributed  occasional   articles   to  magazines  and 
was  a  member  of  many  patriotic  societies. 
OXJIiFLiaHT    CASE.    See   United   States 

AND  THE  WaB. 

GUTHE,  Karl  Eugen.  An  American  edu- 
cator and  physicist,  died  Sep.  11,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  Hanover,  Germany,  in  1866,  and  was  ed- 
ucated in  the  universities  of  Marburg,  Strass- 
burg,  and  Berlin.  In  1892  he  removed  to  the 
United  States,  and  as  instructor  and  assistant 
professor  taught  physics  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  until  1903.  In  1903-05  he  was  associ- 
ate physicist  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards,  and  in  1905-09  professor  of  physics 
at  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  In  1909  he  be- 
came professor  of  physics  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  From  1912  he  was  also  dean  of  the 
graduate  department  of  the  university.  He  was 
the  author  of  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements 
with  J.  O.  Reed,  1902);  Text  Book  of  Physics 
(1908);  College  Physics  (with  J.  O.  Reed, 
1911);  and  Definitions  in  Physics  (1913).  He 
contributed  many  papers  on  physics,  particu- 
larly on  electricity,  to  different  scientific  jour- 
nals. He  was  a  member  of  many  American  and 
foreign  scientific  societies. 

OYICNASTICS.  The  seventeenth  annual  in- 
tercollegiate gymnastics  championships  were  won 
by  Yale  with  a  score  of  22  points.  Princeton 
finished  second  with  17  points  and  Pennsylvania 
third  with  9  points.  Other  scores  were:  Am- 
herst 7;  New  York  University  5;  Columbia  1: 
Harvard  1;  Rutgers  1. 

Dual  college  meets  resulted  as  follows:  Yale 
36,  Princeton  19;  Yale  45,  Rutgers  9;  Yale  35, 
Pennsylvania  19;  United  States  Naval  Academy 
41,  New  York  University  10;  United  States 
Naval  Academy  34,  Yale  24;  United  States 
Naval  Academy  32,  Columbia  22;  Princeton 
33%,  Rutgers  14%;  Harvard  35,  Brown  19: 
Harvard  42,  Dartmouth  12;  Pennsylvania  29, 
New  York  University  25;  Columbia  31,  New 
York  University  23;  Rutgers  28,  Columbia  26; 
New  York  University  33,  Amherst  21;  New 
York  University  33,  Rutgers  21. 

The  club  championships  of  the  Amateur  Ath- 
letic Union  held  at  San  Francisco  resulted  as 
follows:  Rope  dimb,  R.  lUing,  Olympic  Club; 
tumbling,  J.  F.  Dunn,  New  York  A.  C;  club 
swinging,  R.  W.  Dutcher,  New  York  A.  C; 
horizontal  bar,  Franz  Kanis,  Newark  Turn 
Verein;  side  horse,  J.  Oessy,  West  Side  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  New  York;  parallel  bars,  P.  Hoi,  Nor- 
wegian T.  and  A.  C;  flying  rings.  Otto  Paul, 
National  Turn  Verein ;  all-around,  Franz  Kanis, 
Newark  Turn  Verein, 

The  club  point  scores  follow:  Newark  Turn 
Verein  21;  Norwegian  T.  and  A.  C.  21;  New 
York  A.  C.  11;  Swiss  Turn  Verein  9;  New  York 
Turn  Verein  8;  West  Side  Y.  M.  C.  A.  7;  Na- 
tional A.  C.  5;  Grace  Club  5;  National  Turn 
Verein  3;  Rutgers  College  2;  Harlem  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
2;  Bohemian- American  W.  O.  A.  2;  Bohemian 
Gymnasium  Association  1;  Ninety-second  Street 
Y.  M.  H.  A.  1. 

GYPSY  MOTH.    See  Entomology. 

HAQGABD,  H.  Rider.  See  Literatube,  Eiro- 
LiSH  AND  Amerioan,  Fiction, 

HAGUE  TRIBUNAL.  See  International 
Peace  and  Arbitration. 

HAIG,  Sir  Douglas  (1861-).  A  British  sol- 
dier.   He  entered  the  army  in  1885  as  a  member 


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general  of  cavalry  in  Natal.  In  1900  he  be- 
came assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  cavalry 
division.  He  was  lieutenant-colonel  commander 
of  the  17th  Lancers  1901-03;  inspector-general 
of  cavalry  in  India,  1903-06;  major-general 
1904;  director  of  military  training  1906-7; 
director  of  staff  duties  at  headquarters  1907-09; 
chief  of  staff  in  India,  1909-12;  and  gen- 
eral oflScer  commanding  at  Aldershot  1912-14. 
When  the  great  war  broke  out  in  1914  he  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  tiie  1st  army  corps 
which  went  with  the  British  expeditionary 
force  to  France.  In  December  he  succeeded  Sir 
John  French  (q.v.)  in  command  of  the  en- 
tire British  forces  in  France.  See  Wab  of  the 
Nations. 

HAITI.  A  republic  occupying  the  western, 
and  smaller,  part  of  the  West  Indian  island  of 
Haiti.     Capital,  Port-au-Prince. 

Area,  Population,  etc.  The  estimated  area 
is  28,676  square  kilometers  (11,072  square 
miles).  As  compared  with  most  of  the  other 
American  republics,  Haiti  is  densely  populated, 
though  the  number  of  inhabitants  cannot  be 
stated  with  accuracy.  An  estimate  of  1909, 
based  on  parish  registers,  placed  the  population 
at  about  2,030,000;  an  estimate  for  1912  was 
2,500,000,  though  it  is  probable  that  this  figure 
is  too  high.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  people 
are  negroes,  and  most  of  the  remainder  mulat- 
toes.  City  populations  are  not  well  known. 
Port-au-Prince  is  said  to  have  over  100,000  in- 
habitants; Cap-Haltien,  about  30,000;  Les  Cayes, 
25,000;  Gonalvcs,  18,000.  There  are  some  400 
national  schools,  besides  a  number  of  private 
schools,  and  five  lyc4es.  Elementary  instruction 
has  been  nominally  compulsory  since  1910,  but 
the  educational  system  is  very  imperfect,  and 
illiteracy  prevails.  The  people  speak  a  French 
patois  and  profess  Roman  Catholicism. 

Production,  Commerce,  etc.  The  most  im- 
portant crop  commercially  is  coffee;  other  crops 
are  cacao,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  Val- 
uable woods,  especially  logwood,  are  cut  for  ex- 
port. There  are  several  sugar  mills,  and  rum 
and  other  spirits  are  distill^.  The  mineral  re- 
sources are  not  unimportant,  but  mining  is  al- 
most entirely  undeveloped. 

For  foreign  commerce,  the  latest  figures  avail- 
able are  those  for  the  fiscal  year  1913,  when 
imports  were  valued  at  $8,100,125,  and  exports 
at  $11,315,539;  imports  and  exports  in  the  fiscal 
year  1912,  $9,876,555  and  $17,285,485.  For  1913 
the  total  coffee  export  was  reported  at  56,962,000 
pounds;  cotton,  4,266,000  pounds;  cacao,  3,898,- 
000  pounds;  cotton  seed,  7,922,000  pounds; 
honey,  1,231,000  pounds.  The  share  of  the  prin- 
cipal countries  in  the  trade  has  been  estimated 
as  follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

Import*  Export* 

1912      1918  1913       1918 

United     States     7.802     5,909  1,100     1.000 

France     1,050        817  8,500     6,000 

United  Kincdom    761         698  1,800        800 

Germany 486        686  6,100     4,200 

Vessels  entered  at  the  ports  in  1914,  871 
steamers,  of  1,747,827  tons,  and  35  sail,  of  23,719 
tons.  There  are  about  225  kilometers  (140 
miles)  of  railway,  including  light  railway.    Tel- 


and  exports  are  payable  in  American  gold.  The 
paper  gourde,  nominally  equivalent  to  about  96.6 
cents,  is  current  at  about  one-fourth  its  face 
value.  For  the  fiscal  year  1914,  the  estimated 
revenue  was  $5,078,754  and  4,898,680  gourdes; 
estimated  expenditure,  $3,904,291  and  9,096,000 
gourdes.  Estimated  revenue  for  1915,  $4,980,- 
147  and  4,959,386  gourdes;  estimated  expendi- 
ture, $4,847,386  and  8,777,627  gourdes.  By  far 
the  largest  item  of  expenditure  is  service  of 
the  debt,  estimated  for  the  fiscal  year  1915  at 
$4,007,147  and  149,000  gourdes.  Public  debt, 
July  1,  1914,  $25,892,181  and  13,534,812 
gourdes. 

Government.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  National  Assembly  of  two  chambers,  the  Sen- 
ate and  the  Chamber  of  the  Communes.  Mem- 
bers of  the  lower  house  (96  in  number)  are 
elected  by  direct  vote  for  three  years.  Senators 
are  elected  for  six  years  by  the  Chamber  of  the 
Communes  from  a  list  prepared  partly  by  the 
President  of  the  republic  and  partly  by  the 
electors.  According  to  the  constitution,  the 
President  is  elected  for  seven  years  by  the  two 
chambers  in  joint  session.  Haitian  presidents, 
however,  seem  unable  to  serve  out  their  term. 
An  account  of  recent  revolutionary  movements 
is  given  below.  On  Aug.  12,  1915,  Philippe 
Sudre  Dartiguenave,  a  senator,  was  elected 
President;  he  was  recognized  by  the  American 
government  on  September   17  th  following. 

History.  The  Guillaume  Revolution,  After 
the  two  successive  revolutions  of  1914,  which  es- 
tablished first  Oreste  Zamor  and  then  Davilmar 
Theodore  as  president  of  the  turbulent  republic, 
Haiti  was  again  plunged  into  civil  war  by  the 
outbreak  of  a  third  revolution  in  January, 
1915.  The  leader  of  the  new  movement  was 
Gen.  Vilbrun  Guillaume  Sam,  who  turned  traitor 
to  the  Theodore  government  about  the  middle  of 
January  and  enlisted  the  support  of  various  pro- 
fessional insurgents.  He  took  possession  of  the 
important  town  of  Cap  Haitien,  January  16, 
after  General  Metallus,  who  was  loyal  to  Presi- 
dent Theodore,  had  evacuated  the  place.  En- 
couraged b^  this  early  success,  Guillaume  began 
an  energetic  campaign,  capturing  Plaines,  Trou 
Ounamenthes,  Fort  Libert^,  and  Limonade.  His 
next  attack  was  directed  against  Port-au-Prince, 
the  capital  and  principal  seaport  of  Haiti.  His 
troops  easily  captured  the  city,  and  Guillaume 
announced  the  success  of  his  revolution  by  pro- 
claiming himself  President  of  the  republic. 
President  Theodore,  completely  defeated  and  dis- 
credited, took  refuge  upon  a  Dutch  vessel  in  the 
harbor  of  Port-au-Prince.  With  Guillaume's 
victorious  army  in  possession  of  the  capital  and 
Theodore  a  fugitive,  the  National  Assembly  was 
easily  persuaded  to  proclaim  Guillaume  pro- 
visional President  of  the  republic.  No  sooner 
had  General  Guillaume  established  himself  in 
the  presidency  than  he  was  confronted  by  a 
counter-revolution,  for  ex-President  Oreste 
Zamor,  who  had  ingloriously  fied  the  country 
in  1914,  now  returned  to  harass  the  new  gov- 
ernment. Zamor's  forces,  however,  were  eas- 
ily defeated  in  a  battle  near  Hinche,  March  13, 
and  the  gallant  soldier  of  fortune  was  himself 
taken  prisoner.  While  General  Zamor,  after 
his  unsuccessful  revolt,  languished  in  the  prison 


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at  Port-au-Prince,  early  in  April  a  freah  rebel- 
lion against  President  Guillaume  was  prepared 
by  Gen.  Rosalvo  Bobo,  a  former  minister  of 
Haiti  to  the  Dominican  Republic.  Cap  Haitien, 
and  Trou,  and  Fort  Libert^  quickly  succumbed 
to  rebel  attacks.  Grande  Riviere  and  Limbe  were 
captured  several  times  by  General  Bobo's  forces, 
but  retaken  as  frequently  by  the  presidential 
troops. 

Financial  Diffioulties  tcith  the  United  States. 
The  distressing  political  situation  in  Haiti  was 
complicated  by  the  operation  of  foreign  financial 
interests.  In  the  Yeab  Book  for  1914,  men- 
tion was  made  of  the  difficulties  encountered 
by  the  Haitian  ^vemment  with  its  French, 
German,  and  British  creditors,  and  of  the 
fact  that  the  National  Bank  of  Haiti  had 
transferred  a  large  government  gold  deposit 
from  Haiti  to  New  York  City,  much  to  the 
chagrin  of  President  Theodore.  Consequently, 
in  January,  1915,  President  Theodore  closed 
up  the  National  Bank  and  established  a  new 
bank  in  its  stead.  The  officials  of  the  old 
bank  raised  strenuous  protests.  Their  protests, 
it  is  interesting  to  note,  were  seconded  by  the 
American  minister  to  Haiti.  In  February  the  in- 
terest taken  by  the  United  States  government  in 
Haitian  financial  questions  was  even  more 
clearly  manifested,  when  President  Wilson  sent 
ex-Governor  Fort  of  New  Jersey  to  Haiti  with 
instructions  to  strive  to  bring  about  better 
relations  between  Haiti  and  the  United  States, 
and  to  settle  the  financial  difficulties.  When 
ex-Govemor  Fort's  mission  proved  futile,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  in  April  appointed  a  new  represen- 
tative, Mr.  Paul  Fuller,  to  act  as  the  United 
States'  representative  in  securing  a  satisfactory 
settlement  of  Haitian  financial  affairs.  At  the 
same  time,  American  bankers  refused  to  extend 
any  credit  to  Haiti  unless  the  prompt  payment 
of  interest  and  sinking  fund  charges  could  be 
guaranteed.  President  Guillaume  was  informed 
that  in  order  to  obtain  the  funds  of  which  he 
stood  in  sore  need,  he  would  have  to  turn  over 
the  administration  of  the  Haitian  customs 
houses  to  United  States  officials.  In  spite  of 
his  necessity,  and  in  disregard  of  Mr.  Fuller's 
plausible  arguments,  President  Guillaume  abso- 
lutely refus^  to  make  the  desired  arrangement, 
which  would  have  been  equivalent  to  makinsr 
his  country  a  financial  protectorate  of  the  United 
States.  In  his  defiance  of  the  United  States, 
he  was  supposed  to  have  the  support  of  Haiti's 
French  and  German  creditors,  who  presumably 
would  be  reluctant  to  have  the  Haitian  customs 
revenues  pass  into  American  hands. 

Assassination  of  President  Ouillaume,  Not- 
withstanding his  financial  perplexities.  Presi- 
dent Guillaume  succeeded  in  crushing  the  re- 
bellions instigated  against  him.  In  May  his 
troops,  with  the  support  of  government  gunboats, 
recaptured  Cap  Haitien  and  several  smaller 
places,  forcing  General  Bobo  to  flee  to  Trou. 
In  July  another  revolutionary  band  under  Gren. 
Quartier  Morin  was  defeated  and  dispersed,  and 
the  railway  between  Cap  Haitien  and  Grande 
Riviere  could  be  opened  to  traffic  for  the  first 
time  since  April.  By  casting  his  rivals  and  op- 
ponents into  prison,  and  by  the  employment  of 
dictatorial  methods,  President  Guillaume  sought 
still  further  to  enhance  his  own  power.  But  a 
new  rdbellion  was  already  brewing.  Tales  of 
the  cruel  treatment  of  political  prisoners  filled 
the   x>opulace    of    Port-au-Prince   with    horror. 


The  climax  came  in  August,  when  General  Oscar, 
governor  of  Port-au-Prmce,  and  an  associate  of 
Guillaume,  massacred  160  political  prisoners, 
including  that  Oreste  Zamor  whose  unsuccessful 
attempt  at  insurrection  has  already  received 
notice.  The  massacre  was  immediately  followed 
by  a  popular  uprising  in  Port-au-Prince.  The 
palaces  of  Oscar  and  Guillaume  were  captured 
by  mobs.  Both  Oscar  and  Guillaume  were  shot 
down,  and  their  bodies  dragged  through  the 
streets  of  Port-au-Prince.  Gen.  Sudre  Darti- 
guenave,  president  of  the  Senate,  was  elected  by 
the  National  Assemblv  to  act  as  provisional 
President  of  the  republic. 

American  Intervention  in  Haiti.  The  fail- 
ure of  Mr.  Fuller's  mission  and  the  continuance 
of  chaotic  political  conditions  in  Haiti  convinced 
the  United  States  government  that  armed  inter- 
vention was  necessary  in  order  properly  to  pro- 
tect American  interests.  Consequently,  in  Jime 
Rear  Admiral  Caperton  was  ordered  to  proceed 
with  the  armored  cruiser  Washington  from  Vera 
Cruz  to  Cap  Haitien  to  relieve  the  French 
cruiser  Descartes  which  had  been  keeping  order. 
In  July  American  marines,  in  attempting  to  land 
at  Port-au-Prince,  were  attacked  by  natives.  In 
the  ensuing  skirmish  two  marines  and  six  na- 
tives were  killed.  Rear  Admiral  Caperton  at- 
tempted in  August  to  bring  about  an  end  of  the 
many  revolutions  by  sending  a  commission  to 
the  leading  revolutionary  chiefs.  General  Blot 
agreed  to  withdraw  from  the  conflict,  but  Gen- 
eral Bobo  rejected  the  proposal.  On  August  6th 
marines  from  the  battleship  Connecticut,  which 
had  been  ordered  to  Haiti,  took  possession  of  the 
fort  dominating  the  city  of  Port-au-Prince. 
This  action  brought  about  resistance  from  the 
Haitians,  with  the  result  that  one  native  was 
killed.  Three  days  later  Rear  Admiral  Caper- 
ton took  over  the  administration  of  the  customs 
house  of  the  capital.  The  rioting  which  followed 
the  election  of  General  Dartiguenave  as  presi- 
dent of  the  republic  (supra)  made  it  necessary 
to  place  Cap  Haitien  under  martial  law  and  to 
send  a  force  of  American  marines  also  to  occupy 
St.  Mare.  A  week  later  the  Americans  entered 
Port  de  Paix,  a  town  of  10,000  inhabitants  situ- 
ated northwest  of  Cap  Haitien.  Late  in  August 
the  announcement  was  made  that  the  United 
States  had  asked  Haiti  to  accept  without  delay 
the  draft  of  a  convention  which  imdertook  to 
establish  an  effective  control  of  Haitian  finances 
by  the  United  States.  On  September  16th  this 
convention  was  signed  by  both  parties.  It  pro- 
vided for  (1)  the  establishment  of  a  Haitian 
receivership  of  customs  under  American  con- 
trol; (2)  the  establishment  of  a  native  constabu- 
lary force  under  the  command  of  American  offi- 
cers; (3)  the  establishment  of  American  control 
over  the  finances  of  Haiti  to  an  extent  necessary 
to  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  Haitian  people 
and  of  their  foreign  creditors;  and  (4)  a  term 
of  10  years  during  which  the  treaty  was  to  re- 
main in  force,  with  the  possibility  of  extending 
it  at  the  expiration  of  that  period  if  either  of 
the  signatories  should  so  desire.  Meanwhile, 
without  waiting  for  the  signature  of  the  con- 
vention, the  American  forces  which  had  land^ 
in  Haiti  had  already  assumed  control  of  the 
Haitian  customs  houses,  and  Paymasters  Rogers 
and  Van  Patten  were  appointed  collector  of  cus- 
toms and  captain  of  the  port,  respectively.  Fre- 
quent skirmishes  between  the  American  marines 
and    the    Haitian    insurgents    were    reported 


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throui^out  September  and  October.  Near  Gk>- 
nalves,  September  10,  an  engagement  was 
fought  in  which  2  Americans  and  16  Haitians 
were  killed.  Near  Cap  Haitien,  September  26, 
a  more  sanguinary  battle  was  fought,  in  the 
course  of  which  40  Haitians  and  1  American 
were  killed  and  10  Americans  were  wounded. 
Two  of  the  Haitian  leaders,  General  Petion  and 
General  Morency,  entered  into  peace  agreements 
with  the  American  commander,  September  29 
and  October  1.  All  effective  opposition  having 
been  extinguished  by  the  American  landing 
party,  the  agreement  recently  negotiated  could 
now  be  ratified  by  the  Haitian  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, the  first  week  in  October.  The 
Haitian  Senate  signified  its  approval  of  the 
treaty  a  little  more  than  a  month  later,  Novem- 
ber  12.  It  then  only  remained  for  the  United 
States  Senate  to  ratify  the  treaty  in  order  to 
complete  the  formal  ratification  of  the  virtual 
protectorate  which  had  already  been  established 
by  force  of  arms.  By  the  middle  of  November 
tne  last  sparks  of  insurrection  were  reported  to 
have  been  stamped  out,  and  Pres.  Sudre  Darti- 
guenave,  thanks  to  American  support,  enjoyed 
the  unique  distinction  of  maintaining  order  in 
the  republic.  The  government  of  President 
Dartiguenave  had  received  formal  recognition 
from  the  United  States  in  September;  France, 
however,  withheld  recognition  until  the  Presi- 
dent consented,  November  25,  to  offer  formal 
apologies  for  an  attack  which  had  been  made  on 
the  French  legation  at  the  time  of  Guillaume's 
overthrow. 

For  further  details  regarding  the  American 
intervention  in  Haiti,  see  United  States,  Foreign 
Relations, 

HALIFAX.    See  Docks  and  Hasbobs. 

HAIX  EXPLOBATIONS.  See  Exfloka- 
TiONS,  Aaia. 

HATJt  OP  FAME.  An  election  for  addi- 
tional members  to  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  New 
York  University  was  held  in  1915.  Of  the  212 
nominees  proposed  by  the  public  179  were  men 
and  33  women.  In  the  election  held  in  Sep- 
tember the  97  electors  chose  nine  names  as  fol- 
lows and  by  the  vote  indicated:  Alexander 
Hamilton,  70;  Mark  Hopkins,  69;  Francis  Park- 
man,  68;  Elias  Howe,  61;  Joseph  Henry,  56; 
Rufus  Choate,  62;  Daniel  Boone,  52;  Charlotte 
Cushman,  63;  Louis  Agassiz.  Hamilton  and 
Agassiz  had  been  elected  in  1905  to  a  separate 
hall  instituted  for  notable  foreign  bom  Ameri- 
cans. In  1914  it  was  decided  to  do  away  with 
this  discrimination.  John  Paul  Jones  and  Roger 
Williams  had  also  been  elected  to  the  hall  for 
foreign-born,  but  they  failed  of  reelection,  when 
Hamilton  and  Agassiz  were  successful.  How- 
ever, they  remained  in  nomination  for  the  year 
1920.  The  total  number  of  names  admitted  in 
the  four  elections  thus  far  held  include  those  of 
60  men  and  of  6  women. 

HAMILTON  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.  The  total 
enrollment  in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of 
1915  was  189.  The  faculty  numbered  29.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  membership  of 
the  faculty  during  the  year.  Several  small 
benefactions  were  received.  The  productive 
funds  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1915 
amounted  to  $1,100,000.  In  the  library  were 
67,000  volumes. 

HAMPTON  NOBMAL  AND  AGEICUL- 
TTJBAL  INSTITUTE.    An  institution  for  the 


higher  education  of  negroes,  at  Hampton,  Va. 
The  total  number  of  students  in  all  departments, 
including  the  primary  day  school  and  summer 
school,  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1780.  The 
faculty  numbered  130.  The  productive  funds 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1915, 
amounted  to  $2,835,304.  The  total  receipts  from 
all  sources  for  the  same  period  $478,735.  The 
library  contained  35,419  volumes.  During  the 
year  Mayor  Richard  Moton,  who  had  been  identi- 
fied with  Hampton,  was  chosen  to  head  Tusk^ee 
Institute  in  suooession  to  Vr.  Booker  T.  Wash- 
ington. 

HANDBUBT,  Thomas  Henbt.  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  died  April  23,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1865.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
second  lieutenant  in  the  artillery,  but  was 
transferred  to  the  engineering  oorpe  in  1866 
as  first  lieutenant.  He  served  in  San  Francisco 
until  1872,  when  he  was  detailed  to  West  Point 
as  assistant  professor  of  engineering,  remain* 
ing  there  until  1876.  From  1883-88  he  was 
engineering  officer  of  the  division  of  Missouri, 
and  from  1888-93  was  in  charge  of  the  improve- 
ments in  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  He 
was  superintending  engineer  of  the  Mississippi 
River  improvements  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
souri to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  from  1896-99. 
In  1905  he  was  promoted  to  colonel,  and  was  re- 
tired. 

HABBOBS.    See  Docks  and  Habbobs. 

HABDIE,  jAiiES  Keib.  An  English  labor 
leader,  and  member  of  Parliament,  died  Sept.  26, 
1915.  He  was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1856,  and  at 
the  age  of  seven  was  put  to  work  in  the  mines  as 
helper.  He  continuea  to  earn  his  living  in  the 
mines  until  he  was  twenty-four  years  old.  In  his 
spare  moments  he  studied  diligently,  and  early 
became  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  doing 
something  for  the  working  classes.  While  stiU 
a  workman  he  took  an  active  part  in  tiie  organi- 
zation of  mininff  labor,  and  was  elected  secretary 
to  the  Lanarkshire  Miners  Union.  In  1882  he 
was  appointed  an  editor  of  the  Cumnock  Neic$, 
and  continued  in  that  capacity  until  1886.  In 
that  year  he  went  actively  into  politics,  and  in 
1888  became  the  Labor  candidate  for  Mid-Lanark. 
He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1892, 
was  defeated  in  1895,  and  returned  in  1900,  from 
Wales.  He  became  one  of  the  most  notable  lead- 
ers in  the  labor  movement,  and  visited  the 
United  States  in  1895,  and  again  in  1908.  He 
returned  the  following  year,  and  three  years 
later  made  a  tour  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Mr.  Hardie  was  a  Socialist,  and  was 
violently  opposed  to  war.  On  Aug.  2,  1914,  he 
delivered  a  speech  in  Trafalgar  Square,  London, 
in  which  he  demanded  that  Great  Britain  remain 
neutral.  He  called  upon  the  working  men  of 
the  world  to  use  their  influence,  industrial  and 
political,  to  stop  the  war.  On  Aug.  27,  1914, 
he  caused  a  bitter  demonstration  in  the  House 
of  Commons  when  he  attempted  to  cross-examine 
Sir  Edward  Grey,  concerning  the  negotiations 
then  being  carried  on.  On  Feb.  14,  1915,  Hardie 
was  one  of  the  40  Socialist  leaders  who  met  in 
London  to  discuss  the  attitude  of  Socialists  dur- 
ing the  war.  The  resolution  was  then  adopted 
concerning  the  right  and  duty  of  the  nation  to 
defend  itself  from  attack.  In  1907  he  made 
visits  to  India  and  Australia.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  Labor  Leader,  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  magazines  and  reviews,  and  chair- 


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HAWAWESNY 


man  of  the  Independent  Labor  Party.  Hardie 
was  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  picturesque 
figures  in  British  public  life  for  more  than  25 
years.  As  a  Socialist  leader  of  the  Labor  Party 
in  the  House  of  Commons  he  acquired  wide  fame. 

HABDY,  Joseph  Johnson.  An  American 
educator,  died  May  2,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
New  Castle,  England,  in  1844,  was  brought  to 
the  United  States  by  his  parents  in  1846,  and 
graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in  1870.  In 
1891  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  in  that  college  and  held  this  position 
until  his  death.  He  was  the  author  of  Analy- 
tical Oeometry,  Infinitesi/mals  and  lAtniis. 

HABBIS,  Andrew  Lintes.  An  American 
government  official,  former  Governor  of  Ohio, 
died  Sep.  13,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Butler 
County,  Ohio,  in  1835,  and  graduated  from 
Miami  University  in  1860.  He  was  appointed 
second  lieutenant  in  the  20th  Ohio  infantry  in 
1861,  and  served  throughout  the  war,  rising 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
In  1865  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  from 
1875  to  1882  was  probate  judge  of  Preble  County. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Senate  from  1866- 
67,  of  the  House  of  Representatives  1885-89, 
lieutenant-governor  of  Ohio  from  1892-96.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Industrial 
Convention  from  1898-1902,  and  from  1906-09 
was  Governor  of  Ohio.  He  was  a  member  of 
several  patriotic  societies. 

HABRISON  LAW  (Nabootig  Law).  En- 
acted on  Dec.  17, 1914,  the  Harrison  Federal  Law 
went  into  effect  on  March  1,  1915.  It  obliges 
every  distributor  of  opium,  morphine,  chloral, 
or  other  narcotics  to  pay  a  special  tax  to  the 
local  collector  of  internal  revenue,  and  display 
prominently  a  special  license.  Records  must 
be  kept  by  the  druggist  or  dealer,  or  the  physi- 
cian who  dispenses  the  narcotic,  stating  how 
much  was  dispensed,  for  what  person,  and  under 
what  physician's  order,  under  severe  penalties 
for  neglect.  These  records  must  at  all  times 
be  open  to  irregular  calls  of  an  inspector.  No- 
ticeable lessening  of  the  use  of  narcotics  has 
be^i  the  result,  and  the  number  of  addicts  seek- 
ing relief  from  the  sufferings  of  rapid  withdrawal 
is  already  decreasing. 

HABVABD  UNIVEBSITY.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of 
1915  was  5699.  The  faculty  numbered  859.  The 
university  received  in  April,  $100,000  by  the 
will  of  James  J.  Myers,  of  Cambridge.  The 
Widener  Memorial  Library,  erected  in  memory 
of  Harry  Elkins  Widener,  was  dedicated  on 
June  24th.  This  library  ranks  third  in  capac- 
ity among  the  libraries  of  the  country.  On 
October  4th  gifts  amounting  to  $155,601  were 
announced,  and  on  October  27th  gifts  amount- 
ing to  $142,000  and  including  $125,000  given  by 
James  J.  Hill  were  announced.  The  total  pro- 
ductive funds  at  the  end  of  the  collegiate  year 
1914-15  amounted  to  $25,448,701.  The  annual 
income  was  about  $3,000,000.  For  further  no- 
tice in  regard  to  the  university,  see  Universi- 
ties AND  Colleges. 

HAUPTMANNy  Gebhabt. — ^Performance  of 
"The  Weavers"  in  English.  See  Drama, 
American  and  English. 

HAWAII.  Population.  The  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  on  June  30, 
1915,  was  232,856,  which  includes  9600  soldiers 
and  officers  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  Orien- 
tals   numbered    136,626.    Native    full    blooded 


Hawaiians  continued  to  decrease.  The  total 
number  of  births  was  8507,  an  increase  of  1751 
over  1914.  The  total  number  of  deaths  was 
3556,  a  decrease  of  151  from  the  previous  year. 

Industrial  Conditions.  The  year  1915  was 
one  of  unusual  prosperity.  A  greater  quantity  of 
sugar  was  produced  than  in  1915  and  the  finan- 
cial returns  from  this  staple  were  greater.  The 
second  commodity  in  importance  as  regards  pro- 
duction and  gross  value  was  canned  pineapple. 

Commerce.  The  total  imports  from  the  United 
States  for  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to  $20,- 
295,829.  Of  this  $11,799,316  represents  manu- 
factures ready  for  consumption.  The  shipments 
from  Hawaii  to  the  United  States  amounted  to 
$60,610,935;  of  this  $59,345,247  represents  food- 
stuffs. The  total  value  of  the  sugar  exported 
to  the  United  States  was  $52,959,697.  Canned 
pineapple  amounted  in  value  to  $5,986,198,  and 
the  total  of  fruits  and  nuts  to  $6,189,203. 

Education.  The  number  of  school  children 
increased  3241  in  1915,  making  a  total  of  36,529. 
The  school  accommodations  under  the  bungalow 
system  of  buildings  so  well  adapted  to  the  cli- 
mate and  financial  resources  are  rapidly  supply- 
ing the  demand  for  room  for  the  marked  increase 
of  pupils. 

Finance.  The  assessments  of  property  in- 
creased $15,413,996  over  1914,  making  a  total  of 
$176,401,222.  The  total  revenue  collected  by 
the  Territory  and  countries  aggregated  $4,691,- 
831.  Of  this  $2,557,676  was  set  aside  by  law 
for  the  county  governments,  and  $2,134,156  re- 
mained for  territorial  expenditure;  $3,162,148 
was  available  for  the  Territory  from  current 
revenues  and  $2,747,270  was  expended,  leaving  a 
net  cash  balance  at  the  close  of  the  year  of  $414,- 
878.  The  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  territory 
was  increased  during  the  year  by  the  sale  of 
$1,179,500  of  4  per  cent  public  improvement 
bondSi  issued  in  1914,  and  was  decreased  by  the 
payment  of  $150,000  of  4%  per  cent  public  im- 
provement bonds. 

Public  Health.  The  general  health  condi- 
tions in  the  islands  were  better  during  the  year 
than  during  1913  and  1914.  At  the  last  session 
of  the  Legislature  a  number  of  new  laws  relat- 
ing to  public  health  were  passed  and  some 
amended.  Provision  was  made  for  the  care,  con- 
trol, and  treatment  of  persons  addicted  to  the 
excessive  use  of  drugs  or  liquor. 

Public  Works.  Public  works  were  energeti- 
cally pushed  forward  during  the  year,  particu- 
larly wharves  and  water-front  improvements. 
Nearly  every  island  port  had  some  attention. 
The  construction  of  a  modern  prison  was  com- 
menced during  the  year.  Plans  for  material  en- 
largement of  Honolulu  harbor  were  made  but 
the  necessary  appropriations  had  not  been  made 
by  Congress.  Extensive  wharf  improvements 
are  being  entered  upon  by  Honolulu. 

Work  was  renewed  on  the  great  nava]  dry- 
dock,  which  was  begun  in  July,  1909,  in  the 
early  part  of  1915.  Owing  to  the  great  pres- 
sure through  the  porous  coral  reef  on  which 
the  dock  is  built,  the  bottom  heaved  upward 
on  Feb.  17,  1913,  and  work  ceased  at  that  time. 
New  plans  were  adopted,  and  the  dock  will  be 
much  larger  than  originally  designed.  The  new 
dimensions  are  1029  feet  long,  148  feet  wide  at 
the  top,  and  35  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.  The 
total  cost  under  new  contract  will  be  $4,442,152. 
The  date  for  completion  is  July  1,  1918. 

HAWA  WEENY,     Raphael.    A    bishop    of 


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the  Syrian-Greek  Orthodox  Church,  died  Feb.  27, 
1915.  He  was  bom  in  Damascus  and  graduated 
from  the  Syrian  Greek  Orthodox  School  in  1870. 
In  1876  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  having  become  a  priest  was  made 
abbot  of  St.  Ignatius  in  Moscow.  In  1803  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  of  the  Arabic  language 
at  Kazan.  He  removed  to  the  United  States  in 
1896  as  the  head  of  the  Syrian  Greek  Orthodox 
Mission  of  North  America,  and  in  1904  was 
made  bishop  of  North  and  South  America,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death. 

HAT.  Data  on  the  production  of  hay  in 
1915  were  available  only  for  the  United  States, 
which  produced  the  largest  crop  in  its  history. 
The  production,  according  to  estimates  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  amounted  to  85,226,- 
000  tons,  which  was  12,534,000  tons  above  the 
next  largest  crop— produced  in  1912.  An  area 
of  50,872,000  acres  was  devoted  to  the  crop,  and 
while  this  was  quite  large,  exceeding  the  area 
of  the  preceding  year  by  more  than  1,500,000 
acres  and  the  average  area  for  the  five-year  pe- 
riod, 1909-13,  by  over  1,000,000  acres,  it  was  sur- 
passed in  several  previous  years.  The  average 
yield  of  1.68  tons  per  acre  also  constituted  a 
record  and  was  one-fourth  of  a  ton  above  the 
acre  yield  for  1014  and  over  one-third  of  a  ton 
above  the  acre  yield  for  the  five-year  period 
1909-13.  Although  the  farm  value  on  December 
1,  $10.70  per  ton,  was  42  cents  under  the  cor- 
responding value  the  year  before  and  $1.43  under 
the  same  value  for  the  five-year  period  above 
mentioned,  the  total  value  of  the  crop  estimated 
on  this  basis  stood  unsurpassed  and  amounted  to 
$912,320,000.  Estimates  published  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  during  the  year  place 
the  area  of  wild  hay,  or  hay  made  from  the 
natural  grasses  growing  on  uncultivated  lands, 
cut  in  the  North  Central  States  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, at  12,675,000  acres,  523,000  acres  more 
than  the  tame  hay  in  those  States  and  almost 
three-fourths  of  the  estimated  total  of  approx- 
imately 17,000,000  acres  of -wild  hay  cut  in  the 
entire  country.  The  same  authority  published 
estimates  pointing  out  that  in  addition  to  the 
hay  fed  to  the  live  stock  of  the  country  about 
55  per  cent  of  the  estimated  annual  production 
of  120,000,000  tons  of  straw  of  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley*  rye,  rice,  flax,  and  buckwheat  are  used  for 
feeding  purposes.    See  also  Aobicultube. 

HAXy  John.  See  Literatube,  English  and 
AifXBiOAN,  History. 

HAZELTINE,  George.  An  American  lawyer 
and  editor,  died  Sept.  9,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Bradford,  Mass.,  in  1829,  and  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1854.  In  1862  he  removed 
to  London  where  he  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the 
London  American,  He  then  began  the  practice 
of  law  in  that  city,  and  for  several  years  was 
one  of  the  best  known  lawyers  in  London,  taking 
part  in  the  trial  of  many  important  cases  on  let- 
ters patent  before  the  King's  bench.  In  1876  he 
returned  to  New  York,  and  became  senior  mem- 
ber of  a  patent  firm  under  the  name  of  Hazeltine 
and  Co.  He  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  lead- 
ing patent  lawyers  of  the  world,  and  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  present  patent  laws  of  Ger- 
many. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  President 
Lincoln,  and  other  prominent  men  of  that  time. 
He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  and  the  University  of  Albany. 

HEALTH.    <See  Hygiene. 

HEAIiTH    BESOBTS.    See    Htdrothebapt. 


HEABN,  Lafcadio.  See  Litebatusb,  Eng- 
lish AND  American,  Essays. 

HEIDENSTAM,  Verner  von.  A  Swedish 
scientist,  who  in  1915  received  a  third  of  the 
Nobel  Prize  for  literary  work.  Bom  in  1859,  his 
earliest  tastes  were  for  painting,  which  he 
adopted  as  a  profession,  but  was  obliged  to  give 
up  on  account  of  ill  health.  After  spending 
some  time  in  traveling  abroad  he  returned  to 
Sweden,  took  up  his  residence  in  Stockholm,  and 
devoted  himself  to  writing.  His  first  work,  pub- 
lished in  1888,  was  called  Vallfart  och  Vand- 
ringsar.  Its  merits  brought  him  into  the  front 
rank  of  Swedish  poets.  This  volume  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  book  on  travel  entitled  From  the  Col 
di  Tenia  to  Blocksherg,  and  this  was  followed 
in  1889  by  a  novel  called  Endymion,  In  1892 
appeared  the  novel  by  which  his  name  and  lit- 
erary style  are  best  known.  It  is  entitled  Hans 
AlienuSy  and  is  partly  allegorical  and  partly  bio- 
graphical. With  this  book  Heindenstam  took 
his  place  in  the  new  school  of  high  intellectual 
thought  and  conservative  tendencies.  He  pub- 
lished other  books,  including  poems,  novels,  and 
essays.  These  include  Charles  XII  and  His 
Wars,  published  in  1897-98.  This  indicated  the 
beginning  of  the  interest  in  Swedish  national 
life  and  history,  which  has  given  Heidenstam 
wide  popularity  wherever  the  Swedish  language 
is  read  or  spoken,  and  was  chiefly  instriunen- 
tal  in  bringing  him  the  Nobel  Prize.  Other 
works  include  Tankar  Och  Techningar  (1899); 
St.  George  and  the  Dragon  (a  collection  of 
sketches,  1900) ;  The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Holy 
Bridget  ( 1901 ) ;  Classicism  and  Teutonism 
(1901)  ;  Folkungatradet  (a  Viking  novel,  1905) ; 
Dagar  Och  Handelser  ( 1909 ) ;  Svenskama  Och 
Deras  Hordingar  (1909);  Prolstar-Filosfiens 
Upplosing  Och  Fall  (1911);  and  Stridskiften 
(1912). 

HELIi  GATE  BBIDGE.     See  Bridges. 

HEUOTHEBAPY.     See  I'ubebculosis. 

HENDEBSON,  Charles  Richmond.  An 
American  sociologist  and  educator,  died  March 
29,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Covington,  Ind.,  in 
1848.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago in  1870,  and  studied  at  the  Baptist  Union 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1873  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Baptist  ministry,  and  served  in  pastorates 
in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  and  Detroit.  In  1892  he 
was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  sociology 
and  university  recorder  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago. He  became  associate  professor  in  1894, 
and  professor  of  sociology  in  1897.  From  1904 
until  his  death  he  was  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  practical  sociology.  He  was  associate 
editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Theology, 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  and  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Criminal  Law  and 
Criminology.  He  held  office  at  many  conferences 
of  charities  and  corrections  in  the  United  States 
and  abroad,  and  was  a  member  of  many  associa- 
tions. He  received  a  Ph.D.  from  Leipzig  in 
1901.  His  published  writings  include  Intro- 
duction to  Study  of  Dependent,  Defective  and  De- 
linquent Classes  (1893-1901),  Development  of 
Doctrine  in  the  Epistles  (1894),  The  Social 
Spirit  in  America  (1896),  Social  Settlements 
( 1897 ) ,  Social  Elements  ( 1898 ) .  He  also  edited 
important  volumes  relating  to  social  subjects. 

HENSEL,  William  Uhler.  An  American 
lawyer  and  educator,  died  Feb.  27,  1915.  He 
was  born  at  Quarryville,  Pa.,  in  1851,  and  in 
1870  graduated  from  Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 


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802  HISTOBICSAL  AS80CIATI0H 


lege.  In  1873  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
in  1891  was  appointed  attorney-general  to  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  holding  this  position 
until  1895.  He  was  prominent  in  politics,  being 
chairman  of  the  State  Democratic  Ck)mmittee 
1882-87,  and  delegate  to  many  Democratic  na- 
tional conventicms.  He  received  the  degrees  of 
LL.D.  from  Didcinson  College,  Washington  and 
Lee  College,  and  Litt.D.  from  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College  in  1912,  and  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies. 

HEBEDITT.  See  Eugekicb,  passim;  and  In- 
SAinTr. 

TTRRRRSHOFF,  John  Bbown.  An  Ameri- 
can yacht  designer,  died  July  20,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  1841  in  Bristol,  R.  I.  As  a  result  of  an 
accident  when  he  was  16  years  of  age  he  be- 
came totally  blind.  In  spite  of  this  he  estab- 
lished a  ship-yard  and  built  several  small  craft 
which  were  noted  for  their  speed.  In  1873  with 
his  brother,  Nathaniel  Green  Herreshoff,  he  be- 
gan to  design  and  build  steam  vessels  and  steam 
laimches.  In  1893  the  brothers  designed  and 
built  the  cup  defender  VigUa/nt,  and  from  that 
time  they  constructed  every  yacht  built  to  de- 
fend the  America's  cup.  Tliese  include  the  De- 
fender, Columbia,  Reliance,  and  Resolute,  The 
last  named  was  built  in  1914. 

HEBVIEUy  Paul  Ernest.  A  French  dram- 
atist, died  Oct.  25,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1857, 
at  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  just  outside  the  city  of 
Paris,  and  was  educated  at  Lycte  Condorcet  and 
the  Ecole  de  Droit,  in  Paris.  He  studied  law 
and  began  practice  in  1877.  Soon  afterwards  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  and  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  French  legation  in  Mexico.  He 
resigned  this  post  in  1880  to  devote  his  talents 
to  literary  work.  His  first  publication  was  a 
series  of  political,  social,  and  satiric  sketches. 
His  first  ^ay,  Les  paroles  restent,  was  produced 
in  Paris  m  1892.  This  was  followed  by  Les 
tenailles  (1896),  La  lot  de  Vhomme  (1897), 
Point  de  lendemain  (1901),  L'6nigme  (1901), 
Th^roigne  de  Mericourt  (1902),  Le  didale 
(1903),  Le  rSveU  (1905),  Connaistoi  (1909), 
Bagatelle  (1912),  and  Le  destin  est  mmtre, 
which  last  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Port 
Saint-Martin,  Paris,  in  1914.  His  masterpiece 
is  generally  considered  to  be  La  course  du  flam- 
beau,  which  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1900.  His 
dramas  were  nearly  all  intended  to  illustrate 
some  philosophical  point  in  which  he  was  at  the 
time  especially  interested,  and  many  of  them  at- 
tacked the  divorce  laws  of  France.  Hervieu  was 
a  prolific  writer  of  short  stories,  and  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  contemporary  playwrights, 
the  greater  number  of  his  works  being  produced 
by  actors  of  wide  reputation.  In  1913  M.  Her- 
vieu, angered  bv  criticisms  published  in  L' Action 
Franffaise,  challenged  its  editor,  Leon  Daudet,  to 
a  duel.  They  exchanged  four  shots,  none  of 
which  took  effect,  and  shortly  after  this  a  recon- 
ciliation was  effected  by  their  friends.  M.  Her- 
vieu was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  a 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  was  for 
many  years  president  of  the  Society  of  Authors. 
See  also  Fbench  Litebatube,  Literary  Events, 

HEBZEGOVINA,  The.  See  Austbia-Hun- 
GABT;  and  Bosnia  and  Hebzegovina. 

HESPESIAN   CASE.    See   United   States 

AND   THE   WaB. 

HESSE.     See  Qebmant. 

See  MiNERALOQT. 


HEWLETT,  Maubioe.    See  Litebatube,  Eno- 

USH   AND  AMEBICAN,  FfOlfOfl. 

HEYWOOD,  Chables.  An  American  officer 
of  the  marine  corps,  died  Feb.  26,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  Waterville,  Me.,  in  1839.  In  1858  he 
was  appointed  second  lieutenant  and  two  years 
later  became  captain.  His  first  service  was  in 
quelling  quarantine  riots  in  Staten  Island,  N.  Y., 
in  1868.  Later  he  was  on  special  service  taking 
captured  negroes  back  to  Africa.  He  served  on 
the  United  States  battleship  Cumberland  from 
September,  1860,  until  she  was  sunk  by  the  Mer- 
rimao  in  1862.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Hatteras  Inlet,  and  in  the  capture  of  Forts  Hat- 
teras  and  Clark.  During  the  battle  of  Mobile 
Bay  he  was  on  the  Hartford,  and  was  also  pres- 
ent at  the  capture  of  Forts  Gaines,  Morgan,  and 
Powell.  He  was  brevetted  major  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  for  distinguished  gallantry.  After  the 
war  he  commanded  battalions  of  marines  at  Bal- 
timore, Philadelphia,  and  Reading  during  labor 
riots.  In  1885  he  organized  and  equipped  a  bat- 
talion to  open  transit  and  protect  American 
lives  and  property  at  Panama.  From  1891  to 
1903  he  was  commandant  of  United  States  ma- 
rine corps,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  was  retired 
with  the  rank  of  major-general. 

HIDES.    See  Leatheb. 

HIGH  COST  OF  LIVIKG.    See  Food  and 

NUTBITION. 

HIGH  PBBSS1TBE  FIBE  SYSTEMS.  See 
Fibe  Pbotection. 

HIGH  SCHOOLS.  See  Education  in  the 
United  States. 

HINDEHBTJBG,  Paul  von  Beneckendobf 
UND  VON  (1847—).  A  German  soldier  bom 
in  Posen.  He  entered  the  army  in  1866  and 
served  in  the  war  against  Austria  in  that  year, 
and  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870-71. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Koniggratz  in  the 
former,  and  at  St.  Privat  and  the  battle  of  Se- 
dan in  the  latter.  He  received  a  military  edu- 
cation (1872-76)  and  served  on  the  General 
Staff  and  as  head  of  the  War  Department.  He 
became  major-general  in  1900  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1903.  In  1911  he  was  retired,  but  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  in  1914  was  re- 
called and  given  chief  command  of  the  campaign 
against  Russia.  At  Tannenberg  he  won  a  great 
victory  over  the  Russians.  In  1870  and  1914 
he  was  decorated  with  the  Iron  Cross,  and  in 
the  latter  year  was  made  a  field  marshal.  He 
commanded  the  great  drive  into  Russia,  in  1915, 
which  conquered  Poland  and  threatened  Riga 
and  the  Black  Sea  ports.  See  Wab  of  the  Na- 
tions.   

HISTAMINE  HTDBOGHLOBIDB.  This 
substance  has  a  powerful  contractile  action  on 
certain  muscular  fibres,  as  well  as  a  strong 
vasoconstrictor  action.  It  was  first  prepared 
synthetically  by  Windaus  and  Vogy  in  1907, 
and  was  isolated  from  ergot  in  1910  by  Kuts- 
cher,  Barger,  and  Dale.  The  drug  is  a  valuable 
reagent  for  the  standardization  of  pituitary  and 
similar  preparations,  but  has  not  yet  been  rec- 
ommended for  therapeutic  use  in  place  of  pitu- 
itary extract,  in  spite  of  its  similarity  in  phy- 
siolosric  action. 

HISTOSIGAL  ASSOCIATION.  Amebican. 
The  Association  held  a  special  session  in  July, 
1915,  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Historical  Congress 
in  California.  The  papers  read  there  dealt 
with  the  history  of  Spanish-American  States, 
the   Pacific   States,   British    Columbia,   Ala^a, 


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HIBTOBICSAL  ASSOCIATION 


803 


HOKDUBAS 


Japan,  Philippines,  and  Aiiatralaaia  in  their 
respective  relations  with  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
President  H.  Morse  Stephens  gave  an  address 
on  the  "Conflict  of  the  European  Nations  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean."  The  regular  annual  meet- 
ing, held  at  Washington  on  Dec.  27-31,  1915, 
was  exceptionally  w<ul  attended  on  account  of 
the  interest  aroused  by  a  controversy  as  to  the 
relationshin  between  the  Association  and  its 
official  publication,  The  American  Hiaiorical  Re- 
view. After  a  report  by  Prof.  Edward  P.  Chey- 
ney  a  vote  of  confidence  was  given  to  the  edi- 
tors of  the  Review.  A  large  number  of  excel- 
lent papers  were  read  at  the  meeting.  Three 
sessions  were  devoted  to  the  topic  of  national- 
ism, and  in  his  presidential  address  Professor 
Stephens  placed  special  emphasis  on  the  crim- 
inal responsibility  of  nationalistic  historians. 
The  session  on  ancient  history  was  devoted  to 
"Economic  Causes  of  International  Rivalries 
and  Wars  in  Ancient  Times.*'  Another  session 
discussed  medieval  colonization,  and  in  the 
American  history  session  Prof.  William  I.  Hull 
discussed  the  Monroe  Doctrine  as  applied  to 
Mexico,  and  Sen.  Albert  J.  Beveridge  described 
some  interesting  traits  of  character  of  John 
Marshall.    The  meeting  also  gave  further  im- 

EitoB  to  the  movement  for  a  Federal  Archives 
uilding.  The  following  officers  were  elected 
at  the  annual  meeting:  President,  G.  L.  Burr; 
first  vice-president,  Worthington  C.  Ford;  sec- 
ond vice-president,  William  Roscoe  Thayer. 
The  council  consists  of  E.  C.  Barker,  G.  S.  Ford, 
C.  H.  Haskins,  U.  B.  Phillips,  Lucy  M.  Salmon, 
and  S.  B.  Harding.  J.  Franklin  Jameson  is 
managinff  editor  of  the  Review.  The  present 
memto'ship  of  the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion is  about  3000. 

HISTOBT.  For  noteworthy  historical  works 
of  the  year,  see  historical  sections  of  articles 
referred  to  under  Ltteraturb. 

HOCXET.  The  St.  Nicholas  Skating  Club  of 
New  York  City  for  the  second  successive  year 
won  the  championship  of  the  American  Ama- 
teur Hockey  League,  but  only  after  a  hard  fight 
with  the  Boston  A.  A.  seven,  a  newcomer  in  the 
organization.  St.  Nicholas  scored  7  victories 
as  against  1  defeat,  while  Boston  won  6  games 
and  lost  2.  The  standing  of  the  other  teams 
was:  Hockey  Club  of  New  York,  won  3,  lost 
6;  Crescent  A.  C,  won  3,  lost  5;  Irish- American 
A.  C,  won  1,  lost  7.  Games  between  American 
and  Canadian  teams  resulted  as  follows:  St. 
Nicholas  S.  C.  3,  Toronto  Argonauts  2;  St. 
Nicholas  S.  C.  4,  Queens  University  1 ;  St.  Nich- 
olas S.  C.  5,  St.  Michaels,  Toronto,  1;  Ottawa 
University  7,  Crescent  A.  C.  3;  Ottawa  Uni- 
versity 8,  Boston  A.  A.  2.  The  Wanderers  of 
Ottawa  won  the  championship  of  Canada  by  de- 
feating Montreal  in  tiie  final  game.  The  score 
was  4  to  1.  The  Wanderers  of  Montreal  van- 
quished Quebec  in  a  series  of  professional 
matches  played  in  New  York  City.  The  inter- 
collegiate championship  was  won  by  Princeton 
for  tiie  third  year  in  succession.  Harvard  was 
second  and  Yale  third. 

HOEBEB,  Abthur.  An  American  painter 
and  art  critic,  died  April  29,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  New  York  in  1854  and  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  that  city.  He  studied  at 
the  Art  Students'  Lesgue,  and  afterwards  in 
Paris  under  Gerbme.  He  contributed  to  several 
exhibitions  in  Paris,  and  then  returned  to  the 
United  States  where  he  contributed  to  Amer- 


ican exhibitions.  He  engaged  in  writing  and 
lecturing  on  art,  and  was  for  three  years  art 
critic  of  the  New  York  Timee.  At  the  time  of 
his  death  he  was  art  critic  of  the  Olohe  and 
Commercial  Advertiser.  He  was  an  associate 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
and  was  the  author  of  Treasures  of  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  and  Painting  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century  in  France,  Belgium,  Spain, 
and  Italy.  His  work  as  a  painter  consisted 
largely  of  landscapes. 

HOG  CHOLEBA.    See  Vetebinabt  Medioine. 

HOOS.    See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat  Pbo- 

DUCnON. 

HOLDBB,  Charles  Fbedebigk.  An  Ameri- 
can naturalist  and  writer,  died  Oct.  10,  1915. 
He  was  bom  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  1851,  and  was 
educated  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  the  class  of  1869,  resigning  before  gradua- 
tion. In  1871  he  was  appointed  assistant  at 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  serv- 
ing in  this  position  until  1875.  At  the  opening 
of  Throop  College  of  Technology  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  EoSlogy,  and  after  many 
years  of  service  became  honorary  curator  of  its 
museum.  He  wrote  manv  books  on  subjects 
connected  with  natural  history  and  zo(Slogy. 
Among  these  are  Elements  of  ZoSlogy  (1885); 
Marvels  of  Animal  Life  (1886) ;  Crabs  and  In- 
sects (1903) ;  Oame  Fishes  of  the  United  States 
(1913) ;  Oame  Fishes  of  the  World  (1913) ;  The 
Ocean  (1914);  Angling  Adventures  Around  the 
World  (1914).  He  wrote  also  many  sketches 
and  stories,  and  a  biography  of  Darwin.  He  was 
an  officer  and  member  of  many  scientific  societies. 

HOLLAND.    See  Netherlands. 

HOLMES,  Joseph  Austin.  An  American 
geologist  and  public  official,  died  July  13,  1915. 
He  was  bom  in  Laurens,  N.  C,  in  1859,  and 
graduated  from  Cornell  University  in  1881.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  and  natural  history  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  holding  this  chair  until  1891, 
when  he  was  appointed  State  geologist,  but  re- 
mained lecturer  on  geology  in  the  university. 
In  1904  he  was  given  charge  of  the  United 
States  Qeological  Survey  laboratories  for  test- 
ing fuels  and  structural  materials.  In  1907  he 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  technology  branch  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and  from 
1907-10  had  charge  of  the  investigation  of  mine 
accidents.  On  the  creation  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  in  1910  he  was  appointed  as  chief,  and  re- 
tained this  position  until  his  death.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies. 

HOLSTEIN  CATTLE.    See  Daibting. 

HOME  BT7XE,  Municipal.  See  Municipal 
Government. 

HONDUBAS.  A  Central  American  republic. 
The  capital  is  Tegucigalpa. 

Abea,  Population,  etc.  The  area  of  the  re- 
public cannot  be  definitely  stated  until  the  Gua- 
temalan boundary  is  fixed.  The  figure  now  com- 
monly accepted  is  114,670  square  kilometers 
(44,274  square  miles).  The  estimated  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  1911  was  566,017;  at  the  end 
of  1912,  578,482;  at  the  end  of  1913,  592,675. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Indian.  In  1013 
there  were  22,684  births  and  10,192  deaths. 
Tegucigalpa  had  22,137  inhabitants  in  1910 
(1914  estimate,  28,950);  Santa  Rosa,  10,574; 
Juticalpa,  10,529;  Dant^,  8477;  Nacaome,  8152. 
Elementary  instruction  is  free,  nominally  com- 
pulsory,    and     secular.    In     1912,     elementary 


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schools  numbered   890,  with   35,703   pupils;    in 

1913,  916,  with  40,665  pupils.  For  secondary 
education,  the  government  subsidizes  colleges  in 
the  departments  and  maintains  a  central  insti- 
tute at  Tegucigalpa.  At  the  capital,  also,  the 
government  supports  a  so-called  university,  and 
at  Comayagua  a  law  school.  There  are  five  nor- 
mal schools  attached  to  the  colleges. 

Pboduction,  Commebce,  etc.  The  principal 
crop  is  bananas,  which  are  cultivated  especially 
along  the  eastern  coast.  Corn  is  next  in  impor- 
tance, and  other  crops  are  sugar  cane,  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  coconuts.  Cabinet  woods,  particu- 
larly mahogany,  and  rubber  are  exported. 
Grazing  is  an  important  industry;  the  number 
of  cattle  in  1912  is  reported  at  420,275,  and  in 
1914  at  489,185;  in  the  latter  year  there  were 
reported  68,059  horses,  24,700  mules,  22,778 
goats,  and  180,092  swine.  Some  gold  and  silver 
are  mined,  but  there  is  little  other  development 
of  the  large  mineral  resources  of  the  country. 

In  1913,  imports  and  exports  were  valued  at 
$5,132,678  and  $3,300,254,  respectively;  in  1914, 
$6,624,930  and  $3,421,331.  The  largest  imports 
are  cotton  goods  and  foodstuffs.  Tlie  principal 
export  is  bananas;  gold  and  silver  cyanides  rank 
next,  followed  by  coconuts,  cattle,  and  hides  and 
skins.  The  trade  by  principal  countries  is  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

Imports  ExpwU 

1918       1914  1918        1914 

United    States    d,457     5,202  2.869     2,974 

Germany     658        522  176        166 

United   Kingdom    718        460  18           18 

France     148        142  2            6 

The  reported  length  of  railway  in  1913  was 
186  kilometers  (116  miles) ;  in  addition,  65  kilo- 
meters   (34  miles)    of   plantation   railway.    In 

1914,  telegraph  offices  numbered  259,  with  6980 
kilometers  of  wire.     Post  offices  (1912),  278. 

Finance.  The  silver  peso  is  the  monetary 
unit;  its  value  fluctuates  with  the  price  of  sil- 
ver. At  the  beginning  of  1913  it  was  worth 
about  45.1  cents;  1914,  about  43.4  cents;  1915, 
39.8  cents.  Revenue  for  the  fiscal  year  1914 
amounted  to  5,895,194  pesos,  as  compared  with 
5,207,232  pesos  for  1913,  and  4,627,905  pesos  for 
1912.  Expenditure  for  the  fiscal  year  1914,  5,- 
774,415  pesos.  The  expenditure  by  departments 
was:  interior,  802,043;  justice,  176,952;  foreign 
affairs,  134,701;  public  instruction,  387,798:  fo- 
mento,  public  works,  and  agriculture,  816,868; 
war  and  marine,  1,727,215;  treasury,  456,607; 
public  credit,  1,272,230.  The  foreign  debt  at  the 
end  of  1914  amounted,  with  arrears  of  interest 
from  1872,  to  £30,803,868;  internal  debt  (Aug. 
31,  1913),  5,474,732  pesos. 

Government.  The  Congress,  which  consists  of 
one  chamber  of  42  members,  the  President,  and 
the  Vice-President,  are  elected  for  four  years 
by  direct  vote.  In  November,  1911,  Gen.  Manuel 
Bonilla  was  elected  President,  and  Francisco 
Bertrand  Vice-President.  They  were  inaugu- 
rated for  the  four-year  term  Feb.  1,  1912.  On 
March  13,  1912,  Bonilla  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  Bertrand.  In  1915  Bertrand,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Congress,  resigned  in  order  that  he  might 
become  a  candidate  for  the  ensuing  term;  the 
executive  authority  was  assumed  by  the  first 
designate,  Alberto  Membrefio,  for  the  period 
Aug.  1,  1915,  to  Feb.  1,  1916.  Bertrand  and 
Hembrefio  were  elected  President  and  Vice-Presi- 


dent, respectively,  for  the  term  to  begin  Feb.  1, 
1916. 

HiSTOBY.  An  €id  referendum  treaty  of  free 
commerce  between  Honduras  and  Salvador  was 
concluded  in  Tegucigalpa  on  June  26th.  Sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  national  legisla- 
tures of  the  two  countries,  the  treaty  was  to  be 
in  force  for  a  period  of  10  years,  or  for  an  in- 
definite period  thereafter,  unless  either  of  the 
contracting  parties  should  desire  its  discontinu- 
ance. Under  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  free  ex- 
change of  native  products  was  permitted  between 
the  two  nations,  and  likewise  the  exchange  of 
articles  manufactured  from  the  raw  products  of 
either  nation. 

HONGKONG.  An  island  (about  32  square 
miles)  off  the  southeast  coast  of  China,  which, 
with  a  strip  of  territory  on  the  mainland  leased 
from  China  (376  square  miles)  and  about  four 
square  miles  of  the  Kowloon  Peninsula,  forms 
a  British  colony.  Civil  population  (1911),  456,- 
739  (Chinese,  444,664).  Capital,  Victoria  (219,- 
755).  The  island  is  the  centre  of  an  enormous 
trade.  Being  a  free  port,  no  trade  returns  are 
available,  but  a  record  of  the  shipping  gives 
some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  trade  (A— ocean- 
going, B — river  steamers,  C — steamships  under 
60  tons  in  the  foreign  trade,  D — steam  launches 
engaged  in  local  trs^e) : 

Number  Tonnage 

1911  1918  1911  1918 

British   A    .  . .      8.907  4,210  7,589,995  8.449,588 

Foreign  A 4,180  4,679  7.917.640  9,272,685 

British  B 6.871  6.624  4,116.786  4,078.686 

Foreign  B    .  . .      1,428  1,780  736,057  949,828 

0     8,268  4,574  180,092  189,003 

Junki     25.884  25,658  2,572.588  2,882.518 

ToUl    44,978     47.520  23,063,108  26,821,652 

Loeal    D    461,984  416,486  10,981.990  10,720,604 

Local    Junks..    86,608     26,270     2,134,054     1,200.726 

Total    548.570  490.228  86.179.152  37.742.982 

There  is  little  land  suitable  for  tillage  on  the 
island,  though  in  the  leased  territory  the  Chi- 
nese cultivate  considerable  tracts.  Granite 
quarries  are  worked,  and  various  manufactories 
are  operated.  Shipbuilding  and  repairing  are 
important  industries.  A  railway  from  Kow- 
loon to  the  Chinese  frontier  joins  tlie  line  from 
Canton.  The  total  revenue  (1913)  is  estimated 
at  $8,512,308;  expenditure,  $8,658,012.  Public 
debt,  £1.485,732,  or  approximately  $305,706. 

HOOKWOBM  DISEASE.  The  first  annual 
report  of  the  Hookworm  Commission  of  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  was  issued  during  the 
year,  and  stated  that  up  to  Dec.  31,  1914,  the 
commission  had  treated  19,425  hookworm  suf- 
ferers throughout  the  world.  It  also  insti- 
tuted an  educational  system  by  which  many 
thousand  people  were  taught  the  dangers  and 
the  means  of  fighting  the  disease.  It  ascer- 
tained that  the  infection  is  found  within  a  belt 
which  circles  the  globe  forming  a  zone  66  de- 
grees wide,  centring  on  the  equator,  with  prac- 
tically all  the  countries  within  the  zone  in- 
fected. Work  has  been  begun  by  the  commission 
in  Egypt,  Antigua,  British  Guiana,  Trinidad,  St. 
Lucia,  Granada,  Panama,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica, 
and  Guatemala.  The  Government  and  Planters' 
Association  has  begun  work  on  the  lines  of  the 
commission  in  Ceylon.  The  labors  in  the  South 
are  also  being  prosecuted  vigorously. 


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HOPS.  The  world's  hop  production  in  1915 
was  estimated  at  1,515,000  ewts..  which  was 
554,000  cwts.  less  than  in  1914.  The  European 
crop  was  short  as  a  rule  and  in  many  of  the 
principal  hop  growing  regions  the  yield  was 
only  half  the  yield  of  the  year  before.  This  was 
due  in  part  to  a  reduced  acreage,  but  mostly  to 
unfavorable  weather  conditions.  Drouth  early 
in  the  season  together  with  low  temperatures  re- 
tarded the  growth  of  the  crop  and  later  attacks 
of  blight  and  mold  caused  further  injury,  es- 
pecially in  England.  FaTorable  weather  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  growing  season  produced 
a  crop  of  good  quality  although  the  yields  were 
low.  According  to  foreign  estimates  Germany 
with  a  reduced  acreage  oif  17  per  cent  as  com- 
pared with  the  preceding  year,  produced  320,000 
cwts.;  Austria,  250,000;  Russia  and  Belgium, 
each  30,000;  and  other  countries,  exclusive  of 
the  United  States  and  England,  15,000  cwts. 
The  hop  yield  of  the  United  States  was  esti* 
mated  at  290,000  bales,  of  185  pounds  each,  as 
compared  with  305,000  bales  in  1914.  The  1915 
crop  was  distributed  as  follows:  Oregon,  125,- 
000;  California,  115,000;  Washington,  36,000; 
and  New  York,  15,000  bales.  The  acreage  was 
slightly  less  than  in  1914,  an  increase  of  2  per 
cent  in  Washington  and  8  per  cent  in  California 
having  been  a  little  more  than  offset  by  a  20 
per  cent  decrease  in  New  York.  The  reduction 
in  acreage  in  New  York  was  the  result  of  in- 
jurious attacks  in  recent  years  of  blue  mold  and 
mildew,  low  yields,  high  cost  of  production,  and 
low  prices.  During  the  vear  ending  June  30, 
1915,  the  United  States  exported  16,210.000 
pounds.  In  the  fall  of  1915  there  was  little 
commercial  activity  in  hops,  although  the  hop 
trade  at  that  time  of  the  year  is  generally  brisk. 
This  inactivity  was  largely  the  result  of  the  in- 
terference witii  international  trade  by  the  Eu- 
ropean war,  and  the  large  supplies  of  hops 
carried  over  from  the  crop  of  1914.  United 
States  breweries  consumed  in  1915  about  5,000,- 
000  pounds  of  hops  less  than  in  1914,  the  con- 
sumption being  the  lowest  in  10  years. 

HOBN,  Edwabd  TEA.ILL.  A  Lutheran  min- 
ister, died  March  1,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Easton,  Pa.,  in  1850,  and  graduated  from  the 
Pennsylvania  College  in  1869.  After  studying 
at  the  Theological  Seminary  Jn  Philadelphia,  in 
1872  he  was  ordained  to  the  Lutheran  ministry. 
He  served  in  pastorates  in  Philadelphia, 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  Reading,  Pa.,  until  1911, 
when  he  became  professor  of  ethics,  and  theory 
and  practice  of  missions  in  the  Lutheran  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  pres- 
ident of  Lutheran  Ministerium  from  1909  to 
1911,  and  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
the  GenerarCouncil  of  the  Evangelical  Church  of 
Nortii  America.  He  was  particularly  active  in 
liturgical  work,  and  was  regarded  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subject  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 
His  writings  include:  The  Christian  Year  ( 1876) ; 
Lutheran  Sources  of  the  Common  Service  { 1890) ; 
The  Application  of  Modem  Prinoiplee  to  the 
Church  (1905);  Summer  Sermone  (1908). 

HOBlTy  Webneb.  See  United  States  and 
THE  Wab. 

HOBSES.  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat 
Pboduction. 

HOBTICITIiTTrBE.  Although  the  great  war 
had  a  detrimental  effect  on  commercial  horti- 
culture in  Europe,  the  large  number  of  crop 
shortages  reported  W^re  due  for  tlie  most  pari 


to  unseasonable  weather  conditions,  diseases, 
and  insect  pests.  There  was  a  rather  general 
shortage  of  grapes,  prunes,  citrus  fruits,  and 
olives,  and  the  production  of  most  vegetables 
was  below  normal.  France  produced  a  good 
crop  of  cider  apples  and  the  apple  and  pear  crop 
in  Holland  was  the  largest  in  years.  Ortain 
shortages  occurred  in  America  and  likewise 
some  banner  crops  were  produced.  The  commer- 
cial apple  crop  in  1915  was  some  10  or  15  mil- 
lion barrels  short  of  the  1914  crop  of  50,000,000 
barrels.  California  shipped  46,862  cars  of  cit- 
rus fruits  as  compared  with  48,548  cars  in  1914. 
The  lemon  crop  was  the  largest  in  the  history 
of  the  State,  as  was  the  fresh  deciduous  fruit 
crop,  which  totaled  16,778  cars  as  compared 
with  16,146  cars  in  1914.  Florida  shipped  over 
25,000  cars  of  citrus  fruits  as  compared  with 
21,600  cars  in  1914.  New  York  State  shipped 
about  6000  cars  of  grapes  in  1915.  The  total 
canned  vegetable  pack  of  the  United  States  in 
1914  was  15,222,000  cases  of  tomatoes,  9,789,000 
cases  of  com,  and  8,847,000  cases  of  peas.  A 
shortage  in  these  packs  was  announced  for  1015. 
The  American  peach  crop  of  1915  amounted  to 
about  50,000  cars  as  compared  with  30,000  cars 
in  1914.  The  Irish  potato  crop  approximated 
375,000,000  bushels  in  1915  as  compared  with 
over  400,000,00>6  bushels  in  1914. 

Export  Tbade.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending 
Jime  30,  1915,  the  United  States  exported  fruits 
worth  $34,229,906;  vegetables,  $10,813,161; 
nuts,  $703,211,  or  a  total  of  $45,746,268  as  com- 
pared with  $38,786,792  in  1914.  The  imports 
for  the  same  period  were:  Fruits,  $27,081,396; 
vegetables,  $9,329,732;  nuts,  $16,819,799;  a  to- 
tal of  $53,230,927  as  compared  with  $68,664,793 
in  1914.  Among  the  exports  for  1915  were  $11,- 
358,124  worth  of  fresh  and  dried  apples;  $3,- 
861,013  worth  of  oranges;  and  beans,  peas,  and 
potatoes  worth  $5,984,267.  Ornamental  trees 
and  plants  to  the  value  of  $3,748,666  were  im- 
ported in  1915. 

As  the  year  progressed  overseas  shipments  of 
horticultural  products  between  various  coun- 
tries became  more  restricted.  Some  of  the 
smaller  insular  countries  suffered  severely  from 
the  withdrawal  of  shipping  facilities.  The  con- 
gestion of  export  products  in  American  ports  be- 
came so  serious  toward  the  close  of  the  year  that 
the  shipment  of  perishable  fruits  and  vegetables 
was  practically  abandoned  and  less  perishable 
products  were  being  sold  in  America  at  the  pur- 
chaser's risk.  Export  sales  of  dried  fruits  broke 
all  records.  By  December,  the  filled  and  unfilled 
contracts  for  dried  prunes,  apricots,  and  peaches 
amounted  to  100,000,000  million  pounds.  On 
the  other  hand  the  fall  imports  of  Almeria  or 
Malaga  grapes  amounted  to  only  298,450  barrels 
as  compared  with  600,000  barrels  in  the  fall  of 
1014.  About  December  1st,  the  French  govern- 
ment placed  an  embargo  on  the  further  exporta- 
tion of  nuts  from  that  country  for  an  indefinite 
period.  Receipts  of  foreign  lemons  were  about 
cut  in  half. 

The  Brazilian  government  issued  a  loan  of 
$37,000,000  to  the  State  of  SSo  Paulo  for  ad- 
vances to  planters  who  were  to  place  in  ware- 
houses the  4,000,000  bags  of  coffee  which  have 
gone  to  Germany,  Austria,  and  other  markets 
during  normal  periods.  The  Hawaiian  canned 
pineapple  output  for  1916  was  about  2,600,000 
cases.  An  active  trade  in  fresh  pineapples  was 
estftbliehed  with  the  mainland  during  the  year. 


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The  canned  pineapple  indiuixy  is  being  graduallj 
developed  in  the  Bahamas.  Japan  is  develop- 
ing a  promising  export  trade  in  onions,  potato^ 
and  apples. 

Fbuit  Stobagb  Invbstioations.  The  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  had  carried 
on  storage  experiments  with  a  number  of  vari- 
eties of  apples  in  the  Northwest  for  several 
years.  This  work  showed  that  the  time  for  plac- 
ing apples  in  cold  storage  varies  with  differ- 
ences  of  season,  section,  culture,  and  soil.  Most 
varieties  for  storage  should  be  picked  at  ma- 
turity, with  the  least  possible  delay  from  the 
tree  to  the  storage.  A  temperature  of  32  degrees 
is  usually  the  most  satisfactory.  Ck>ntrary  to 
common  opinion,  cold  storage  apples  removed 
from  storage  for  sale  late  in  the  season  keep  as 
well  as  or  even  better  than  apples  stored  at  a 
higher  temperature  for  the  same  length  of  time. 
In  the  case  of  varieties  which  are  to  be  disposed 
of  early  in  the  season,  common  storage  may  be 
made  as  satisfactory  as  cold  storage.  At  the 
Vermont  Experiment  Station  apple  storage  ex- 
periments were  conducted  for  four  seasons  in  a 
basement  room  resembling  in  many  respects  a 
farmhouse  cellar.  Apples  kept  best  by  first  im- 
mersing them  in  Bordeaux  mixture  and  then 
packing  them  in  hardwood  sawdust.  Those  im- 
mersed in  Bordeaux  without  packing  in  sawdust 
kept  nearly  as  well  and  were  somewhat  better 
flavored. 

The  work  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
with  citrus  fruit  showed  that  oranges  should  be 
stored  at  from  38**  to  40**  F.,  lemons  at  about 
42®,  and  grapefruit  at  46®.  Even  at  these  tem- 
peratures the  period  of  successful  storage  is  com- 
paratively short,  not  usually  exceeding  two 
months.  Oranges  take  on  a  sort  of  brown  stain 
in  storage  and  are  just  as  susceptible  to  serious 
spotting  from  attacks  of  Colletotrichum  as  are 
grapefruit  and  lemons.  The  results  indicate 
that  avocados  may  be  safely  held  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  32®  for  a  period  of  two  months  or  more, 
and  other  tropical  fruits  for  corresponding  pe- 
riods. 

California  Grapes.  The  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture announced  a  number  of  results  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  the  Vinifera  or  Euro- 
pean grape  regions  of  the  United  States.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  adaptability  of  varieties  to 
soil,  climate,  and  some  other  conditions  can  be 
closely  forecast,  but  congeniality  of  stock  and 
scion  to  each  other  must  be  determined  by  actual 
test.  Different  species  used  as  stocks  for  the 
same  variety  may  increase  or  diminish  its  vigor 
and  productiveness  as  well  as  the  quality  and 
size  of  the  fruit,  cause  it  to  ripen  earlier  or 
later,  and  bring  about  varying  results  from  per- 
fect success  to  almost  complete  failure.  Con- 
geniality of  the  variety  to  the  stock  materially 
affects  the  resistant  qualities  of  the  stock.  Of 
the  various  American  species  tested  as  stocks, 
Riparia,  Berlandieri,  Champini,  and  Aestivalis 
are  in  most  instances  congenial  to  Vinifera  va- 
rieties. Fruitfulness  is  increased  and  the  time 
of  ripening  hastened  in  comparison  with  the 
same  vari^ies  grown  on  other  stocks. 

Plant  Breeding.  In  summing  up  the  results 
of  breeding  experiments  with  grapes  that  had 
been  imder  way  at  the  New  York  State  Station 
since  1885  Hedrick  and  Anthony  conclude  that 
improved  varieties  of  grapes  will  not  be  pro- 
duced to  any  extent  until  the  fundamental  laws 
of  heredity  are  understood.    Many  commercial 


sorts  fail  to  transmit  desirable  qualities.  A 
vineyard  of  1500  seedlings  bred  from  1898  to 
1903  has  been  reduced  by  vigorous  selection  to 
less  than  75  vines  out  of  which  five  have  been 
tested,  named,  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  nur- 
serymen. Crossbred  seedlings  were  the  most 
vigorous.  Most  grapes  of  high  quality  were 
found  to  possess  some  European  grape  blood. 

The  experiment  stations  in  North  and  South 
Carolina  and  in  Georgia  made  some  progress  in 
investigations  looking  to  the  improvement  of 
the  Scuppemong  and  other  Southern  Fox  vari- 
eties of  grapes.  In  connection  with  this  work 
the  South  Carolina  Station  found  that  these 
vines  will  produce  larger  bunches  of  grapes  if 
they  are  pollinated  by  a  staminate  or  male  vine 
of  the  species  rather  than  with  pollen  from 
within  the  fruiting  variety. 

Among  numerous  pears  under  test  for  im- 
munity to  blight  at  the  South  Dakota  Station, 
Hansen  found  the  Chinese  sand  pear  (Pyrua  si- 
nen9ia)  and  the  birch-leaved  pear  (P.  hetuli- 
folia),  a  native  of  Northern  China,  to  be  per- 
fectly hardy  and  resistant  to  blight.  They  have 
been  used  freely  in  crossing  with  many  of  the 
best  cultivated  pears  and  have  been  sent  to  sev- 
eral States  for  testing  purposes. 

The  Florida  Station  has  succeeded  in  breeding 
one  strain  of  sweet  corn  which  endures  hot 
weather  as  well  as  does  field  corn.  The  Arizona 
Station  has  bred  a  sweet  variety  of  field  corn 
that  is  much  more  vigorous  and  productive  un- 
der Arizona  conditions  than  any  of  the  com- 
mercial varieties  of  sugar  corn. 

Extensive  morphological  and  bioloincal  re- 
searches on  the  cultivated  radishes  lead  Yvonne 
Trouard  Riolle  to  conclude  that  the  cultivated 
radish  has  a  dual  origin.  The  Japanese  radish 
(DaTkon)  is  descended  from  Raphanus  Mativu8 
raphaniairtndesy  and  the  Chinese  and  most  other 
cultivated  radishes  are  descended  from  another 
wild  type  native  to  central  Asia,  but  rare  or  ex- 
tinct at  the  present  time. 

The  Oklahoma  Station  studied  the  causes  of 
failure  to  set  fruit  in  the  tomato  and  discovered 
that  a  minute  insect  (Thripg  tritici)  was  feeding 
upon  the  pollen  to  such  an  extent  as  to  bring 
about  almost  complete  sterility.  Varieties  pro- 
ducing large  quantities  of  pollen  suffered  the 
least.  The  Pennsylvania  Station  finds  it  desir- 
able to  secure  tomato  and  some  other  vegetable 
seed  one  year  in  advance  of  large  plantings  in 
order  that  the  yielding  power  of  the  strain  may 
be  tested.  In  a  comparison  of  various  strains  of 
the  Earliana  type  of  tomato  a  variation  of  more 
than  13  tons  per  acre  of  marketable  fruit  oc- 
curred. 

Pbdioreed  Fruit  Trees.  Although  the  value 
of  propagating  fruit  trees  from  selected  buds 
was  still  in  dispute  in  1915,  the  majority  of  in- 
vestigators were  in  favor  of  the  practice.  The 
bud  selection  work  with  citrus  fruits  in  Cali- 
fornia (see  Horticulture,  1914  Year  Book) 
continued  to  give  good  results.  Experiments  in 
scion  selection  were  started  at  the  Canada  Ex- 
periment Station,  Ottawa,  in  1906.  The  yields 
for  the  three  bearing  years,  1912  to  1914,  indi- 
cate that  the  bearing  habit  of  the  parent  tree 
has  been  perpetuated  in  each  case.  A  similar 
experiment  conducted  with  scions  selected  from 
a  poor-yielding  and  a  high -yielding  Ben  Davis 
apple  tree  at  the  Missouri  Station  showed  no 
perceptible  difference  in  the  third  year's  crop  in 
size,  color,  grade,  or  quality  of  the  fruit  from 


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HOSPITALS 


the  two  lots  of  trees.  ObeervatioiiB  at  the  New 
Hampshire  Station  indicated  that  poor  yielding 
in  certain  trees  may  be  due  to  unhealthy  condi- 
tions. 

Bench  Root  of  Citbus  Tbees.  The  Califor- 
nia Experiment  Station  found  that  the  bench 
root  trouble  of  citrus  trees,  which  had  been  com- 
monly attributed  to  the  presence  of  rock  or  other 
hard  substances  beneath  the  seed  when  planted, 
was  entirely  due  to  the  toughness  of  the  fibrous 
seed  coat  through  which  the  root  is  frequently 
unable  to  penetrate  until  it  has  bent  and  twisted 
itself  to  the  detriment  of  the  future  tree.  Re- 
moving the  seed  coat  very  carefully  eliminates 
the  b^ch  root.  Soaking  the  seeds  from  36  to 
48  hours  before  planting  reduces  bench  root  to 
15  per  cent  of  the  totel  number  of  seedlings 
planted. 

New  Fbuits  and  Plants.  The  explorer  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  sent  from  the 
borders  of  Tibet  a  large  collection  of  very  in- 
teresting plants.  Among  them  were  the  Tangu- 
tian  almond,  the  Potanin  peach,  and  an  interest- 
ing series  of  wild  forms  of  the  ordinary  culti- 
vated peach  discovered  in  the  mountains  of 
Shansi,  Honan,  and  Kansu.  The  departmental 
collection  of  jujubes  and  persimmons  from  these 
western  provinces  was  largely  augmented  by 
the  recent  collections,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  hardy  shrubs  of  probable  value  for  dooryards 
had  been  sent  in. 

Fbutt  Jttioes.  Profiting  by  the  success  in 
concentrating  apple  cider  (see  Hobtigultube, 
1914  Yeab  Book)  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture announced  a  similar  method  of  concentrat- 
ing grape  juice,  which  promised  to  be  of  value 
for  dealers  in  beverages.  Progress  has  also  been 
made  in  the  commercial  manufacture  of  juices 
of  red  and  black  currants,  blackberries,  black 
raspberries,  sour  cherries,  and  peaches. 

Miscellaneous.  The  recently  created  food 
and  market  departments  of  New  York  State  met 
with  considerable  success  in  standardizing  prices 
for  the  1915  State  fruit  crop.  Auction  sales 
were  held  in  New  York  City  and  in  other  places 
central  to  the  fruit  districts.  The  results  have 
been  so  encouraging  that  the  department  is  so- 
liciting the  products  of  California  and  Florida 
growers. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Commerce  appointed  a  representative, 
Walter  Fischer,  to  make  a  tour  of  the  principal 
countries  of  South  America  in  which  fruit  could 
be  sold  and  to  report  exhaustively  on  marketing 
conditions  there.  An  association  was  formed 
and  incorporated  at  Columbus  for  the  purpose  of 
erecting  a  monument  to  Johnny  Appleseed  over 
his  grave  at  Indianapolis.  .  Johnny  Appleseed, 
whose  real  name  was  Jonathan  Chapman,  was 
an  interesting  and  eccentric  character  who  sowed 
apple  seeds  in  the  wilds  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  be- 
tween 1801  and  1847. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  contributions  of 
1916  to  horticultural  literature  were  the  follow- 
ing: L.  H.  Bailey,  The  Standard  Cyclopedia  of 
Horticulture  (vol.  iii,  New  York) ;  U.  P.  Hed- 
rick,  The  Cherries  of  New  York  (Albany) ;  A. 
Truelle,  Rendement,  Clasaementy  Caract^ea,  et 
Traitementa  dea  Pomtnes  d  Cidre  pour  la  Dee- 
aiccation  (Argentan,  France) ;  A.  E.  Wilkinson, 
The  Apple  (Boston) ;  J.  E.  Coit,  Citrus  Fruits 
(New  York);  E.  A.  White.  The  Principles  of 
Floriculture  (New  York) ;  Louise  Shelton,  Con- 
timumg  Bloom  in  America  (New  York) ;  Louisa 


Y.  King,  The  Well-Considered  Garden  (New 
York);  K  £.  Rexford,  A  B  0  of  Gardening 
(New  York) ;  E.  J.  Wickson,  California  Garden 
Flowers,  Shrubs,  Trees,  and  Vines  (San  Fran- 
cisco) ;  T.  W.  Sanders,  The  Flovoer  Garden  (2nd 
ed.,  London) ;  H.  J.  Kellaway,  How  to  Lay  Out 
Suhwrhan  Home  Grounds  (2nd  ed.,  enlarged. 
New  York) ;  Margaret  Armstrong,  Field  Book 
of  Western  Wild  Flowers  (New  York  and  Lon- 
don) ;  C.  H.  Taudevin,  The  Cultivation  of  the 
Perpetual  Flowering  Carnation  (Cheltenham, 
England) ;  F.  L.  Yeaw,  Market  Gardening  (New 
York) ;  and  A.  E.  Wilkinson,  Su>eet  Com  (New 
York). 

HOBTONy  Qliveb  Habvet.  An  American 
jurist,  died  Feb.  7,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Cat- 
taraugus County,  N.  Y.,  in  1836,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  of  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
and  Kingsville,  Ohio.  He  studied  law  in  the 
Union  College  of  Law,  taking  his  degree  in  1863, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
He  began  practicing  in  Chicago,  and  continued 
to  practice  in  that  city  until  his  death.  From 
1887  to  1903  he  was  judge  of  the  circuit  court 
of  Illinois,  and  served  in  the  Appellate  Court 
from  1888-1903.  He  was  actively  interested  in 
religious  work,  and  was  a  trustee  of  the  Garrett 
Biblical  Institute,  and  several  colleges  and  hos- 
pitals. He  was  a  delegate  to  several  important 
general  conventions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

HOSFITAIi  BXJUiDINGS.  See  Abohitbo- 
tube. 

HOSPITALS.  Large  sums  of  money  were 
given  to  hospitals  during  1915.  Among  the 
largest  donations  were  the  following:  to  the 
Maine  General  Hospital,  and  to  the  Eye  and  Ear 
Infirmary,  Portland,  each  $50,000,  under  the  will 
of  John  E.  Martin;  to  Dedham,  Mass.,  for  the 
Capen  hospital  fund,  from  $50,000  to  $100,000,  by 
the  will  of  Calvin  W.  Capen;  to  Lowell  (General 
Hospital  and  House  of  Mercy  Hospital,  Pitts- 
field,  each  $50,000,  bequeathed  by  Frederick  W. 
Pierson  of  Great  Barrington,  who  perished  on 
the  S.  S.  Lusitania;  Massachusetts  Homeopathic 
Hospital,  $200,000  and  a  residual  estate,  by  the 
will  of  Helen  CoUamore;  Hahnemann  Hospital, 
Chicago,  $150,000,  from  Robert  Allerton,  also 
$100,000  from  William  Wrigley,  Jr.;  Chicago 
Home  for  Destitute  Crippled  Children,  and  Mary 
Thompson  Hospital  for  Women  and  Children, 
Chicago,  each  $100,000,  by  the  will  of  Alexand^ 
A.  McKay;  Michael  Reese  Hospital,  Chicago, 
$25,000  bequeathed  by  Edwin  G.  Foreman;  by 
the  will  of  Dr.  Dudley  P.  Allen,  of  Cleveland, 
$25,000  for  equipment  of  operating  department 
of  St.  Vincent's  Charity  Hospital  of  that  city; 
to  Howard  Hospital,  Philadelphia,  $25,000,  by 
the  will  of  Edward  Smith  Kelly;  to  Dr.  Wm.  G. 
Choate,  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  to  estaJ>lish  there  a 
hospital  for  the  poor,  $57,000,  under  the  will  x>f 
Patrick  Fent<m,  of  Elnoicville,  Tenn.;  by  the  will 
of  Dr.  Everett  Herrick,  $26,000  to  the  New  Yoilc 
Skin  and  Cancer  Hospital;  by  the  will  of  Amelia 
Lavenburg,  Montefiore  Home  and  Hospital,  and 
Mount  Sinai  Hospital,  New  York  City,  each 
$10,000,  also  $2500  to  the  New  York  Skin  and 
Cancer  Hospital;  Presbyterian  Hospital,  New 
York  City,  $30,000  by  will  of  Evalina  A.  Mes- 
erole;  to  Mount  Sinai  Hospital,  $100,000,  St. 
Luke's  Hospital,  $25,000,  German  Hospital,  $25,- 
000,  New  York  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary,  $25,000, 
and  Lincoln  Hospital  and  Home,  $25,000,  all  in 
New  York  City,  under  the  will  of  Benjamin  Alt- 


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HOSPITALS  3< 

man;  provigion  in  the  contested  will  of  Mrs. 
Cutter,  $700,000  to  the  Hospital  for  Deformities 
and  Joint  Diseases,  New  York  City;  Mt.  Sinai 
Hospital,  $20,000,  New  York  8kin  and  Cancer 
Hospital,  $10,000,  Presbyterian  Hospital,  $12,- 
600,  German  Hospital,  $2500,  as  well  as  $5000 
each  to  Montefiore  Home  and  St.  Luke's  Hospi- 
tal, all  in  New  York  City,  under  the  will  of 
Emil  C.  Bundy;  New  York  Polyclinic  Medical 
School  and  Hospital,  $50,000,  a  bequest  by  Anna 
Palmer  Draper,  likewise  a  donation  by  a  trustee 
of  $10,000;  an  equal  share  in  the  estate  of  $231,- 
158,  by  the  will  of  Henry  Miller,  to  German, 
St.  Luke's,  Roosevelt,  and  Presbyterian  hospi- 
tals. New  York  City.  The  New  York  Associa- 
tion for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor 
turned  over  to  New  York  City  its  new  $250,000 
Sea  Beach  Hospital  for  Tubercular  Children  at 
Rockaway,  N.  Y.;  the  buildings  are  fully 
equipped  to  care  for  138  children,  and  when 
plans  are  complete  there  will  be  1000  beds.  The 
trustees  of  the  Presbyterian  Hospital,  New  York 
City,  discussed  a  plan  for  buying  the  former 
American  League  iMMeball  field,  on  Washington 
Heights,  containing  six  city  blocks  and  valued  at 
$2,000,000,  utilizing  a  bequest  of  $2,500,000  from 
the  late  John  S.  Kennedy,  the  medical  work  to  be 
in  some  respects  carried  on  in  connection  with 
Columbia  University  medical  department.  The 
new  university  hospitals  erected  in  Augusta,  Ga., 
at  a  cost  of  $500,000  have  been  delivered  to  the 
city  and  were  opened  March  15th.  The  new  Cin- 
cinnati General  Hospital  was  transferred  to  the 
trustees  by  the  building  commissioners,  after 
four  years  spent  in  construction  at  an  expense 
of  $4,000,000.  Harry  M.  Levi  promised  $60,000 
toward  iJie  establishment  of  a  medical  school 
in  connection  with  this  new  hospital.  Under 
governmental  provision,  the  United  States  Rev- 
enue Cutter  Androscoggin  has  been  converted 
into  a  hospital  ship,  and  began  its  cruises  from 
Massachusetts  to  the  south  shore  of  Nova  Scotia, 
to  treat  fishermen  incapacitated  from  illness  or 
injury,  and  later  will  cruise  to  Banquersan  and 
Sable  Island  banks.  In  New  Zealand,  the 
.  steamer  Maheno  has  been  equipped  as  a  hospital 
ship,  with  beds  for  388  patients,  with  possibil- 
ities for '60  more.  It  is  furnished  with  steril- 
izing plant,  operating  theatres,  Roentoen-ray 
room,  and  bacteriologic  laboratory,  and  offers  all 
the  comforts  of  a  base  hospital.  The  new  Emer- 
gency Hospital  and  Central  Dispensary,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  is  completed  and  ready  for  occu- 
pancy. It  is  nine  stories  in  height  and  has  a 
roof  garden.  The  J.  N.  Adam  Memorial  Hospi- 
tal, Perrysburg,  N.  Y.,  was  opened  October  9th, 
after  costing  $120,000  to  erect.  It  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  Buffalo  Association  for  the  Relief 
and  Control  of  Tuberculosis.  The  Good  Samari- 
tan Hospital,  Cincinnati,  was  dedicated  October 
2nd.  The  one  wing  completed  cost  $175,000,  and 
the  plan  calls  for  expenditure  of  $300,000,  for  a 
five-wing  edifice.  The  old  home  for  the  can- 
cerous poor  in  Perry  Street,  New  York  City, 
founded  by  Adrian  Iselin,  has  grown  to  be  the 
House  of  Calvary,  in  the  Bronx  borough,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  $120,000  and  opened  in  October. 
In  the  fall  of  1915  the  new  hospital  for  Chip- 
pewa Indians  in  Redlake,  Minn.,  was  opened,  of- 
fering accommodations  for  26  beds.  The  Sleeper- 
Davis  Memorial  Hospital,  Peking,  China,  was 
opened  in  October.  It  was  erected  by  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  at  a  cost  of  $180,000, 
and  acoommodates  160  patients.    It  is  manned 


18  HOWABD  XTNIVEBSITY 

by  American  physicians  and  Chinese  nurses, 
under  an  American  head  nurse.  The  Samaritan 
Hospital,  a  private  institution  with  25  beds,  has 
been  opened  in  Colon,  Panama,  the  first  private 
hospital  in  the  Canal  Zone.  Tlie  continuance  of 
the  European  War  has  necessitated  the  founding 
of  new  hospitals.  A  special  establishment  for 
delicate  surgical  operations  has  been  opened  in 
Compi^gne,  France,  by  Dr.  Alexis  Carrel,  of 
New  York  City.  The  American  Hospital,  Petro- 
grad,  was  formally  opened  November  14th.  It 
provides  40  beds.  The  first  floor  of  the  Quirinal, 
Rome,  has  been  converted  into  a  hospital,  with 
206  beds,  for  wounded  soldiers.  The  Queen 
planned  and  equipped  this  establishment,  and  it 
is  under  the  direction  of  Scafi.  Canada  has  es- 
tablished in  all,  16  hospitals,  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  at  the  Dardanelles,  with  staffs  num- 
bering 2400  Canadians  and  525  trained  nurses. 
The  Massey-Harris  employees,  Toronto,  are  to 
erect  a  convalescent  home  in  England  for 
wounded  Canadian  soldiers  at  an  expense  of 
$60,000,  besides  the  cost  of  the  equipment,  which 
was  $25,000.  Canadian  physicians  and  nurses 
will  be  employed.  The  Springfield  State  Hospi- 
tal, Sykesville,  Md.,  dedicated  its  new  psycho- 
pathic building  June  9th.  It  cost  $126,000. 
The  James  Brady  Urological  Institute  of  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  was  deidicated  on  May  4th. 

The  conunittee  on  hospital  efficiency  of  the 
Philadelphia  County  Medical  Society  reports 
that  there  are  in  the  United  States  6665  institu- 
tions for  the  care  of  the  sick,  with  600,000  beds, 
representing  an  outlay  of  over  $1,500,000,000, 
and  a  yearly  expenditure  of  over  $260,000,000,  of 
which  latter  sum  it  is  estimated  that  perhaps 
20  per  cent  is  wasted  through  lack  of  efficiency. 
It  is  requested  that  the  Carnegie  Foundation  re- 
port on  the  matter  of  classification  and  stan- 
dardization. 

In  February  it  was  announced  that  Drs.  Wil- 
liam J.  and  Charles  H.  Mayo,  of  Rochester, 
Minn.,  had  established  the  "Mayo  Foundation 
for  Medical  Education  and  Research,''  had  en- 
dowed it  with  $1,000,000,  and  affiliated  it  with 
the  University  of  Minnesota,  under  the  control 
of  the  Regents  of  the  State  educational  body. 
The  relationship  proposed  was  accepted  for  a 
trial  period  of  six  years.  The  opposition  that 
arose  has  been  defeated,  the  plan  has  been  con- 
summated, and  an  immense  opportunity  for  re- 
search has  been  opened. 

HOTELS.    See  Abohitipctube. 

HOUGH,  Wabwick.  An  American  jurist, 
died  Oct.  28,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Loudoun 
County,  Va.,  in  1836,  and  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Missouri  in  1854.  Shortly  after 
his  graduation  he  was  appointed  assistant  State 
geologist.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1859  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  bar.  From  1868  to  1861  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Missouri  Senate,  and  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  State  in  1863,  resigning  to  enter  the 
Confederate  army,  where  he  served  on  the  staff 
of  several  generals.  After  the  war  he  resumed 
the  practice  of  law  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  but  in 
1867  removed  to  Kansas  City.  In  1874  he  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Mis- 
souri, and  from  1882-84  was  Chief  Justice. 
From  1901-07  he  was  judge  of  the  St.  Louis 
Circuit  Court. 

HOUSE  FLT.    See  Entomoloqt. 

HOWABD  UNIVBBSITT.  An  institution 
for  higher  learning  at  Washington,  D.  C,  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  the  national  govern- 


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ment.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
at  the  end  of  1915  was  about  1500.  There  were 
120  members  of  the  faculty.  The  produetire 
funds  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  1015  amounted 
to  $309,018,  and  the  current  mcome  from  all 
sources  for  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $253,084. 
The  library  contained  about  30,000  volumes. 

HOWE,  Wajlteb.  An  American  soldier,  died 
Nov.  0,  1015.  He  was  bom  in  Blomnington, 
Ind.,  in  1846.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Giyil 
War  he  attempted  to  join  a  volunteer  regiment, 
but  was  rejected  on  account  of  his  youth.  He 
later  secur«i  an  appointment  in  West  Point,  and 
graduated  in  1867.  He  was  assigned  to  the  ar- 
tillery and  saw  his  first  fight  in  1868,  under 
Sheridan  and  Custer,  against  the  Indians.  He 
was  in  command  of  Fort  Washington  and  Sheri- 
dan's Point,  Md.,  and  in  1808  was  chief  muster- 
ing officer  for  Connecticut.  In  1800  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  tiie  Forty-Seventh  United 
States  Volunteer  Infantry,  and  in  November  of 
that  year  sailed  with  his  command  for  the  Phil- 
ippines. In  1904  he  became  a  colonel,  and  in 
1010  a  brigadier-general.  For  a  short  time  he 
was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  East, 
and  was  in  command  of  tiie  Department  of  Da- 
kota in  1010,  when  he  retired  from  active  serv- 
ice. 

HTJBBABD,  Elbbbt.  American  author  and 
lecturer,  died  May  0,  1016.  He  was  bom  in 
Bloomington,  111.,  in  1850,  and  received  a  com- 
mon school  education.  After  engaging  in  va- 
rious occupations,  including  those  of  school 
teacher,  printer,  editor,  and  lecturer,  he  met 
William  Morris  in  London  in  1800,  and  largely 
through  his  influence  established  the  Roycroft 
Press  at  East  Aurora,  N.  Y.  Out  of  this  grew 
the  Roycrofters  corporation,  a  semi-communal 
institution  giving  work  to  about  800  people. 
In  addition  to  the  publishing  of  special  editions 
of  books,  the  community  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture  and  other  conunodities. 
Mr.  Hubbard  established  and  edited  The  PhUU- 
tine,  which  gained  a  wide  circulation.  He 
printed  in  this  periodical  prior  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War  an  article  entitled  "A  Message 
to  Garcia,"  a  striking  lesson  on  the  virtue  of 
strict  obedience  to  orders.  This  obtained  a  cir- 
culation of  millions  of  copies  and  made  Hubbard 
famous.  His  series  of  Little  Joumeya  were  also 
widely  sold.  Mr.  Hubbard  had  a  personality 
which  to  certain  kinds  of  people  was  extremely 
attractive,  and  he  was  in  wide  demand  as  a  lec- 
turer. Dilettantes  in  literature  keenly  relished 
his  writings.  In  addition  to  The  PhUistine,  he 
edited  and  published  The  Fra,  His  published 
writings  include,  besides  works  already  men- 
tioned: No  Enemy  hut  Himself;  Time  and 
Chance;  The  Legacy;  Old  John  Burroughs; 
Consecrated  Lives;  Health  aind  Wealth;  Love, 
Life,  and  Work;  and  One  Thousand  amd  One 
Epigrams,  Mr.  Hubbard  was  one  of  the  victims 
of  the  destruction  of  the  steamship  Lusitania, 

HXJBBABD,  Thomas  Hamlin.  American 
lawyer,  soldier,  and  financier,  died  May  10, 
1015.  He  was  bom  in  Hallowell,  Me.,  in  1830; 
graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1857; 
studied  law  at  the  Albany  Law  School;  and  in 
1860  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Maine.  In 
1862  he  was  commissioned  as  first  lieutenant  in 
the  25th  Maine  volunteers,  and  in  1864  was 
colonel  of  the  30th  Maine  infantry.  He  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  July, 
1865,  and  resigned  July  23,  1865.    At  the  dose 


of  the  war-  he  went  to  Savannah  to  head  a 
board  for  the  examination  of  volunteers  apply- 
ing for  commissions  in  the  regular  army.  Then 
he  returned  to  New  York  City,  and  resumed  the 
practice  of  law.  He  continued  this  with  great 
success  until  1804,  when  he  retired  from  active 
law  practice  to  devote  himself  to  business  inter- 
ests. He  was  an  associate  of  Collis  P.  Hunting- 
ton, and  was  a  director  of  many  of  the  latter's 
properties.  For  many  years  he  was  a  first  vice- 
president  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and 
was  in  1015  elected  a  member  of  the  board  of 
directors  of  that  road.  He  was  an  official  and 
director  in  many  other  important  corporations 
and  financial  institutions.  General  Hubbard 
was  intimately  interested  in  Arctic  exploration, 
and  was  the  president  of  the  Peary  Arctic  Club, 
which  helped  to  support  Peary  in  his  explora- 
tions. He  himself  furnished  Admiral  Peary 
with  large  siuns  of  money  with  which  to  prose- 
cute his  work.  He  was  idso  a  liberal  benefactor 
of  Bowdoin  College,  and  presented  to  that  iiisti- 
tution  an  athletic  field  and  a  library.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  board  of  overseers  of  that  insti- 
tution at  the  time  of  his  death.  He  received  the 
reeof  LL.D.  from  Bowdoin  Cbllege  in  1804. 
ITXf  RioHABD.  American  educator, 
died  Feb.  22,  1015.  He  was  bom  at  Gates  Head, 
England,  in  1845,  and  removed  with  his  parents 
to  the  United  States  in  1855.  In  1871  he  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  be- 
came assistant  professor  of  history  in  that  uni- 
versity in  1870.  He  was  promoted  professor  in 
1888,  and  held  that  chair  until  1011.  From 
1807-1007  he  was  dean  of  tiie  department  of 
science  and  the  arts.  He  contributed  many  his- 
torical articles  to  periodicals.  He  recdved  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University  of  Nash- 
ville in  1001. 
HXTEBTAy    ViCTOBiANA.    See    Msxioo,    His- 


tory. 
HTTMPI 


>HBEYy  Ltman  Uin)XBWOOD.  Ameri- 
can public  official,  former  Governor  of  Kansas, 
died  Sept  12,  1015.  He  was  born  in  New  Balti- 
more, Ohio,  in  1846.  At  the  age  of  17  he  en- 
listed in  the  76th  Ohio  infantry,  and  served 
throughout  the  war.  At  its  dose  he  studied  at 
Mount  Vernon  CoU^,  and  in  the  law  depart- 
ment of  tfie  University  of  Michigan.  He  bqi;an 
the  practice  of  law  at  Independence,  Kan.,  in 
1871,  and  remained  a  resident  of  that  city  until 
his  death.  In  1876  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Kansas  House  of  Representatives;  from  1877-84 
was  lieutenant-governor  of  Kansas;  member  of 
Congress  for  that  State  from  1884-88;  and 
Governor  of  the  State  from  1880-03. 

HTJNBKBB,  James.  See  Litbratube,  Eng- 
lish AND  American,  Essays, 

HXTNGABY.    See  Avstbia-Hunoabt. 

HTJNTEB,  Thomas.  American  educator,  died 
Oct.  14,  1015.  He  was  bom  near  Belfast,  Ire- 
land, in  1832,  and  at  the  age  of  18  came  to  tiie 
United  States.  He  at  once  secured  a  position  as 
junior  teacher  in  the  Thirteenth  Street  school  in 
New  York  City.  In  1850  he  became  a  teacher 
in  Grammar  School  No.  35,  and  his  conduct  of 
this  school  at  once  gave  him  reputation  among 
educators.  Here  he  began  the  first  evening  high 
school  in  New  York  City.  This  school  was 
started  in  1866,  and  Dr.  Hunter  was  appointed 
principal,  althou^  he  still  remained  at  the  head 
of  Grammar  School  35.  The  evening  school  was 
so  successful  that  the  Board  of  Education  was 
obliged  to  double  the  corps  of  instructors  two 


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weeks  after  its  opening.  In  1870,  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  normal  school  in  New  York  City,  Dr. 
Hunter  was  made  president  and  remained  in  this 
position  until  1006,  when  he  retired.  During 
this  period  more  than  10,000  graduates  went  out 
from  this  school,  and  he  became  one  of  the  best 
known  educators  in  the  United  States.  Shortly 
after  his  retirement,  the  name  Hunter  College 
was  given  to  the  normal  school  in  Dr.  Hunter's 
honor.  An  association,  known  as  the  Thomas 
Hunter  Association,  composed  of  the  graduates 
of  school  No.  36,  for  many  years  held  annual 
dinners,  at  which  Dr.  Hunter  was  inrariably 
present.  After  his  resignation  as  president  of 
the  normal  school,  he  beoune  president  emeritus, 
and  held  that  post  imtil  his  death.  He  received 
honorary  degrees  from  Columbia  and  from  New 
York  University. 

HTJBBICANE&  Qalvebton.  The  city  of 
Galveston,  Texas,  on  Aug.  16  and  17,  1015,  ex- 
perienced <me  of  the  most  severe  hurricanes  in 
its  history.  Tlie  disastrous  storm  of  1900  had 
led  to  the  construction  of  a  massive  seawall,  to 
the  elevation  of  the  grade  of  the  city,  and  to  the 
buildinff  of  a  causeway  to  the  mainland,  so  tiiat 
while  tae  damage  was  severe,  aggregating  pos- 
sibly between  three  and  four  million  dollars,  yet 
it  was  much  less  than  it  would  have  been  other- 
wise. The  storm  began  at  5  o'clock  on  Monday 
afternoon,  with  a  wind  velocity  estimated  at  60 
miles  per  hour,  which  blew  the  water  from  the 
bay  into  the  city,  flooding  streets  and  cellars, 
so  that  by  9  o'elodc  water  stood  from  4  to  6  feet 
deep  in  Market  Street.  The  wind,  which  came 
from  the  north,  increased  in  velocity  until  about 
2  A.  H.,  August  17th,  when  it  was  estimated  that 
it  had  a  velocitv  of  90  miles  per  hour.  In  the 
meantime  it  had  veered  from  the  north  around 
to  the  east  and  then  to  the  south,  from  which 
latter  direction  it  drove  the  waves  from  the 
gulf  in  against  the  seawall.  The  seawall,  which 
extended  for  approximately  3  miles  along  the 
gulf  front  of  the  city,  was  constructed  of  con- 
crete reinforced  with  a  single  line  of  rods  near 
the  curved  face,  resting  on  piles,  and  protected 
in  front  by  riprap  and  a  Ime  of  sheet  piling. 
This  wall  was  originally  intended  to  be  pro- 
tected at  the  rear  by  an  earth  fill  100  feet  wide, 
which  would  afford  a  boulevard,  but  a  later  plan 
involved  filling  in  behind  the  walls  for  such  a 
distance  as  would  raise  the  grade  from  10  to  16 
feet  over  the  entire  island. 

This  concrete  wall  passed  through  the  storm 
of  August  16th  and  17th  most  successfully.  At 
only  two  places  did  the  waters  of  the  gulf  pene- 
trate beneath  the  structure,  and  this  but  tem- 
porarily and  without  damage.  Some  damage  at 
these  points  was  done  to  the  material  that  was 
swept  through  two  temporary  gaps  beneath  the 
wall,  and  considerable  injury  was  produced  in 
the  back  fill  and  pavement  by  the  tremendous 
masses  of  water  that  were  hurled  distances  of 
200  feet  or  more  beyond  the  crest.  This  resulted 
in  washing  out  the  back  fill,  undermining  pave- 
ments, and  forming  a  wide  stretch  of  bcAch  be- 
hind the  wall.  ^ 

While  the  seawall  not  only  remained  substan- 
tially intact  and  saved  the  city  from  destruction, 
the  line  of  conununication  with  the  mainland — 
a  long  causeway  for  railway  and  other  traffic, 
consisting  of  a  protected  roadway  and  a  series 
of  reinforced  concrete  arches  of  70-foot  span, 
with  a  rolling  lift  steel  bridge  of  100-foot  span 
in  the  centre — ^was  seriously  damaged,  and  the 


city  was  out  c^  from  communication  with  the 
mainland.  The  reinforced  concrete  structure, 
however,  and  the  bridge,  were  practically  unin- 
jured, but  the  protected  roadway,  which  con- 
sisted of  land  and  gravel  fill  199  feet  wide  on 
top,  was  badly  damaged.  In  this  roadway  the 
side  slopes  were  protected  by  6-inch  concrete 
slabs,  whose  toes  rested  cm  tongued  and  grooved 
concrete  piling  which  was  poured  full  of  con- 
crete so  as  to  make  a  solid  wall,  and  the  con- 
crete sheet  piling  was  then  capped.  While  the 
concrete  pilmg  remained  intact,  the  sand  and 
gravel  fill  was  scooped  out  by  the  action  of  the 
water  letting  down  the  concrete  slabs.  The  30- 
inch  water  main  in  the  causeway,  bringing  the 
water  from  the  mainland,  was  broken  and  occa- 
sioned much  hardship.  The  people  of  the  city 
suffered  from  lack  of  drinking  water,  as  a  sec- 
ond water  main  laid  on  the  bottom  of  tiie  bay 
was  also  broken.  After  the  storm  an  8-inch 
main  was  laid  in  17  hours  from  the  mainland 
and  better  conditions  obtained. 

The  city  streets  were  submerged  to  an  approxi- 
mate depth  of  6  feet  and  practically  every  retail 
establishment  was  fiooded.  The  telephone  sys- 
tem was  put  out  of  commission  by  the  storm, 
but  was  soon  restored  with  an  automobile  en- 
gine as  the  source  of  power.  The  citizens  pro- 
ceeded rapidly  to  clean  up  the  debris,  and  a  pile 
trestle  was  erected  as  a  substitute  for  the  de- 
stroyed causeway  approaches  in  the  short  time 
of  one  week.  Aiter  the  disaster  the  city  mani- 
fested the  most  hopeful  and  active  spirit,  and 
Gen.  H.  M.  Robert,  U.  S.  A.,  Bet.,  was  caUed 
in  as  consulting  engineer  to  advise  on  the 
strengthening  of  the  water  front  defenses.  He 
recommended  that  the  brick  pavement  be  widened 
30  feet,  that  is,  extended  to  a  distance  100  feet 
back  from  the  back  of  the  wall,  and  that  there 
be  built  a  reinforced  concrete,  sheet  pile  bulkhead 
14  feet  deep  to  prevent  imdermining.  This  plan 
was  adopted,  as  was  also  the  reconunendation 
that  20,000  tons  of  rock  be  placed  at  the  toe  of 
the  seawall  to  protect  it  from  undermining,  and 
also  to  protect  the  first  row  of  piles  and  the 
wood  sheet  piling  from  the  ravages  of  the 
teredo. 

A  further  reconunendation  dealt  with  the  ne- 
cessity of  planting  with  Bermuda  grass  the  space 
beyond  the  100-foot  boulevard.  This  recom- 
mendation had  been  made  previously,  but  it  had 
been  generally  disregarded,  with  disastrous  ef- 
fect. Where  the  grass  had  been  planted  there 
was  no  undermining,  but  where  shell  or  sand 
drives  or  walks  crossed  the  lawns  cutting  was 
apt  to  start,  spreading  under  the  pavements.  It 
was  recommended  that  the  sod  protection  should 
be  carried  back  if  possible  a  ^stance  of  300  feet 
from  the  seawall,  and  that  from  a  clay  mound 
2  feet  high  and  6  feet  wide,  at  the  back  edge  of 
the  pavement,  a  2  per  cent  grade  should  be  made 
for  a  still  further  protection,  which  at  its  rear 
would  be  23  feet  6  inches  higher  than  the  sea- 
wall. 

In  addition  to  destruction  and  loss  in  the  city, 
heavy  damage  was  experienced  by  the  Sunset 
Central  and  other  railway  lines  in  the  vicinity 
of  Galveston,  their  losses  being  estimated  con- 
servatively at  $376,000.  While  the  hurricane 
was  most  severe  at  Galveston,  yet  it  extended 
along  the  entire  coast. 

New  Oblbans.  On  September  29th  a  hurri- 
cane passed  over  New  Orleans,  La.,  and  vicinity, 
causing  the  deaths  of  about  300  people  and  a  loss 


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of  property  estimated  at  over  $1,000,000.  Thie 
hurricane  came  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
struck  New  Orleans  about  8  a.  m.,  the  wind  in- 
creasing in  velocity  during  the  day  until  in  the 
afternoon,  between  4.30  and  7.30,  it  was  blowing 
at  a  rate  of  80  to  120  miles  per  hour,  and  the 
barometer  fell  to  28.11,  which  was  said  to  be 
the  lowest  ever  recorded  in  the  United  States. 
In  21  hours  8.36  inches  of  rain  fell.  Much  dam- 
age was  done  to  buildings  in  the  city  and  the 
country  for  miles  was  devastated  and  railway 
and  wire  service  interrupted.  The  waters  of  Lake 
Pontchartrain,  north  of  New  Orleans,  formed 
a  tidal  wave  nearly  12  feet  in  height  tmder  the 
influence  of  the  storm,  and  when  it  struck  the 
western  shore  overflowed  the  country  for  miles. 
Much  damage  was  done  to  the  lines  of  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville,  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Sunset  Central,  and  other  railways,  varying  all 
the  way  from  the  destruction  of  bridges  to  the 
washing  out  of  embanlonents.  The  sul^idence  of 
the  storm  at  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  the 
flooding  bade  of  much  of  the  water  from  Lake 
Pontchartrain  to  the  surrounding  country  helped 
matters  considerably,  but  people  were  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  trees  and  great  damage  was  done 
to  property.  The  rainfall  in  succeeding  storms 
was  also  heavy,  and  in  16  days  22.24  inches  fell, 
which  seriously  interfered  with  the  drainage 
and  sewerage  systems  of  the  city  and  surround- 
ing country,  for  the  ground  level  of  New  Or- 
leans  being  below  river  level  it  must  be  pumped. 

HYDSU.TICS.  The  use  of  water  as  a  medi- 
cal  agent     See  Hydbotherapt. 

HTDBO-ELECTBIO.    See  Electbio  Poweb, 

TitANSMISSION  OF. 

HYDB0FATH7.  A  word  of  improper  ety- 
mology, formerly  signifying  the  practice  of  an 
extinct  sect  which  employed  water  treatment  to 
the  exclusion  of  medicine.    See  Hyi»othrbaft. 

HYDBOPLANE.     See  AftaoNAUTics. 

HYDBOTTTBRAPY.  The  treatment  of  dis- 
ease with  water,  either  fresh  still  water,  or 
brine,  or  effervescing  mineral  water,  is  surely 
and  progressively  gaining  on  other  therapeutic 
procedures  which  consist  largely  of  drugs.  The 
return  to  natural  foods,  natural  methods  of  liv- 
ing, and  the  use  of  fresh  air  day  and  night,  and 
exercise  accompanies  the  use  of  water  at  exact 
temperatures  and  for  prescribed  duration.  The 
great  European  war  caused  the  closure  of  al- 
most all  the  German  and  Austrian  spas,  and 
in  these  countries  and  in  France  many  of  the 
bath  establishments  were  devoted  to  the  care  of 
wounded  men  from  the  battlefields.  In  Amer- 
ica, a  revival  of  interest  in  home  facilities  was 
noticed,  and  increased  numbers  of  patients  were 
treated  at  Hot  Springs,  Va.,  Greenbrier  White 
Sulphur  Springs,  W.  Va.,  French  Lick,  Ind.,  Mt. 
demons,  Mich.,  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  Old  Point 
Comfort,  Va.,  Clifton  Springs,  N.  Y.,  Glen 
Springs,  Watkins,  N.  Y.,  Manitou  Springs,  Col., 
etc,  as  well  as  at  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  under 
United  States  control,  and  Saratoga  Springs, 
N.  Y.,  under  State  control.  The  last  named  lo- 
cality was  equipped  for  1916  for  the  "Saragh- 
toghie  Bath"  (Nauheim  style),  as  well  as  for 
general  hydrotherapy.  Dr.  J.  H.  Honan,  who 
nad  practiced  during  the  summer  at  Bad-Nau- 
heim,  Germany,  for  a  score  of  years,  and  for 
several  winters  had  practiced  hydrotherapy  at 
Augusta,  Ga.,  practiced  at  Shawnee,  Pa.,  last 
summer.  Kellogg,  of  Battle  Creek,  introduced 
the  apparatus  of  his  invention  known  as  the 


surf  bath.  It  is  applied  to  anv  bath  tub  so 
that  one  grasps  handles,  swings  back  and  forth 
in  the  tub,  as  if  rowing,  and  with  each  stroke 
empties  a  small  scoop  of  water  over  the  body 
from  the  neck  down. 

HYGIENE.  The  steadily  growing  popularity 
of  indoor  swimming  pools  and  their  multiplica- 
tion throughout  the  country,  creates  a  sanitary 
problem  of  no  little  interest.  While  promoting 
cleanliness,  they  are  also  particularly  adapted 
for  spreading  disease.  When  it  is  considered 
that  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  use  of 
swimming  pools  by  pupils  of  secondary  schools 
is  made  compulsory,  it  will  be  seen  that  officious 
public  hygiene  assumes  considerable  responsibil- 
ity. The  diseases  commonly  found  to  be  com- 
municable in  swimming  pools  are  divided  into 
intestinal  maladies,  e.g.  typhoid  fever  and  diar- 
rhoea, eye  and  ear  infections,  and  venereal 
diseases.  The  examination  of  swimming  pool 
water  for  colon  bacilli  is  considered  an  index  of 
its  relative  pollution.  Manheimer,  of  Columbia 
University,  New  York,  has  investigated  the  pu- 
rity of  swimming  pools  of  all  varieties  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  He  finds  that  those  of  the 
collegiate  institutions  are  in  very  good  condi- 
tion; the  baoteriologic  content  of  the  water  in 
one  pool  closely  approximating  that  of  drinking 
water.  Such  perfection  can  only  be  obtained  by 
a  careful  inspection  and  thorough  bathing  of 
the  swimmers  before  they  enter  tiie  water,  and 
by  their  observance  of  pool  sanitation  while  in 
it.  The  source  of  the  water  must  be  pure,  it 
must  be  frequently  renewed  and  filtered.  Chem- 
ical disinfection  was  most  ^oient.  The  public 
pools  are  less  efficiently  cared  for,  the  attend- 
ance is  promiscuous,  and  contagious  diseases  are 
apt  to  be  disseminated.  The  examination  of  the 
free  fioating  baths  stationed  during  the  sununer 
at  docks  in  the  East  and  Hudson  rivers,  New 
York  City,  as  far  away  from  sewer  outlets  as 
possible,  showed  their  sanitarv  condition  to  be 
extremely  bad.  Of  the  chemical  disinfectants, 
calcium  hypochlorite  and  copper  sulphate  are 
most  used,  the  latter  apparently  being  more 
effective  in  that  it  does  not  readily  undergo 
ch^nical  changes.  It  is  not  irritating  to  the 
eyes  and  mucous  membranes,  it  is  cheaper,  and 
has  no  odor.  Certain  pools  are  kept  clean  by  a 
constant  fiow  of  water  which  has  previously  been 
subjected  to  the  violet  rays. 

Herbert  Ant,  chemist  for  the  Reservation  at 
Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.,  secured  the  following 
data  from  the  two  out-door  pleasure  swimming 
pools  at  the  State  Lincoln  Bath  House,  during 
the  midsummer  months  of  1915 : 

Red 
Btieteria  (colon) 
fi«r  c.e.    eoloniea 
July  average  for  1  ft.  below  surface. . .     75  10 

July  average  for  5  ft.  below  surface...    SOO  60 

August  average  for  1  ft.  below  surface. .    180  20 

August  average  for  6  ft.  below  surface. .   860  80 

During  this  period,  a  dosage  of  .35  of  a  part 
per  million  of  available  chlorine,  obtained  from 
hypochlorite  of  lime,  was  used,  in  connection 
with  the  filtration  through  a  New  York  Conti- 
nental Jewell  pressure  filter,  in  which  1.5  grains 
of  alum  were  used  as  a  coagulant.  At  the  end 
of  an  August  day,  after  25  to  40  people  had  been 
in  the  pools  continuously,  the  coimts  were  3000 
bacteria  per  cc,  with  700  red  colonies.  An  ad- 
ditional   dosage   of    .15    parts    per    million    of 


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chlorine,  together  with  draining  and  scrubbing 
the  pool  brought  the  count,  September  let,  down 
to  275  bacteria  per  c.c.  and  40  red  colonies. 
Most  bathers  obeyed  the  rule  and  took  a  soap 
bath  and  spray  before  entering  the  pools. 

Thomas  strongly  advocates  tlie  use  of  copper 
sulphate  and  gives  a  simple  method  of  applying 
it  He  found  on  analyzing  the  pool  water  in  the 
Taylor  Gymnasiiun  at  Lehigh  University,  that  it 
contained  10  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  and 
no  colon  bacilli,  just  after  the  water  had  been 
filtered  and  admitted  to  the  tank  and  before  any 
bathers  had  entered  it.  After  40  men  had  been 
in  the  pool,  although  all  the  preliminary  sani- 
tary precautions  ha4  been  taken,  the  water  con- 
tained 5300  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter,  200 
of  which  were  colon  bacilli.  He  found  that  one- 
twentieth  part  of  copper  sulphate  to  a  million 
parts  of  water,  used  every  day,  kept  the  water 
pure,  but  this  amount  may  be  adapted  to  the 
particular  pool,  depending  on  the  number  of 
bathers  and  cubic  contents  of  the  water  supplied. 
Where  the  capacity  of  the  tank  in  gallons  is 
known,  the  problem  simply  amounts  to  multi- 
plying the  number  of  gallons  by  8.3  (the  weight 
in  pounds  of  a  sallon  of  water),  and  dividing 
the  weight  of  ute  water  thus  determined  by 
2,000,000  (the  solution  being  one-half  part  per 
million).  This  gives  the  weight  in  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate  to  be  added.  A  pool  containing 
90,000  gallons  of  water,  for  instance,  would  re- 
quire 0.37  pounds,  or  about  6  ounces  of  copper 
sulphate.  The  copper  sulphate  should  be  added 
daily.  The  salt  may  be  simply  placed  in  a  bag 
and  thrown  in  the  pool,  or  it  may  be  dissolved 
in  a  quart  or  more  of  water  and  poured  in.  The 
cheapness  of  these  methods  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  100  pounds,  at  $7,  would  last  the  average 
pool  about  a  year.  For  other  aspects  of  the 
question,  see  Prostitution. 

HYGIENE  ASSOCIATION,  American  So- 
cial.   See  Prostitution,  SocUU  Hygiene, 

IBSEN'S  John  Gabriel  Bookman.  See 
Drama,  American  and  English. 

ICELAND.  A  Danish  crown  colony.  Area 
about  40,456  square  miles,  of  which  16,245 
square  miles  inhabited;  population  (1011),  85,- 
183.  The  responsible  executive  resides  at  Reyk- 
javik.  The  trade  in  1912  amounted  to  15,347,- 
000  kroner  imports,  and  16,658,000  kroner  ex- 
ports, the  latter  consisting  of  wool,  dried  fish, 
mutton,  ponies,  and  sheep.  The  Legislature 
(Althing)  has  40  members,  34  elective  by  univer- 
sal suffrage.  The  franchise  is  exercised  by  men 
and  women  over  25  years  of  age.  On  June  10th 
the  Ring  of  Denmark  signed  the  suffrage  bill, 
which  had  been  passed  by  the  Parliament  of  Ice- 
land in  1914,  muting  full  rights  of  suffrage  to 
the  women  of  Iceland. 

IDAHO.  Population.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation of  the  State  on  July  1,  1916,  was  411,996. 
The  population  in  1910  was  326,594. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 

Acreage  Prod.Bu.  Value 

Corn     1915  22,000  770.000  $500,000 

1914  19,000  589,000  424,000 

Wheat    1915  670,000  18,730,000  14,984,000 

1914  549,000  14,862,000  12,496,000 

OaU     1915  835,000  15,745,000  5.353,000 

1914  332,000  14,608.000  5,551,000 

Rye     1915  8,000  60,000  41,000 

1914  8.000  60.000  41.000 


Barley     .  , 
Potatoea 

Hay    

a  Tone. 


IDAHO 

Acreage      Prod.  Bu.         Value 

4.028,000 
8.515,000 
1,960,000 
2,530,000 
14.076.000 
13.686.000 


1915 

191.000 

7.736.000 

1914 

185.000 

7,030.000 

1915 

28.000 

8,600.000 

1914 

34.000 

5,270.000 

.1915 

677,000 

a  1.828,000 

1914 

705,000 

1,868,000 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  241,000  and 
243,000,  valued  at  $21,690,000  and  $22,356,000; 
mules  numbered  4000  and  4000,  valued  at  $380,- 
000  and  $340,000;  milch  cows  numbered  126,000 
and  120,000,  valued  at  $8,316,000  and  $8,640,- 
000;  other  cattle  numbered  406,000  and  379,000, 
valued  at  $15,672,000  and  $15,842,000;  sheep 
numbered  3,102,000  and  3,041,000,  valued  at 
$17,371,000  and  $14,293,000;  swine  numbered 
344,000  and  328,000,  valued  at  $2,408,000  and 
$3,208,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  14,792,000  and  15,286,000  pounds  re- 
spectively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  lead  produced  in 
1914  amounted  to  174,263  short  tons,  valued  at 
$13,592,517,  compared  with  158,936  short  tons, 
valued  at  $13,986,366  in  1913.  The  State  ranks 
second  in  the  Union  in  the  value  of  lead  pro- 
duced. The  production  of  gold  in  the  State  in 
1914  was  $1,152,315,  compared  with  $1,344,559 
in  1913.  The  production  from  placer  mines  was 
$700,454. 

llie  mined  production  of  silver  in  1914  was 
12,479,516  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $6,901,172. 
This  is  the  lat-gest  yield  in  the  history  of  the 
State.  The  production  in  1913  was  9,998,193 
ounces,  valued  at  $6,033,473.  The  increase  was 
almost  entirely  from  the  silver  bearing  lead, 
and  lead  zinc  ore  of  the  Ckour  d'Alene  region, 
in  Shoshone  County.  In  1914  Idaho  produced 
6,445,187  pounds  of  copper,  valued  at  $857,210, 
compared  with  9,592,966  poimds,  valued  at  $1,- 
486,910,  in  1913.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral 
production  in  1914  was  $24,913,223  in  1914,  com- 
pared with  $24,565,826  in  1913. 

Education.  Ihere  were  in  the  State  in  1915 
120,000  pupils  in  public  schools,  compared  with 
113,850  in  1914.  In  the  latter  year  there  were 
enrolled  in  the  schools  92,437  pupils.  Teachers 
numbered  2943,  of  whom  2276  were  women,  and 
667  were  men.  The  average  salary  of  women 
teachers  amounted  to  $72.55  monthly,  and  of  the 
men  teachers  $95.25  monthly.  The  total  expend- 
iture for  educational  purposes  in  1914  was  $4,- 
296,964. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 
for  the  fiscal  year  was  $3,054,903,  and  at  the 
same  period  the  total  disbursements  were  $3,- 
172,250.  There  was  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  a  balance  of  $246,350,  and  on  Sept.  30, 
1915,  there  waa  a  balance  of  $1,132,647.  The 
chief  sources  of  revenue  are  taxes,  interest  on 
State  funds,  and  fees.  The  chief  expenditures 
are  maintenance,  salaries,  and  interest  on  State 
bonds.  The  bonded  debt  of  the  State  amounted 
to  $2,237,750. 

Cmarities  and  Corrections.  The  State  in- 
stitutions include  a  Soldiers'  Home  at  Boise, 
State  Penitentiary  at  Boise,  the  Idaho  Insane 
Asylum  at  Black  Foot,  the  North  Dakota  Insane 
Asylum  at  Orofino,  Idaho  State  Sanitarium  at 
Nampa. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  and  enacted  a  niunber  of  important 


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IDAHO 


313 


ILLIKOIS 


measures.  On  January  13th  an  anti-alien  land 
ownership  bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  of 
Bepresentatives.  It  prohibited  land  ownership 
in  the  State  by  alien  persons,  firms,  or  associa- 
tions, except  by  the  enforcement  of  liens,  or 
through  inheritance,  in  which  case  it  must  be 
disposed  of  in  five  years,  or  forfeited.  The 
House  passed  the  bill  on  January  20th,  only 
two  dissenting  votes  being  cast. 

The  Senate,  on  January  20th,  passed  a  resolu- 
tion providing  for  the  submission  to  the  voters 
of  a  constitutional  amendment  prohibiting  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors, 
after  May  1,  1017.  The  Senate,  on  February 
25th,  as  a  substitute,  passed  a  State-wide  prohi- 
bition bill,  which  nnaxes  the  manufacture  and 
transportation  or  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
unlawful  after  Jan.  1,  1016.  The  bill  was  signed 
by  Governor  Alexander  on  March  Ist  and  be- 
came a  law. 

The  Legislature  enacted  a  bill  providing  for 
the  employment  of  convicts  for  the  building  of 
roads  in  mountain  districts.  A  law  was  also 
passed  compelling  county  commissioners  to  pro- 
vide emergency  work  for  the  unemployed.  A 
workmen's  compensation  bill  was  vetoed  by  the 
Governor. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Moses  Alex- 
ander; Lieutenant-Governor,  Herman  H.  Taylor; 
Secretary  of  State,  George  R.  Barker;  State 
Auditor,  Fred  L.  Huston ;  State  Treasurer,  John 
W.  Eagleson;  Attorney-General,  Joseph  H.  Peter- 
son; Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Ber- 
nice  McCoy;  Inspector  of  Mines,  Robert  N.  Bell; 
all  Republicans  except  the  Governor. 

JuDiciABY.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Isaac  N.  Sullivan;  Associate  Justices,  Alfred 
Budge  and  William  M.  Morgan. 

State  Legislature: 


Senate 

Republieaos    10 

Democrats     11 

Progressives   2 

SocisUsto     1 

Republican  maiority. .       6 


IDAHO,  Univebsity  of.  An  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  in  1892  at  Moscow, 
Idaho.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  796.  This  includes 
those  enrolled  in  the  siunmer  school  and  short 
courses.  The  faculty  numbered  72.  During  the 
year  a  school  of  education  was  organized,  and 
departments  of  psychology  and  sociology  were 
established.  Dr.  R.  R.  (^K>drich  was  appointed 
head  of  the  department  of  metallurgy.  ITie  pro- 
ductive funds  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $666,346,  and  the  income  to  $264,- 
803.    The  library  contained  31,104  volumes. 

HiLIKOIS.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  1,  1915,  was 
6,069,519.  The  population  in  1910  was  5,638,- 
591. 

Aobiculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-16,  were  as  follows: 


Acreage       Prod.  Bu,  Value 

Corn    1915  10,449.000  876.164,000  $208,129,000 

1014  10.846.000  800,084,000     188.021,000 
Wheat     ...1915     2.800.000     58,200,000       58,200.000 

1914     2,500,000     46,250,000       46,712,000 


Houee 

Joint  Banot 

82 

51 

28 

89 

1 

8 

0 

1 

Aereoffe 

Prod,  Bu, 

Tdlue 

OaU    ... 

..1915 

4,848,000 

195.485.000 

68,402,000 

1914 

4,800.000 

125,990.000 

55.486.000 

Rye   .... 

..1916 

49.000 

906,000 

752,000 

1914 

49.000 

784.000 

666,000 

Barley    .. 

..1915 

54,000 

1,886,000 

1.047.000 

1914 

55.000 

1,622.000 

989.000 

PoUtoes 

..1915 

126.000 

18,860.000 

8.177.000 

1914 

124,000 

7,440,000 

4,588,000 

Hay    .... 

.1915 

2,400.000 

a  8.696,000 

89.917,000 

1914 

2.250.000 

1.912.000 

27,583.000 

Tobacco 

..1915 

700 

b  595.000 

54.000 

1914 

600 

468.000 

56,000 

a  Tons. 

h  Pounds. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  1,452,000  and 
1,467,000,  valued  at  $149,556,000  and  $154,035,- 
000;  mules  numbered  152,000  and  145,000,  val- 
ued at  $16,872,000  and  $15,950,000;  milch  cows 
niunbered  1,047,000  and  1,007,000,  valued  at 
$63,029,000  and  $59,916,000;  other  cattle  num- 
bered 1,239,000  and  1,180,000,  valued  at  $47,- 
702,000  and  $44,604,000;  sheep  niunbered  907,000 
and  935,000,  valued  at  $5,351,000  and  $5,049,- 
000;  swine  numbered  4,489,000  and  4,358,000, 
valued  at  $40,401,000  and  $47,066,000.  The  pro- 
duction of  wool  in  1915  and  1914  was  3,975,000 
and  3,853,000  pounds  respectively. 

MiNEBAL  Pboduction.  The  production  of  coal 
in  1914  was  57,589,187  short  tons,  valued  at 
$64,692,529,  compared  with  61,618,744  tons, 
valued  at  $70,313,605.  This  tonnage  compares 
well  with  the  figures  of  the  largest  productions 
of  the  State.  The  supply  of  labor  was  plentiful 
and  transportation  accommodations  were  ade- 
quate throughout  the  year,  except  during  the  bi- 
ennial shutdown,  which  has  now  become  a  regu- 
lar incident  of  the  spring  months  of  the  even 
year  in  Illinois  coal  mining,  which  began  on 
April  1,  1914,  and  lasts  in  certain  districto  from 
30  to  60  days.  The  principal  increase  in  1914 
was  in  Franklin  County,  where  a  large  amount 
of  developing  has  taken  place  during  the  last 
four  years. 

The  production  of  petroleum  in  the  State  in 
1914  was  21,919,749  barrels.  This  was  a  de- 
cline of  1,974,150  barrels  compared  with  the 
output  in  1913,  but  it  indicated  a  notable  im- 
provement compared  with  the  decline  of  16.45 
per  cent  of  the  previous  year  to  that  year.  The 
State  continued  to  hold  third  place  in  the  total 
production.  The  average  price  per  barrel  was 
$1.16.  There  were  completed  during  the  year 
1105  wells,  in  21  counties.  The  total  number 
of  wells  drilled  for  oil  prior  to  Jan.  1,  1915,  was 
24,566,  of  which  4120  were  unsuccessful.  The 
value  of  the  total  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $117,145,108,  compared  with  $131,825,221  in 
1913.  The  State  ranked  third  in  the  Union  in 
value  of  mineral  products. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914  was  1,650,258.  The  enrollment  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  was  957,926;  of  these  489,138 
were  boys,  and  468,788  were  girls.  In  the  sec- 
ondary schools  were  enrolled  85,301,  making  a 
grand  total  of  1,043,227.  The  total  number  of 
teachers  was  31,805,  of  whom  26,135  were  women 
and  5770  were  men.  The  average  annual  salary 
of  men  teachers  was  $796.19,  and  of  women 
teachers  $660.15.  The  total  value  of  the  school 
property  was  $119,568,943.  The  total  expendi- 
tures for  the  schools  amounted  to  $51,141,928. 

Chabities  and  Corbections.  The  State  in- 
stitutions include  Elgin  State  Hospital,  Kanka- 


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314       IMiaOBATION  AND  ElOGBATION 


kee  State  Hospital,  Jacksonville  State  Hospital, 
Anna  State  Hospital,  Watertown  State  Hospital, 
Peoria  State  Hospilal,  Chester  State  Hospital, 
and  the  Chicago  State  Hospital;  the  Lincoln 
State  School  and  Colony,  the  State  School  for 
the  Deaf,  Illinois  State  School  for  the  Blind, 
Illinois  Industrial  Home  for  the  Blind,  Soldiers' 
and  Sailors'  Home,  Soldiers'  Widows'  Home, 
Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home,  Charitable  Eye  and 
Ear  Infirmary,  State  Training  School  for  Girls, 
St.  Charles  School  for  Boys,  Alton  State  Hos- 
pital, State  Penitentiaries  at  Joliet  and  Chester, 
and  the  Hlinois  State  Reformatory  at  Pontiac. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 
for  the  fiscal  year  1915  were  $17,930,687.  The 
total  disbursements  for  the  same  period 
amounted  to  $21,772,154.  The  chief  sources  of 
revenue  are  from  taxes,  inheritance  taxes,  and 
State  departments.  The  chief  expenditures  are 
for  charitable  and  educational  institutions.  The 
State  has  no  bonded  debt. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915,  but  passed  no  measures  of  first  im- 
portance. See  Legislation  in  1915.  In  a  local 
option  election  held  on  April  6tii,  no-license  was 
successful  in  most  of  the  central  and  southern 
cities.  The  women  who  voted  in  this  election 
divided  their  ballots  almost  evenly  between  the 
two  issues.  Centralia,  which  had  been  under 
license  for  60  years,  voted  no-license  by  a  ma- 
jority of  about  300.  A  measure  providing  for 
a  maximum  hour  and  a  minimum  wage  law  for 
women  was  passed.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the 
State,  on  August  28th,  upheld  the  woman  suf- 
frage act  passed  in  1913.  The  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  in  the  decision  handed  down 
June  21st,  upheld  the  Illinois  Pure  Food  Law. 
The  case  was  that  of  a  seller  of  a  canning  com- 
pound, which  contained  boric  acid.  The  Su- 
preme Court  upheld  the  conviction  of  the  seller 
on  the  groimd  that  the  compound  was  not  sold 
as  a  food,  but  as  a  preservative.  On  July  Ist, 
an  anti-tipping  law  went  into  effect.  A  suit  it 
involved  was  brought  on  the  same  day. 

Chicago.'  On  February  23rd,  Carter  H.  Har- 
rison, five  times  mayor  of  the  city,  was  defeated 
by  Robert  M.  Schweitzer  at  the  primary  election 
for  the  nomination  for  a  sixth  term.  These  pri- 
maries were  the  first  at  which  the  women  of 
Chicago  were  entitled  to  the  same  voting  privi- 
leges as  men.  About  77  per  cent  of  the  women 
registered,  and  154,637  voted.  William  H. 
Thompson  received  the  Republican  nomination. 
At  the  election  of  April  6th,  Mr.  Thompson  was 
elected,  defeating  Robert  M.  Schweitzer  by  a 
plurality  of  about  139,000.  This  is  the  largest 
plurality  ever  polled  by  the  successful  candidate 
for  mayor  of  Chicago.  The  Republicans  elected 
also  the  remainder  of  the  ticket,  including  city 
treasurer,  city  clerk,  and  judge  of  the  municipal 
court.  About  one-half  of  the  aldermen  elected 
were  Republicans  or  Progressives.  Women  for 
the  first  time  took  part  in  an  election  for  mayor. 
They  swelled  the  total  vote,  but  did  not  affect 
the  result,  as  they  were  divided  between  tJie  can- 
didates in  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  men. 

On  April  15th,  16,000  union  carpenters  went 
on  strike  in  the  city,  following  a  demand  for  an 
increase  in  wages  from  65  to  70  cents  an  hour. 
Operations  on  buildings  involving  more  than 
$30,000,000  were  tied  up,  while  125,000  workers 
in  building  trades  were  idle.  On  April  30th,  the 
bridge  and  structural  iron  workers  also  struck, 
and  these  were  followed  by  metal  workers,  paint- 


ers, and  lathers.  On  June  14th,  street  and  ele- 
vated railways  were  tied  up  as  a  result  of  a 
strike  of  the  employees.  After  negotiations  with 
the  mayor  it  was  agreed  to  submit  questions  at 
issue  to  arbitration  (see  Strikes).  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  Eastland  disaster,  see  Safety  at 
Sea. 

State  GovEBNifENT.  Governor,  Edward  F. 
Dunne;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Barratt  O'Hara; 
Secretary  of  State,  Lewis  G.  Stevenson;  Audi- 
tor of  Public  Accounts,  James  J.  Brady;  Treas- 
urer, Andrew  Russel;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Francis  G.  Blair;  Attorney-General, 
Patrick  J.  Lucey.  All  Democrats  except  Treas- 
urer and  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Warren  M.  Dun- 
can, R.;  William  M.  Farmer,  D.;  Frank  K. 
Dunn,  R.;  George  A.  Cooke,  D.;  Charles  C. 
Craig,  D.;  James  H.  Cartwright,  R.;  Orrin  N. 
Carter,  R. 

State  Legislature: 

8enat€  Hous€  Joint  Ballot 

Repnblicnns    25  78                108 

Democrats     25  70                  95 

ProeressivM   1  2                    8 

Socialists    2                    2 

Republican  majority. ...  4  8 

TLLlNOlBf  Univebsity  of.  A  State  univer- 
sity for  higher  education  founded  in  1867  at 
Urbana  and  Chicago.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was 
5611.  In  the  summer  school  of  1915  there  were 
enrolled  639  students.  The  faculty  numbered 
657.  Frederick  H.  Newell  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  civil  engineering,  and  Kenneth  Mc- 
Kenzie  professor  of  Romance  languages.  The 
total  income  for  the  year  1915-16  was  $3,061,- 
377.  The  library  contained  about  350,000  bound 
volumes,  and  about  85,000  pamphlets.  Presi- 
dent, Edmund  J.  James,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

ILLINOIS  CANAL.    See  Canals. 

IMAGIST  POETS.  See  Literature,  Eng- 
lish AND  American,  Poetry, 

IMMIGBATION  AND  EMIGRATION.  The 
immigration  for  the  year  1915  was  greatly  af- 
fected hjt  the  war.  For  several  years  previous 
the  immigrants  arrived  had  averaged  about  1,- 
000,000  a  year,  but  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  increase  in 
the  population  through  immigration  would  be 
the  smallest  in  any  one  year  for  more  than  a 
decade.  Problems  dealing  with  the  enforcement 
of  the  law  as  a  result  of  conditions  in  Europe 
were  many  and  complicated.  For  the  first  few 
months  it  was  impossible  to  determine  definitely 
that  any  alien  rejected  at  United  States  ports 
or  arriving  within  the  borders  of  the  country 
could  be  returned  to  the  place  of  origin  in  Eu- 
rope without  placing  him  in  a  position  of  ex- 
treme danger  either  on  the  high  seas  or  after 
being  landed  at  port.  For  a  time  it  was  nec- 
essary to  suspend  deportation  to  coimtries  at 
war,  irrespective  of  whether  the  alien  involved 
had  been  rejected  at  the  ports  or  had  been  ar- 
rested within  the  country  on  charges  of  unlaw- 
ful residence.  Measures  were  taken  to  avoid  to 
the  fullest  extent  possible  the  placing  in  danger 
of  aliens  under  orders  of  exclusion  or  expulsion. 
At  the  close  there  were  1328  aliens,  who,  tmder 
the  terms  of  the  statutes  had  no  right  to  be 
landed,  and  whose  eventual  deportation  it  has 
been   attempted   to  assure  by  accepting  bonds 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


noaOBATION  AND  ElOOBATIOlir        315 


tNDIA 


where  instnimenta  could  be  furnished  or  by  re- 
leasing the  persons  by  parole,  or  in  the  eare  of 
responsible  persons  or  societies.    Nearlj^  every 

Ehase  of  the  administration  of  the  immigration 
iw  was  affected  during  the  year  1>y  oonditiont 
of  the  war. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1916,  the  number  of 
persons  immigrating  to  the  United  States  was 
326,700,  compared  with  1,218,480  in  1914.  Dur- 
ing the  same  time  107,544  non-immigrant  aliens 
entered  the  country,  making  a  total  of  434,244 
admissions.  Non-immigranto  are  those  who  do 
not  intend  to  remain  permanently  in  the  coun- 
try. During  the  year  204,074  aliens  emigrated 
and  180,100  non-emigrant  aliens  left,  making 
ttke  total  departure  381,174,  so  that  the  actual 
increase  in  the  population  through  immigration 
was  only  50,070,  compared  with  an  increase  for 
the  fiscal  year  1914  of  768,276. 

The  efforts  of  Congress  to  amend  the  immi- 
gration laws  in  order  to  restrict  emigration, 
were  defeated  by  the  veto  of  the  Burnett  Bill  by 
President  Wilson.  The  chief  feature  of  the 
bill,  and  the  groimd  on  which  it  was  vetoed, 
was  the  application  of  the  illiteracy  test  to  im- 
migrants. The  following  table  shows  the  net  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  the  population  by  the  ar- 
rival and  departure  of  aliens  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1915. 


British  India,  which  formerly  was  Calcutta,  has 
been  Delhi  since  1912. 

Arsa  and  Population.  The  combined  area 
of  British  India  and  the  Native  States  under 
British  suzerainty,  as  covered  by  the  1911  cen- 
sus, is  stated  at  1,802,667  square  miles.  This 
territory  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  combined 
area  of  the  States  of  the  United  States  lying 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  less  Nevada,  New 
Mexico,  and  Arizona — ^which  is  1,799,033  square 
miles.  British  territory,  which  is  divided  into 
16  provincial  governments,  comprises  1,093,074 
square  miles;  the  Native  States  aggregate  709,- 
583  square  miles.  Interprovincial  transfers  of 
territory,  and  transfers  from  native  to  British 
territory,  and  vice  versa,  occasionally  take 
place,  so  that  censuses  as  originally  reported 
are  subject  to  adjustment.  The  table  on  page 
316  shows  the  area  of  the  British  provinces 
and  of  the  groups  of  native  states,  and  the  pop- 
ulation according  to  the  censuses  of  March  16, 
1901,  and  March  10,  1911.  The  population  re- 
turned at  these  censuses  and  the  areas  have 
been  adjusted,  as  far  as  possible,  to  allow  for 
subsequent  interprovincial  transfers.  Sikkim, 
which  in  1901  was  classed  under  the  Bengal 
States,  is  shown  separately  in  the  1911  census. 
The  tribal  areas  in  the  North- West  Frontier  Prov- 
ince are  now  shown  under  native  states.    Man- 


NET  INCBEAlSE,  FISOAL  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  80.  1915,  BT  COUNTRIES 


Cauntry  of  hut  or  fvHure 

permanent  reeidenee  Immi- 
grant 
aUena 

Austria     9.216 

Huncary    9,296 

Belgium 2.d99 

Bulgaria,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro. . .  1,408 

Denmark     8,812 

France,  inclnding  Coreica 4,811 

German.  Empire 7.799 

Greece   12,592 

Italy,  including  Sicily  and   Sardinia  49,688 

Netherlands    8,144 

Norway 7,986 

Portugal,  including  Cape  Verde  and 

Axore  Islands 4.907 

Rumania   481 

Russian  Empire  and  Finland 26,187 

Spain,  including  Canary  and  Balearic 

Islands    2,762 

Sweden   6.585 

flwitierland     1,742 

Turkey  in  Europe 1,008 

United  Kingdom: 

England    21,562 

Ireland    14,185 

Scotland    4.668 

Wales    1,007 

Other  Europe 1,180 

Total  Europe 197,919 


AdmUted 


Non-im- 
migrant 

aOene 
685 
109 
248 
42 
282 

1.485 

1.069 
241 

1,967 
899 

1,018 

21 
20 

774 

802 

218 

206 

28 

5,618 

875 

981 

118 

80 


Total 

9,850 
9.405 
2,647 
1,445 
8,544 
6,296 
8.868 
12,888 
51,655 
8,548 
8,999 

4,928 

501 

26,961 

8.664 
6,808 
1,948 
1,036 

27.175 

14.560 

5.599 

1.120 

1,210 


Emi- 
grant 
aliens 
6,776 
5,059 

838 
1,964 

412 

5,751 

1,419 

9,775 

96,908 

612 
1,211 

2.661 

244 

18,297 

8,042 
958 
849 
164 

7.715 

2,218 

1,847 

169 

80 


Departed 


Non-emi- 
grani 
aliens 

721 

980 

818 

556 

482 
2,871 
2,456 
1,241 
20,082 
1,819 

758 

810 

77 

8,988 

2,021 

484 

896 

51 

19,987 

1,264 

2,867 

177 

116 


Total 

7,497 
5,989 

651 
2,520 

894 
8,622 
8.875 
11.016 
116.985 
1.981 
1.964 

2.971 

821 

22,280 

5,068 

1,437 

746 

215 

27,702 

8,482 

4,714 

846 

196 


Jncreate 

(  +  )or 

decrease 

(— ) 

+  2.858 
4-  3,416 
+  1.996 
—  1.075 
+  2.650 
2.326 
4.998 
1,817 
—65,880 
+  1,612 
4-  7,035 


1,957 

180 

4,681 


t 


i 


—  1,499 
+  5,866 
4-  1.203 
+   821 

—  627 
+  11,078 

J   885 
774 
1.014 


16.571   214,490   167,954    68,462   281,416    —16.926 


IKCANBESCEKT    LAMPS.    See    Electrio 

LlOHTINO. 

IKCINEBATION  OV  GABBAaE.  See 
Oabbaob  and  Refuse  Disposal. 

INCOME  TAX.    See  Taxation. 

INCBEASEB  COST  OF  LIVIKG.  See 
Prices,  paaaim,  and  Food  and  NunanoN. 

INDIA,  Bbitish.  British  India  is  that  part 
of  East  India  administered  by  the  British  sov- 
ereign (as  Emperor  of  India),  through  the 
Govemor-Oeneral  of  India  in  council.  India,  as 
defined  by  the  British  Parliament,  includes  Brit- 
ish India  and  the  Native  States  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  the  British  government.    The  capital  of 


ipur  State,  which  in  1001  was  included  under 
British  territory,  and  is  now  included  within 
the  scope  of  the  1911  enumeration,  had  a  popu- 
lation (for  the  most  part  estimated),  of  1,731,- 
116;  of  this  number  1,604,265  were  returned 
from  the  agencies  and  tribal  areas  of  the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province.  On  April  1,  1912,  the 
Province  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  (which 
was  erected  from  Eastern  Bengal  and  the  Prov- 
ince of  Assam,  Oct.  16,  1909),  and  the  Prov- 
ince of  Bengal  were  reconstituted  and  erected 
into  three  provinces.  These  provinces  were  Ben- 
gal (which  received  the  style  "presidency"), 
Bihar  and  Orissa,  and  Assam.    On  Oct.  1,^  1912, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


INDIA 


316 


INDIA 


still  another  new  province,  Delhi,  was  erected 
out  of  the  division  of  Delhi  in  the  Punjab;  its 
area  is  provisionallv  stated  at  557  square  miles, 
and  its  1911  population  at  391,828.  The  area 
censused  on  March  10,  1911,  and  the  population 
on  that  date,  as  compared  with  the  population 
on  March  15,  1901,  are  as  follows  (the  figures 
being  adjusted,  as  far  as  possible,  to  subsequent 
interprovincial  transfers) : 

PopvUtUon 

Province*  Sq.m.             IPOl             IP  11 

AjmarMerwara     .  .  2.711           476,912          501.805 

AndAmans  and 

Nicoban    8.148             24.649            26,459 

Aaaam    68.015  5.841.878       6,718,685 

Baluchistan     54,228          882.106           414.412 

Bengal    (Pres.)     ..  78,669  42.141.477  45,488,077 

Bihar  and  Orisaa..  88,181  88,242.788  84.490,084 

Bihar  *     42,861  28,860,212  28,752,969 

Oriasa*     18.748  4.982,142       5.181,758 

GhoU    Nagpnr*.  27,077  4,900,429       5,605,862 

Bombay  (Pres.)    ..  128,059  18,559,650  19,672,642 

Bombay  t     75,998  15,804,766  16,118,042 

Sindt     46,986  8,210,910        8,518,485 

Adent     80             48.974            46,165 

Borma    280,889  10.490.624  12,115,217 

Central  ProTinces 

and  Berar   . . .  99,828  11,971,452  18,916,808 

Central    Prov.t..  82.057  9,217.486  10,869,146 

Berar  t     17,776  2.754,016       8,057,162 

Coorff     1,582           180,607           174.976 

Madras    (Prea.)    ..  142.880  88,229,654  41,405.404 

North- Weat  Frontier 

ProTinee     18,418  2,041,584       2,196.998 

Ponjab  (incl.  Delhi 

Province)     ...  99,779  20,880,887  19.974,956 

United  Provs.  of 

Agra  and  Oudh  107,267  47,692.227  47,182,044 

Agra  8    88,109  84,859.109  84,624,044 

OndhS     24,158  12.888,168  12.558,004 

British    India.  1,098.074  281,605,940  244,267.542 

Native  Statee  and  Ageneiee 
Aasam  State 

(ICanipor)     ..  8.456  284.456  846,222 

BalnchisUn  Sts.   . .  80,410  428.640  420,291 

Baioda   State    8,182  1,952.692  2.082.798 

Bengal     SUtes 5.898  740,299  822,565 

Bihar   and    Orisaa 

States     28.648  8,814,474  8,945.209 

Bombay  States   . . .  68.864  6.908,559  7.411,675 

Central  India  Ag. .  77,867  8,497.805  9,856.980 

Central   Prov.   Sts.  81,174  1,681.140  2.117,002 

Hyderabad    SUte..  82,698  11,141,142  18,874,676 

Kashmir    SUte 84.482  2.905,578  8,158.126 

Madras    States 10.549  4.188,086  4,811,841 

Cochin  1     1,861  812.025  918.110 

TrayancoreY     ..  7,129  2,952.167  8,428,975 

Mysore    State 29,475  5,589,899  5,806,198 

N.-W.  P.  Prov. 

(agencies,  etc.)  25,500  88,962  1,622,094 

Punjab    SUtes 86,551  4,424.898  4.212,794 

Rajputana   Agency.  128,987  9,858.866  10,580.482 

Sikkim     2,818  59,014  87.920 

United  Provs.  SU.  6,079  802,097  882,086 

Native   SUtes...    709,588     62,755,116     70,888,854 

ToUl  India   ..1,802,657  294,861,056  815.156.896 

*  Included  in  the  Bihar  and  Orissa  Province,  f  In- 
cluded in  the  Bombay  Preaidency.  %  Included  in  the 
Central  Provinces  and  Berar.  8  Included  in  the  United 
ProTinces.     \  Included  in  the  Madras  SUtes. 

Hie  population  of  French  and  Portuguese  In- 
dia is  not  shown  in  the  table.  The  Portuguese 
census  of  Dec.  31,  1910,  returned  a  population 
of  804,930,  and  the  French  census  of  March  10, 
1911,  282,472.  Geographically  a  part  of  India 
are  the  Himalayan  independent  states  Nepal 
and  Bhutan.  The  estimated  population  of 
Bhutan  is  250,000.  Estimates  of  Nepal's  popu- 
lation vary  widely,  but  3,000,000  is  as  plausible 
a  figure  as  any.  If  these  figures  be  included, 
tiie  population  of  Indian  territory  becomes  about 
319,294,000.    If  Burma  and  Aden  be  excluded 


as  not  being  geographically  a  part  of  India,  the 
total  amounts  to  about  808,133,000.  But,  owing 
to  our  ignorance  of  the  actual  population  of 
Nepal,  these  totals,  even  as  approximations,  are 
doubtful. 

In  the  decade  1891-1901,  the  increase  of  popu- 
lation in  India  was  2.6  per  cent,  the  increase  in 
British  India  being  4.7,  while  in  the  Native 
States  there  was  a  decrease  of  5.0.  In  the  fol- 
lowing decade,  there  was  an  increase  of  7.1  per 
cent  for  India,  British  India  showing  an  in- 
crease of  5.5  per  cent,  and  the  Native  States 
13.0  per  cent.  In  1911,  about  78  per  cent  of 
the  population  was  in  British  India,  and  about 
22  per  cent  in  the  Native  States.  The  total 
number  of  males  in  1911  was  161,338,935,  and 
of  females  153,817,461.  The  urban  population 
numbered  29,748,228,  and  the  rural  285,408,168. 
The  census  shows  the  population  as  to  civil 
condition  in  the  case  of  312,643,693  persons — 
160,001,322  males  and  162,642,371  females;  of 
these,  78,384,686  males  and  62,516,947  females 
were  unmarried,*  72,906,881  and  73,704,162  mar- 
ried; 8,709,755  and  26,421,262  widowed  (includ- 
ing divorced). 

The  distribution  of  population  according  to 
linguistic  families  was  as  follows  at  the  1911 
census:  I.  Vernaculars  of  India.  A.  Malayo- 
Polynesian  (number  of  languages  spoken  2), 
number  of  persons  6179.  B.  Austro-Asiatic : 
(a)  Mon-Khmer  (7),  555,417;  (b)  Munda 
(16),  3,843,223.  C.  Tibeto-Chinese:  (a)  Tibeto- 
Burman  (121),  10,932,776;  (b)  Siamese-Chinese 
(20),  2,039,737.  D.  Dravidian:  (a)  Dravida 
(11),  37,094,393;  (b)  Intermediate  language 
(1),    1,527,167;     (c)    Andhra    (3),    24,097,411. 

E.  Indo-European  or  Aryan    (37),  232,822,511. 

F.  Unclassified  (2),  29,618.  G.  Language  not 
returned,  460.  Total,  220  languages,  312,948,- 
881  persons.  II.  Vernaculars  of  other  Asiatic 
countries  and  Africa.  H.  Indo-European  (2), 
57,041.  I.  Semitic  (3),  43,570.  3.  Hamitic 
(3),  7024.  K.  Caucasian  (1),  20.  L.  Mongol- 
ian (4),  115,350.  M.  Malayo-Polynesian  (1), 
53.  N.  Bantu  (3),  52.  Total,  17  languages, 
223,110  persons.  III.  European  languages.  0. 
Indo-European  (24),  321,201.  P.  Basque  (1), 
5.  Q.  Mongolian  (2),  17.  R.  Language  not  re- 
turned, 1.  Total,  27  languages,  321,224  persons. 
IV.  Language  not  recorded,  1,663,181  persons. 
Grand  total  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1911,  264 
languages,  315,156,396  persons. 

Languages  in  order  of  prevalence  in  1911 
were:  Hindi  (E),  82,003,235;  Bengali  (E),  48,- 
367,915;  Telugu  or  Andhra  (D),  23,542,861; 
Marathi  (E),  19,806,636;  Tamil  (D),  18,128,- 
365;  Punjabi  (E),  15,876,758;  Rajarthani  (E), 
14,067,590;  Western  Hindi  (E),  14,037,882; 
Gujarati  (E),  10,682,248;  Kanarese  (D),  10,- 
525,739;  Oriya  (E),  10,162,321;  Burmese  (C), 
7,893,604;  Malayalam  (D),  6,792,277;  Western 
Panjabi  (E),  4,779,138;  Sindhi  (E),  3,669,935; 
Eastern  Hindi  (E),  2,423,392;  Santali  or  Har 
(B),  2,138,015;  Pashto  (E),  1,554,465;  Assam- 
ese (E),  1,633,822;  Gond  (D),  1,527,157;  West- 
em  Pahari  (£),  1,526,475;  Kashmiri  (E),  1,- 
180,632;  Karen  (C),  1,067,464;  Shan  (C),  898,- 
832;  Kurukh  or  Oraon  (D),  800,328;  Mundari 
(B),  599,580;  Tulu  (D),  563,543;  Kandh  or 
Kui  (D),  530,476;  Baloch  (E),  398,294;  Ho 
(B),  420,108;  Bihari  (E),  398,294;  Arakanese 
(C),  389,831;  Manipuri,  Meithei,  Kathe,  or 
Ponnu   (C),  313,794;  English   (0),  303,515,  etc. 

At  the  1911  census,  occupation  was  recorded 


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GooqIc 


INDIA                                 317  INDIA 

in  the  case  of  313,470,014  persons.    The  follow  Education.    The  1911  census  recorded  liter- 

ing  fiffnres  indicate  the  number  of  persons  sup-  ocy  in  the  case  of  313,415,389  persons,  as  shown 

ported  by  the  several  means  of  livelihood:     A.  in  the  following  table: 

Production  of  raw  materials:    (1)   Exploitation    

of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  226,660,483;    (2)  ^^*          _.^     . 

extraction  of  minerals,  629,609;  total,  227,080,-  ^^iffian                         Total        LiUnUs    i^^vHh 

092.    B.  Preparation    and    supply    of    material    Hindu    110,865,781  11,228,184  i,oi8,596 

substances:      (1)     Industry,     36,323,041;      (2)     Sikh    1,784,778       184,168       il,490 

transport,    6,028,978;      (3)     trade,     17,839,102;     '•*»    648.658       818.685       18,080 

total,  68,191,121.    C.  Public  administration  and  ???5^*'*. :;::::::;     ^'^iiim    ^'solSw       25.884 

liberal  arts:    (1)    Public  force,  2,398,586;    (2)      Mohammedan    84,709.865    2,889.766     176.051 

public    administration,    2,648,006;     (3)     profes-    ChrUtian    \V&''^A       *||il?     ^^J'fSJ 

sional  and  liberal  arts,  5,325,357;    (4)    persons  ^?i^^nd  iiiiii:     ^'^^^'^^^         *''®"         ^'^^ 

living    principally    on    their    income,    540,175;  fled    28,818  6.888         2,981 

total,  10,012,123.    D.  Miscellaneous:  (1)  Domes-  „  ,  ,        ,             ,^^^,^^,^  ^an«aa^»  T7777I^ 

tic  s^rviie,  4,699,080;  (2)  insufficiently  described        T^***    "-»•• 160.418,470  16.988.815  1.518.861 

occupations,  9,236,217;   (3)  unproductive,  3,451,-  W^maiM 

381;    total,    17,286,678.    GranS   total,   313,470,-  iS'^*^ :;:;:;;  i;;;  ^^t'S'S.'SS?       'JJ.'IJS       "''SSs 

"^*-  Jain    604,629  24.120  209 

The  1911   census  returned  the  population  of    Buddhiit  5.486,086       817.838         1.888 

the  larger   cities  as  follows:      Calcutta    (Ben-    P*«i .,  o!S'2I2       Ji'SiS         S'Sil 

auW      fiOAnAT      /fnAl»<1ina>    TTr.xB^t^y^     onil     ^fliAi*     Mohammedatt    81.888,812        187,807  8,940 

gal),    896,(W7( including    Howrah    and    other    chri,tian i;866,472       252,295     ii2,648 

suburbs,    1,222,313);    Bombay    (Bombay),   979,-     Animist    5,129.808  2.987  74 

445;    Madras     (Madras),    618,660;    Hyderabad  Minor  and   nntpecl-         ^^^^«           ^^^         ,  e«. 

( Hyderabad) ,  including  Secunderabad,  Bolaram,  *•*    ^^-^^^  ^'^^^        ^'^'^ 

and   the   Residency    Bazars,    600,623;    Rangoon  Total  females  ...152.996.919    1,600,768     152,026 

(Burma),    293,316;     Lucknow     (United    Prov-  ^^,                  o,«>  .,ir  «on  ,neon».>o  ^a^ito^^ 

inces),  269,798,'  Delhi   (in  Punjab  in  1911,  but  '^•**1    818,415,889  18,589.578  1.670.887 

in  Delhi  province  since  1912),  232,837;  Lahore  Oorreapondlng  toUls  for  1901: 

(Punjab),  228,687;  Ahmedabad  (Bombay),  216,-     Male.    Jf?'iiJ125  "'JSi'SS?  ^'JJl'SiS 

777 ;  Benares  (United  Provinces) ,  203,804 ;  Ban-     *••«»•*«•    148.972.800       888.565     108.912 

galore    (Mysore),   including  civil   and  military        ToUI    298,414.906  15.088.167  1.125.281 

station,  189,486  (Bangalore  city  alone,  88,661) ;     —1 

Agra    (United    Provinces),    185,449;    Cawnpore  Literacy  as  returned  by  the  1911  census  in 

(United  Provinces),  178,667;  Allahabad  (United  British  territory  and  the  Xative  States  was  as 

Provinces),  171,697;  Poona  (Bombay),  168,856;  follows: 

Amritsar    (Punjab),    162,766;    Karachi    (Sind,     

Bombay),  161,903;  Mandalay  (Burma),  138,299;  Jfole* 

Jaipur    (Rajputana),   137,098;   Patna    (Bengal,  ^^^         j^„^^    inBno^K 

now   in   Bihar   and   Orissa),    136,163;    Madura    ^^iWA  ter.    124,884,850  14.121,860  1.888,694 

(Madras),     134,130;     Bareilly     (United    Prov-     Native  SUtea  85.588,620    2,817,455     179.667 

inces),  129,462;   Srinagar   (Kashmir),  126,344;  „^,       ,              .^^^.o  a»c.  ..^^ooo.r  ,  ,.oo^. 

Trichiiopoly  (Madras) 7123,512;  Meerut  (United        T«**^  '"•I" 160.418.470  16.988.815  1.518.861 

Provinces),  116,227;  Surat   (Bombay),  114,868;  Fitmilw 

Dacca     (Bengal),     108,551;     Nagpur     (Central     grf««»»  *«•    4J'25i'SfS    ^'SSISSS     ^?2'2JZ 

Provinces    aS     Berar),     ioi,416l     Jubbulpore     Native  Bute. 88.642.058       275,867       18.809 

(Central    Provinces    and    Berar),    100,661.    At  Totol  females  ...152,996,919    1.600,768     152.026 

the  time  of  the  census,  plaffue  was  prevalent  in  

Cawnpore,  and  many  'of  the  taMLta  werS  '^'^   818.415.889  18.689.578  i.«70.8«7 

absent.    A  new  census  taken  after  the  epidemic  t«^»^-^  «4-^»»4.:^«  ;-  u^:»»  »:„«.  k«  ^k^  n^ 

had  subsided  showed  an  increase  of  about  17.-  Increased  attention  is  bein^  given  by  the  De- 

u««  BUifDiucu  Buuwcu  Ml  Auux wBo  ui  »uuub  Ai,  partmcut  of  Educatiou  to  primary,  commercial, 

T»-,,«.^«      AX  Ai.    1AA1                  1-  •  *nd  technical  instruction.    In  1914,  educational 

t«^  rVhP  lii  nrifl4Tfl'f^fi^^^^^  institutions   (exclusive  of  those  in' British  Ba- 

turned  m  the  caw  of  294,361,066  persons;   at  i^chistan)  numbered  about  186,000,  with  7,632,- 

the  1911  census,  313,547,840  p^sons     The  fol-  ^^         ji'    including  1,104,000  females, 

owing  table  shows  population  by  religion  and  "ZI^CJ^Tvr^,    In^BritishTrritorTin  191». 

the  proportion  per  10,000:  1^^  ^j^^  reported  area  cropped  was  ibout  247,- 

000,000  acres,  of  which  about  9  per  cent  was 

1901                           1911  under  wheat,  31   per  cent  under  rice,  and  37 

Hindu:             No.          Prop,             No.           Prop.  per  cent  imder  the  food  grains  and  pulse,  6  per 

Brama-  „._  .^^  .,_   ^  ^_ .      o^wooto^o    a  not  cent  under  oilseeds,  and  7  per  cent  under  jute, 

nie     .207.050,557    7,084       217,887,948    6.981  .^x*^^    ^^a  ^4^i.<^.  ak*.».      rU^^*  ;»%«v^«4>»n4-  »*^,>. 

Arya  . .         92,419          8            248|445          8  cotton,  and  Other  nores.    Utner  important  crops 

Brahmo.          4,050         0.14           5'.504         0.18  are  sugar,  tea,  and  tobacco.    Area  in  hectares 

Sikh   ....     2.196,889        76          8.2if  f  66        96  and  yield  in  thousands  of  metric  quintals,  with 

Jain    1.884,148          46            1.248,182          40  „:«iy  «^.    i.««4.«»«    5„    ioio_i^     -•^  •^•wviLi    *- 

Buddhiit  .     9.476.759      822        io.72lU58      842  Y^^^^  P«'  hectare  in   1913-14,  are  reported  as 

Pani    ...         94.190         3            100.096         8  follows  (the  figures  for  1914-16  are  subject  to 

Mohamme*  revision) : 

dan   .    62,468^077     2,122  66,647,299     2,126  ^  

Chriatian  .     2,928,241          99            8,876,208        124  „    ^                            .^^^  ^ 

Jewish    ..           18,228            0.6              20,980           0.7  Hsetaro*                    1000  Qo.             Q*. 

Animist    .      8,684,148        292          10,205,168        828  191814        1914  15      1918  14  191415     ktt. 

Minor  or  not  Wheat  ..11.542,888  13,042,886     84,828  104,888     7.8 

recorded    129,900  4  87,101  1  Cotton  ..   6.145,875     4,794,244       9.498     1.5 

Bice     . .  .80.829,048  80,120.787  487.558     14.2 

Total  .  .294.861,056 10,000        318.547,840 10,000  Linaeed  .   1.226.586     1.847.189       8,924       4,011     8.2 


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INDIA 


818 


niDIA 


Live  stock  in  British  territory  and  the  Native 
Statea  respectively  is  reported  as  follows  for 
1914:  bulls  and  bullocks,  47,527,324  and  3,948,- 
912;  oows,  36,555,287  and  4,391,217;  bull  buffa- 
loes, 5,256,077  and  245,696;  eow  buffaloes,  12,- 
979,142  and  1,519,487;  young  stock  (calves  and 
buffalo  calves),  40,958,726  and  3,896,289;  sheep 
in  British  territory,  23,091,955;  goats  in  Brit- 
ish territory,  30,672,585;  sheep  and  goats  in 
Native  States,  8,306,616;  horses  and  ponies,  1,- 
643,374  and  175,499;  mules  and  donkeys  (mostly 
the  latter),  1,587,389  and  181,121;  camels,  491,- 
592  and  54,362. 

CoHMEBCE.  The  foreign  sea-borne  trade  of 
India  is  given  in  the  table  below  for  years  ended 
March  31st,  in  thousands  of  poimds  sterling. 
The  table  shows  imports  of  private  merchandise 
and  treasure,  government  stores  and  treasure, 
and  total  imports;  exports  of  foreign  and  do- 
mestic produce,  government  stores,  and  govern- 
ment and  private  treasure,  and  total  exports: 

Importt:  191119  1919-18  1918  14  1914  18 

Private  mdse 02,888  107,827  122,165     91.940 

Gov't  BtoreB    8,654       8,744       5,878       4,668 

Totel   mdie 96.087  111,071  127,588     96,608 

Private  treasure 85,615     84,182     24,414     14,614 

Gov't  treasure 82       7,080       4.546  25 

ToUl    treasure...   85,647     41,221     28,960     14,689 

ToUl  imports 181,684  152,292  156,498  111.147 

Exports :  • 

Indian    produce 147,879  160,899  162,801  118.282 

Foreign  produce  . . .      4,018       8,160  8,118       2,788 

Gov't  stores 96            86  86          898 


ImpotU: 


1000  £ 


Total  mdse 151,908  164,145  116,005  121,418 

Private    treasure  . . .     6,008       4.687       4,701       2,202 
Gov't   treasure 8       2,801  21       1,824 

Total  treasure   ...156,016       7,088       4,722       8,626 

ToUl   exports 158,000  171,288  170,727  124,044 

Net  imps,  treas 28,781     84.188     24,238     11,018 

Net  ezps.  mdse 55,056     58,075     88.467     24,810 

Excess  ezporU. . .   27,225     18.041     14,220     18,707 

In  the  year  1913-14,  both  imports  and  exports 
of  merchandise  were  of  unprecedented  magni- 
tude, but  the  outbreak  of  the  war  during  the 
following  fiscal  year  caused  the  cessation  of 
trade  with  enemy  countries,  and  the  curtailment 
of  trade  with  allied  and  neutral  countries.  The 
decline  in  import  values  is  seen  in  nearly  every 
article  of  importance.  Cotton  goods  declined 
by  about  £12,000,000,  iron  and  steel  by  over 
£4,000,000,  and  sugar  b^  about  £3,000,000.  In 
the  export  trade,  raw  jute  declined  by  about 
£12,000,000,  grain,  pulse,  and  flour  by  £11,000,- 
000,  oilseeds  by  £7,400,000,  raw  cotton  by  £5,- 
000,000,  cotton  yarn  and  knit  goods  by  nearly 
£3,000,000,  and  raw  hides  and  &ins  by  £2,600,- 
000.  Some  of  the  principal  imports  for  home 
consumption,  and  exports  of  Indian  produce,  are 
shown  in  the  table  below,  with  values  for  1914- 
15  in  thousands  of  pounds  sterling: 


Importt:  1000  £ 

Cotton  goods 80,008 

Cotton  yam 2,568 

Sugar    7,022 

Railway    material..  6.722 

Iron  and  steel 6,518 

Machinery,    etc...     4,027 
Mineral  oil 2,038 

Copper    1.840 


BxporU:  1000  £ 

Cotton  (raw) 22,804 

Jute  mfrs 17.218 

Rice    11.480 

Tea    10,847 

Seeds    0,760 

Jute    (raw)    8,607 

Wheat  and  flour...  6,150 
Cotton   yam    and 

mfrs 5,840 


Hardware,  etc 1,707 

Provisions    1,406 

Silk  goods 1.208 

Woolen    goods 1,256 

Liquors 1,218 

Spices 1,146 

InstramentSt   ete...  801 

Paper,    etc 870 

Fruits  and  veg- 

etebles    761 

Silk    (raw)    766 

Matches    768 


SxporU:  1000  £ 

Hides  and  skins 

(raw)    5.207 

Leather 8,178 

Barley,  millet,  pulse, 

etc 1.768 

Wool  (raw)    1,570 

Opium 1,176 

Coffee   1,108 

I^es,  etc 1,078 

Lac   1,071 

Oilcake 700 

Oils 604 

Hemp  (raw)    668 


Percentages  of  imports  and  exports  of  mer- 
chandise (private  sea-borne  trade)  by  countries 
in  1914-15:  United  Eangdom,  67.3  per  cent  of 
the  imports  and  31.5  per  cent  of  tne  exports; 
Germany,  3.4  and  6.7;  United  States,  3.4  and 
9.8;  China,  1.1  and  2.3;  Hongkong,  0.7  and  2.4; 
Japan,  3.2  and  8.8;  France,  1.3  and  5.0;  Bel- 
gium, 1.2  and  3.0. 

The  foreign  land  trade  in  1914-15  amounted 
to  £7,629,000  imports  and  £6,330,000  exports. 

Export  of  wheat  has  been  prohibited  from 
April  1,  1915,  to  March  31,  1916,  except  under 
authority  of  the  crown.  Also  export  of  wheat 
flour  is  forbidden  until  March  31,  1916,  except 
by  permission  of  the  minister  of  customs.  By 
an  order  of  March  13,  1915,  the  export  of  corn 
is  prohibited  to  ports  in  Europe,  and  Mediter- 
ranean and  Black  Sea  ports  other  than  those 
of  Qreat  Britain,  Russia  (except  Baltic  ports), 
Belgium,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  The  ex- 
port of  rice  has  been  prohibited  where  destined 
for  Sweden,  Norway,  Italy,  Denmark,  Nether- 
lands, and  its  colonies,  Egypt,  and  neutral  ports 
on  the  Mediterranean  ana  Ked  seas.  By  an  or- 
der of  May  8,  1915,  the  export  of  raw  cotton 
has  been  prohibited  to  foreign  ports  in  Europe, 
and  on  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  other 
than  those  of  France,  Russia  (not  including 
Baltic  ports),  Spain,  and  Portugal. 

Shippino.  In  the  foreign  trade  in  1913-14, 
there  were  entered  and  cleared  at  the  ports  of 
British  India  8617  vessels,  of  17,386,408  tons, 
of  which  53  per  cent  from  or  to  the  United 
Kingdom  and  British  possessions.  The  chief 
ports  are  Calcutta  and  Bombay,  which  have 
about  70  per  cent  of  the  foreign  trade;  next  in 
importance  are  Karachi,  Rangoon,  and  Madras. 

Communications.  The  length  of  state  and 
private  railway  open  to  traffic  March  31,  1914, 
m  British  India  and  the  Native  States,  was 
34,656  miles;  on  March  31,  1915,  35,285  miles. 
On  the  latter  date,  there  were  under  construc- 
tion 2232  miles.  The  capital  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  1914  was  £369,265,000;  1915,  £383,- 
012,000.  Net  earnings  in  1914-15,  £18,453,000, 
as  compared  with  £20,394,835  in  1913-14  and 
£20,309,078  in  1912-13.  Telegraph  wires  in  In- 
dia March  31,  1914,  322,000  miles.  Post  offices 
March  31,  1912,  18,801.    See  Railicays,  below. 

Finance.  The  standard  unit  of  value  is  the 
British  pound  sterling  (par  value,  $4.86656), 
but  the  current  coin  is  the  rupee  (par  value,  32.- 
444  cents),  15  rupees  to  the  potmd.  For  British 
India,  the  gross  revenue,  and  the  expenditure 
charged  agamst  revenue,  in  thousands  of  pounds 
sterlmg,  were  as  follows  for  years  ended  March 
31   (revised  estimates  for  1914-15) : 

1905-06  190809  1911-12  1912-18  1918-14  1914-15 
Rev... 70.845  60.762  82,886  86,868  86,207  80,158 
Exp...  68. 754  78.400  78.806  88.756  82.805   82.048 


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INDIA 


319 


INDIA 


The  table  below  shows  the  principal  sources 
of  gross  revenue  for  fiscal  years,  in  thousands 
of  pounds  sterling  (revised  estimates  for  1914- 
16): 


1911-18 

Land  reTenue 20,765 

Opium    5,961 

Salt    8,391 

Stamp!     4,815 

Excise    7,610 

ProTineial  rates    ....       649 

Customs     6,469 

Income  tax    1,653 

Forest    1,952 

Registration    446 

Tribute  (Native  Sts.)       595 

ToUl    54,205 

Interest    1.449 

Post  office 2,134 

Telegraphs    1,087 

Mint    867 

CiTil  depts 1,288 

Miscellaneous    818 

Railwavs    (net)    16.982 

Irrigation     8,980 

Other  civil  pub.  works  327 

Military    receipts 1,348 

Grand    toUl 82,886 


191918 

191814  1914  15 

21.282 

21.892 

21,057 

5.125 

1.625 

1,566 

8,884 

8,446 

8,772 

6,069 

5.318 

5.045 

8,278 

8.894 

8.809 

552 

180 

87 

7,197 

7,558 

6,866 

1,742 

1,950 

2,009 

2.168 

2.280 

1.999 

482 

519 

492 

624 

617 

607 

55.889 

58,729 

51.759 

1,474 

1,352 

1,022 

2,262) 
1,174  J 

3,559 

8,519 

487 

840 

58 

1,835 

1,408 

1,483 

765 

772 

760 

17,872 

17.626 

16.268 

4.411 

4,718 

4.707 

855 

298 

266 

1,888 

1,870 

1,816 

86,868     85,207     80.168 


The  table  below  shows  the  principal  items  of 

fross  expenditure  charged  against  revenue  for 
seal  years  (revised  estimates  for  1914-15),  in 
thousands  of  pounds  sterling;  the  first  item, 
direct  demands  on  the  revenue,  includes  refunds 
and  drawbacks,  assignments  and  compensa- 
tions, together  with  collection  charges,  which 
comprehend  land  revenues,  excise,  customs,  etc., 
with  production  costs  in  the  salt  and  opium 
monopolies: 

191118  1918  18  1918-14  1914  18 

Direct  demands 8,670  8.658  9,274  9,019 

Interest    2,038  1.811  1,516  1,481 

Post   office 2,008  2,027  I  •  070  o  oqa 

Telegraphs     1,094  1,106}  ••*^»  *'^*" 

Mint     117  142  133  139 

Civil  depts 16,466  16,689  17,934  18,989 

Misc.   civil   charges..   4,899  4.926  5,404  5,400 

Famine    relief* 1.000  1,000  1,000  1,000 

Railway   acoount  t- .12,104  12,568  12,886  18.855 

Irrigation     8,175  \    8,302  8.582  8,742 

Other  public  works. .   5.454  6,064  7,010  7.011 

MiliUry    services 20,902  20,953  21.265  21,822 

Total  t      78.895     83,755     82,895     82,948 

*  And  insurance,  t  Railway  revenue  account;  the 
working  expenses  are  treated  as  deduction  from  rev* 
enue  instead  of  as  expenditure,  t  These  totals  are 
adjusted  to  compensate  for  not  excess  on  provincial 
allotments  amounting  to  £969,000  in  1911-12,  £4,514.- 
000  in  1912-13.  and  a  not  deficit  of  £282.000  in  1918- 
14  and  £2,555,000  in  1914-15. 

Net  revenue  and  net  expenditure  in  1912-13 
were  £60,362,000  and  £67,254,000  respectively  the 
surplus  being  £3,108,000;  in  1913-14,  £57,762,- 
000  and  £65,460,000,  surplus  £2,312,000;  re- 
vised estimate  for  1914-16,  £62,644,000  and  £66,- 
330,000,  deficit  £2,786,000. 

Besides  expenditure  charged  against  revenue 
there  was  a  capital  expen£ture  in  1013-14  of 
£10,483,000  on  state  railways,  £1,282,000  on  ir- 
rigation works,  and  £447,000  in  connection  with 
the  new  capital  at  Delhi. 

On  March  31,  1916,  the  debt  stood  at  £284,- 
240,000,  consisting  of  the  sterling  debt  of  £183,- 
666,000  and  the  rupee  debt  of  £100,684,000. 
Miscellaneous  obligations  amounted  to  about 
£29,856,000,  besides  the  charge  of  £929,000  for 
various  railway  annuities.    There  was  also  an 


outstanding  loan  of  £7,000,000  from  the  Gold 
Standard  Reserve.  In  consequence  of  the  con- 
ditions caused  by  the  war,  it  was  necessary  in 
1914-16  to  borrow  largely  in  excess  of  original 
anticipations. 

Government.  The  King  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  is  Emperor  of  India.  In  England,  the 
administration  of  Indian  affairs  is  intrusted  to 
the  secretary  of  state  for  India  (a  member  of 
the  British  cabinet).  The  Marquis  of  Crewe  as 
secretary  of  state  for  India  was  succeeded  by 
Austen  Chamberlain  upon  the  reorganization  of 
Mr.  Asquith's  ministry  in  June,  1916.  In  India, 
the  executive  authority  resides  in  the  ''Govern- 
ment of  India,"  that  is,  the  governor-general  in 
coimcil.  In  1916,  the  governor-general,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  crown  for  five  years,  was 
Baron  Hardinge  of  Penhurst,  who  succeeded  the 
Earl  of  Minto  in  1910.  About  the  end  of  1916 
it  was  annoimced  that  Baron  Chelmsford  had 
been  appointed  to  succeed  Baron  Hardinge. 
Baron  Chelmsford  was  Governor  of  Queensland 
in  1906-09,  and  of  New  South  Wales  in  1909-13. 
The  council  consists  of  six  members,  appointed 
by  the  crown,  and  of  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  India.  The  governor-generars  leg- 
islative council,  in  addition  to  ex-officio  mem- 
bers, consists  of  28  official  and  32  nonofficial 
members  (including  27  elected).  There  are 
similar  legislative  councils  in  Bengal,  Bombay, 
Madras,  Bihar  and  Orissa,  the  United  Provinces, 
the  Punjab,  the  Central  Provinces  and  Berar, 
Assam,  and  Burma.  British  India  is  divided 
into  16  local  governments  and  administrations, 
viz.:  under  governors,  the  presidencies  of  Ben- 
gal, Bombay,  and  Madras;  under  lieutenant-gov- 
ernors, the  provinces  of  Bihar  and  Orissa,  the 
Punjab,  the  United  Provinces  of  Aj^a  and 
Oudh,  and  Burma;  under  chief  commissioners, 
the  Central  Provinces,  and  Berar,  Ajmer-Mer- 
wara,  Assam,  Coorg,  British  Baluchistan,  the 
North-West  Frontier  Province,  Delhi,  and  the 
Andamans  and  Nicobar. 

The  Native  States  are  governed  by  their 
princes,  ministers,  or  coimcils,  but  the  govern- 
ment of  India^  through  British  residents  or 
agents,  exercises  control  in  varying  degrees,  and 
does  not  permit  the  states  to  maintain  external 
relations. 

IU1LWAT8.  The  administration  report  of  the 
railways  of  India  covered  the  financial  year  end- 
ing March  31,  1916.  The  total  capital  expended 
on  Indian  railways  at  the  end  of  the  financial 
year  was  over  £313,000,000,  and  the  current 
expenditures  were  less  than  the  annual  grant, 
owing  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and  in  order 
to  avoid  any  possible  embarrassment.  The  rail- 
ways open  to  traffic  consisted  of  36,286  miles, 
composed  of  17,827  miles  of  6  foot  6  inch  gauge, 
14,662  miles  meter  gauge,  2402  miles  of  2  foot 
4  inch  gauge,  and  604  miles  of  2  foot  gauge. 
With  the  completion  of  the  Hardinge  Bridge, 
opened  March  4,  1916,  a  broad  gauge  line  was 
laid  from  a  point  seven  miles  north  of  Sara  to 
Santahar,  the  first  junction  station  on  the  meter 
gauge  line  north  of  the  river,  a  distance  of  45 
miles.  It  was  proposed  to  convert  Adam's 
Bridge  into  a  solid  embankment,  so  that  an 
all-rail  connection  between  India  and  Ceylon 
could  be  made.  Likewise,  on  the  South  Indian 
Railway,  it  was  proposed  to  construct  a  cause- 
way from  Dhanushkodi  to  Talaimannar,  a  dis- 
tance of  20.06  miles,  of  which  7.19  miles  would 
be  on  the  dry  land  of  the  various  islands,  and 


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1.286  miles  would  be  on  the  water.  This  would 
involve  an  interesting  construction  of  reinforced 
concrete  piles  for  the  sea  section,  and  for  the 
land  construction  low  banks  of  sand  pitched  with 
coral.  The  total  cost  of  the  causeway  and  the 
works  at  the  two  terminals  was  stated  as  ap- 
proximately £739,026. 

Double  tracking  was  in  process  for  over  400 
miles  of  route  mileage  on  which  second  track, 
or  third  or  fourth  tracks,  were  being  added. 
This  included  172  miles  of  second  track  between 
Rohri  and  Kotri  on  the  Northwestern,  which 
would,  when  completed,  give  a  double  line  from 
Karadii  to  Lodhran,  524  miles.  At  Nagpur  a 
large  new  hump  yard  for  freight  was  under 
construction,  and  02  new  stations  were  in  course 
of  building  on  open  line  during  the  year.  Nine- 
teen important  bridges  were  being  repaired  with 
new  girders,  and  important  schemes  for  the  im- 
provement of  water  supply  were  also  on  hand. 
During  the  year  the  results  secured  from  the 
use  of  superheaters  on  the  locomotives  were  very 
striking,  involving  a  saving  in  fuel  of  between 
17  and  25  per  cent,  and  of  water  of  from  15 
to  35  per  cent.  Oil  fuel  trials  were  still  in 
progress,  as  the  opening  of  the  Persian  oil  fields 
made  possible  the  introduction  of  oil  fuel  on 
the  west  coast  of  India  in  competition  with  coal. 
The  record  of  railway  accidents  for  the  year 
was:  6  passengers  killed  in  train  accidents,  140 
injured,  and  36  employees  killed  and  160  in- 
jured. Other  than  train  accidents:  407  em- 
ployees killed  and  690  injured. 

On  March  31,  1915,  the  length  of  line  worked 
by  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Rail- 
way Company  was  3723%  miles.  Of  this  mile- 
age 1001  (i  miles  were  upon  a  5%  foot  gauge, 
1827%  miles  upon  a  meter  gauge,  and  20%  miles 
upon  a  2^  foot  gauge.  Of  the  broad  gauge 
lines  257  miles  were  laid  with  double  track,  and 
of  the  meter  gauge  lines  26%  miles  were  mixed 
gauge;  the  balance  of  the  lines  worked  by  the 
company  (864%  miles)  are  lines  worked  for 
native  states  or  other  companies.  Of  these, 
223%  miles  are  of  a  5%  foot  gauge,  394  miles 
of  a  meter  gauge,  and  247%  miles  of  a  2^ 
foot  gauge.  There  were  851  locomotives,  2769 
cars  used  for  passenger  traffic,  and  18,274  cars 
used  for  freight  upon  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and 
Central  India  system  at  the  close  of  March,  1915.^ 

Hie  new  Southern  Shan  States  Railway,  lying' 
north  of  Burma  and  Siam,  was  being  built  to 
develop  a  rich  agricultural  section  and  to  form 
a  link  in  the  future  connection  with  the  railway 
system  of  China,  and  is  the  most  eastern  line 
of  the  Indian  railway  system.  The  new  line 
opened  in  1915  is  of  meter  gauge  and  extended 
eastward  from  Thazi,  on  the  Burma  Railways 
(306  miles  north  of  Rangoon),  to  Aunghban,  70 
miles,  and  was  to  be  extended  33  miles  further 
to  Yawnghwe.  Beyond  this  surv^s  had  been 
made  as  far  as  Feng  Tung,  about  270  miles  fur- 
ther. At  Thazi  the  elevation  is  525  feet  above 
sea  level,  rising  to  1546  feet  at  Lebyin  (38 
miles),  where  commences  a  4  per  cent  grade  17 
miles  long,  with  two  switchbacks.  The  summit 
elevation  is  4603  feet.  Steep  grades  will  be  re- 
quired to  bring  the  line  down  to  Yawnghwe  at 
an  elevation  of  2903  feet.  The  sharpest  curves 
are  17  degrees,  with  transition  spirals,  and  the 
heavy  grades  (4  and  2^  per  cent)  are  compen- 
sated for  curvature.  Locomotives  of  the  Mallet 
type   (0:6:6:0)   are  used  on  the  heavy  ^ades. 

Progress  in  railway  construction  in  India  dur- 


ing the  year  include  surveys  by  the  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway  of  the  36  miles  between 
Serajgunj  and  Bogram,  and  by  the  Bhavnaeai 
Durbai  of  a  meter  gauge  railway,  about  56  miles 
long,  from  Savarkundla  via  Dongar  to  Mahuva, 
with  a  branch  from  Dongar  to  Port  Albert  Vic- 
toria, and  the  construction  by  the  Junagadh  of 
a  line,  60  miles  long,  between  Varavaland  and 
Una. 

HiSTOBT 

Unrest  in  India.  At  intervals  throughout 
the  year,  sensational  reports  of  insurrections  in 
India  were  given  credence  in  the  German  press, 
and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  American  journals. 
A  few  of  the  most  startling  reports  were  offi- 
cially denied  by  the  British  India  Office,  how- 
ever, and  it  was  repeatedly  asserted  tiiat  the 
disturbances  in  India,  where  they  were  not  sheer 
fabrications  of  German  or  Turkish  origin,  were 
local  outbreaks,  engineered  by  small  bands  of 
agitators,  and  without  effect  upon  the  loyalty 
of  the  mass  of  the  population.  In  the  face  of 
such  conflicting  statements,  the  historian  can 
only  state  the  fact  that,  whatever  interpretation 
be  placed  upon  them,  it  is  at  any  rate  certain 
that  numerous  riots  and  mutinies  occurred  in 
India.  The  riots  which  greeted  the  return  of 
a  shipload  of  angry  Sikhs,  who  had  been  re- 
fused permission  to  settle  in  Canada,  were 
chronicled  in  the  Year  Book  for  1914,  p.  358. 
In  February,  1915,  the  Sikh  leaders  who  had  in- 
stigated the  riots  were  sentenced  to  death  by  a 
court  at  Firozpur,  in  the  Punjab.  On  February 
15th  announcement  was  made  of  a  mutiny  which 
had  occurred  among  the  Bengalese  troopers  of 
the  5th  Light  Infantry,  at  Singapore.  The  mu- 
tineers, it  seemed,  had  first  suMued  the  sections 
of  the  regiment  which  had  remained  loyal,  and 
then  had  made  themselves  masters  of  the  city, 
terrorizing  the  populace.  The  timely  arrival  of 
marines  from  warships  which  had  just  entered 
the  harbor  put  an  end  to  the  mutiny.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  issued,  February  23,  by  the 
Colonial  Office  at  London,  35  persons  were  killed 
in  the  Singapore  mutiny,  including  6  officers,  15 
mutineers,  and  14  civilians.  Early  in  March 
an  insurrection  was  reported  to  have  taken  place 
at  Cawnpore;  but  the  censor  prevented  the  pub- 
lication of  details  regarding  the  incident. 
About  the  same  time  mutinous  manifestations 
were  reported  from  Rangoon,  where  a  regiment 
of  Pathans  was  stationed.  Nine  of  the  Rangoon 
mutineers  were  shot  and  200  imprisoned,  ac- 
cording to  the  dispatch.  Riots  also  occurred  in 
the  central  provinces  of  India.  Consequently 
the  government  was  compelled  to  declare  mar- 
tial law.  The  native  press  was  placed  tmder 
strict  surveillance.  Every  effort  was  made  to 
detect  and  arrest  the  Mohammedan  agitators, 
who,  it  was  alleged,  were  endeavoring  to  incite 
their  coreligionists  to  rebellion,  in  oMlience  to 
the  Turkish  Sultan's  proclamation  of  the  jehad, 
or  holy  war,  against  Great  Britain.  Bulletins 
issued  by  the  India  Office  asserted  that  the 
jehad  was  being  preached  in  India  with  the  sup- 
port of  German  gold  and  German  influence.  As 
a  result  of  the  widespread  disturbances  of  Feb- 
ruary and  March,  a  Defense  of  India  Bill  was 
passed  by  the  Govemor-Generars  Council,  giv- 
ing the  military  authorities  special  powers  for 
the  suppression  of  lawlessness.  In  May,  after 
a  thorough  investigation  of  the  matter,  the  Gov- 
ernment of  India  was  reported  to  have  reached 


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the  conclusion  that  the  outbreaks  which  had  re- 
cently occurred  were  in  large  part  due  to  the 
activity  of  agitators  from  America.  Shortly 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  it  was  stated, 
5000  former  East  Indians  met  at  Sacramento 
to  protest  against  the  refusal  of  Canada  to  re- 
ceive Indian  immigrants  as  feUow-citizens  of 
the  British  Empire.  Smaller  meetings  were 
simultaneously  held  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Funds  were  subscribed  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  revolutionary  Hindu  newspaper. 
Acting  on  the  theory  that  the  removal  of  so 
many  loyal  Indian  troops  to  European  battle- 
fields offered  a  splendid  opportunity  for  the  in- 
auguration of  a  rebellion  against  British  rule,  a 
party  of  70  Indians  was  alleged  to  have  sailed 
from  San  Francisco  on  August  29th.  First  they 
had  stirred  up  disorders  among  the  Sepoys  sta- 
tioned at  Hon^^ong.  Then  they  had  visited 
Singapore,  where  they  caused  the  mutiny  in 
February.  Subsequently  the  band  had  sepa- 
rated and  scattered  throughout  the  Indian  prov- 
inces, inciting  insurrections  and  mutinies  wher- 
ever they  went.  A  general  rising  was  planned, 
it  seemed,  to  culminate  on  February  21st  with 
an  attack  upon  the  arsenal  at  Lahore.  Qov- 
emment  agents,  however,  learned  of  the  con- 
spiracy and  arrested  the  leaders  at  Lahore  in 
time  to  avert  the  attack  upon  the  arsenal.  Ac- 
cording to  this  official  summary  of  the  mutinous 
outbreaks  in  the  spring,  in  riiort,  the  trouble 
was  diiefly  or  wholly  due  to  a  handful  of  revo- 
lutionaries from  America.  In  the  same  vein,  a 
native  Indian  prince,  Jagajit  Singh  Bahadur, 
maharajah  of  kapurthala,  visiting  New  York 
in  May,  made  the  following  statement:  "There 
has  been  some  trouble  with  small  sections  of 
troops  in  isolated  districts  in  India,  but  when 
I  left  Bombay  in  March  the  bulk  of  the  people 
in  India  and  the  native  army  were  loyal  to  the 
Empire.  Some  of  the  sons  of  the  noblest  fam- 
ilies in  India  are  fighting  with  the  British  troops 
in  France.  The  reports  of  rioting  in  India  have 
been  exaggerated."  Nevertheless,  wireless  dis- 
patches from  Germany  during  the  summer  and 
fall  continued  to  assert  the  existence  of  serious 
disaffection  in  India.  In  July,  it  was  affirmed, 
a  mutiny  occurred  in  Lahore;  in  September,  a 
riot  at  Travancore.  Further  reports  of  dis- 
turbances in  Mysore,  followed  by  the  deposition 
of  the  maharajah,  were  published  in  October  and 
Novemb^.  The  fact  that  on  November  18th 
the  Mohammedan  festival  of  the  Muharram  was 
celebrated  with  comparatively  few  disorders, 
was  regarded  by  British  officials  as  a  reassur- 
ing index  of  the  loyalty  of  the  masses.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  Indian  students  in  the 
United  States  were  alleged  to  be  planning  to 
instigate  a  general  revolt  in  India. 

India  and  thb  Wab.  The  loyalty  and  in- 
trepidity of  the  Indian  troops  which  had  been 
sent  to  fight  with  the  Allied  armies  in  Europe, 
was  a  source  of  profound  gratification  to  the 
British  public,  since  the  conduct  of  the  Indians 
in  Europe  seemed  to  disprove  the  rumors  of 
disloyalty  in  India.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Viceroy's  Council  at  Delhi  on  January  13th, 
Lord  Hardinge  declared  that  200,000  Indian 
troops  were  serving  in  the  active  British  forces 
at  the  front.  On  January  27th  the  British  gov- 
ernment announced  that  the  Victoria  Cross  for 
heroic  bravery  had  been  conferred  upon  two 
Hindus.  One  of  the  soldiers  thus  honored  had 
distinguished  himself  in  hand  to  hand  fighting 

Y.  B.— 11 


in  the  British  trenches;  the  other  was  the  sole 
survivor  of  a  machine  gun  section  which  had 
gallantly  repulsed  an  enemy  assault.  In  July 
the  Victoria  Cross  was  awarded  to  a  third  In- 
dian, Jemadir  Mir  Dost,  for  gallantry  at  Ypres. 
In  September,  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  who  had 
previously  offered  his  troops  and  financial  re- 
sources to  aid  the  British  in  the  war,  contrib- 
uted five  lakhs  of  rupees  ($160,000)  to  provide 
aeroplanes  for  use  in  France. 

Political  Afpaibs.  On  February  22nd  the 
retirement  of  Sir  Krishna  Govinda  Gupta  from 
the  Cotmcil  of  India  was  announced.  Lord 
Crewe,  secretary  of  state  for  India,  appointed 
as  Sir  Krishna's  successor  Sardar  Dal  jit  Singh, 
the  great  uncle  of  the  maharajah  of  Kapurthala. 
On  March  2nd  Sir  W.  S.  Meyer,  minister  of 
finance,  presented  his  annual  financial  statement 
to  the  Legislative  Council.  The  minister  esti- 
mated that,  for  the  fiscal  year  1915-16,  the 
deficit  would  equal  or  exceed  the  deficit  for  the 
current  year,  £2,750,000.  In  September  the 
viceroy  accepted  a  resolution  of  the  Imperial 
Legislative  Council  asking  that  India  be  repre- 
sented officially  at  the  next  Imperial  Confer- 
ence, which  was  expected  to  meet  in  the  near 
future. 

Makavdino  Tribesmen.  On  March  31st  the 
government  issued  the  following  statement  re- 
garding an  engagement  with  a  band  of  maraud- 
ing tr3>esmen:  "Ten  thousand  tribesmen,  com- 
posed mainly  of  Zadraus,  collected  with  a  view 
to  attacking  Tochi,  near  the  Miranshah  post. 
Government  troops  under  Brigadier-General 
Fane  engaged  the  natives  at  dawn  on  March 
26th,  repulsing  them  completely,  killing  200  and 
wounding  300.  The  band  disappeared  immedi- 
ately." 

INDIANA.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
2,798,142.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,700,- 
876. 

Agbigultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


$97,884,000 

94.724.000 

48.246.000 

44,686.000 

22,277.000 

19,802,000 

1,068,000 

1,872,000 

146,000 

184,000 

8,090.000 

8,860.000 

88,880,000 

24,872.000 

828.000 

1.094,000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  I,  1916,  - 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  854,000  and 
854,000,  valued  at  $88,816,000  and  $97,356,000; 
mules  numbered  95,000  and  86,000,  valued  at 
$10,545,000  and  $10,062,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 672,000  and  646,000,  valued  at  $36,624,000 
and  $35,530,000;  other  cattle  numbered  728,000 
and  693,000,  valued  at  $26,790,000  and  $24,394,- 
000;    sheep   numbered    1,058,000   and    1,114,000, 


Aereaff* 

Prod.  Bu. 

Corn    ... 

..1915 

5,025.000 

190.950,000 

1914 

4,949,000 

168,817,000 

Wheat  .  . , 

..1915 

2,760,000 

47,800,000 

1914 

2.485.000 

48,289,000 

Oats    

..1915 

1,688,000 

65,520,000 

1914 

1,575,000 

44,888,000 

Rye    

..1915 

150.000 

2,400,000 

1914 

99,000 

1,614,000 

Barley  . . 

..1915 

8,000 

224,000 

1914 

8,000 

200,000 

Potatoes    , 

. .1915 

76,000 

7.125,000 

1914 

76,000 

6,000,000 

Hay 

..1916 

2,020,000 

a  8,080.000 

1914 

1.764,000 

1,764,000 

Tobacco   . 

..1915 

18.600 

b  11,840,000 

1914 

18,500 

12.150.000 

a  Tons. 

h  Poundl. 

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INDIANA  3 

valued  at  $6,454,000  and  $6,016,000;  swine  num- 
bered 4,167,000  and  4,167,000,  valued  at  $35,420,- 
000  and  $42,020,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  4,920,000  and  4,961,000 
pounds  respectively. 

Mineral  PBODUcmoN.  The  petroleum  output 
of  the  State  in  1914  showed  an  increase  since 
1904.  The  production  amounted  to  1,335,456 
barrels,  valued  at  $1,548,042,  compared  with 
956,095  barrels,  valued  at  $1,279,226  in  1913. 
This  increase  may  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the 
pools  in  Sullivan  County  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State.  The  average  price  per  barrel  received 
for  the  petroleum  declined  from  $1.34  in  1913  to 
$1.06  in  1914,  which  was  higher  than  any  previ- 
ous year,  with  the  exception  of  1913,  in  the  his- 
tory of  its  production. 

The  coal  produced  in  1914  was  16,641,132 
tons,  having  a  value  of  $18,290,928,  compared 
with  17,165,671  tons,  valued  at  $19,001,881  in 
1913.  Of  the  nineteen  coal  producing  counties, 
six  showed  an  increase  in  1914.  Inere  were, 
during  the  year,  44  fatal  accidents  in  the  coal 
mines  of  the  State.  The  value  of  the  total  min- 
eral production  in  1914  was  $42,864,267,  com- 
pared with  $46,502,633  in  1913. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914-15  was  768,622.  The  total  enrollment  in 
the  public  schools  was  552,927.  The  average 
dally  attendance  was  452,765.  The  teachers 
numbered  19,220.  The  average  anniuil  salary 
of  teachers,  male  and  female,  was  $578.61.  The 
total  school  expenditures  in  1915  amounted  to 
$21,917,649. 

FiNANCTE.  The  report  of  the  State  Treasurer 
shows  a  balance  in  the  treasury  on  Sept.  30, 
1913,  of  $378,271.  The  total  receipts  from  all 
sources,  including  this  balance,  were  on  Sept. 
30,  1914,  $12,922,278.  The  expenditures  for  the 
fiscal  year  left  a  balance  in  the  treasury  on 
Sept.  30,  1914,  of  $649,964. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  State  insti- 
tutions include  the  State  Hospitals  for  Insane 
at  Logansport,  Richmond,  Evansville,  and  North 
Madison,  State  Soldiers'  Home  at  Lafayette, 
Sailors'  and  Soldiers'  Home  at  Kinghtstown, 
School  for  Feeble-minded  Youth  at  Fort  Wayne, 
Village  for  Epileptics  at  New  Castle,  Tuber- 
culosis Hospital  at  Rockville,  State  School  for 
the  Deaf  at  Indianapolis,  State  School  for  the 
Blind  at  Indianapolis,  Indiana  State  Prison  at 
Michigan  City,  Indiana  State  Reformatory  at 
Jeffersonville,  Indiana  Woman's  Prison  at  In- 
dianapolis, Indiana  Boys'  School  at  Plainfifdd, 
and  Indiana  Girls'  School  at  Clermont. 

Transportation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  June  1,  1914,  was  7359;  of  this, 
4688  was  main  track  line.  On  that  date  there 
were  45  companies  either  operating  or  leasing 
electric  railways  in  the  State. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1915  and  passed  several  important  meas- 
ures'. For  mention  of  these,  see  articles  Elec- 
toral Reform,  Legislation  in  1915,  and  Liquor 
Regulation.  A  workmen's  compensation  law 
was  passed  by  this  session  of  the  Legislature. 
For  a  discussion  of  its  provisions  see  Work- 
men's Compensation.  On  June  22nd,  128  men 
were  indicted  by  the  Marion  County  Grand  Jury 
at  Indianapolis  on  charges  of  conspiracy  to  com- 
mit felonies,  connected  with  the  election  laws 
of  the  State,  and  the  laws  against  bribery  and 
blackmail.  Among  these  were  several  of  the 
best    known    citizens    of    the    State,    including 


S2  INDIANS 

Thomas  Taggart,  Democratic  national  commit- 
tee man,  Joseph  £.  Bell,  mayor  of  the  city, 
Samuel  Perrott,  chief  of  police,  and  Robert  T. 
Metzer,  Republican  member  of  the  Republican 
board  of  safety.  All  the  indictments  created  a 
great  sensation.  While  it  had  been  reported 
for  several  months  that  a  number  of  indict- 
ments were  to  be  brought  as  a  result  of  inves- 
tintion,  it  was  not  uiouffht  men  so  high  in 
political  councils  would  be  included.  Among 
those  indicted  were  members  of  the  Democratic, 
Republican,  and  Progressive  parties.  The 
charges  contained  in  the  indictments,  which  num- 
bered 48  counts,  began  previous  to  the  election 
of  May  5,  1914,  and  extended  to  the  primary 
of  May  5,  1915.  The  charges  included  election 
voting  intimidations,  false  registrations,  pad- 
ding the  tally  sheets,  stuffing  the  ballot  boxes, 
illegal  manipulations  of  voting  machines,  black- 
mailing of  saloonkeepers  and  resort  owners, 
bribes,  and  vote  buying.  Seven  of  the  men  in- 
dicted pleaded  guilty,  when  arraigned  in  the 
court  in  Indianapolis  on  July  7th.  These  were 
M.  Hughes,  a  political  worker,  Robert  Board, 
also  a  political  worker,  Charles  Gibbs,  an  elec- 
tion official,  John  W.  Reed,  a  political  official, 
Edward  O'Leary  and  Bernard  Lickleman,  polit- 
ical workers.  One  hundred  and  thirteen  others, 
including  the  most  prominent  persons,  asked 
for  a  (£ange  of  venue.  Judge  Collins  of  the 
Criminal  Court,  in  response  to  this  request,  said 
that  he  would  select  five  members  from  the 
Marion  County  bar  from  which  list  one  would 
be  chosen  to  try  the  case. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Samuel  M. 
Ralston;  Secretary  of  State,  L.  G.  EUingham; 
Auditor  of  State,  William  H.  O'Brien;  Treas- 
urer, William  B.  Wollmer;  Attorney-General, 
Thomas  M.  Honan;  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, Charles  A.  Greathouse. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  John  W.  Spen- 
cer, Douglas  Morris,  Charles  E.  Cox,  Richard 
K.  Erwin,  Quincy  A.  Myers. 

Appellate  Court:  Milton  B.  Hottell,  Joseph 
H.  Shea,  Edward  W.  Felt,  Fred  G.  Caldwell, 
Moses  B.  Lairy,  Joseph  G.  Ibach. 

State  Legislature: 


Senate  House  Joint  BaUot 

Democrats    41  60                101 

Republicans    8  89                 47 

Piogreasivea  1  1                  2 

Democratic  majority..     82  2d                  62 


INDIANA,  University  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  at  Bloom- 
ington,  Ind.,  in  1820.  The  total  number  in  all 
departments  in  1016  was  1772.  The  faculty 
numbered  190.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during  the 
year.  The  university  received  $100,000  to  es- 
tablish the  Waterman  Research  Fund.  The 
productive  funds  in  1015  amounted  to  $679,310. 
The  library  contained  101,300  volumes. 

INDIANS.  Conditions  among  the  Indians  in 
the  United  States  were^  on  the  whole,  excellent 
during  1915.  Improvements  were  made  in  plans 
for  providing  industrial  and  vocational  schools, 
especially  at  the  Carlisle  School.  In  connec- 
tion with  Indian  schools,  the  largest  possible 
use  has  been  made  of  the  public  schools  in  the 
several  States  convenient  for  the  population, 
and  the  attendance  of  Indian  pupils  in  the  pub- 


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INDIANS 


323 


INDXrSTBIAL  BEIiATIONS 


lie  schools  greatly  increased  during  the  year. 
Additional  schools  were  constructed  in  Navajo 
County  in  Arizona  to  provide  instruction  for 
the  Xavajo  and  Papagoe  Indians  in  that  State. 

There  were  employ^  to  look  after  the  health 
of  the  Indians  approximately  200  physicians. 
Six  new  hospitals  were  constructed,  and  plans 
were  made  for  the  erection  of  others.  A  vigor- 
ous campaign  was  waged  for  the  eradication  of 
tuberculosis  and  trachoma,  the  two  principal 
diseases  with  which  the  Indian  population  is  af- 
flicted. 

There  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  number 
of  Indians  employed  in  farming  during  the  year. 
Farma  connected  with  the  several  schools  on  the 
reservation  have  been  practically  converted  into 
demonstrating  and  experimental  stations.  At 
the  experimental  farm  in  southern  Arizona 
there  was  developed  a  new  type  of  cotton  of 
the  long  staple  Egyptian  variety.  To  this  was 
given  the  name  of  pima  from  the  reservation  on 
which  it  was  cultivated. 

Process  was  made  in  examination  of  lands, 
belonging  to  the  Indians,  suitable  for  irrigation. 
There  was  a  notable  increase  in  the  utilization 
of  irrigation  facilities  by  the  Indians  of  the 
various  reservations. 

The  allotment  of  the  lands  of  Five  Civilized 
Tribes  in  Oklahoma  was  continued  during  the 
year.  Out  of  a  total  of  10,525,966  acres,  15,- 
704,400  have  been  allotted.  Several  sales  of  un- 
allotted lands  were  held  during  the  year.  There 
was  collected  for  the  Five  Civilized  Tribes  from 
all  sources  $1,854,871.  These  tribes  had  on  de- 
posit $5,931,084.  The  revenue  is  largely  from 
the  sale  of  oil  in  lands  owned  by  the  members 
of  these  tribes.    See  Anthbopolooy. 

INDIA  BXTBBEB.     See  Rubbeb. 

INDIGO.    See  Agbioulture. 

INDO-CHINA.  See  under  Fbenoh  Indo- 
China, 

INDUSTBIAL  ACCIDENTS.  See  under  La- 
bob  Legislation;  and  Wobkmen's  Compensa- 
tion. 

INDUSTBIAL  DISEASES.  See  Occupa- 
tional Diseases. 

INDXTSTBIAIi  BELATIONS,  Committee  on. 
Early  in  November  Chairman  Frank  P.  Walsh 
of  the  United  States  Commission  on  Industrial 
Relations  (see  following  article),  annoimced 
that  a  new  organization,  to  be  called  the  Com- 
mittee on  Industrial  Relations,  was  being  or- 
ganized for  the  purpose  of  continuing  some  of 
the  activities  of  the  previous  commission.  As- 
sociated wiUi  Mr.  Walsh  in  this  committee  were 
11  others,  7  of  whom  were  labor  leaders.  They 
were:  Amos  R.  £.  Pinchot,  Frederick  C.  Howe, 
Bishop  C.  D.  Williams  of  Detroit,  and  Dante 
Barton,  a  Kansas  City  newspaperman;  and  the 
following  labor  leaders:  John  B.  Lennon,  James 
O'Connell,  Austin  B.  Garretson,  John  P.  White, 
John  Fitzpatrick,  Helen  Marot,  and  Agnes  Nes- 
tor. Basil  M.  Manly,  director  of  research  for 
the  previous  commission,  and  George  P.  West, 
who  investigated  the  Colorado  strike,  and  Otto 
F.  Bradley  of  Wisconsin,  were  retained  as  ex- 
perts. Headquarters  were  established  in  Wash- 
ington. It  was  the  purpose  of  the  committee 
to  further  the  organization  of  labor  and  in  all 
possible  ways  to  establish  greater  equality  and 
a  reduction  of  exploitation  in  industrial  rela- 
tions. See  also  Abbitbation  and  Conciliation, 
Committee  on  Industrial  Relations^ 

INDDSTBIAL      BELATIONS      COMMIS- 


SION. This  commission  was  created  by  Con- 
gress on  Aug.  25,  1912,  and  its  life  limited  to 
three  years.  On  June  26,  1913,  President  Wilson 
named  the  following  to  constitute  the  commis- 
sion, later  confirmed  and  organized  in  October, 
1913:  Representing  the  public:  Frank  P.  Walsh, 
chairman,  attorney  for  the  Board  of  Public  Wel- 
fare, Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Prof.  John  R.  Commons, 
economist,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin;  and 
Mrs.  J.  Borden  Harriman  of  New  York  City, 
member  of  the  National  Civic  Federation.  Rep- 
resenting employers:  Frederick  A.  Delano,  Chi- 
cago, railway  manager  (on  March  17,  1915,  Mr. 
Richard  H.  Aishton  of  Illinois  was  appointed 
to  fill  out  the  unexpired  term  of  Mr.  Delano, 
who  resigned) ;  Harris  Weinstock,  San  Fran- 
cisco, merchant  and  publicist;  and  S.  Thurston 
Ballard,  Louisville,  Ky.,  manufacturer.  Repre- 
senting organized  labor:  John  B.  Lennon,  Phila- 
delphia, treasurer  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor;  Charles  O'Connell,  District  of  Colum- 
bia, head  of  the  National  Trades  Department 
of  the  same  federation ;  and  Austin  B.  Garretson, 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  president  of  the  Order  of 
Railroad  Conductors.  A  total  appropriation  of 
$500,000  was  made  for  this  commission.  The 
life  of  the  commission  expired  on  August  25th 
and  at  that  time  it  made  public  summaries  of 
its  findings.  The  reports  were  later  published 
in  full. 

Obganization.  The  work  of  the  commission 
was  carried  on  under  two  general  departments, 
known  as  the  Division  of  Public  Hearings  and 
the  Division  of  Investigation  and  Research. 
The  first  of  these  divisions  conducted  hearings 
in  Washington,  New  York,  Paterson,  Philadel- 
phia, Chicago,  Lead  (S.  Dak.),  Butte,  Portland, 
Seattle,  San  Francisco,  and  Los  Angeles  be- 
tweoi  April,  1914,  and  January,  1916.  Numer- 
ous leaders  of  labor  organizations,  of  employers' 
associations,  of  corporations,  of  civic  organiza- 
tions, and  of  public  institutions  were  heard.  A 
vast  amount  of  personal  testimony  was  elicited 
and  thus  the  interest  of  the  American  public 
in  labor  questions  was  greatly  stimulated. 

The  Division  of  Investigation  and  Research 
was  under  the  general  direction  of  Mr.  Charles 
McCarthy,  head  of  the  legislative  library  of  the 
State  of  Wisconsin,  until  early  in  the  year,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  Basil  M.  Manly.  It  car- 
ried on  its  work  under  10  separate  headings: 
1.  The  sub-division  on  legal  and  legislative  was 
in  charge  of  Edwin  Witte.  It  gave  special  at- 
tention to  injunctions  and  boycotts,  making  a 
study  of  laws  of  special  cases  and  of  actual 
practices.  Special  investigators  took  up  the  re- 
lation of  the  military  to  the  civil  power  and 
the  use  of  martial  law  and  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  in  labor  disputes;  the  local  government 
In  communities  controlled  by  corporations;  the 
work  of  minor  courts  in  the  handling  of  labor 
cases;  and  the  psychology  of  strikes  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  the  employment  of  armed 
guards  and  detectives,  and  the  causes  of  violence 
in  labor  disputes.  2.  Prof.  George  E.  Barnett 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University  had  charge  of  the 
section  on  labor  organizations  and  collective 
bargaining.  With  a  corps  of  expert  assistants 
inquiries  were  made  into  the  extent  of  trade 
unionism  in  this  country;  the  organization  and 
policies  of  typical  unions;  trade  agreements, 
both  local  and  sectional;  purposes  and  methods 
of  employers'  associations;  trade  agreements 
and  reasons  for  their  success  or  failure;   and 


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IKDTT8TBIAI.  BSLATIONS 


824 


IKDUSTBIAL  BSLATIOKS 


public  agencies  for  arbitration  and  conciliation. 
3.  The  diyision  of  unemployment  was  in 
charge  of  William  Leiserson,  who  was  also  as- 
sistant director  of  the  Division  of  Investigation 
and  Research.  Experts  under  his  direction 
made  investigations  of  casual,  seasonal,  and  mi- 
gratory labor.  One  of  these  investigators  fol- 
lowed the  harvest  season  from  Oklahoma  to 
North  Dakota,  making  a  study  of  the  methods 
of  the  agricultural  Stotes  in  securing  help  dur- 
ing harvest  time,  and  their  effects.  This  led  to 
a  meeting  in  December,  1014,  at  Kansas  City, 
of  labor,  immigration,  and  agricultural  com- 
missioners, railroad  immigration  officials,  and 
police  officers  of  western  cities.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  second  meeting  at  Omaha,  February, 
1016,  where  the  National  Farm  Labor  Exchange 
was  organized  as  a  medium  for  securing  co- 
operation of  the  States  in  gathering  and  dis- 
seminating information.  A  study  was  made 
also  of  public  and  private  employment  offices 
in  10  Eastern  and  Middle-Western  States.  4. 
Prof.  John  L.  Ck)ulter  was  in  charge  of  the  di- 
vision on  agricultural  problems.  Census  mate- 
rial was  compiled  showing  an  increase  in  farm 
tenancy  in  each  succeeding  census;  and  an  in- 
tensive study  of  farm  tenancy  in  the  South- 
western States  was  carried  out.  6.  A  section 
on  education  and  preparation  for  life  under 
G.  L.  Sprague  covered  the  subject  of  public  and 
private  industrial  education  in  the  United 
States.  The  administrative  machinery  for  child 
labor  and  comoulsory  education  laws  was  also 
investigated.  6.  Various  experts  were  employed 
by  the  section  on  welfare  and  social  insurance 
to  make  inquiries  into  public  and  private  wel- 
fare work.  They  gave  special  attention  to  the 
need  for  welfare  work;  the  welfare  methods  of 
oorporations;  and  the  relative  merits  of  public 
vs.  private  activity.  7.  The  section  on  safety 
and  sanitation  made  an  intensive  study  of  the 
administration  of  factory  laws  in  New  York, 
Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illinois.  8.  An 
editorial  department,  directed  by  W.  J.  Lauck, 
was  concerned  with  the  underlying  causes  of  in- 
dustrial unrest.  This  department  analyzed  nu- 
merous statistical  and  other  reports  of  the  vari- 
ous investigations,  giving  special  attention  to 
wages,  prices,  the  cost  of  living,  and  the  effects 
of  factory  conditions  on  the  physical  well-being  of 
wage  earners.  0.  Miss  Marie  L.  Obenauer,  chief 
of  the  Women's  Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics,  directed  the  section  on  women  in  in- 
dustry. Such  questions  as  the  following  were 
studied:  Why  protective  laws  for  women  are 
more  pronounced  in  the  West  than  in  the  East; 
effect  of  such  labor  laws  on  interstate  competi- 
tion; .minimum  wage  laws;  general  aspects 
of  the  employment  of  women.  10.  The  edito- 
rial division  was  engaged  in  the  editing  and 
indexing  of  material  submitted  by  all  investiga- 
tions. 

In  addition  to  these  various  sections  a  num- 
ber of  independent  investigations  were  carried 
on.  One  of  these  dealt  with  graft  and  other 
abuses  in  trade  union  organization  and  activi- 
ties; another  dealt  with  the  Structural  Iron 
Workers;  another  with  the  illegal  entry  of  Asi- 
atics; Prof.  Robert  F.  Hoxie  devoted  his  entire 
time  to  a  study  of  scientific  management  in  rela- 
tion to  labor  problems;  and  Mr.  W.  O.  Thomp- 
son studied  the  efficiency  systems  in  government 
arsenals  and  shops.  Various  bills  were  pre- 
pared by  the  members  of  the  staff  in  coopera- 


tion   with    the    Legislative    Drafting    Research 
Fund  of  Columbia  University. 

Reports.  The  various  factions  in  the  com- 
mission were  not  able  to  agree  upon  a  unified 
report.  The  principal  findings  and  recommenda- 
tions were  consequently  submitted  in  two  prin- 
cipal reports,  one  of  which  was  sympathetic 
with  labor  and  the  other  of  which  was  gen- 
erally approved  by  employers.  The  first  of 
these  reports  was  writt^  by  Basil  M.  Manly, 
Director  of  Research  and  Investigation  after 
March,  1015,  and  was  signed  by  Chairman 
Walsh  and  the  three  labor  members  of  the  com- 
mission. To  this  was  added  a  separate  report 
by  labor  representatives  Lennon  and  0*Connell, 
and  two  supplementary  statements  by  Commis- 
sioners Garretson  and  Walsh.  The  other  prin- 
cipal report  was  written  bv  Prof.  John  R.  Com- 
mons and  signed  by  himself,  by  Mrs.  Harriman, 
and  with  certain  reservations  by  the  employer 
members.  The  employer  members,  Weinstock, 
Ballard,  and  Aishton,  issued  a  separate  report, 
and  Commissioner  Ballard  added  a  supplemen- 
tary statement. 

&th  main  reports  favored  collective  bargain- 
ing, though  employer  members  insisted  that  it 
should  be  fairly  conducted;  and  both  reports 
favored  an  inheritance  tax.  On  some  minor 
point,  also,  there  was  some  agreement  as  to 
policies,  but  on  the  whole  the  reports  revealed 
a  wide  divergence  of  opinion. 

The  Manly  Report  found  the  following  to  be 
the  main  causes  of  industrial  unrest:  (1)  Un- 
just distribution  of  wealth  and  income;  (2) 
unemployment;  (3)  denial  of  justice  in  the  en- 
actment and  administration  of  law;  and  (4) 
denial  of  the  right  and  opportimity  to  organize. 
With  reference  to  the  first  cause  the  report 
stated  that  "44  families  possess  aggregate  in- 
comes totaling  at  the  least  $50,000,000  per 
year,  while  between  one-fourth  and  one- third  of- 
male  workers  in  factories  and  mines,  18  years 
of  age  and  over,  earn  less  than  $10  per  week, 
and  only  about  one-tenth  earn  more  than  $20 
per  week";  it  declared  that  from  two-thirds  to 
three-fourths  of  women  workers  receive  less  than 
$8  a  week,  nearly  one-half  earning  less  than  $6 
a  week.  At  the  other  end  of  the  social  scale  it 
found  vast  fortunes  the  ramifications  of  which 
were  unknown  even  to  their  owners  and  which 
could  only  be  squandered,  hoarded  or  "put  into 
so-called  'b^iefactions,'  which  for  the  most  part 
constitute  a  menace  to  the  State,"  or  reinvested 
to  secure  further  profits.  The  report  condemned 
existing  laws  controlling  the  inheritance  of 
property,  finding  in  them  a  chief  source  of  the 
development  of  industrial  feudalism.  The  im- 
mense industrial  principalities  of  the  Rocke- 
fellers, Morgans,  Fricks,  Vanderbilts,  and  As- 
tors  were  condemned  as  out  of  harmony  with 
American  ideals  and  as  a  menace  to  the  welfare 
of  the  nation  and  the  very  existence  of  democ- 
racy. The  policies  advocated  in  this  report  in- 
cluded an  inheritance  tax  which  would  limit 
any  inheritance  to  $1,000,000.  The  fund  thus 
accumulated  should  be  used  to  extend  educa- 
tion, develop  various  social  services,  and  extend 
such  public  work  as  road-building,  irrigation, 
and  reforestation.  In  connection  with  the  sec- 
ond cause  of  unrest  the  Manly  report  favored 
various  land  reforms,  including  a  prosecution 
of  those  who  have  obtained  land  or  water  power 
or  mineral  rights  by  fraud,  and  taxation  of  non- 
productive lands  at  the  same  rate  as  similar 


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productiye  lands,  with  exemption  for  all  im- 
provements.  The  third  general  cause  of  unrest 
included  12  specific  charges:  Difficulty  of  se- 
curing productive  legislation;  nullification  by 
the  courts  of  many  laws  that  are  passed;  dis- 
crimination by  the  courts  between  poor  and 
rich;  perversion  of  the  14th  amendment  so  as 
to  make  it  protect  property  rights  alone;  lack 
of  l^gal  guarantee  of  payment  of  wages  when 
due;  abuse  of  the  power  of  injunction;  non-en- 
foroement  of  labor  laws;  exclusion  of  workers 
from  juries;  injustice  to  innocent  men  during 
strikes;  use  of  police;  and  abuses  of  detective 
agencies  during  strikes;  the  resort  to  martial 
law  leading  to  commission  of  crimes  with  im- 
punity by  employers'  agents,  and  severe  punish- 
ment of  strike  leaders.  With  respect  to  tiiese 
charges  the  report  advocated  the  following: 
Constitutional  guarantees  to  insure  the  protec- 
tion of  personal  rights,  including  habeas  corpus, 
jury  trial,  free  speech,  and  free  assembly,  and 
to  prevent  courts  from  declaring  laws  unconsti- 
tutional; and  laws  makins  all  qualified  voters 
eligible  to  jury  duty,  regulating  detective  agen- 
cies, and  guaranteeing  the  impartial  use  of 
militia  during  strikes.  The  fourth  cause  of  un- 
rest was  declared  by  this  report  to  be  the  most 
serious  of  all.  It  found  that  workers  insist 
that  the  right  to  organize  is  fimdamental  and 
necessary  to  the  preservation  of  their  freedom. 
The  report  pointed  out  that  the  bargaining 
power  of  the  employer  exceeds  that  of  the  em- 
ployee; and  hence  it  condemned  the  open  shop. 
While  it  admitted  certain  union  abuses,  it  held 
these  to  be  inevitable  in  democratic  organiza- 
tions. The  recommendations  under  this  head- 
ing included  imlimited  right  to  form  associa- 
tions for  mutual  betterment;  prohibition  of  the 
discharge  of  workers  for  belonging  to  unions; 
the  legalizing  of  any  act  by  a  union  which  would 
be  legal  for  an  individual;  and  an  extension  of 
the  power  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  to 
include  the  investigation  of  labor  relations. 

The  Manly  report  was  generally  recognized 
as  particularly  favorable  to  labor.  It  differed 
decisively  from  government  documents  in  gen- 
eral in  the  vigor  and  feeling  displayed,  and  in 
the  sweeping  nature  of  many  statements  insuf- 
ficiently buttressed  by  facts.  It  was  officially 
endorsed  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
the  Railway  Brotherhoods,  and  even  leaders  of 
the  I.  W.  W.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  char- 
acterized as  a  plan  of  "plain  ordinary  robbery" 
by  the  New  York  Sun,  and  as  "a  frank  project 
of  confiscation"  by  the  New  York  Times.  From 
the  academic  point  of  view,  it  was  condemned 
because  it  lacked  a  sufficient  mass  of  evidence 
to  carry  conviction  in  multitudes  of  places  and 
because  of  important  problems  almost  entirely 
omitted.  Thus  it  included  no  significant  in- 
quiry into  working  conditions  in  American  in- 
dustries; it  neglected  the  question  of  hours  of 
labor,  and  also  of  accident  prevention,  and  the 
administration  of  labor  laws.  An  even  more 
striking  omission  was  that  although  it  strongly 
favored  the  organization  of  labor,  it  contained 
no  constructive  proposals  for  perfecting  such 
organization. 

The  Cammone  Report  found  the  chief  cause 
of  industrial  unrest  in  the  collapse  of  machin- 
ery for  the  enforcement  of  labor  laws  and  the 
consequent  distrust  of  government.  It  there- 
fore rejected  the  alleged  findings  of  the  staff 
of  investigators  and  the  point  of  view  repre- 


sented in  the  Manly  report.  Its  solution  in 
general  was  based  on  the  idea  of  mutual  par- 
ticipation by  employers  and  employees  in  ad- 
ministrative boards.  One  of  its  chief  proposals 
is  the  organization  of  a  permanent  commission 
on  industrial  relations,  not  for  investigation, 
but  for  administration.  In  conjunction  with 
this  commission  should  be  organized,  it  thought, 
an  advisory  council  including  the  secretaries  of 
commerce  and  labor,  10  representatives  of  em- 
ployers' and  farmers'  associations,  10  repre- 
sentatives of  organized  labor,  and  10  persons 
interested  in  social  l^slation  to  be  appointed 
by  the  commission.  This  advisory  council 
would  serve  without  pay,  but  would  consider  all 
recommendations  of  the  commission  before  these 
were  made  public.  It  would  therefore  serve  as 
a  check  upon  unreasonable  or  biased  action. 
This  industrial  commission  would  employ  medi- 
ators to  serve  as  conciliators  in  labor  disputes 
and  to  serve  as  arbitrators  or  suggest  arbitra- 
tion if  conciliation  should  fail.  The  report 
specified  in  detail  principles  to  govern  the  for- 
mulation of  rules  and  regulations  by  this  com- 
mission, for  review  of  matters  by  the  commis- 
sion and  the  courts,  and  the  powers  of  the 
commission  in  securing  evidence,  and  in  the  reg- 
ulation of  continuous  (24  hours  per  day)  in- 
dustries, and  of  private  detective  agencies.  The 
Commons  report  recommended  the  creation  of 
a  system  of  national  and  State  employment  of- 
fices, and  a  substantial  restriction  of  immigra- 
tion. It  favored  an  inheritance  tax  griuied 
from  1  per  cent  on  the  excess  of  $25,000  for- 
tunes left  to  direct  heirs,  to  15  per  cent  on  for- 
tunes over  $1,000,000  left  to  direct  heirs;  col- 
lateral inheritances  would  pay  hiffher  rates. 
This  tax  should  be  collected  by  the  Fed^al 
government;  it  was  estimated  to  produce  $200,- 
000,000  a  year,  of  which  one-fourth  would  be  re- 
turned to  the  States.  By  use  of  this  fund 
homes  for  workingmen,  hospitals,  credits  for 
farm^s,  and  other  social  betterment  plans 
should  be  put  into  operation.  Thus  could  be 
maintained  sickness  and  unemployment  insur- 
ance, also  old-age  pensions,  employment  offices, 
subsidies  for  industrial  education,  and  aid  to 
tenant  farmers  in  acquiring  ownership.  Finally 
the  report  endorsed  labor  organizations  and  col- 
lective bargaining,  and  recommended  the  adop- 
tion of  the  British  trades  disputes  act. 

The  Employers'  Report,  The  supplementary 
report  by  the  employers  was  written  primarily 
to  express  their  Assent  from  the  Manly  report, 
inasmuch  as  the  employers  had  subs^ibed  to 
all  of  the  main  features  of  the  Commons  re- 
port. The  employer  members  declared  the 
Manly  report  ''to  be  manifestly  partisan  and 
unfair."  They  stated  that  both  parties  in  the 
industrial  situation  are  human,  and  therefore 
likely  to  err;  hence  all  blame  for  industrial  un- 
rest could  not  be  placed  upon  the  employers. 
That  these  commissioners  freelv  admitted  that 
many  employers  were  guilty  of  wrongdoing,  is 
shown  by  the  following  quotation  from  their 
report.  "There  has  been  an  abundance  of  tes- 
timony submitted  to  prove  to  our  satisfaction 
that  some  employers  have  resorted  to  question- 
able methods  to  prevent  their  workers  from  or- 
ganizing in  their  self-interest;  that  they  have 
attempted  to  defeat  democracy  by  more  or  less 
successfully  controlling  courts  and  le^slatures; 
that  some  of  them  have  exploited  women  and 
children  and  unorganized  workers;   that  some 


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have  resorted  to  all  sorts  of  methods  to  prevent 
the  enactment  of  remedial  industrial  legisla- 
tion; that  some  have  employed  gunmen  in 
strikes  who  were  disreputable  characters,  and 
who  assaulted  innocent  people  and  committed 
other  crimes  most  reprehensible  in  character; 
that  some  have  paid  lower  wages  than  competi- 
tive conditions  warranted,  worked  their  people 
long  hours,  and  under  unsanitary  and  danger- 
ous conditions;  that  some  have  exploited  prison 
labor  at  the  expense  of  free  labor;  that  some 
have  been  contract  breakers  with  labor;  that 
some  have  at  times  attempted,  through  the  au- 
thorities, to  suppress  free  speech  and  the  right 
of  peaceful  assembly,  and  that  some  have  de- 
liberately, for  selfish  ends,  bribed  representa- 
tives of  labor.  All  these  things,  we  find,  tend 
to  produce  industrial  unrest,  with  all  its  con- 
sequent and  far-reaching  ills." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  report  declared,  many 
employers  have  adopted  enlightened  and  pro- 
gressive policies.  Moreover,  trade  imions  in- 
clude only  16  per  cent  of  the  wage-earners  of 
the  country,  and  yet  these  are  largely  responsi- 
ble for  industrial  disturbances,  and  are  guilty 
of  evil  practices.  Among  such  practices  pointed 
out  in  this  report  are  sympathetic  strikes,  jur- 
isdictional disputes,  labor-union  politics,  con- 
tract-breaking restriction  of  output,  prohibition 
of  the  use  of  non-union  made  tools  and  materi- 
als, closed  shop,  contests  for  supremacy  between 
rival  unions,  acts  of  violence  against  non-union 
members,  and  against  the  properties  of  employ- 
ers, and  apprenticeship  rules.  The  report  did 
not  cite  any  considerable  evidence  regarding 
these  condemned  practices.  The  report  did  not 
oppose  but  rather  favored  the  organization  of 
labor,  but  limited  labor's  legitimate  weapons  to 
the  strike  and  primary  boycotts.  It  expressed 
confidence  in  the  honesty  and  fairness  of  Amer- 
ican labor,  and  the  hope  that  employers  would 
work  with,  rather  than  against,  intelligent  labor 
representatives. 

INDXTSTBIAL  WOBXSBS  OF  THE 
WORLD.  This  organization  was  not  as  con- 
spicuous in  1915  as  in  immediately  preceding 
years.  Its  activities  were  local  and  spasmodic. 
It  was  more  in  evidence  in  and  around  New 
York  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  country, 
and  the  problem  of  unemployment  was  the  cause 
which  precipitated  most  of  its  performances. 
Its  agitators  succeeded  in  inducing  small  bodies 
of  workers  to  go  on  strike,  but  in  all  cases 
other  workers  were  found  to  take  their  places. 
Members  of  the  I.  W.  W.  occasionally  resorted 
to  spectacular  actions,  such  as  raiding  restau- 
rants, and  they  were  charged  with  complicity 
in  a  plan  to  explode  bombs  in  St.  Patrick's  Ca- 
thedral in  New  York  City.  This  plot  was  said 
to  be  only  one  small  part  of  far-reachingf  plans 
to  blow  up  various  banks  and  certain  conspicu- 
ous capitalists  such  as  Rockefeller,  Carnegie, 
and  others. 

Paterson.  Elizabeth  Gurley  Flynn,  an  I.  W. 
W.  leader  in  the  Paterson,  N.  J.,  strike  of  1913, 
was  acquitted  in  December,  1915,  of  the  charge 
of  inciting  to  riot  which  had  been  pending  since 
the  jury  disagreed  in  her  first  trial,  July,  1913. 
This  was  the  last  of  the  cases  growing  directly 
out  of  the  Paterson  strike  to  be  tried.  Miss 
Flynn  was  at  the  close  of  the  year  engaged  in 
a  contest  over  free  speech  with  the  Paterson 
authorities,  and  in  this  had  the  support  of  a 
large  number  of  well  known  New  York  men  and 


women.  On  Sept.  4,  Oct.  15,  and  Nov.  12,  1915, 
she  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  hall  where  a 
meeting  was  to  be  held;  she  was  further  or- 
dered to  leave  the  city.  At  the  time  of  her 
third  attempt  to  speak,  on  November  12,  she 
was  accompanied  by  a  group  of  New  York 
women  who  spoke  in  a  hall  while  Miss  Flynn 
was  prevented  from  entering  by  the  police. 
Miss  Flynn  announced  her  intention  of  continu- 
ing her  attempts  for  free  speech  while  the  chief 
of  police  of  Paterson  made  the  statement  that 
he  would  continue  to  prevent  her  unless  the 
mayor  revoked  his  written  orders.  The  Pater- 
son officials  gave  as  their  reason  for  doing  this, 
the  desire  to  escape  a  situation  similar  to  the 
strike  of  1913,  in  which  a  $15,000,000  loss  was 
suffered. 

The  acquittal  of  Miss  Flynn  by  a  jury  outside 
Passaic  County  was  made  the  occasion  for  point- 
ing out  that  Patrick  Quinlan  was  convicted  by 
a  Paterson  jury  on  practically  the  same  evi- 
dence as  was  presented  against  Miss  Flynn. 
Quinlan  was  sentenced  to  from  two  to  seven 
years  in  prison  for  inciting  riot  in  Paterson 
during  the  strike  of  1913.  Frederidc  S.  Boyd, 
who  began  to  serve  his  sentence  of  one  to  seven 
years  in  New  Jersey  for  advocating  destruction 
of  property  in  the  Paterson  strike  of  1913,  ap- 
pealed for  pardon  on  the  ground  that  he  was 
convicted  because  of  views  which  he  had  then 
abandoned,  regarding  them  as  anti-social  and 
detrimental  to  social  welfare.  He  looked  upon 
the  tactics  he  once  pursued  as  certain  to  defeat 
the  moral  and  social  betterment  of  the  working 
class. 

HiLLBTROM  Case.  On  November  19  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  Joseph  Hillstrom  was  executed  by 
shooting,  having  been  convicted  of  the  murder 
of  J.  G.  Morrison,  a  grocer  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
on  Jan.  10,  1914.  The  evidence  was  entirely 
circumstantial.  Following  his  conviction  wide- 
spread agitation  in  his  behalf  was  undertaken; 
this  was  begun  by  the  I.  W.  W.,  but  soon  en- 
listed a  large  proportion  of  the  labor  movement 
in  America.  The  Swedish  minister  to  the 
United  States  intervened  in  his  behalf,  and 
President  Wilson  made  two  appeals,  the  first 
time  with  success,  to  secure  a  reconsideration 
of  the  case  by  the  Governor  and  the  Board  of 
Pardons  of  Utah,  but  the  law  was  allowed  to 
have  its  course. 

INFANT  MORTALITY.  See  Vital  Statis- 
tics. 

INITIATIVE  AND  REFERENDUM.  See 
Electoral  Reform. 

INOUYE,  Kaoru,  Marquis.  A  Japanese 
statesman,  died  September,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Yamaguchi  Province  in  1835.  As  a  young 
man  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt 
against  the  military  dictatorship  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  Shogun,  but  he  was  at  that  time  strongly 
opposed  to  the  intrusion  of  foreigners.  He  and 
his  friend  Ito,  afterwards  Prince  Ito,  protested 
against  the  building  of  a  foreign  legation  in 
Tokio.  In  1864,  he  and  Ito  made  a  secret  visit 
to  England,  and  this  brought  about  a  complete 
change  in  their  attitude.  On  receiving  the 
news  that  the  Allied  Powers  were  threatening 
to  attack  Shimonoseki,  the  headquarters  of  the 
Choshiu  clan,  to  which  Inouye  belonged,  they 
returned  to  Japan.  Here  the  two  found  them- 
selves in  such  complete  opposition  to  the  mass 
of  their  fellow  countrymen  that  a  murderous 
attack  was  made  on  Inouye.    He  took  a  chief 


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INSANITY 


part'  among  the  reformers  who  were  spreading 
new  ideas  throughout  Japan,  and  when  these  re- 
formers had  finally  won  the  day,  Inouye  was 
rewarded  with  the  post  of  vice-minister  of  fi- 
nance in  1870,  which  he  held  under  Count 
Okuma  imtil  1873,  when,  on  account  of  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  with  the  cabinet,  he  resigned. 
In  1874  he  accompanied  Count  Kuroda  as  vice- 
plenipotentiary  to  Korea  in  order  to  obtain  sat- 
isfaction for  an  outrage  upon  a  Japanese  ship. 
At  different  times  down  to  1808,  when  he  re- 
solved to  retire  from  public  life,  he  was  minis- 
ter of  home  affairs,  foreign  affairs,  finance,  agri- 
culture, and  commerce.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant episodes  of  his  official  life  was  his  mis- 
sion to  Korea  during  the  Japanese  occupation 
of  that  country  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
China  in  1804.  He  was  sent  to  reorganize  a 
Korean  administration  after  the  Chinese  had 
been  driven  out,  and  superintended  the  intro- 
duction of  wholesale  reforms.  Into  this  work 
he  threw  himself  with  great  ability  and  energy, 
and  prepared  a  comprehensive  programme,  which 
he  submitted  to  the  Emperor.  These  reforms 
were,  for  the  most  part,  adopted  and  put  into 
effect,  but  their  operation  resulted  in  a  large 
measure  of  failure,  due  chiefly  to  the  conduct 
of  the  Japanese  officials  in  Korea.  The  policy 
alternated  between  high-handed  recklessness  and 
temporary  hesitancy.  Popular  feeling  demanded 
greater  energy  in  dealing  with  these  matters, 
and  Inouye,  whose  administration  had  been 
weakened  by  a  lack  of  support  at  home,  was 
succeeded  in  1805  by  General  Miura,  a  soldier 
without  any  political  or  diplomatic  experience. 
Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  latter,  there  oc- 
curred an  outbreak  in  which  the  Queen  was 
murdered,  and  the  King  placed  under  close  re- 
straint. This  was  followed  by  other  disturb- 
ances, and  gradually  Japanese  ascendancy  dis- 
appeared and  Russia  became  the  dominant 
power  in  Korea.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Russia,  notwithstanding  his  withdrawal 
from  public  life,  Inouye  attended  all  important 
coimcils  and  gave  advice  to  the  minister  of  fi- 
nance. In  10O7  he  was  raised  from  the  rank 
of  Count,  which  had  been  conferred  upon  him 
in  1804,  to  that  of  Marquis.  He  was  a  states- 
man of  vigorous  intellect  and  of  intense  patri- 
otism, and  his  ability  of  character  and  schol- 
arly attainments  won  for  him  universal  esteem. 
He  was  one  of  the  last  of  the  band  of  Elder 
Statesmen,  to  whom  the  Japanese  Empire  owes 
her  rise  in  world  politics. 

INSANE,  The.    See  Chabities,  passim. 

INSANITY.  It  is  imipossible  to  deny  the  de- 
duction from  statistics  collated  by  trained  stat- 
isticians provided  with  ample  data  from  which 
to  pursue  the  quesita.  The  number  of  the  in- 
sane is  increasing,  either  simply  in  the  gross, 
or  in  a  percentage  ratio.  The  attempt  of  the 
United  States  census  to  enumerate  the  mentally 
defective  in  the  whole  country  was  not  repeated, 
because  the  results  were  admittedly  faulty. 
Within  certain  State  limits,  as  in  New  York, 
Massachusetts,  and  Pennsylvania,  fairly  ac- 
curate figures  are  obtainable,  and  trustworthy 
deductions  may  be  made.  The  greater  number 
released  from  home  care  and  admitted  into 
State  institutions  because  of  the  increasing  con- 
fidence in  these  institutions,  has  ceased  to  be  a 
factor  in  the  greater  number  of  State  patients. 
Greater  longevity  of  the  race,  whereby  a  greater 
number   of   people   survive  to   enter   the   third 


decade  of  life,  is  still  a  factor,  as  Dana,  of  New 
York,  pointed  out.  Foreign  immigration  is  un- 
doubtedly a  factor  of  great  importance,  for  of 
the  certified  insane  in  New  York  State,  46.7  per 
cent  of  the  first  admissions  were  of  foreign 
birth,  and  27  per  cent  were  not  citizens;  just 
as  in  Pennsylvania  last  year  the  foreign-bom 
population  of  Philadelphia  supplied  44  per  cent 
of  the  insane  of  that  city.  The  insane,  degen- 
erate, and  the  mentally  defective  of  foreign 
birth  can  be  kept  out  of  the  country,  if  the  gov- 
ernment cares  to  appoint  a  sufficient  number  of 
alienists  at  the  various  ports  of  entry  to  study 
properly  the  stream  of  immigrants,  and  pro- 
vides sufficient  space  for  the  segr^ation  of 
doubtful  cases  until  they  can  be  observed  under 
reasonable  conditions  for  the  exercise  of  calm 
iud^ent  by  the  alienists.  Another  method  of 
limiting  the  production  of  the  insane  consists 
of  preventing  the  releasing  on  parole  of  many 
criminals;  for  while  crime  is  not  insanity,  a 
vast  proportion  of  criminals  of  the  recidivist 
type  are  mentally  abnormal,  and  usually  have 
vicious  habits.  Hence  the  danger  of  insane  off- 
spring. But  an  underlying  cause  lies  in  the  devi- 
ation from  the  old  moral  and  mental  attitude 
toward  the  healthfulness  of  work  and  its  neces- 
sity for  mental  development,  for  the  young,  with 
the  dangerous  substitution  of  the  doctrine  of 
play,  and  only  pleasurable  and  entertaining  oc- 
cupations for  children  of  school  age,  as  is  em- 
phasized by  Burr,  of  Philadelphia.  To  this 
false  method  may  be  added,  as  another  ^jp-ave 
error,  the  coddling  of  old  offenders  in  prisons, 
instilling  into  their  minds  the  idea  that  they 
are  victims  of  society,  and  should  be  commis- 
erated therefor.  Duty  and  self-control  must  be 
preserved  if  a  mentally  sturdy  population  is  to 
be  built  up. 

Heron,  in  Btometrika,  showed  the  fallacy  of 
Mott's  fanciful  "law  of  anticipation,''  in  the  in- 
sane. By  this  so-called  law  Mott,  of  London, 
predicated  that  the  offspring  of  insane  parents 
became  insane,  if  at  all,  at  an  earlier  age  than 
their  parents,  and  thus  the  tendency  was  to 
abolishing  an  unfit  stock.  Heron's  study  of 
the  method  by  which  Mott's  data  were  compiled 
shows  the  possibility  of  such  a  law  is  disproved 
by  mathematical  evidence,  and  therefore  it  can- 
not be  accepted.  This  effectually  disposes  of 
Mott's  dangerous  advice  to  the  offspring  of  in- 
sane parents  to  marry,  if  at  25  years  they  are 
mentally  sound. 

The  seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  National 
Committee  for  Mental  Hygiene  was  held  Feb. 
16,  1015.  Gifts  of  $40,000  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Milbank  Anderson,  and  $44,500  by  Mrs.  W.  K. 
Vanderbilt  were  announced,  and  the  contribu- 
tion of  the  services  of  Dr.  T.  W.  Salmon  for  a 
number  of  years  by  the  Rockefeller  Foundation 
was  also  recorded.  Seven  States  have  such  or- 
ganizations as  this,  and  preparations  are  being 
made  to  found  them  in  20  more  States.  A  quar- 
terly magazine  devoted  to  articles  on  mental 
hygiene,  the  prevention  of  insanity,  the  care  and 
treatment  of  the  insane,  the  feeble-minded,  and 
alcohol  and  drug  addictions  will  be  published. 
The  president  is  Dr.  L.  F.  Barker,  Baltimore; 
the  medical  director  is  Dr.  T.  W.  Salmon;  the 
secretary  is  Clifford  W.  Beers,  50  Union  Square, 
New  York  City. 

In  the  1014  Yeab  Book,  under  the  caption 
Aloohol,  extended  reference  was  made  to  the 
partial   or   complete   prohibition   of   the   liquor 


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GooqIc 


INSANITY  3 

formerly  served  to  soldiers  by  many  govern- 
ments now  engaged  in  the  great  European  war. 
Gerver,  in  the  Russkiy  Vrachy  reports  on  the 
results,  as  far  as  the  production  of  alcoholic 
psychoses  is  concerned.  He  describes  the  usual 
war  psychoses,  including  those  caused  solely  by 
environment  and  emotional  strain,  and  those 
which  were  prematurely  developed  by  war  in 
the  predisposed,  and  claims  that  the  total  in 
the  present  campaign  is  only  about  1  per  1000, 
against  2  or  3  per  1000,  the  main  cause  being 
the  total  absence  of  alcoholism.  In  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  alcoholism  was  responsible  for 
one- third  of  all  the  psychoses.  In  the  present 
campaign  there  has  not,  he  reports,  been  a  sin- 
gle case  of  alcoholic  insanity. 

May,  of  the  New  York  State  Hospital  Com- 
mission, reports  that  on  Sept.  30,  1915,  the  num- 
ber of  committed  insane  and  voluntary  cases 
in  State  hospitals  together  with  committed  in- 
sane in  licensed  private  retreats  was  17,382  men 
and  19,280  women,  making  a  total  of  36,662  pa- 
tients (an  increase  of  938  over  last  year) ;  of 
which  number  1361  were  inmates  of  Dannemora 
and  Matteawan,  the  criminal  institutions,  and 
1003  were  in  private  licensed  retreats.  There 
were  1175  on  parole  from  civil  hospitals.  The 
net  increase  in  the  civil  hospitals  for  the  year 
was  951,  against  758  for  1914,  and  975  for  two 
years  ago.  During  the  year  794  were  returned 
to  other  States  or  deported  to  foreign  countries, 
against  1224  the  previous  year.  The  total  num- 
ber admitted  to  civil  hospitals  during  the  year 
was  7934,  of  which  number  6204  were  first  ad- 
missions, and  1730  were  readmissions.  From 
the  14  civil  hospitals  1576  were  discharged  as 
recovered,  1795  as  improved,  and  3036  di^  dur- 
ing the  twelvemonth.  The  amount  disbursed 
for  maintenance  was  $6,865,385.08.  Upon  new 
buildings,  extraordinary  repairs  or  equipment, 
or  emergencies,  was  expended  the  sum  of  $734,- 
609.  The  annual  per  capita  for  maintenance 
(omitting  calculation  of  the  cost  of  lodging), 
was  $210.89  against  $208.81  last  year.  Tlie 
ratio  of  the  insane  was  1  to  277  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  State,  enumerated  in  1915  as  9,687,- 
744,  including  1,628,229  aliens.  The  chief  con- 
tributing cause,  next  to  heredity,  is  alcohol, 
and  syphilis  was  the  determining  cause  in  a 
large  percentage  of  cases.  These  two  prevent- 
able causes  were  in  1914  the  precipitating  fac- 
tors in  26  per  cent  of  the  cases.  Figures  for 
1915  on  this  subject  are  not  yet  available.  Of 
the  first  admissions  in  1914,  46.7  per  cent  were 
of  foreign  birth,  and  64.6  of  foreign  parentage. 

The  usual  reports  from  the  commissioners  in 
lunacy  for  England  and  Wales,  and  of  the  in- 
spector of  lunatics  in  Ireland  were  not  avail- 
able this  year. 

INSANITY  ON  FABMS.     See  Agbiculture. 

INSECTS.    See  ZodLooT. 

INSECTS,  Propagation  of  Disease  bt. 
Wheeler,  in  an  article  on  ants  and  bees  as  car- 
riers of  pathogenic  organisms  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Tropical  Diseases,  marvels  at  the 
amount  of  investigation  and  study  that  has 
been  necessary  to  establish  the  relationship  of 
insects  to  malaria,  yellow  feyer,  bubonic  plague, 
and  other  human  scourges.  To  the  trained  en- 
tomologist who  sees  insects  and  observes  their 
habits,  the  wonder  is  that  the  connection  has 
not  sooner  been  established.  The  cockroach,  for 
example,  may  disseminate  disease  in  a  number 
of   ways.     It   will  devour   any   sufficiently   soft 


28  INSU&ANCE 

substances,  from  human  food  to  the  faces  of 
other  cockroaches,  and  in  its  intestinal  canal 
such  organisms  as  the  diphtheria  bacillus, 
pneumococcus,  and  meningococcus  are  harbored 
and  thence  easily  disseminated.  The  cockroach 
lives  by  preference  in  filthy  cracks  and  crev- 
ices, and  it  carries  about  with  it  mechanically 
a  host  of  germs;  thus,  a  given  sample  of  food 
to  which  cockroaches  have  access  can  hardly 
escape  contamination  by  a  variety  of  virulent 
organisms.  Ants,  which  often  swarm  in  houses, 
particularly  in  the  tropics,  have  not  escaped 
suspicion.  They  live  on  liquid  food  only.  When 
semi-solid  and  minute  particles  are  taken  in, 
the  fluid  is  pressed  out  of  them  and  the  residual 
dry  pellet  subsequently  ejected  from  the  sub- 
pharyngeal  pocket.  Wheeler  points  out  that 
these  insects  may  therefore  contaminate  food  in 
three  different  ways:  By  walking  over  it,  by 
dropping  into  it  infected  hypopharyngeal  pellets, 
and  through  germ-laden  faeces.  In  respect  to 
bees,  Wheeler  has  observed  the  stingless  bees  of 
the  genus  Trigena  visit  garbage  heaps  and  human 
excreta,  presumably  gathering  material  which 
they  manufacture  into  wax  cells  for  storing 
honey,  which  honey  is  eagerly  sought  by  the 
natives  in  many  parts  of  tropical  America.  Ac- 
cording to  Wheeler  intestinal  disorders,  or  even 
death,  have  followed  the  eating  of  such  honey. 

The  activity  of  the  house  fiy  in  spreading 
diarrhoeal  diseases  among  children  has  been  noted 
in  previous  numbers  of  the  Year  Book.  A  re- 
port of  a  two  years'  investigation  under  the 
joint  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Health 
and  Hygiene  of  the  New  York  Association  for 
Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  and  the 
Department  of  Health  of  New  York  City,  has 
recently  been  published.  The  object  of  the  in- 
quiry was  to  determine  the  status  of  the  house 
fly  in  relation  to  the  incidence  of  infant  diarrhoea. 
The  conclusion,  as  summarized  in  the  report, 
indicates  that  twice  as  many  cases  of  diarrhoea 
occur  among  infants  who  are  exposed  to  flies  as 
occur  among  those  who  are  protected  from  them. 
Infants  in  dirty  homes  are  almost  twice  as  likely 
to  contract  diarrhoea  as  those  living  in  cleaner 
surroundings.  The  malign  effects  of  dirt  and 
flies  combined  are  about  equal  to  those  of  arti- 
ficial feeding.  Artificial  feeding  and  dirt  com- 
bined ofi'er  a  still  more  serious  handicap  to  the 
infants.  Breast-feeding  is  therefore  of  the  ut- 
most importance  among  infants  living  in  dirty 
surroundings.  The  ideal  condition  for  reducing 
infant  mortality  is  breast-feeding  in  clean,  fiy- 
protected  homes.  During  this  investigation  cases 
were  divided  into  groups,  fiy-protected  and  fly- 
exposed,  but  living  under  similar  sanitary  con- 
ditions. Nurses  visited  the  homes  every  five 
days.  The  fiy-exposed  or  non-protected  group 
received  the  usual  instructions  in  child  hygiene, 
but  no  special  emphasis  was  laid  on  eliminating 
the  house  fiy.  In  the  protected  group  great 
emphasis  was  placed  on  the  protection  of  the 
baby  from  contact  with  files,  and  the  constant 
use  of  netting  was  insisted  on  in  the  case  of 
infants  in  the  cradle,  bed,  or  go-cart.  See  also 
Entomoloot;  Matjlria;  Plague;  and  Rockt 
Mountain  Spotted  Feveb. 

INSOMNIA.  See  Psycholoot,  Dream  and 
Sleep, 

INSTITUTE  OF  FBANCE.  See  Academy, 
French. 

INSXTBANCE.  Life  Insurance.  Notable 
features  of  life  insurance  history  for  1015  were 


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nrSU&ANCE  8! 

the  completion  of  the  mutualization  of  the  Met- 
ropolitan Company  and  Prudential  Company, 
the  continuance  of  the  movement  among  fra- 
ternal associations  to  place  their  business  on  a 
sound  actuarial  basis,  and  continued  agitation 
by  insurance  companies  and  others  against  ex- 
cessive taxation. 

The  Metropolitan  Life  Inturamce  Company  of 
New  York  with  14,600,000  policy  holders  and 
more  than  $1,000,000,000  of  insurance  in  force 
had  begun  steps  toward  mutualization  late  in 
1014.  On  December  28th  a  meeting  of  the  policy 
holders  had  authorized  the  purchase  of  the  80,- 
000  shares  of  capital  stock  worth  $2,000,000  at 
par  for  $6,000,000.  An  examination  by  the  New 
York  Insurance  Department  completed  early  in 
January  showed  that  the  surplus  of  the  Company 
over  all  liabilities  exclusive  of  the  sum  necessary 
to  purchase  the  outstanding  stock  was  $29,294,- 
000.  While  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  poli- 
cies then  written  were  non-participating,  it  was 
understood  that  the  mutualization  conferred  upon 
these  policies  the  right  to  participate  in  the 
savings  of  the  company.  Moreover  all  policies 
thereafter  written  would  be  upon  the  mutual  or 
participating  basis. 

The  Prudential  Insurance  Company  of  Newark, 
K.  J.,  entered  upon  the  final  stages  of  its  mutual- 
ization plan  in  January,  when  a  New  Jersey 
court  authorized  the  company  to  purchase  the 
outstanding  40,000  shares  of  its  capital  at  $465 
a  share.  While  this  was  believed  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent price  for  the  stock  it  was  pointed  out 
that  by  this  transfer  the  stockholders  surrendered 
cr*ntrol  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  assets  and 
that  moreover  the  stock  was  paid  for  by  the 
company  itself  out  of  funds  to  which  the  stock- 
holders had  more  legal  claims  than  the  policy 
holders.  The  mutualization  of  these  two  great 
companies  which  dominate  the  industrial  field 
and  are  important  factors  in  other  phases  of 
life  insurance  was  a  striking  indication  of  the 
tendency  to  force  all  insurance  to  a  basis  of 
mutual  cooperation  and  social  responsibility. 

In  this  connection  may  be  noted  the  transfer 
of  602  of  the  1000  shares  of  the  Equitable  Life 
Assurance  Society  from  the  Morgan  estate  to 
Gen.  T.  Coleman  du  Pont.  This  was  the  third 
transfer  of  recent  years.  It  was  sold  by  James 
H.  Hyde  to  Thomas  F.  Ryan  and  by  him  to  Mr. 
Morgan.  It  was  announced  that  the  new  pur- 
chaser would  gladly  cooperate  in  carrying 
through  some  scheme  of  mutualization. 

8tatietic8.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
New  York  Superintendent  of  Insurance  the  total 
assets  of  the  37  companies  doing  a  life  insurance 
business  in  that  State  were  $4,597,000,000  on 
Dec.  31, 1914.  Of  this  vast  sum  about  55  per  cent 
was  credited  to  12  New  York  State  companies, 
and  the  remainder  to  companies  of  other  States 
or  of  other  countries.  The  total  assets  included 
$1,521,000  in  mortgage  loans,  $2,013,000,000  of 
stocks  and  bonds,  $657,168,000  of  loans  on  poli- 
cies, and  $151,213,000  of  real  estate.  Tlie  capi- 
tal and  surplus  of  these  companies  amounted  to 
$157,870,000.  Other  items  of  liabilities  were  re- 
serve funds  of  $3,948,474,000,  and  dividends  due 
or  set  apart  on  deferred  dividend  policies  of 
$397,374,000.  The  total  income  of  these  37  com- 
panies was  $874,792,000,  of  which  one-half  went 
to  the  New  York  State  companies.  This  income 
included  $654,174,000  from  premiums  and  $197,- 
612,000  from  interest.  The  total  disbursements 
were  $644,399,000,  of  which  $204,125,000' were 


»  INSX7BAKCE 

for  death  claims,  $58,944,000  on  endowments,  $7,- 
426,000  on  annuities,  $102,510,000  for  lapsed, 
surrendered,  and  purchased  policies,  $104,128,000 
in  dividends  to  policy  holders,  $55,294,000  for 
commissions,  and  $56,217,000  for  salaries  and 
medical  fees.  The  total  insurance  in  force  in  all 
companies  on  December  31,  1914,  was  $18,798,- 
830,000.  The  amount  issued  during  1914  was 
$2,368,388,000.  It  was  estimated  that  the  above 
companies  represented  fully  90  per  cent  of  life 
insurance  assets  and  business  of  the  entire  coun- 
try. 

Savings  Bank  Insurance.  Following  the 
Armstrong  investigations  of  1905-06  much  inter- 
est was  aroused  in  various  proposals  for  supply- 
ing cheaper  insurance,  especially  to  persons  of 
small  means.  The  only  State  that  undertook  a 
practical  reform  in  this  field  was  Massachusetts, 
which  authorized  savings  banks  to  issue  policies 
not  exceeding  $500.  This  maximum  was  raised 
in  1915  to  $1000.  One  savings  bank  established 
the  plan  in  its  organization  in  1908;  another  fol- 
lowed in  1909;  still  another  in  1911;  and  since 
1912  four  banks  have  issued  such  insurance.  In 
1916  they  reported  10,217  policies  with  aggregate 
insurance  of  $4,063,787.  Actuarial  comparisons 
showed  that  their  rates  averaged  about  26  per 
cent  less  than  those  of  regular  industrial  insur- 
ance companies.  Their  average  policy  is  about 
$400,  while  the  average  of  industrial  companies 
is  estimated  at  less  than  $150.  The  dividends 
which  they  have  declared  are  remarkably  large, 
ranging  in  the  last  two  years  for  the  oldest  bank 
from  8^  per  cent  on  one-year  policies  to  26  per 
cent  on  seven-year  policies.  Moreover  this  bank 
in  1915  paid  extra  dividends  ranging  from  26 
per  cent  of  the  regular  dividend  on  one-year  poli- 
cies to  25  per  cent  on  the  r^;ular  dividend  on 
seven-year  policies. 

FiBE  Insurance.  The  Journal  of  Commerce 
estimated  the  fire  loss  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  in  1914  at  $236,691,000  or  $11,000,000 
more  than  in  1913;  and  the  Insurance  Press 
placed  the  loss  of  1915  at  $172,700,000.  The 
loss  of  1914  was  the  greatest  in  any  year  except 
1908,  the  year  of  the  Chelsea  fire;  1906,  when 
San  Francisco  burned;  and  1904,  when  the  Balti- 
more fire  occurred.  The  average  annual  loss  for 
six  years,  1909-14  during  which  no  great  fire 
occurred,  was  $226,332,000.  It  was  estimated 
that  three-fourths  of  this  loss  was  preventable. 
The  largest  loss  of  the  year  in  a  single  fire  was 
at  Newport  News,  Va.,  where  in  August  $2,000,- 
000  in  property  and  several  lives  were  destroyed. 
The  1915  Report  of  the  New  York  Insurance  De- 
partment summarized  the  business  of  241  fire 
and  fire-marine  companies  and  23  marine  com- 
panies doing  business  in  that  State.  They 
showed  fire  risks  in  force  Dec.  31,  1914,  of  $60,- 
200,000,000  and  marine  risks  in  force  of  $1,387,- 
000,000.  During  the  year  these  companies  had 
assumed  fire  risks  of  $51,728,000,000  on  which 
they  had  charged  premiums  of  $527,675,000;  and 
they  had  assumed  marine  risks  of  $16,687,000,000 
for  which  they  charged  premiums  amounting  to 
$70,962,000.  The  gross  income  of  all  of  these 
264  companies  for  the  year  was  $425,983,000, 
of  which  $375,878,000  was  from  premiums. 
Losses  paid  aggregated  $210,298,000;  dividends, 
$28,585,000.  Nevertheless  in  spite  of  this  enor- 
mous business  most  of  the  companies  showed  a 
loss  from  underwriting,  and  in  the  aggregate  the 
loss  irom  underwriting  amoimted  to  $549,193. 
This  was  offset,  however,  by  gain  from  invest- 


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INST7BANCE 


330        INTEBSTATIOHAL  COBPOSATIOK 


ments  amounting  to  $31,147,000.  When  from 
this,  however,  was  deducted  the  dividenda  de- 
clared there  was  a  net  gain  in  the  surplus  of  all 
companies  of  only  $519^52.  This,  however,  con- 
trasted with  a  net  loss  in  1913  of  $10,041,000. 
These  figures  show  that  fire  insurance  rates  are 
in  general  scarcely  sufficient  to  cover  losses,  ex- 
penses, and  increased  policy  reserve  liabilities. 

The  foregoing  statistics  do  not  include  a  sum- 
mary of  the  town  and  county  cooperative  fire  in- 
surance corporations  of  New  York  State.  On 
Dec.  31,  1914,  these  included  35  advance  pre- 
mium companies  with  $156,799,000  insurance  in 
force;  70  town  assessment  companies  with  $58,- 
129,000  insurance  in  force;  and  64  county  assess- 
ment companies  with  $312,193,000  in  force. 

Stbike  Insubance.  See  section  so  entitled 
under  Stbikbs. 

Casualtt,  Cbedit,  Fidelxtt,  Assubbtt  Insub- 
ance COMPANIES.  Exclusive  of  mutual  employ- 
ers' liability  and  workmen's  compensation  cor- 
poration these  companies  doing  business  in  New 
York  State  showed  total  assets  on  Dec.  31,  1914, 
of  $185,925,000.  They  had  $44,148,000  capital, 
$31,673,000  net  surplus  and  other  liabilities  of 
$110,104,000.  Their  total  income  for  the  vear 
was  $148,974,000,  of  which  $137,708,000  was  from 
premiums.  Their  total  disbursements  were 
$133,693,000,  of  which  $55,702,000  was  for  losses 
paid,  $31,214,000  for  commissions  and  $19,416,- 
000  for  salaries  and  fees. 

Fbatebnal  Insurance.  The  74  fraternal  or- 
ders reporting  to  the  New  York  Commissioner  of 
Insurance  showed  a  total  insurance  in  force  Dec. 
31,  1914,  of  $6,381,000,000.  They  reported  as- 
sets of  $147,766,000;  liabiUties  of  $21,447,000; 
income  for  the  year  of  $87,312,000;  and  disburse- 
ments of  $74,140,000.  Some  of  the  largest  or< 
ganizations  in  the  foregoing  summary  with  their 
membership  at  a  recent  date,  their  income  dur- 
ing 1914  and  insurance  in  force  Dec  31,  1914, 
were  the  following:  Tribe  of  Ben  Hur,  105,943, 
$1,615,000,  $111,394,000;  Independent -Order  of 
Brith  Abraham,  40,083,  $875,000,  $97,245,000; 
Brith  Abraham,  200,760,  $527,000,  $35,821,000; 
Brotherhood  of  American  Yeomen,  120,000,  $2,- 
475,000,  $257,500,000;  Catholic  Mutual  Benefit 
Association,  63,700;  $1,520,000,  $83,236,000;  In- 
dependent Order  of  Foresters,  218,074,  $6,292,- 
000,  $196,412,000;  French  Canadian  Artisans' 
Society,  ,  $939,000,  $31,597,000;  Im- 
proved Order  of  Heptasophs,  70,110,  $1,536,000, 
$90,345,000;  Knights  of  Columbus,  327,750,  $1,- 
750,000,  $113,427,000;  Knights  of  Honor,  16,000, 
$1,202,000,  $23,019,000;  Knights  and  Ladies  of 
Honor,  67,500,  $1,561,000,  $62,728,000;  Endow- 
ment Rank  of  the  Knights  of  Pythias,  71,000, 
$2,805,000,  $98,686,000;  Ladies*  Catholic  Benevo- 
lent Association,  147,025,  $1,566,000,  $120,065,- 
000;  Ladies  of  the  Maccabees  of  the  World,  171,- 
618,  $2,305,000,  $123,271,000;  Maccabees,  331,- 
700,  $6,070,000,  $385,926,000;  Modern  Woodmen 
of  America,  908,319,  $14,104,000,  $1,477,584,000;, 

National  Protective  Legion,  ,  $403,000, 

$14,312,000;  National  Union,  62,483,  $2,773,000, 
$113,761,000;  Order  of  United  Commercial  Trav- 
elers of  America,  74,000,  $781,000,  $364,820,000; 
Polish   National    Alliance   of   United   States   of 

North  America,  ,  $1,161,000,  $58,878,- 

000;  Protected  Home  Circle,  87,376,  $1,053,000, 
$76,873,000;  Royal  Arcanum,  248,490,  $9,267,000, 

$476,413,000;  Royal  Neighbors  of  America, 

,  $2,196,000,  $269,235,000;  Travelers' Protec- 
tive Association  of  America, ^  $542,000, 


$244,490,000;  Woodmen  Circle,  Supreme  Forest, 

,  $1,837,000,  $141,636,000;  Woodmen  of 

the  World,  Sovereign  Camp,  732,000,  $11,865,000, 
$970,130,000. 

The  total  membership  of  the  more  than  300 
fraternal  bodies  in  the  United  States  is  estimated 
at  approximately  18,000,000.  The  membership  of 
the  largest  of  these  organizations  not  mentioned 
above  was  at  a  recent  date  as  follows:  Free- 
masons, 1,760,277;  Odd  Fellows,  1,622,100;  Mod- 
em Woodmen  of  America,  921,899;  Knights  of 
Pythias,  729,063;  Independent  Order  of  Rechab- 
ites,  701,040;  Order  of  Eastern  Star,  800,000;  In- 
ternational Order  of  Good  Templars,  620,000; 
Loyal  Order  of  Moose,  620,000;  Improved  Order 
of  Red  Men,  479,033;  Benevolent  and  Protective 
Order  of  Elks,  442,658;  Order  of  Eagles,  400,- 
000;  Royal  Arch  Masons,  422,359;  Ancient  Or- 
der of  United  Workmen,  350,000;  Knifirhts  of 
Columbus,  346,560;  Order  of  Owls,  346,745;  An- 
cient Order  of  Hibernians,  250,000;  Knights 
Templar,  237,368;  Foresters  of  America,  205,- 
756;  Independent  Order  of  Foresters,  218,074; 
Junior  Order  of  United  American  Mechanics, 
230,000;  Nobles  of  the  Mystic  Shrine,  220,000; 
Brotherhood  of  American  Yeomen,  196,478; 
Woman's  Benefit  Association  of  the  Maccabees, 
179,716;  Loyal  Orange  Institution,  150,000; 
Knights  and  Ladies  of  Security,  155,399 ;  Ladies' 
Catholic  Benevolent  Association,  155,080;  and 
Tribe  of  Ben  Hur,  101,011. 

INSXTBANCE,  Workmen's.  See  Wobk- 
ifEN's  Compensation. 

IITTEMPBBANCB.     See  Axoohol. 

TJXTVRIXKL  COKBUSTIOir  ENGINES. 
With  the  war  in  Europe,  where  the  most  ad- 
vanced practice  in  internal  combustion  engines 
has  been  carried  on,  there  was  little  to  note  in 
the  way  of  progress.  The  largest  single  tandem 
gas  blowing  engine  to  be  built  in  the  United 
States  was  constructed  by  the  Mesta  Machine 
Company  for  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Company's 
plant  at  Steelton,  Pa.,  and  had  gas  cylinders  46 
inches  in  diameter,  air  cylinders  84  inches,  and 
a  stroke  of  60  inches.  The  speed  was  to  range 
from  45  to  85  revolutions  per  minute.  A  few 
other  large  gas  blowing  engines  were  built  dur- 
ing the  year,  but  the  construction  was  rather  in 
the  way  of  medium  and  small  units,  especially 
for  the  natural  gas  sections  and  for  small  iso- 
lated plants,  as  at  pumping  stations.  There 
was  manifested  in  the  United  States  a  slight  in- 
crease in  the  use  of  the  stationary  Diesel  engine 
in  sizes  under  500  horse  power,  with  a  predomi- 
nance of  four-stroke  cycle  type,  while  there  was 
an  increase  in  the  use  of  the  medium  compres- 
sion type  of  gas  engine.  The  effects  of  the  war 
were  also  felt  in  the  use  of  Diesel  engines  ifor 
marine  work,  and  only  a  few  ships  were  reported 
as  so  fitted  during  the  year.  Lloyd's  reported 
a  total  of  38  vessels  with  this  type  of  machinery. 
The  largest  Diesel  engine  so  far  constructed  in 
the  United  States  was  one  of  2500  horse  power 
and  six  cylinders  for  the  fuel  ship  Maumee,  built 
by  the  United  States  government.  Of  course  the 
widest  use  of  the  internal  combustion  engine  was 
in  motor  vehicles  where  further  progress  was  be- 
ing made  to  secure  increased  lightness  and  econ- 
omy.   These  are  discussed  under  Automobiles. 

INTEBNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  IN- 
DUSTRIAL    ACCIDENT     BOARDS     AND 
COMMISSIONS.    See   Wobkmen's    Compensa- 
tion. 
INTEBNATIONAL  COBPOBATION,  Ameb- 


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INTEBSTATIONAL  PEACE 


ICAN.    See  Financial  Review,   Bection   so   en- 
titled. 

INTEBITATIONAL  ElTGIKEEBINa  CON- 
GRESS. A  Bucceesful  international  engineering 
congress  was  held  at  San  Francisco  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  Sept. 
20-25,  1915,  and  was  largely  attended,  850  mem- 
bers registering,  though  naturally  the  number 
of  foreign  representatives  was  much  less  than 
would  have  been  the  case  were  conditions  in  Eu- 
rope normal.  A  series  of  important  papers 
were  presented  and  discussed,  and  the  record  of 
the  proceedings  formed  a  substantial  contribu- 
tion to  modern  engineering  literature,  giving  as 
they  did  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  most  im- 
proved and  most  modem  works.  These  topics 
were  grouped  under  a  number  of  general  heads 
with  a  somewhat  minute  subdivision,  papers 
being  arranged  to  cover  as  many  aspects  of  the 
subject  as  would  prove  of  general  professional 
interest.  These  included  the  following  topics: 
The  Panama  Canal,  with  papers  by  General 
Goethals  and  other  members  of  the  engineering 
staff;  water wavs,  both  harbor  and  river  im- 
provement; irrigation,  with  a  discussion  of  ir- 
rigation in  foreign  countries;  municipal  engin- 
eering; railway  engineering,  including  an  ex- 
traordinarily broad  range  of  papers  dealing  with 
all  departments  of  railway  engineering  and  op- 
eration, electric  operation,  and  especially  tunnel 
construction;  mechanical  engineering;  engineer- 
ing and  technical  education;  electrical  en- 
gineering; mining  engineering;  metallurgy; 
naval  architecture;  and  marine  engineering. 
Prof.  W.  F.  Durand,  professor  of  mechanical 
engineering  at  Stanford  University,  California, 
was  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Management, 
and  W.  A.  Cattell  was  the  secretary-treasurer. 
Major-Gen.  George  W.  Goethals  was  the  presid- 
ing officer,  and  A.  M.  Hunt  was  the  chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Papers. 

INTERNATIONAL  INSTTTXTTE  OF  AQ- 
RICTJIiTURE.    See  Agriculture. 

INTERNATIONAL  LANGUAGE.  Many 
had  thought  that  the  very  idea  of  an  interna- 
tional language  must  be  given  up  after  this  war. 
Facts  tell  another  story.  Thanks  to  their  al- 
ready strong  organization,  the  supporters  of  Es- 
peranto have  rendered  great  services  since  Aug- 
ust, 1914.  They  have  established  in  Geneva,  in 
connection  with  the  office  for  exchange  of  pris- 
oners, an  international  Esperanto  office,  the  aim 
of  which  is  to  forward  private  correspondence 
between  the  various  countries  engaged  in  the 
war.  They  claim  that  they  handle  an  average 
of  10,000  letters  a  month.  The  Red  Cross  has 
availed  itself  of  Esperanto;  they  had  a  little 
guide  printed  for  the  ambulance  service,  con- 
taining the  most  indispensable  sentences  in  about 
20  languages,  and  with  a  translation  in  Es- 
peranto which  serves  as  the  common  medium. 
One  can  easily  understand  the  services  rendered 
by  such  a  scheme  in  some  eastern  countries  es- 
pecially. We  are  told  that  the  general  staffs 
in  the  various  armies  find  Esperanto  very  valu- 
able, but  we  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  actual 
facts  on  this  point. 

In  Germany,  where  Esperanto  has  in  recent 
years  gained  much  ground — especially  in  self- 
defense  against  the  so-called  Chevalier  plan  (see 
below) — ^they  made  use  of  it  considerably  for 
propaganda  purposes.  They  send  to  the  neutral 
countries  of  Europe  the  translation  of  the  "Of- 
ficial Reports"  of  the  G^erman  government  on  the 


progress  of  the  war:  Europa  mUito,  Gertnanaj 
oficialaj  raportoj  esperantigitaj.  Besides,  they 
spread  a  pamphlet  all  over  Europe,  La  Vera  pri 
la  milito  (Truth  about  the  War). 

An  interesting  collection  of  letters  from  pris- 
oners and  wounded  telling  how  Esperanto  had 
helped  in  the  most  desperate  situations,  will  be 
found  in  the  periodical  Oermana  Eaperaniitto, 
published  in  Dresden.  Courses  in  Esperanto 
have  been  organized  in  various  concentration 
camps. 

New  efforts  have  been  made  by  Rev.  E.  P. 
Foster  to  bring  before  the  public  his  universal 
language  RO,  laimched  two  years  ago,  and 
which  does  not  compare  unfavorably  with  other 
projects  for  an  international  language.  He 
publishes  a  little  monthly  called  World  Speech, 
in  Marietta,  Ohio. 

In  his  small  book  Le  FranQaia  et  VAnglai9, 
langues  intemationalea,  A.  Dauzat  brings  before 
the  public  once  more  the  idea  of  Chevalier, 
launched  as  early  as  1892,  and  approved  by  such 
men  as  Richet,  H.  G.  W^ls  (in  Anticipations), 
and  Michel  Br6al,  the  linguist;  it  had  been  sub- 
mitted for  consideration  in  1910  to  the  Interna- 
tional Congress  of  living  languages.  It  suggests 
an  agreement  between  France,  England,  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  to  the  effect  that 
English  be  rendered  obligatory  in  French  schools, 
and  vice  versa  French  in  England  and  America. 
This  would  mean  that  180,000,000  people  would 
speak  one  common  language  besides  their  native 
language,  not  coimting  400,000,000  more  in  the 
French  and  English  colonies.  Hius,  these  two 
languages  would  be  the  international  languages. 
The  objection  made  by  Diels,  the  rector  of  the 
University  of  Berlin,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
discussion,  namely,  that  the  plan  leaves  Germany 
out  of  the  agreement,  would  to-day  be  another 
argument  in  its  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  promo- 
ters. 

INTERNATIONAL  PANAMA-CALIFOR- 
NIA EXPOSITION.     See  Exfositions. 

INTERNATIONAL  PANAMA-PACIFIC 
EXPOSITION.    See  Expositions. 

INTERNATIONAL  PEACE  ANB  ARBI- 
TRATION. Since  the  list  of  Bryan-Wilson 
treaties  published  in  the  Year  Book  for  1914 
(page  368),  the  following  additional  information 
has  been  gathered  by  the  World  Peace  Founda- 
tion: 

Bolivia,  Order  of  acceptance  in  principle,  11; 
seventh  treaty  signed  at  Washington,  Jan.  22, 
1914;  ratification  advised  by  United  States  Sen- 
ate Aug.  13,  1914;  ratified  by  the  President  Jan. 
4,  1916;  ratified  by  Bolivia  Nov.  14,  1914;  ratifi- 
cations exchanged  at  Washingten  Jan.  8,  1916; 
proclaimed  and  in  force  for  five  years  from  Jan. 
9,  1916;  text,  Treaty  Series,  No.  606. 

Costa  Rioa.  Order  of  acceptance  in  principle, 
24;  twelfth  treaty  signed  at  Washington  Feb. 
13,  1914;  ratification  advised  by  United  States 
Senate  Aug.  13,  1914;  ratified  by  the  President 
Nov.  11,  1914;  ratified  by  Costa  Rica  July  25, 
1914;  ratifications  exchanged  at  Washington 
Nov.  12,  1914;  proclaimed  and  in  effect  for  five 
years,  Nov.  13,  1914;  text.  Treaty  Series,  No. 
603. 

Denmark.  Order  of  acceptance  in  principle, 
21;  tenth  treaty  signed  at  Washington  Feb.  6, 
1914;  ratified  by  Danish  House  Feb.  27,  1014; 
rejected  by  Danish  Senate  March  28,  1014; 
redrafted  and  signed  at  Washington  April  17, 
1914;  ratifications  advised  by  United  States  Sen- 


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INTBANATIOirAL  PEACE  332  INTEBNATIOITAL  PEACE 

ate  Sept.  30,  1914 ;  ratified  by  President  Jan.  14,  ^J^J^^- xSjSSw  I®'  i oii' 

1916 ;  ratified  by  Denmarlc  Nov.  21,  1914 ;  ratifi-  ^^J?^^    ; ;     ;         ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;  gjSSb?  17.  I9ll 

cations  exchanged  at  Washington  Jan.  19,  1915;  NetherUndi   December  18.  1013 

proclaimed  and  in  effect  for  five  years,  Jan.  20,  BoIWi*   JSSflL  ^I'  iqV/ 

1916 ;  text,  Treaty  Series,  No.  008.  ?XV  ' .' .'         !  .' ! .' !  :•; .' ! .' .' ! !  pJb™S  t  1914 

Fra/nce,    Order  of  acceptance  in  principle,  3 ;  Oosta  Bica February  13,  1914 

twenty-thipd  treaty  signed  at  W-^tag*?"  Sef^  gjJSSSS'  iiiimi- -WWW.  I'^V^  i?'.  iSil 

16,  1914;  ratification  advised  by  United  States  veneinel*    777. M»rch  21,  1914 

Senate  Sept.  26,  1914 ;  ratified  by  the  President  Denmark    April  17,   1914 

Jan    14    1916;  ratified  by  France  Dec.  3    1914;  ^^^  ■ -/-//-  --y,  ST.  Vm4 

ratification*  exchanged  at  Washington  Jan.  22,  p,„  _' j„ly    14,    1914 

1916;   proclaimed  and  in  effect  Jan.  23,  1916;  Urucasy    July   20,    1»14 

text.  Treaty  Series,  No.  609.  bJSS*'"   Slj   11'    ml 

(Treat  Britain.    Order  of  acceptance  in  prin-  cm,  .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  July   24|    1»14 

ciple,  2;  tw«>ty-fourth  treaty  signed  at  Wash-  Paracuay   AuKntt  29,  1914 

ington  Sept.   15,   1914 ;   ratification  advised  by  Chin.   i!S!^w  u'  wil 

United  States  Senate  Sept.  26,  1914 ;  ratified  by  S^;f*BriUln  •::::::::::::.:::  Svl^te^  IS:  wil 

the  President  Nov.  14,  1914;  ratified  by  Oreat  Spain   Septmnber  15,  1914 

Britain  Oct.  8,  1914 ;  rattfications  exchanged  at  «»">•    °'hj5*  18 ^laiT^' 

Washington  Nov.  10,  1914;  proclaimed  and  ef-  Ecuador  Oetabw  is,  1914 

fective  for  five  years  Nov.  11,  1914;  text.  Treaty  OrMce    October  18.   1914 

RoriM    TJo    «lft2  Sweden     October   18,    1914 

Henes,  «0.  WW.  .  .     si  Norway     January   712,    1915 

Ottatemola.    Order  of  acceptance  in  principle,  ' |JJ ' 

16;  second  treaty  signed  at  Washingtcm  Sept.  30,  u        #  .  ^  .,1  v  u- 

1913;   ratification  i^vised  by  the  Senate,  with        I"  »  numbw  of  tntancM  "  w>ll  be  sew^ 

amendments,    Aug.    13,    1914;    ratified    by   the  references  to  the  above  list  and  that  pubbshed 

President  Aug.  2f,  1914;  ratified  by  Guatemala  »»  the  Year  Book  for  1914,  the  treaties  were  not 

May  15,  1914;  ratifications  exchanged  at  Wash-  consummated  by  the  signatory  powers  after  their 

ington  Oct.  13,  1914;  proclaimed  and  in  effect  negotiation.  j     .      *u    «- 

for  five  years  Oct.  18,  1914;  text,  Treaty  Series,        Arbitrations  were  in  abqrance  during  the  Eu- 

No  598  ropean  war.    On  the  other  hand  problems  for 

iiorvie^y.    Order  of  acceptance  in  principle,  6;  arbitration  were  bein^  made  by  war,  which  was 

sixteenth  treaty  signed  at  Washington  June  24,  drawmg  yivid  attentimi  to  the  value  olp^t<i 

1914;  ratification  Advised  by  United  SUtes  Sen-  settlement     In  the  future  it  was  thought,  this 

ate  Aug.  13.  1914;  ratified  by  the  President  Oct.  "«?*  result  in  a  very  gr«t  development  of  wbi- 

14,   1914;   ratified  by  Norway  Sept.   18,   1914;  tration  as  a  m^s  of  settling  international  dis- 

ratificati^s  exchaagid  at  Wishington  Oct.  21,  P«t«  *»*   J"   *>>•  normali»tion   of  their  um. 

1914;   proclaimed  by  President  Oct.  22,   1914;  Moreover,  wherever  possible,  the  wrtem  of  pacific 

text,  Treaty  Series,  No.  599.  settlenumt  continued  normally  throughout  the 

Portugal.    Order  of  acceptance  in   principle,  ''^P^'*""  .  ...  ^  j 

19;  eighth  treaty  signed  at  Lisbon  Feb.  4,  1914;  .   The  European  war  b^n  withtwo  cases  pend- 

ratifl<ltion  advikd  ^  United  States  Senate  Aug.  «K  !»«*""  Tl'lH''*"^  *'*"!![!•,....""'**  TV'  ^^u" 

13,  1914;  ratified  by  the  President  Oct.  21,  1914;  »«>«  «  1«1«-    The  cases  wttled  upon  before  the 

ratified  1^  Portugal  Sept.  26,  1914;  ratifications  «'»r  were  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Spam  vtr- 

exchanged  at  wtshin^  Oct.  24,   1914;   pro-  ~«  Portugal  retotive  to  religious  properties  in 

claimed  by  President  Oct.  27,  1914;  text,  Treaty  Portugal    expro^iated    by    the    republic;    and 

Series  No  600  France   vertus    Peru    involving   the   claims    of 

BpiUn.  Ordw  of  acceptance  in  principle,  18;  ^ren**  creditors  against  a  Pwuviaa  bond  issue, 
twenty-fifth  treaty  sign^  at  Wa8liingt<Si  Sept.  The  Mse  ariung  since  Oie  outto«lc  of  the  war 
16,  1914;  ratification  advised  by  United  States  f"  ">»*»'  the  interprrtation  of  Prussian-Ainer- 
Senate  Sept.  26,  1914;  approved  by  Spanish  lean  treaties  «rismg  out  of  the  indemnity  claims 
Council  of  Ministers  Oct.  16,  1914;  sigied  at  '»'  the  loss  of  i)^^  WM^am  P.Frye.  The  («ses 
Washington  Sent.  16,  1014;  ratification  advised  of  uncerUm  result  because  of  the  war  were  those 
by  the  Senate  Sept.  26,  1914;  ratified  by  the  between  Serbia  and  Turlcey  relative  to  propertiM 
Resident  Nov.  23,  1914;  ratified  by  Spain  Nov.  "f  \^^  Ottoman  state  m  ceded  territories;  and 
23,  1914;  ratifications  exdianged  at  Washington  ^^\  ««■•««  Austria-Hungary  reUtive  to  dam- 
Dec.  21,  1914;  procUimed  and  in  force  for  five  ?8?/»°?.V  T'^'f  !?u**'lr'^*"**i"  ?**..'"  ^^' 
years  from  Decf  23,  1914;  text.  Treaty  Series,  \»"-.  Outside  of  The  Hague  circle  the  BntiA- 
jj-g  QQg                     F           ,          F           .^  American  Claims  Commission  sitting  at  Wash- 

kwedim.    Order  of  acceptance  in  principle,  6;  ""Sto"  ""  technically  in  aession. 

twenty-eighth  treaty  signed  at  Washington  Oct.  „  ^   protocol  between   the   United   States   and 

13,  1914;  ratification  advised  by  the  Senate  Oct.  ?»"»»>*  »<>r  reference  to  arbitration  of  indem- 

22,  1914;  ratified  by  the  President  Jan.  4,  1916;  «"ty  <>««  Jo  a  riot  m  Panama  on  July  4,  1912, 

ratified  by  Sweden  Nov.  13,  1914;  ratifications  **?  «8?«*  »t  Panama  on  Nov.  27.  1915.    This 

exchanged  at  Washington  Jan.  11,  1916;  in  ef-  action   falls  under  the  so-called  Pan-American 

feet  for  five  years  from  date  of  exchange;  pro-  convention    for    the    arbitration    of    pecuniary 

claimed  Jan.  12,  1915;  text,  Treaty  Series,  No.  «'*i"'"  »!,^«^  "Ju^Vf^/.S*^  -^l?"   ",'   J5J?' 

007  <  •         •  '  '  and  ratified  by  the  United  States,  May  1,  1911, 

The  following  is  a  list  of  countries  with  which  J?'"?  proclaimed  by  the  latter,  July  29,  1914. 

the  Bryan-Wilson  treaties  have  been  n.«otiated,  UndouMedly   there   were   occurring  throughout 

in  the  order  of  their  negotiation:  the  world  various  other  instances  requiring  arbi- 

Z tration,  but  according  to  the  World  Peace  Foun- 

galT^g,    Angnat  7,  1918  dation  the  overshadowing  influence  of  the  war  so 

Qnatemala  ".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.....  Sevtember  20,  1918  thoroughly  commanded  the  apace  of  the  publica- 

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INTEBNATIOHAIi  PEACE 


tions  to  which  one  normally  looked  for  reports 
of  such  plans  that  they  did  not  come  to  the  at- 
tention of  those  interested. 

The  war  both  during  its  course  and  in  its  final 
result  involved  a  veritable  hotbed  of  arbitration 
cases.  The  Balkan  Wars  produced  ten  cases  of 
individual  arbitration  and  two  cases  of  general 
reference  to  the  same  method.  The  Frye  case, 
already  decided  upon,  was  an  illustration  of  the 
process  involved. 

As  to  the  normal  operation  of  the  system  of  ar- 
bitration the  United  States  after  Aug.  21,  1014, 
brought  into  force  agreements  extending  arbitra- 
tion conventions  with  Salvador,  August  21; 
with  Portugal  October  27;  with  Costa  Rica 
November  13;  and  with  the  Netherlands  Aug. 
21,  1015.  The  only  new  general  arbitration 
treaty  signed  was  an  agreement  between  the 
United  K^gdom  and  Portugal  signed  at  London, 
Nov.  16,  1014.  Belligerents  regularly  renewed 
engagements  expiring  during  the  year,  with  neu- 
trals. 

The  Carnegie  Foundation  published  a  pamph- 
let giving  in  detail  the  signatures,  ratifications, 
adhesions,  and  reservations  to  the  conventions 
and  declarations  of  the  first  and  second  Hague 
Conferences.  It  also  published  a  pamphlet  con- 
taining a  list  of  arbitrations  and  diplomatic  set- 
tlements of  the  United  States. 

A  striking  feature  of  the  war  was  the  recogni- 
tion by  the  old-world  governments  of  the  force 
of  public  opinion.  The  issuance  of  the  varied 
colored  books  by  the  European  nations  to  ex- 
plain and  justify  their  entrance  and  participa- 
tion in  the  war  was  an  appeal  to  the  public  opin- 
ion of  the  world  for  its  moral  support.  This 
seemed  a  most  encouraging  symptom  to  those 
who  relied  upon  the  force  of  public  opinion  as 
the  sanction  of  international  law  and  treaties. 

An  interesting  development  of  the  European 
war  was  the  various  efforts  of  sundry  organiza- 
tions and  individuals  not  only  to  end  the  war, 
but  to  prevent  future  wars.  The  Survey  (New 
York)  summarized  the  programmes  of  ten  of  these 
movements.  That  of  The  League  to  Enforce 
Peace,  American  Branch,  urged  that  all  justici- 
able questions  be  submitted  to  a  judicial  tribunal 
for  hearing  and  judgment,  both  upon  the  merits 
and  upon  any  issue  as  to  its  jurisdiction  of  the 
question;  all  other  questions  to  be  submitted  to 
a  council  of  conciliation  for  hearing,  considera- 
tion, and  recommendation;  signatory  powers  to 
use  jointly  ''forthwith  botii  their  economic  and 
military  forces  against  any  one  of  their  number 
that  goes  to  war"  before  issue  is  submitted  to 
one  of  the  tribimals;  further  formulation  of  in- 
ternational law  by  conferences  between  signatory 
powers;  such  formulations  automatically  to  be- 
come law  "unless  some  signatory  shall  signify 
its  dissent  within  a  stated  period." 

The  Central  Organization  for  a  Durable  Peace 
(with  headquarters  at  The  Hague)  declared  that 
states  should  agree  to  submit  all  disputes  to 
peaceful   settlement.    There   should   be   created 

(a)  a  permanent  court  of  international  justice; 

(b)  a  permanent  council  of  investigation  and 
conciliation.  States  should  bind  themselves  to 
take  concerted  action,  diplomatic,  economic,  or 
military,  against  a  state  using  military  force  in- 
stead of  submitting  disputes  to  judicial  decision 
or  to  the  mediation  of  the  council.  The  Hague 
Conference  should  be  given  a  permanent  organiza- 
tion and  should  meet  at  regular  intervals.  Other 
recommendations  were:     No  annexation  or  trans- 


fer of  territory  contrary  to  interests  and  wishes 
of  population  concerned;  and  where  possible  a 
plebiscite;  parliamentary  control  of  foreign  pol- 
icy; secret  treaties  to  be  void;  equality  before 
law ;  religious  liberty  and  free  use  of  native  lan- 
guage guaranteed  to  all  nationalities;  interna- 
tional reduction  of  armaments ;  freedom  of  seas ; 
right  of  capture  at  sea  to  be  abolished;  equal 
treatment  of  commerce  for  all  nations  anywhere. 

The  English  Fabian  Plan  involved  an  inter- 
national high  court  for  the  decision  of  justiciable 
issues  (one  member  from  each  of  eight  great 
Powers;  seven  from  all  the  lesser  Powers) ;  in- 
ternational council  for  deliberation  and  legisla- 
tion (five  members  from  each  great  Power;  two 
from  each  lesser) ;  the  court  to  order  execution 
of  any  or  all  of  twelve  economic  sanctions  and  if 
these  are  resisted  by  military  or  naval  force,  the 
other  nations  to  miUce  common  cause  (with  mili- 
tary and  naval  forces)  against  the  offender;  an 
international  council  to  legislate,  subject  to  rati- 
fication by  the  states  (three-fourths  vote  to 
carry  in  legislation  not  affecting  independent  sov- 
ereignty or  territorial  integrity  and  not  requir- 
ing any  change  in  internal  laws). 

The  National  Peace  Council  (representing  the 
Federation  of  British  Peace  Societies)  declared 
against  territorial  change  without  consent  of  the 
population  involved,  and  recommended:  Foreign 
policy  and  treaties  subject  to  parliamentary  con- 
trol; armament  question  to  be  put  before  a  con- 
gress of  nations;  a  congress  to  remove  obstacles 
to  freedom  of  trade;  a  peace  commission  to  ex- 
tend its  functions  to  include  both  those  of  a  com- 
mission of  inquiry  and  of  a  permanent  Hague 
court  of  arbitration;  the  establishment  of  an  in- 
ternational peace  commission  such  as  those  al- 
ready established  between  the  United  States  and 
certain  other  Powers;  the  formation  of  a  perma- 
nent Congress  of  Nations  composed  of  delegates 
appointed  by  the  parliaments,  to  settle  impor- 
tant international  affairs  which  might  give  rise 
to  war;  further  elaboration  by  the  Congress  of 
The  Hague  Convention  regulating  the  conduct 
and  methods  of  warfare. 

The  French  General  Confederation  of  Labor 
demanded  compulsory  arbitration;  a  federation 
of  nations;  the  right  of  all  peoples  to  dispose 
of  themselves  to  be  safeguarded;  independence 
of  nationalities;  suppression  of  secret  diplo- 
macy; end  of  competitive  armament;  conference 
of  organized  labor  forces  of  the  world  at  same 
time  and  place  as  conference  of  diplomats. 

Oerman-Austro-Hungarian  Socialists  demanded 
development  of  international  arbitration  courts; 
compulsory  arbitration;  recognition  of  the  right 
of  every  people  to  determine  its  own  destiny ;  all 
treaties  to  be  under  democratic  parliamentary 
control;  international  agreement  to  limit  arma- 
ment with  general  disarmament  as  the  ultimate 
goal. 

The  Swiss  Committee  for  the  Study  of  the 
Foundations  of  a  Durable  Peace  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing programme:  International  organization; 
arbitration ;  commission  of  inquiry ;  development 
of  international  law ;  no  annexation  without  con- 
sent of  people  involved;  reciprocal  guarantee  of 
territorial  integrity;  no  secret  treaties;  direct 
participation  of  parliaments  in  foreign  affairs; 
limitation  of  armaments  by  voluntary  agree- 
ment; nationalization  of  manufacture  of  muni- 
tions; participation  of  neutrals  in  the  negotia- 
tions for  peace;  open  door  in  colonies. 

The  secretary  of  the  Union  of  International 


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INTBBNATIONAL  PEACE 


AsBociations  (at  Brussels )  announced  this  pro- 
gramme :  Court  of  arbitration  and  (K>urt  of  jus- 
tice; council  of  inquiry  and  conciliation;  coun- 
cil of  states,  taking  in  concert  diplomatic,  eco- 
nomic, and  military  measures;  international 
armed  force  consisting  of  national  contingents 
under  an  international  general  staff;  interna- 
tional parliament  with  two  houses — the  lower 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  various  parlia- 
ments, and  the  upper  of  delegates  from  the  in- 
ternational associations  representing  the  funda- 
mental social  forces;  no  annexation  and  no  right 
of  conquest;  guarantee  of  rights  of  minorities: 
freedom  of  nationalities;  democratic  control  of 
foreign  policy;  suppression  of  alliances  and  of 
secret  treaties;  considerable  n^duction  of  armies 
and  application  of  war  budgets  to  education,  etc. ; 
freedom  of  commerce,  at  least  in  colonies; 
woman  suffrage;  reform  of  education  and  of  the 
press. 

The  International  Congress  of  Women  which 
met  at  The  Hague  (April  3(V-May  1),  and  over 
which  JaneAddams  presided,  declared  for  a  per- 
manent international  court  of  justice  to  settle 
all  justiciable  questions;  a  permanent  council  of 
investigation  and  conciliation;  social,  moral,  and 
economic  pressure  of  all  nations  upon  any  coun- 
try which  resorts  to  force  instead  of  referring 
its  case  to  arbitration  or  conciliation;  convoca- 
tion of  Third  Hague  Conference;  formulation  of 
principles  of  justice,  equity,  and  good  will  by  a 
permanent  international  conference  with  regular 
meetings,  women  participating;  no  transfer  of 
territory  without  consent  of  both  male  and  fe- 
male inhabitants;  democratic  control  of  foreign 
policy;  secret  treaties  void;  treaties  to  be  rati- 
fied by  parliament;  nationalization  of  the  manu- 
facture of  arms  and  munitions;  ultimate  dis- 
armament; continuous  conference  of  neutral  na- 
tions to  offer  mediation  and  proposals  of  peace; 
freedom  of  the  seas  and  of  the  great  maritime 
highways;  equal  suffrage  for  men  and  women; 
investments  in  foreign  countries  to  be  made  only 
at  investor's  risk;  education  of  children  for 
peace. 

The  platform  of  the  Der  Bund  Neues  Vater- 
land  (Germany)  involved  the  development  of  in- 
ternational organization;  "real  guarantees*'; 
further  development  of  international  law  by  fu- 
ture Hague  conferences;  no  annexation;  no  se- 
cret treaties;  open  door;  freedom  of  the  seas. 

The  proposals  of  the  Henry  Ford  Peace  Party, 
which  was  generally  treated  by  the  American 
press  as  a  fantastic  enterprise,  had  not  been  for- 
mulated in  1915. 

A  great  number  of  proposals  were  put  forward 
by  individuals  which  show  not  only  the  wide- 
spread and  deep-seated  interest  in  the  questions, 
but  a  vast  amount  of  study  and  consideration. 
Among  those  putting  forth  such  plans  were 
Roger  W.  Babson,  George  W.  Perkins,  W.  O. 
Hart,  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  of  Los  Angeles,  and 
Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  whose  book  The  Road 
Toward  Peace  was  one  of  the  notable  contribu- 
tions to  the  discussion. 

Another  interesting  proposition  put  forward  is 
that  of  "The  Union  of  Democratic  Control"  that 
was  organized  in  Great  Britain.  Its  object  was 
to  secure  for  the  present  and  for  the  generations 
that  follow,  a  new  course  of  policy  which  will 
prevent  a  similar  catastrophe  to  this  present  war 
ever  again  befalling  the  empire.  The  four  car- 
dinal points  in  the  union's  policy  were  as  fol- 
lows: 


1.  No  province  shall  be  transferred  from  one 
government  to  another  without  the  consent,  by 
plebiscite  or  otherwise,  of  the  population  of  such 
province. 

2.  No  treaty,  arrangement,  or  undertaking 
shall  be  entered  upon  in  the  name  of  Great 
Britain  without  the  sanction  of  Parliament. 
Adequate  machinery  for  ensuring  democratic 
control  of  foreign  policy  shall  be  created. 

3.  The  foreign  policy  of  Great  Britain  shall 
not  be  aimed  at  creating  alliances  for  the  pur- 
pose of  maintaining  the  balance  of  power,  but 
shall  be  directed  to  concerted  action  between  the 
Powers,  and  the  setting  up  of  an  International 
Council,  whose  deliberations  and  decisions  shall 
be  public,  with  such  machinery  for  securing  in- 
ternational agreement  as  shall  be  the  guarantee 
of  an  abiding  peace. 

4.  Great  Britain  shall  propose,  as  part  of  the 
peace  settlement,  a  plan  for  the  drastic  reduc- 
tion, by  consent,  of  the  armaments  of  all  the  bel- 
ligerent Powers,  and  to  facilitate  that  policy 
shall  attempt  to  secure  the  general  nationaliza- 
tion of  the  manufacture  of  armaments,  and  the 
control  of  the  export  of  armaments  by  one  coun- 
try to  another. 

What  was  very  properly  designated  as  a  "real 
peace  congress"  was  the  Pan-American  Financial 
Conference  called  by  the  American  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  William  G.  McAdoo.  It  b^ran 
with  an  informal  meeting  of  the  secretary  with 
the  delegates.  May  22,  and  lasted  during  the 
following  week.  Nineteen  of  the  twenty-one 
American  republics  were  represented  at  the  con- 
ference by  official  persons,  ministers  of  finance, 
leaders  in  the  commerce  and  industries  of  their 
respective  countries — ^men  with  the  right  to  speak 
in  the  name  of  the  nations  they  represented  as 
men  of  affairs,  financiers,  and  merchants.  The 
President  of  the  United  States  voiced  the  object 
of  the  conference  in  his  opening  address  when  he 
said  that  his  welcome  was  inspired  by  what  he 
hoped  to  be  the  high  ambitions  of  those  who  live 
on  these  two  great  continents,  "who  seek  to  set 
an  example  to  the  world  in  freedom  of  institu- 
tions, freedom  of  trade,  and  intelligence  of  mu- 
tual service." 

The  Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress 
(q.v)  which  met  in  Washington  December,  191&- 
January,  1916,  was  another  real  peace  congress 
of  the  same  general  character. 

The  American  Peace  Centenary  Committee  to 
celebrate  the  100  years  of  peace  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada  (Yeab  Book,  1914), 
kept  up  its  organization  with  the  expectation  of 
formally  celebrating  when  the  European  war 
should  be  conclud^.  As  a  memorial  of  the 
"Century  of  Peace"  a  medal  was  designed.  Sil- 
ver and  bronze  copies  of  the  medal  were  to  be 
struck  by  the  United  States  Mint  for  distribu- 
tion. The  proceeds  from  the  sale,  above  the  cost 
of  production,  were  to  be  turned  into  the  treasury 
of  the  American  Committee  to  meet  in  part  the 
expense  of  casting  a  statue  of  Abraham  Lincohi, 
which,  at  the  celebration  to  be  held  after  the 
close  of  the  war,  was  to  be  presented  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  British  Empire  and  placed  on  a  pedes- 
tal opposite  Westminster  Abbey  and  the  Par- 
liament buildings  in  London;  and  also  that  of 
preparing  bronze  effigies  for  the  Parkman  memo- 
rial which  was  to  be  presented  to  the  people  of 
Canada  and  placed  on  a  conspicuous  site  in  the 
grounds  of  the  Parliament  buildings  in  Ottawa. 

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INTEBHATIONAL  PEACE 


enoes  was  the  demand  of  a  largely  attended  con- 
ference at  Cleveland,  May  12-13.  A  League  to 
Enforce  Peace  was  the  outcome  of  another  rep- 
reaoitatiye  gathering  held  in  Independence  Hall, 
Philadelphia,  June  16th. 

The  American  Peace  Society  was  undergoing  a 
reorganization  designed  to  render  it  more  effec- 
tive. The  general  propaganda  has  been  carried 
on  without  abatement,  notwithstanding  the  war. 
In  the  words  of  the  report  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee: 

"The  peace  work  of  the  year  has  been  greatly 
disorganized,  if  not  indeed  much  retarded,  by 
the  war.  This  has  been  the  case  particularly  in 
Europe,  where  most  of  the  international  peace 
activities  have  heretofore  been  carried  on  within 
the  countries  now  involved  in  the  war.  The 
great  annual  international  conferences  and  con- 
gresses, including  the  Third  Hague  Conference, 
which  it  was  ho|^  to  hold  this  year,  all  had  to 
be  postponed  indefinitely.  Efforts  were  made  to 
convene  the  Commission  of  the  International 
Peace  Bureau  at  Berne  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  and  finally,  on  Jan.  6  and  7,  1916,  an  ex- 
traordinary session  was  summoned.  Sixteen 
members  of  the  commission  were  able  to  re- 
spond. Appeals  were  issued,  questions  of  ways 
and  means  discussed,  and  a  programme  drawn 
up  which  included  the  chief  points  to  be  em- 
bodied in  the  permanent  treaty  of  peace  which 
will  follow  the  war.  The  chief  value  of  the 
meeting  was  probably  the  friendly  communion 
between  the  pacifists  of  the  belligerent  and  neu- 
tral states  and  the  strengthening  of  their  faith 
in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  ideals  of  peace." 

At  the  extraordinary  session  of  the  Council 
of  the  International  Peace  Bureau,  held  Janu- 
ary 6  and  7,  at  Berne,  Switzerland,  there 
were  16  present  besides  the  secretary,  M.  Golay. 
llie  countries  represented  were:  Austria,  one; 
Belgium,  two;  Germany,  three;  Great  Britain, 
one;  Holland,  three;  Hungary,  two;  Italy,  one; 
Switzerland,  three.  None  of  the  American  mem- 
bers was  able  to  make  the  journey.  One  of  the 
matters  discussed,  aside  from  the  all-important 
question  of  the  conditions  of  a  stable  peace  to 
be  established  after  the  conflict  is  ended,  was 
the  financial  position  in  which  the  bureau  finds 
itself  as  a  result  of  the  decision  of  the  trustees 
of  the  Carnegie  Endowment  not  to  make  any 
grants  for  peace  work  in  Europe  while  the  war 
continues.  Ways  and  means  were  carefully  can- 
vassed for  securing  the  needful  resources  to 
enable  the  bureau  to  continue  its  work  during 
the  war,  and  to  prepare  for  its  enlarged  activi- 
ties when  the  conflict  is  over. 

An  International  Peace  Congress  was  held  in 
San  Francisco  October  10-12,  the  purpose 
of  which  was  to  bring  together,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, representative  lexers  from  all  nations  and 
from  all  organizations  "that  favor  world  peace, 
in  order  to  confer  on  the  most  practical  plans 
for  the  putting  into  cooperative  action  those 
forces  and  agencies  that  will  lead  to  the  aboli- 
tion of  war." 

The  Lake  Mohonk  Conference  on  International 
Arbitration,  although  meeting  in  1916  in  cir- 
cumstances that  tended  to  discourage  the  hopes 
entertained  by  many  as  to  the  maintenance  of 
general  peace,  particularly  among  the  larger  and 
more  powerful  nations  of  the  world,  reaffirmed 
its  faith  in  the  beneficence  of  the  measures  for 
the  advancement  of  which  the  conference  was 
founded,  believing  that  the  present  war  daily 


furnishes  convincing  proof  of  the  superiority  of 
those  methods  over  the  resort  to  violence. 

The  conference  deemed  it  to  be  opportune,  in 
the  midst  of  the  present  convulsion  in  Europe, 
to  call  attention  to  what  has  been  accomplished 
since  the  Napoleonic  wars,  in:  (1)  The  devel- 
opment of  International  Law;  (2)  the  growing 
sense  of  obligation  and  duty  between  nation  and 
nation;  (3)  the  increasing  interdependence  and 
co<5peration  among  nations;  (4)  the  wider  ap- 
plication of  the  federal  principle;  and  (6)  the 
tendency  toward  broad  alliances  or  groupings 
for  the  accomplishment  of  international   ends. 

"We  express  our  gratitude,"  the  platform  de- 
clared, "to  the  President  of  the  United  States 
for  steadfastly  maintaining  the  neutrality  of 
our  government  and  for  asserting,  with  firmness, 
clarity,  and  restraint,  the  righ&  of  our  people 
as  citiz^is  of  a  neutral  nation. 

"We  invite  the  thoughtful  attention  of  all 
peoples  and  nations  seeking  a  substitute  for  war 
to  a  consideration  of  the  three  following  pro- 
posals, as  a  basis  for  joint  action  by  any  two 
or  more  powers,  to  be  binding  on  the  signatories : 

"I.  All  justiciable  questions  arising  between 
the  signatory  powers,  not  settled  by  negotia- 
tion, ^^11  be  submitted  to  a  judicial  tribunal  for 
hearing  and  judgment  both  upon  the  merits  of 
the  case  and  upon  any  question  of  jurisdiction. 

"II.  All  non- justiciable  questions  arising  be- 
tween the  signatories,  and  not  settled  by  nego- 
tiation, shall  be  submitted  to  a  Council  of  In- 
quiry and  Conciliation  for  hearing,  considera- 
tion, and  recommendation. 

"III.  Conferences  between  the  signatory  pow- 
ers shall  be  held  from  time  to  time  to  formulate 
and  codify  rules  of  international  law,  which 
shall  thereafter  govern  in  the  decisions  of  the 
judicial  tribunal  mentioned  in  the  first  pro- 
posal." 

The  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ 
in  America  through  its  Commission  of  Chris- 
tian Education  prepared  a  course  of  13  lessons 
on  International  Peace,  A  Study  in  Christian 
Fraternity.  This  course  was  published  during 
October,  November,  and  December  in  the  Sunday 
School  tLnd  other  periodicals  of  the  various  reli- 
gious bodies  afiiliated  with  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil. These  lessons  were  assured  a  circulation 
of  3,000,000  aipon^  senior  and  adult  Sunday 
school  classes,  and  it  is  expected  that  their  dis- 
tribution will  ultimately  reach  6,000,000. 

While  not  discussing  the  present  war,  these 
studies  aimed  to  create  and  ciTstallize  sentiment 
among  professing  Christians  m  the  interests  of 
international  fraternity  and  inter-racial  sym- 
pathy and  appreciation.  The  lessons  will  be 
printed  and  distributed  both  in  English  and  in 
German.  The  lessons  were  also  accompanied  by 
a  service  book  and  full  commentary. 

Dr.  Frederick  Lynch,  secretary  of  the  Church 
Peace  Union,  announced  in  the  daily  press  of 
December  17th  that  the  union  was  unqualifiedly 
opposed  to  the  present  day  demand  for  increased 
armaments  for  the  United  States,  and  that  the 
trustees  had  decided  that  not  only  should  an 
appeal  be  made  to  the  people  to  withstand  such 
a  demand,  but  that  Congress  should  be  asked 
to  discover  how  the  $260,000,000  now  spent  an- 
nually on  our  defenses  may  be  more  effectively 
expended,  if  it  is  true  that  neither  the  army 
nor  the  navy  is  efficient  in  spite  of  that  enor- 
mous expenditure. 

The  stand  of  the  Church  Peace  Union  was  out- 


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886 


IOWA 


lined  in  the  following  resolution  calling  upon 
men  everywhere  to  renounce  the  policy  of  armed 
peace,  which  was  passed  at  the  meeting  of  the 
trustees  held  in  New  York  City  at  the  residence 
of  the  president,  the  Rt.  Rev.  David  H.  Greer, 
the  (Episcopal)  Bishop  of  New  York:  ''Re- 
solved, that  we  appeal  to  the  American  people 
to  withstand  the  present  demand  for  increased 
armament  for  the  United  States.  We  are  al- 
ready spending  each  year  the  enormous  sum  of 
$250,000,000  on  the  army  and  navy,  and  if 
neither  of  these  is  now  efficient  we  would  ask 
that  Congress  discover  how  the  money  of  the 
people  may  be  more  effectively  expended. 

Upon  the  hearts  of  the  American  people  we 
would  enroll  the  duty  of  national  preparedness 
in  mind  and  spirit,  that  we  may  worthily  meet 
the  crucial  situation  by  which  we  are  now  con- 
fronted. Military  preparedness  having  proved 
to  be  inadequate  as  a  saf^uard  to  the  world's 
peace,  we  call  upon  men  everywhere  to  renounce 
the  policy  of  armed  peace  and  to  seek  and  fol- 
low a  better  way." 

The  American  Society  for  Judicial  Settlement 
of  International  Disputes  held  its  annual  meet- 
ing in  Washington  in  December. 

A  National  Peace  Federation  with  headquar- 
ters at  116  South  Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago, 
was  formed;  as  also  an  International  Peace 
Forum  with  headquarters  at  18  East  41st 
Street,  New  York. 

INTERNMENT  OF  THE  NAVAL  VES- 
SELS. See  under  United  States  and  the  War. 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMIS- 
SION.   See  Railways. 

IOWA.  Population.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion of  the  State  on  July  31, 1015,  was  2,221,038. 
The  population  in  1010  was  2,224,771. 

AoRiCTJLTXjBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1014-15  were  as  follows: 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bf$. 

Value 

Corn     . . . 

.1015 

10.100,000 

808.000,000 

fl54.680.000 

1914 

10.248,000 

889,424.000 

214,188,000 

Wheat   . . 

..1916 

786,000 

16,657,000 

18.685.000 

1014 

810,000 

15,066.000 

14,468.000 

Oato    ... 

..1915 

4,950,000 

198,000,000 

68,860,000 

1914 

5,000.000 

165.000,000 

67,650,000 

Rye  

. .1915 

60,000 

1,110*000 

888,000 

1914 

59,000 

1,121,000 

868,000 

Barley     . . 

..1915 

858,000 

10,948,000 

5.862.000 

1914 

860,000 

9,860,000 

6.148,000 

Potatoee    . 

..1015 

148,000 

.15.540,000 

8,802,000 

1914 

147.000 

12.642,000 

7,459,000 

Hay   .... 

..1915 

8,098.000 

a  5,576,000 

48,511,000 

1914 

2.950,000 

4,071,000 

41,117,000 

a  Tons. 

Lite  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1015,  horses  numbered  1,584,000  and 
1,600,000,  valued  at  $166,320,000  and  $168,000,- 
000;  mules  numbered  61,000  and  58,000,  valued 
at  $6,710,000  and  $6,438,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 1,301,000  and  1,377,000,  valued  at  $81,374,- 
000  and  $78,480,000;  other  cattle  numbered  2,- 
737,000  and  2,683,000,  valued  at  $104,827,000 
and  $100,612,000;  sheep  numbered  1,274,000  and 
1,240,000,  valued  at  $8,026,000  and  $6,004,000; 
swine  numbered  0,060,000  and  8,720,000,  valued 
at  $84,342,000  and  $05,020,000.  The  production 
of  wool  in  1015  and  1014  was  5,310,000  and 
5,4Q0,000  pounds  respectively. 

Mineral   Pboduction.    The   coal    production 


of  the  State  in  1014  showed  a  decrease  of  1  per 
cent  as  compared  with  1013,  the  output  in  1014 
being  7,451,022  short  tons,  valued  at  $13,364,070. 
The  smaller  demand  for  coal  in  the  East  caused 
a  larger  quantity  of  coal  from  West  Virginia 
and  other  Eastern  States  to  seek  markets  in  the 
Northwest,  displacing  Iowa  ooal.  The  number 
of  men  employed  in  the  coal  mines  of  Iowa  in- 
creased from  15,757  in  1013  to  16,057  in  1014. 
The  value  of  the  total  mineral   production  in 

1014  was  $26,287,115,  compared  with  $25,602,016 
in  1013. 

Education.    The  total   school  population   in 

1015  was  678,102.  The  total  enrollment  in  the 
public  school  was  522,423,  and  the  average  daily 
attendance  was  301,131.  The  female  teachers 
numbered  24,163,  and  male  teachers  2628.  The 
average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  was 
$80.17,  and  female  teachers  $54.07.  The  total 
school  expenditures  for  the  year  were  $18,704,- 
072. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  treasurer  for  the 
biennial  period  ending  June  30,  1014,  showed  a 
balance  on  hand  on  July  1,  1012  of  $1,041,486. 
The  total  receipts  for  the  period  from  all  sources 
amounted  to  $11,524,770,  and  the  total  expendi- 
tures to  $11,828,306,  leaving  a  balance  on  hand 
June  30,  1014,  of  $737,860.  The  State  has  no 
iMmded  debt. 

Charities  and  Qoerections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  State 
Board  of  Control  include  the  Soldiers'  Home  at 
Marshalltown,  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home  at  Dav- 
enport, School  for  the  Deaf  at  Council  Bluffs, 
Institute  for  Feeble-Minded  Children  at  Olen- 
wood.  State  Sanitarium  for  the  Treatment  of 
Tuberculosis  at  Oakdale,  Industrial  School  for 
Boys  at  Eldora,  Industrial  School  for  Girls  at 
Mitdiellville,  Mount  Pleasant  State  Hospital, 
Independence  State  Hospital,  Clarinda  State  Hos- 
pital, Cherokee  State  Hospital,  State  Hospital 
for  Inebriates  at  Knoxville,  State  Penitentiary 
at  Fort  Madison,  and  the  Reformatory  at  Ana- 
mosa.  The  total  average  population  of  these  in- 
stitutions for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 

1015,  was  0064.  For  their  support  $2,486,800 
was  spent. 

Transportation.  The  total  mileage  of  rail- 
ways in  the  State  on  Jan.  1,  1015,  was  10,016. 
Railroads  having  the  longest  mileage  were  the 
Chicago,  Burlin^n,  and  Quincy,  1666;  Chicago 
Great  Western,  1760;  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul,  1867;  Chicago  and  North  Western, 
1610;  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis,  708;  and  Du- 
buque and  Sioux  City,  716. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
met  in  1016  and  passed  many  measures  of  im- 
portance. In  addition  to  those  mentioned  below, 
see  Electoral  Reform,  Legislation  in  1015, 
and  LiQt)OR  Requlation. 

The  Senate  on  February  12th  passed  the 
Clarkson  bill,  which  provides  for  the  repeal  of 
the  so-called  "mulct"  liquor  law.  The  same  bill 
was  passed  by  the  House  on  February  18th. 
The  measure  was  to  become  effective  on  July  1, 

1016.  Its  purpose  was  to  provide  statutory 
prohibition  pending  action  on  the  constitutional 
amendment.  A  bul  providing  for  the  submis- 
sion of  the  question  of  prohibition  to  the  people 
was  passed  by  both  Senate  and  House,  and  was 
signed  by  the  €k>vernor.  This  bill  provided  for 
submission  to  the  people  of  the  question  of  con- 
stitutional prohibition  after  it  passes  in  the  Leg- 
islature   convening    in    1017.    The    Legislature 


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IOWA  387 

passed  a  bill  providing  for  the  submission  of  a 
woman  suffrage  amen£nent  to  the  people  in  the 
November  election  in  1917.  The  measure  had 
already  been  passed  by  two  successive  Legisla- 
tures. A  stringent  child  labor  law  was  also 
passed  at  this  session  of  the  Legislature.  The 
contract  prison  labor  system  was  abolished. 

Btatb  Government.  Governor,  George  W. 
Clarke;  Lieutenant-€k>vernor,  William  L.  Hard- 
ing; Secretary  of  State,  William  S.  Allen; 
Auditor,  Frank  F.  Shaw;  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, Emory  H.  English;  Treasurer,  William 
G.  Brown;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Albert  M.  Deyoe;  Registrar  of  the  Land  Office, 
James  K.  Powers. 

JuDiciABT.  Supreme  Ck>urt:  Scott  M.  Ladd, 
Silas  M.  Weaver,  William  D.  Evans,  Bryan  W. 
Preston,  Forrest  E.  Deemer,  Frank  R.  Gaynor, 
Benjamin  I.  Selineer. 

State  Legislature: 


IBOK  AND  STXSL 


was  mined  during  the  year  in  27  States,  com- 
pared with  28  States  in  1913.  The  five  States 
producing  the  largest  quantity  were  in  the  or- 
der of  importance  of  production:  Minnesota, 
Michigan,  Alabama,  Wisconsin,  and  New  York. 
The  Minnesota  iron  ranges  produce  more  iron 
than  is  produced  in  all  the  rest  of  the  States 
together.  The  Lake  Superior  district,  compris- 
ing all  the  mines  in  Minnesota  and  Michigan, 
and  those  in  northern  Wisconsin,  mined  33,540,- 
403  long  tons  in  1014,  or  nearly  81  per  cent  of 
the  total  produced.  The  following  table  gives 
the  quantity  and  value  of  iron  marketed  in  the 
United  States  in  1013-14: 


Senate  Houee 

Repablicftns    85  75 

DemocrfttB 15  82 

Independents 1 


Republican  majority. .     20 


42 


Joint  BdOot 

110 

47 

1 

62 


IOWA,  State  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  learning  founded  in  1847  at 
Iowa  City,  Iowa.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1016  was  2737, 
distributed  as  follows:  liberal  arts  1512,  grad- 
uate school  180,  school  of  applied  science  243, 
law  school  153,  school  of  medicine  154,  school 
of  homeopathic  medicine  10,  school  of  dentistry 
304,  school  of  pharmacy  72,  school  of  music 
64,  school  of  medical  nurses  82,  school  of 
homeopathic  nurses  16.  The  faculty  numbered 
208.  Among  the  new  members  of  the  faculty 
for  the  year  1916-16  were  the  following:  Dr. 
G.  G.  Benjamin,  professor  of  history;  Dr.  M.  A. 
Brisco,  professor  and  head  of  the  department 
of  economics;  M.  L.  Person,  professor  of  law; 
Dr.  W.  T.  Graham,  superintendent  of  the  uni- 
versity hospital;  Mr.  F.  C.  Ensign,  professor  of 
education;  Prof.  G.  H.  Dorcas,  registrar.  The 
university  received  in  1916  a  bequest  from  the 
late  John  F.  Dillon,  of  New  York  City,  of  $10,- 
000,  the  income  of  which  is  to  be  paid  for  pro- 
viding prizes  for  essays  on  l^al  topics,  and  for 
scholarship  for  the  aid  of  law  students.  The 
annual  income  of  the  imiversity  from  all  sources 
in  1014-15  was  $086,513.  There  were  received 
from  State  appropriations  and  other  State 
sources  $776, 100.  The  endowment  fund  amounted 
to  about  $405,000,  and  the  value  of  the  property 
to  $3,885,053.  The  library  contains  about  118,- 
000  Tolumes.  .President,  Thomas  H.  Macbride, 
Ph.D. 

TBETjATH).     See  Gbeat  Bbitain. 

IRON.  See  Ghemistbt,  Industbial,  Iron  and 
Steel;  Financial  Review,  Pig  Iron  Production; 
Iron  and  Steel;  Metallubgy;  Pig  Iron. 

IBON  AND  STEEL.  The  quantity  of  crude 
ore  mined  in  the  United  States  amounted  in  1014 
to  41,439,761  long  tons,  compared  with  61,080,- 
437  long  tons  in  1013,  a  decrease  of  over  33 
per  cent.  The  iron  ore  marketed  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  30,714,280  long  tons,  valued 
at  $71,905,070,  compared  with  50,643,008  long 
tons  valued  at  $130,905,558,  marketed  in  1913. 
This  represents  a  decrease  of  over  33  per  cent 
in  quantity  and  45  per  cent  in  value.    Iron  ore 


1918 

1914 

QuantUy, 

Quantity, 

State 

in  long 
tone 

Value 

in  lonff 
tone 

Value 

Ala.     .. 

5,888,218 

$6,648,569 

4.614,926  f5.727,619 

Cal.    .. 

W 

{«i' 

1,282 

5,128 

Colo.    . 

(a) 

(ai 

11.464 

22,846 

Ga.    ... 

158,886 
(a) 

287,876 

66.222 

119.868 

Md.    .. 

(a) 

749 

1.817 

Mich.  . . 

12,668.560 

88,479,954 

8,583,280 

18.722.858 

Minn.    . 

86,608.881 

80,789,025 

28,298,547 

40.628.771 

Mo.    ... 

87,184 

88,628 

86.304 

75.696 

Mont.     , 

2.475 

7.425 

(a) 

(a) 

N.    J... 

291,658 

980,803 

846,820 

1,376.208 

N.  Mex. 

164,085 

148,405 

(a) 

(a) 

N.    Y... 

1,420,889 

8,100,285 

640,252 

1.992.892 

Ohio    .. 

8,299 

17,100 

(a) 

(a) 

Pa.    ... 

478,698 

589.088 

400,062 

899.689 

Tenn.  .. 

864,092 

498,556 

880,214 

466,528 

Utah   .. 

14,690 

44.628 

846!882 

(a) 

Va.    ... 

492,649 

983,279 

719.416 

Wit.     .. 
Other 

Stat«i 

896,248 

2,149.897 

591,595 

1,178,610 

I      718,751 

1,158,140 

596,181 

768.194 

Total. 59.643,098  130,905,558  39,714,280  71.905.079 

a  Increases  or  decreases  for  California,  Colorado, 
Maryland.  Montana,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  and  Utah  in- 
cluded with  those  for  "Other  States." 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Ore.  There  were 
imported  into  the  United  States  in  1014,  1,350,- 
588  long  tons,  valued  at  $4,483,832.  Cuba  pro- 
duced approximately  60  per  cent  of  the  ore,  and 
the  remainder  came  from  Sweden,  Spain,  and 
Canada.  There  were  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1914,  551,618  long  tons,  valued  at  $1,- 
794,103.  This  was  a  decrease  of  about  47  per 
cent  from  the  exports  of  1013. 

World  Production.  The  following  table  gives 
the  production  of  iron  ore  in  the  different  coun- 
tries in  1013-14. 

Country                                               1918  1914 

North  America: 

Canada    274,678  218,620 

Cuba    1.582,431  821.110 

Newfoundland (a)  (a) 

United  States 01,980,487     41,439,761 

Sonth  America: 

Chile    (a)  (a) 

Europe: 

Austria-Hungary    5,018,109  (a) 

Belgium     (a)  ia) 

France     21,572,885  (a) 

Oer.  Empire  and  Luxemburg  26.771,598  (a) 

Greece   805,195  (a) 

Italy 598.618  (aS 

Norway 77,693  (a) 

Portugal    48,407  (o) 

Russia (a)  (a) 

Spain     9.706,866  (a) 

Sweden    7,357,845  (a) 

United  Kingdom 15,097,328  (a) 

Asia: 

China    269.748  (a) 

India (a)  (a) 

Japan    (a)  (a) 

Chosen  (Korea)    (a)  la) 

Philippine  Islands 546  (a)  . . 


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ntON  AND  STEEL  338 

Country  2929              2P24 

Afrie*: 

Algeria    la)                 (a) 

Madagascar     (a)                  (a) 

NaUl (aS                  (a) 

Togoland     (a)                  (a) 

Tunis la) 

Australia (a) 

a  Statistics  not  STallable. 


IBON  AND  STEEL 


poi 

loE 


ExPOBTS  AND  Impobts  OF  Pio  Ibon.  The  im- 
rts  of  pig  iron  in  1914  amounted  to  138,903 
long  tons,  compared  with  156,460  long  tons  in 
1913.  The  exports  amounted  to  114,423  long 
tons,  compared  with  277,648  long  tons  in  1913. 
The  largest  quantity  was  shipped  to  Canada, 
and  important  quantities  were  diipped  to  Italy, 
England,  Tasmania  and  Australia,  and  Panama. 
Steel.  The  production  of  all  kinds  of  steel 
ingots  and  castmgs  in  1914  was  23,513,030  long 
tons,  compared  with  31,300,874  in  1914.  The 
various  kinds  of  steel  ingots  and  castings  pro- 
duced in  the  different  States  are  shown  in  the 
following  tahle: 


record  of  3,203,322  gross  tons  of  pig  iron  was 
made  for  the  month.  Early  in  1915  prices  in- 
creased— an  increase  in  many  eases  directly  due 
to  European  orders,  as  in  the  wire  trade,  where 
barbed  wire  was  in  great  demand  for  Europe. 
Heavy  steel  products  were  also  in  demand,  and 
an  advance  of  $1  per  ton  was  made  in  March, 
and  was  followed  by  a  similar  advance  in  April. 
Pig  iron  lagged  behind  steel  in  activity  and 
prices,  but  by  April  it  had  increased  and  con- 
tinued so  that  in  December  the  various  furnaces 
were  producing  at  a  rate  of  38,000,000  tons  per 
year,  far  in  excess  of  any  previous  record,  and 
practically  double  that  of  January.  The  year's 
development  in  the  industry  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying tables.  For  the  manufacture  of 
shrapnel,  steel  bars  were  in  ^reat  demand,  and 
many  mills,  ordinarily  rolling  mills,  turned 
their  attention  to  bars.  By  the  middle  of  the 
year  the  buying  of  rails  by  American  railways 
began  with  vigor,  and  this  indicated  the  general 
trend  of  prosperity. 

Of  course,  the  war  served  to  increase  the  Amer- 


8tat€ 


Betse- 

mer 


Massachasetts,   Rhode 

Island,    and    Oonnecti- 

cnt     

New     Yorli     and     New 

Jerser    871,372 

Pennsyfyania    2,954,818 

Delaware,  Maryland,  IMs- 

trict  of  Columbia,  Vir- 

finia.  West  Virginia, 
[entucky,  Tennessee, 
Oeorgia,  Alabama, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas.      687,008 

Ohio    4,024,662 

Indiana    and    ininois. . .  1.475,424 
Other  SUtesa   79,801 


1918 

Oruei- 
Open-  bU  and 
hearth  aU 

other 


2,476         195.419       2.716 


996,812 
12,522,227 


89.082 
77.249 


1,188,977  1,285 

2,726,219  4,170 

8,444,960  20,600 

580,817  10.185 


Totalin- 
gots  and 
caetinge 


200,611 


Beeee- 
mer 


1914 

OruH- 
Open-  ble  and 
hearth  aff 

other 


2,200         187,962        1.621 

1,406.716       128,185        719,227     84,888 
15,554.294  2,014,526     9,854,038     56,212 


1.822,825  825,298 

6.755,051  2,862.700 

4,940.984  871,210 

620,893  16,782 


848,857 
2,592,778 
2,525,450 

496,872 


1,275 

2,905 

18,989 

7,215 


Total  in^ 
gote  and 
eaetinge 


141.688 

881,795 
11,924,776 


1,175.425 

5.458,888 

8.410.649 

520,819 


Total     9,545.706  21,599,981   155,237 

a  Figures  for  1918  and  1914  include  Oanal  Zone. 


81,800,874  6,220,846  17,174,684  117.500      28.518.030 


See  Ghemibtbt,  Industrial;  and  Pio  Ibon.  ican  export  trade,  and  there  was  a  demand  not 
The  American  iron  and  steel  industry  in  1015  only  for  pig  iron  but  for  rails,  steel  blooms, 
enjoyed  an  extraordinary  recovery  from  the  de-  billets,  tin  plates,  steel  ties,  and  other  products 
pression  of  1914.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  which  ordinarily  would  have  been  supplied  from 
the  steel  works  were  operated  at  only  about  40  Europe.  As  a  result  prices  increaised  during 
per  cent  of  their  capacity,  and  even  that  was  an  the  year  on  almost  all  products.  At  the  close 
improvement  over  the  later  months  of  1914,  of  the  year  the  American  production  of  steel 
when  the  rate  of  production  had  sunk  as  low  as  ingots  was  estimated  as  being  close  to  the 
25  to  30  per  cent  of  capacity.  In  December,  rate  of  40,000,000  tons  per  year,  and  practically 
1915,  on  the  other  hand,  practically  all  Ameri-  every  steel  plant,  rolling  mill,  and  blast  fur- 
can  works  were  running  to  full  capacity  and  nace  was  in  active  operation, 
were  behind  with  orders.  This  was  true  not  In  Great  Britain  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
only  for  war  munitions  and  supplies,  but  also  was  concerned  chiefly  with  armaments,  and  con- 
for  structural  materials  and  railway  rails.  On  siderable  armor  plate  for  the  biggest  warships 
December  31st  there  were  295  coke  furnaces  pro-  was  for  a  time  under  construction,  as  well  as 
ducing  at  the  rate  of  105,400  tons  a  day,  and  a  other  materials  for  the  government  and  its  allies. 

Pboductiom  ov  Ookb  akd  Anthbaciti  Pig  Ibon  in  thi  Unitxd  States  bt  Months — Gbobs  Tons 

1911  1919                   1918                   1914                      1915 

January     1.759,826  2,057,911          2,795,881          1,885,054            1.601,421 

February     1,794,509  2,100.815          2,586,887          1,888,670            1,674,771 

March    2,171,111  2,405,818          2.763,663          2.847,867            2,068.884 

Ai)ril    2.064,086  2,875.436         2,752,761          2,269.655            2.116,494 

May     1,893.456  2.512,582          2,822,217          2,092,686            2,268,470 

J  une    1,787,566  2.440.745          2,628.565          1,917.783            2,380.827 

July     1,793,068  2,410.889          2,560,646          1,957,645            2.568,420 

August     1,926.687  2,512,481          2,545,763          1,995,261             2,779,647 

S«^ptember     1,997.102  2,463,839          2,505,927          1.882,677            2,852,561 

October    2,102,147  2,689,933          2,546,261          1,778,186            3.126,491 

November    1,999,438  2,630,854          2,283,123          1,518,316            8,037.808 

December    2,048,270  2,782,787         1,988,607          1,515,752            8,208.822 

ToUl,  year    28,881,711  20.383.490       30,724,101       28,049,752          29,662.566 


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839 


IBBIOATION 


Later,  the  Munitions  Act  gave  the  government 
power  to  control  steel  firms  and  other  branches 
of  industry,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  year  this 
policy  was  in  full  operation  and  new  factories 
were  being  built  for  the  manufacture  of  various 
war  munitions.  The  government  made  great  de- 
mands on  makers  of  rolled  steel,  but  there  was 
naturally  a  diminution  of  the  export  business 
and  in  tiie  calls  for  finished  materials  from  the 
colonies.  It  was  claimed  that  steel  was  being 
shipped  to  the  Teutonic  nations  through  neu- 
trals, and  accordingly  an  embargo  was  placed  on 
steel  about  the  middle  of  the  year,  which  some- 
what complicated  the  industry  and  particularly 
the  export  trade. 

The  shortage  of  labor  was  also  a  serious  con- 
sideration in  the  British  iron  and  steel  industry, 
and  showed  a  lack  of  the  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject, which  was  so  evident  in  Germany,  where 
careful  means  were  taken  not  to  recruit  the 
military  forces  at  the  expense  of  the  essential 
industries. 

IBBIOATIOK.  Throughout  the  world  the 
year  1915  was  one  of  continued  inactivity  in 
the  undertaking  of  new  irrigation  enterprises. 
Another  noticeable  fact  was  that  nowhere  in 
the  world  was  any  irrigation  construction  of 
magnitude  being  carried  on  by  any  except  gov- 
ernmental agencies.  In  North  America  the  pre- 
vailing stagnation  in  irrigation  construction 
seemed  to  be  due  to  over  construction  in  the 
recent  past,  and  to  the  general  unsettled  condi- 
tions in  Mexico.  In  both  Canada  and  the 
United  States  there  are  large  areas  already  sup- 
plied with  water  which  await  settlement,  and 
consequently  it  is  difficult  to  get  capital  for 
further  construction.  The  progress  of  irrigation 
development  for  the  year  1915  is  summarized 
in  the  following  paragraphs. 

United  States.  Irrigation  construction  in 
the  United  States  has  been  confined  almost  ex- 
clusively to  projects  of  the  United  States  Rec- 
lamation Service  begun  in  former  years.  Few, 
if  any,  new  projects  are  being  undertaken. 
While  the  service  has  been  expending  large 
sums  in  pushing  to  completion  the  projects  un- 
der way,  it  has  been  devoting  much  more  at- 
tention than  formerly  to  the  problems  of  set- 
tlement and  to  the  success  of  the  settlers  al- 
ready on  the  land.  The  annual  report  for  1915 
showed  that  but  little  more  than  one-half  the 
land  to  which  the  service  was  ready  to  supply 
water  was  irrigated,  while  the  settlers  who 
were  on  the  land  had  not  been  able  to  make 
their  payments.  In  1914  Congress  extended  the 
time  of  payment  of  construction  charges  to  20 
years,  with  no  payments  except  for  maintenance 
and  operation  for  five  years  after  the  charge  has 
been  fixed.  There  was  much  controversy  be- 
tween the  service  and  the  settlers  as  to  the 
amount  of  the  construction  charges  to  be  paid 
b^  the  settlers,  and  as  a  preliminary  to  put- 
tmg  the  twenty-payment  law  into  effect  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  created  a  local  board  for 
each  project  to  review  the  whole  matter  of  costs 
and  recommend  a  basis  of  settlement  in  each 
instance.  A  central  board  was  created  and  em- 
powered to  pass  on  the  reports  of  the  local 
boards  and  make  final  recommendations  as  to 
the  charges  for  each  project.  No  reports  had 
been  made  public,  and  pending  such  reports,  the 
projects  were  being  operated  on  temporary  ren- 
tal agreements.  The  annual  report  of  the  Rec- 
lamation   Service    for    the    fiscal    year    ending 


June  30,  1916,  showed  the  condition  of  the  serv- 
ice to  be  as  follows:  The  total  receipts  from 
the  sale  of  public  lands  assigned  to  the  reclama- 
tion fund  up  to  June  30,  1916,  were  $87,584,- 
493.30.  In  addition  to  this  the  service  had 
available  a  loan  from  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury of  $20,000,000,  and  the  receipts  from  the 
repayments  to  the  fund.  The  total  allotment 
to  projects  was  $121,951,997.78,  and  the  amount 
expended  was  $111,095,700.51.  The  acreage  in- 
cluded in  projects  is  2,921,165,  and  the  service 
was  ready  to  supply  water  for  the  season  of 
1914  to  1,343,193  acres.  The  acreage  covered 
by  water  ri^ht  applications  and  rental  agree- 
ments— that  is,  the  acreage  covered  by  some  sort 
of  agreements  to  take  and  pay  for  water — ^was 
983,487  acres.  The  acreage  irrigated  in  1914 
was  761,271  acres,  an  increase  of  about  61,000 
acres  over  that  irrigated  in  1913.  There  was, 
therefore,  an  area  of  359,706  acres  for  which 
water  was  available  that  was  not  covered  by 
agreements,  and  an  area  of  581,922  acres  for 
which  water  was  ready  that  was  not  irrigated. 
Under  the  reclamation  law  the  cost  of  con- 
struction is  to  be  returned  to  the  reclamation 
fund,  and  up  to  June  30,  1916,  the  receipts  from 
payments  of  building  charges  amounted  to  $3,- 
575,468.90,  those  from  operation  and  main- 
tenance charges  amounted  to  $2,067,255.07, 
while  temporary  rentals  amounted  to  $2,707,- 
529.08. 

The  operations  under  the  Carey  Act  (Act  of 
Aug.  18,  1894,  granting  desert  land  to  the 
States  on  condition  that  they  provide  for  their 
irrigation)  indicated  further  the  lack  of  ac- 
tivity in  new  irrigation  enterprises.  During  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1914,  the  last  year  for 
which  the  figures  were  available,  there  were  ap- 
plications for  segregations  under  this  law 
amounting  to  21,766.48  acres,  there  was  segre- 
gated an  area  of  6237.70  acres,  and  patents 
were  issued  for  30,006.16  acres.  From  the  date 
of  the  passage  of  this  act  to  June  30,  1914,  the 
area  applied  for  was  7,682,445.33  acres,  the  area 
segregated  was  3,692,230.01  acres,  and  the  area 

Patented  was  460,054.23  acres.  The  very  large 
ifferenoe  between  the  area  segregated  and  the 
area  patented  is  explained  by  the  annual  re- 
port of  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office  as  follows: 

"From  the  best  information  available  in  this 
office  it  appears  that  of  the  total  of  over  2,850,- 
000  acres  now  segregated  more  than  1,500,000 
acres  are  included  in  segregations  on  account  of 
about  34  proposed  schemes  and  projects  which 
are  at  a  standstill,  or  which  are  wholly  or  in 
part  failures,  by  reason  of  financial  difficulties, 
engineering  difficulties,  erroneous  estimates  of 
water  supply,  mismanagement,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  of  these  causes.  Of  the 
above  projects,  six,  covering  over  180,000  acres, 
are  at  a  standstill  by  reason  of  difficulties  not 
known  to  this  office;  nine  projects,  covering 
over  850,000  acres,  are  reported  to  be  held  up 
chiefiy  by  reason  of  financial  troubles;  four 
projects,  covering  about  200,000  acres,  are  re- 
ported to  be  held  up  chiefiy  because  of  engineer- 
ing difficulties;  five  projects,  covering  over  125,- 
000  acres,  are  reported  in  trouble  because  of 
erroneous  estimates  of  water  supply;  three  proj- 
ects, covering  over  130,000  acres,  are  said  to  be 
in  trouble  because  of  difficulty  in  securing  sat- 
isfactory title  to  essential  units;  three  proj- 
ects, covering  over  65,000  acres,  are  at  a  stand- 


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340 


ITALIAN  LTTERATUSB 


still  because  of  accident  or  damage  to  struc- 
tures after  construction,  and  the  chief  trouble 
with  four  projects,  covering  over  70,000  acres, 
seems  to  be  purely  bad  management,  dissension, 
or  litigation.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that 
usually  the  troubles  have  not  been  one,  but  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  of  those  above  men- 
tioned." 

The  general  stagnation  in  irrigation  develop- 
ment during  the  last  two  or  three  years  led  to 
much  discussion  of  possible  methods  of  reviv- 
ing irrigation  construction.  The  immediate 
cause  of  the  cessation  of  irrigation  construction 
is  the  impossibility  of  financing  new  enterprises, 
and  most  of  the  discussion  has  to  do  with  this 
matter.  The  most  common  proposal  was  the 
placing  of  the  credit  of  the  States  or  the  Federal 
government  behind  the  securities  to  be  sold  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  funds.  Various  schemes 
for  accomplishing  this  were  proposed,  the  most 
common  one  being  the  guaranteeing  of  the  in- 
terest on  irrigation  district  bonds  by  either  the 
States  or  the  general  government.  It  was  also 
proposed  that  the  Federal  government  accept 
district  bonds  in  payment  of  construction 
charges  on  its  reclamation  projects,  thus  reliev- 
ing the  reclamation  fund  for  new  works.  A 
Federal  bond  issue  of  $100,000,000  for  new  proj- 
ects was  proposed  also.  Owing  to  the  condition 
of  Federal  revenues  and  the  Isuck  of  effective 
demand  for  irrigated  lands  it  did  not  seem 
likely  that  any  of  these  proposals  would  be 
realized.  Several  of  the  States  had  attempted 
to  aid  the  sale  of  irrigation  securities  without 
themselves  assuming  any  financial  responsibil- 
ity b^  extending  their  public  supervision  of  ir- 
rigation districts,  but  so  far  this  had  been  with- 
out marked  effect.  The  most  urgent  need  of 
the  arid  region  of  the  United  States  at  the  pres- 
ent time  is  not,  however,  the  construction  of 
more  irrigation  works,  but  the  settlement  of 
lands  alr^idy  supplied  with  water,  and  the  more 
complete  utilization  of  works  already  built.  It 
is  coming  to  be  quite  generally  believed  that 
the  success  of  both  Federal  and  private  projects 
will  require  some  form  of  public  aid  in  getting 
settlers  on  the  lands,  and  in  giving  them  a  start. 
Definite  plans  for  this  have  not  been  formu- 
lated, however. 

Canada.  In  Canada,  as  in  the  United  States, 
there  was  practically  no  construction  of  new 
projects  in  1915.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way Company,  which  controls  most  of  the  irri- 
gation development  in  Canada,  was  working 
principally  on  the  settlement  of  its  lands  al- 
ready supplied  with  water.  In  the  Province  of 
British  Columbia,  which  in  1914  enacted  a  new 
code  of  water  laws,  including  a  law  for  the  or- 
ganization of  irrigation  districts,  one  small  dis- 
trict was  in  the  process  of  organization,  but 
otherwise  there  was  no  activity  in  the  prov- 
ince. 

Mexico.  The  unsettled  conditions  in  Mexico 
prevented  any  attempts  at  irrigation  develop- 
ment. 

Pebu.  The  Grovernment  of  Peru  had  not  yet 
begun  active  work  on  a  large  scale  on  the  pro- 
gramme of  irrigation  construction  authorized  in 
1913.  This  law  provides  for  a  loan  of  2;000,000 
-pounds  sterling  to  be  used  in  irrigation  work, 
to  be  done  either  directly  by  the  government  or 
through  concessions. 

Argentina.  The  Argentine  government  had 
continued  its  authorization   of  small   projects, 


but  had  not  during  1915  undertaken  any  large 
development. 

Eastebn  Hemisphere.  The  European  war 
brought  new  irrigation  development  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere  almost  to  a  standstill,  as 
neither  capital  nor  men  were  available  for 
such  work.  The  Japanese  government  began  a 
few  years  ago  an  extensive  series  of  proj- 
ects in  Formosa,  14  projects  being  included 
in  the  programme.  Three  of  these  had  been 
complete  in  1915,  and  work  on  the  fourth 
was  in  progress.  It  was  expected  that  the  oth- 
ers would  be  taken  up  in  order.  In  the  same 
wa^  the  Dutch  government  was  engaged  in  a 
series  of  projects  in  Java,  on  which  work  was 
progressing.  In  Australia  the  governments  of 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales  were  continuing 
the  construction  of  their  works  begun  in  former 
years,  and,  like  the  United  States,  were  working 
with  the  problems  of  successfully  settling  the 
lands  as  water  was  made  available. 

ISHEBWOOD,  Benjamin  Fbankun.  An 
American  rear  admiral,  retired,  died  June  19, 
1915.  He  was  bom  in  1822,  and  in  1844  en- 
tered the  United  States  navy.  He  became  chief 
engineer  in  1848,  and  from  1861-69  was  en- 
gineer-in-chief of  the  navy.  He  was  afterwards 
at  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  California,  and  held 
special  duties.  He  was  retired  by  an  operation 
of  the  law  in  1884. 

ISOSTASY.    See  Geoloot. 

ISOTBOPIC  ELEMEKTS.    See  Cuemistbt. 

ISTBIA.     See  Austbia-Hunoabt. 

ITALIAN  LITEBATTJBE.  Italian  litera- 
ture, as  was  pointed  out  in  the  1913  Year  Book, 
has  concerned  itself  primarily  with  the  expression 
and  consolidation  of  the  new  national  spirit,  turn- 
ing the  r^onal  divergencies  of  interest  and 
temper  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  patriotism 
by  stressinj^  the  glories  of  a  classic  heritage 
which,  in  its  wider  aspects,  also  embraces  the 
Church.  In  May  Italy,  of  all  the  belligerent 
nations,  had  a  literary  man  great  enough  to 
awaken  all  the  energies  of  this  cultural  tradi- 
tion and  unite  the  national  emotion  in  the  hour 
of  crisis.  Gabriele  d'Annunzio  has  been  for  the 
Allies  a  whole  campaign  in  himself.  We  have 
to  look  back  to  the  return  of  Voltaire  to  Paris 
in  1778  to  find  a  literary  man,  acting  purely  as 
a  literary  man,  looming  so  large  on  a  political 
horiison  so  fraught  with  omen.  In  a  volume  en- 
titled Per  la  pii^  grande  Italia,  d'Annunzio's 
speeches  just  before  the  outbreak,  his  telegrams 
and  letters,  give  some  impression  of  his  activ- 
ity and  some  inkling  of  the  secret  of  his  power. 
There  is  the  usual  splendor  of  d'Annunzian 
imagery,  there  is  the  glory  of  the  past  and  the 
hope  of  the  future,  mingling  in  the  invective 
against  Austria  and  the  triumphant  chant  to 
the  greatness  of  Italy.  It  has  been  for  d'An- 
nunzio  a  complete  rehabilitation.  By  his  words 
and  acts  with  army,  fleet,  and  aviators,  this  poet 
has  become  the  living  symbol  of  warlike  Italy. 
In  d'Annunzio's  ante-bellum  work  was  already 
to  be  noted  a  trend  toward  religious  mysticism. 
He  has  just  published  in  the  ^oica  of  E.  Gos- 
tanzi  (Spezia)  a  prospectus  of  La  crooiaia  degli 
innocenti,  the  action  of  which  is  laid  *'in  the 
time  when  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi  was  30  years 
old."  The  verses  show  many  recollections  of 
Jacopone  da  Todi  and  the  Umbrians  of  the  Du- 
cento. 

Three  other  documents  figured  largely  also 
in  the  early  appeal  to  the  spirit  of  the  Italian 


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841 


ITALIAN  LITSRATtrE£ 


people:  Salandra'B  Diwsorso  «»  Oampidoglio  of 
June  2  (see  Diario  delUt  guerra,  Milan,  Treves), 
the  official  character  of  which  gave  it  a  voeue 
not  to  be  explained  bv  its  artistic  merit;  the 
lecture-oration  of  Italjrs  greatest  public  speaker, 
Antonio  Fradeletto  of  Venice,  DalVaXUanza  alia 
guerra  (Milan,  Treves) ;  and,  curiously  enough, 
the  drama  Romantioiemo  of  Rovetta,  which,  on 
its  production  30  years  ago  was  suppressed  by 
decree,  but  has  been  revived  with  astounding 
success.  The  most  ele^nt  war  writer  has 
proved  to  be  Luigi  Barzmi,  a  journalist,  whose 
work  is  appearing  in  a  seven  volume  series, 
Scene  delta  grande  guerra.  We  may  recall  that 
Barzini's  popularity  began  with  his  reports  on 
the  Mexican  crisis,  where  he  showed  himself  bit' 
terly  hostile  to  the  United  States.  It  is  typ- 
ical of  the  times  that  one  of  Barzini's  most  ar- 
tistic productions  should  be  the  essay  entitled 
Cannon  and  Muniiione,  The  war  writing  of 
Paolo  Orano  (Milan,  Treves)  has  been  almost 
as  much  read.  The  leading  military  critic  is 
G.  Baroni  {Giomale  d* Italia).  Quelfo  Givinini, 
novelist  and  playwright,  has  written  some  as- 
tonishingly prophetic  and  discerning  articles 
from  Athens,  Sofia,  and  Bucharest.  For  the 
rest,  the  most  informing  books  about  the  tech- 
nique of  warfare  have  been  La  guerra  nel  oielo 
of  F.  S.  di  BrazzA;  Boiiomarini,  swnmergiMli 
e  iorpedini  of  £.  Bravetta;  La  marina  nella 
guerra  aiiuole  of  L.  Zingarelli.  For  a  compre- 
hensive review  of  internal  Italy  see  the  con- 
siderable series  Vltalia  d^oggi,  edited  by  Bon- 
tempelli,  Rome.  The  review  Soientia  (Bo- 
logna) has  been  studying  the  war  from  a  very 
unusual  and  unbiased  pomt  of  view.  Quglielmo 
Perrero  has  written  La  guerra  europea  with 
passages  of  characteristic  brilliancy  on  Grerman 
culture,  which  has  found  a  more  sympathetic 
critic  in  G.  A,  Borghese,  Italia  e  Qermania. 
Why  Italy  is  at  War  of  Pietro  Fedele  has  been 
distributed  abroad.  Ezio  Gray's  Invaeicne  te- 
desca  in  Italia  contained  some  rather  sensa- 
tional gossip.  The  emotional  historical  article, 
especially  on  subjects  dealing  with  the  Italian 
territories  in  dispute,  has  crowded  out  most 
other  forms  of  non-journalistic  writing  save  the 
drama. 

Dk^ka.  The  drama  immediately  assumed  its 
war  paint,  but,  if  anything,  gained  in  vitality.  An 
almost  unheard-of  thing,  the  theatres  remained 
open  during  the  whole  summer  as  perhaps  the 
sole  diversion  of  the  civilian  population  and  as 
powerful  auxiliaries  of  public  charity.  Reviv- 
als of  plays  from  the  oid  Risorgimento  stock, 
such  as  Troppo  tardi  of  T.  Giconi,  were  nu- 
merous. Goldoni,  Sugana,  Piloto  became  new 
favorites  acted  by  Emilio  Zago.  For  the  actor 
Ermete  Zacooni,  Domenico  Tumiati  has  pro- 
duced a  dramatic  history  of  the  struggle  for 
Italian  independence,  of  which  have  appeared 
/{  tessitare,  La  meteora.  Carlo  Alberto,  La  gio- 
fHne  ItdUa,  OarilHUdi,  and  Poerio,  This  is  the 
most  bulky  exploitation  of  the  war  spirit  which 
has  produced  numberless  plays  like  BulVIsonzo 
of  E.  Gollaredo,  and  Ualto  Isoneo  of  G.  Zucca. 

The  number  of  novelties  meanwhile  from  pa- 
cific sources  of  inspiration  seems  not  to  have 
diminished  appreciably.  Sem  Benelli's  Nozze 
dei  oentauri  is  almost  a  repetition  of  his  earlier 
Roemunda:  the  charm  of  Italy  which  succumbs 
to  barbaric  violence  of  the  ISiorth  only  to  de- 
stroy the  ravisher.  Niccodemi's  Ombra  was 
given  also  in  English  in  New  York  by  Ethel 


Barrymore.  It  is  a  ffood  portrayal  of  feminine 
idealism  on  the  background  of  corrupt  male 
chivalric  prejudice.  Niccodemi's  growing  fame 
was  honored  during  the  summer  by  his  native 
city  Livorno.  Alfredo  Testoni's  new  play,  Jl 
porno  delta  diaoordia,  like  his  numerous  other 
comedies,  shows  the  overpowering  sense  of  fun 
which,  in  his  Bolognese  dialect  production, 
marked  him  as  a  man  of  promise.  He  has,  how- 
ever, never  risen  beyond  the  level  of  serious  ob- 
servation of  life  attained  in  his  classic  Car- 
dinate  Lambertini,  and  he  bids  fair  to  remain 
a  mere  Sardou.  We  note  with  pleasure  two 
epigones  of  the  Goldoni-Gallina  tradition:  G. 
Genzato's  La  eposa  segreta  and  Per  la  regola 
(in  Venetian  dialect)  of  Domenico  Varagnolo. 
Mario  Gortesi  has  tried  a^in  the  well- worn 
theme  of  Nerone  (see  Year  Book,  1913),  show- 
ing simply  that  the  classic  tragedy  in  Italy  re- 
fuses to  stay  buried.  The  Superetite  of  S.  Riz- 
zone  Viola  was  a  failure.  The  best  new  comedy- 
drama  of  the  year  was  It  cuore  e  it  mondo  of 
Lorenzo  Ruggi:  the  hero  in  the  first  two  acts 
overcomes  his  chivalric  prepossessions  through 
love,  only  to  succumb  to  "society"  represented 
by  family  associates.  The  Oazeetta  di  Venesfia 
has  published  the  memoirs  of  the  actor  Anzolo 
Morolin.  The  year  has  been  disastrous  in  the 
loss  of  the  actors  Flavio  AndO,  Alberto  Giovan- 
nini,  and  Edoardo  Ferravilla.  Other  plays: 
Luigi  Antonelli,  Teatro  completo;  G.  Adami*  I 
capelli  bianchi;  G.  Antona-Traversi,  La  grande 
ombra;  Fratta-Tonetti-Nesti,  La  rieposta  del 
govemo;  A.  Bruno,  Femmine  riluttanti;  Guido 
Francocci,  Quinzica  de*  Siamondi  (in  verse); 
Carlo  Bertolazzi,  L'egoiata;  Nino  Berrini,  La 
dama  delValtra  eponda. 

Regional  Litebatube  (see  Year  Book,  1013). 
Sicily:  G.  E.  Nuccio,  Sicilia  buona;  G.  Galati 
Mosella,  Canssuneddi  di  cicala  (dialect  verse)  ; 
L.  Capuana,  Nostra  gente  (tales).  Sardinia: 
Margherita  Lunati-Manca,  Terra  nostra  (tales) ; 
Grazia  Deledda,  It  fanciullo  nascosto  (novel). 
Tuscany:  Ferdinando  Paoleri,  Novelle  toscane. 
Bari:     Davide  Lopez,  Canti  barest. 

Vebse  (mostlv  from  before  the  Italian  war). 
Elda  Giannelli,  Lyrica  (contains  some  free  verse) ; 
Amaldo  Monti,  Quadri  e  suoni  di  guerra;  Brimo 
Vignola,  Acoordi;  Luisa  Anzoletti,  C€Mti  deJVora; 
Maria  Bianco  Bufalini,  Umanitd;  Rachele  Gi- 
raldi.  Rone  e  cicale;  Augusta  Mosconi,  La  coppa 
del  male  e  detl'ira;  Pier  Eugenic  Zemo,  Per  il 
libro  delle  ore;  Palmina  Perrotti,  La  oonoa  d'oro; 
Vincenzo  Mlgliorini,  Anima  Rerwn;  Gerlando 
Lentini,  Eros;  Felice  Campania,  Pervigilium; 
Ippolito  Rossetti,  Echi  di  Valverde;  Rafaele 
Valente,  II  mostro;  Lamberto  Orsini,  Odi;  Curio 
Mortari,  Bella.    See  also  Year  Book  for  1914. 

Tai£s.  Virgilio  Brocchi,  La  coda  del  diavolo; 
Amalia  Guglielminetti,  Anime  alto  specchio; 
Luciano  Zucooli,  La  vita  ironica;  Augusta  Osimo 
Muggia,  Rivoli  in  ombra;  Luciano  Folgore  (fu- 
turist), Ponti  sulV  oceano. 

Novels.  Flavio  Steno,  II  miraggio;  Mois^ 
Cecconi,  II  taccuino  perduto;  Marcello  Arduino, 
Ave  Ccesar;  Arcangelo  Pisani,  La  fuga;  E.  D. 
Colonna,  Israele;  Guide  da  Verona,  La  donna 
che  inventd  Vamore;  Mario  Carli,  Retroscena; 
Maria  Giusti,  La  oasa  senza  lampada;  M.  R.  del 
Bava,  Rose  delle  Alpi;  Luigi  Pirandello,  8i  gira. 

Translations.  From  English:  Anna  Bene- 
detti,  Beowulf;  Elegie  scelte.  From  Greek:  E. 
Romagnoli :  Agamemnon  of  ^Eschylus ;  G.  Frac- 
caroli,  Prolegomeni  of  Pindar ;  Le  donne  a  parla- 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


ITALIAN  LITERATXTBE                342  ITALY 

mento  of  Sophocles    (into  dialect  of  Verona);  P.    8q.km.        i»oi            19 ii 

C.  O.  Zuretti,  Frammenti  of  Menander;  Taccone,    BaalHcau    l        9.962       490.705       474.021 

/dai  of  Theocritus     From  Persian:    Italo  Pizzi:  ircH?'-. .;:;:;:;     ?      J|;?5I    IMl'ill    J;S?l;2lJ 

Lthro  det  re   {Yirdusi) .  Sardinia     2       24,109         791,754        862,407 

Events.    Giuseppe    Pitrfe,    the    Sicilian    folk-  ,  —  ^ 

lorist.  has  been  made  Senator,  as  have  Allesan-  Total    69  •286.682  82,475.258  84,671.887 

dro  Ghiappelli  of  the  Nuova  Antologia  and  Luigi  *  110,688  aquare  milea. 

Albertini  of  the  Corriere  della  sera.    The  follow-     

ing  died  during  the  year:     Enrico  Castelvetro,  The   population   given   above   is   the   popula- 

novelist;   Edoardo  Dalbono,  Neapolitan  scholar,  tion  actually  present  at  the  date  of  the  census, 

poet,  and  novelist;  Giovanni  Bistolfi,  critic  and  the  total  legal  {de  jure)  population  on  that  day 

editor;  Domenico  Gnoli,  critic,  novelist,  scholar;  being  35,845,048.     As   calculated   Jan.    1,    1914, 

Rodolfo  Renier,  scholar;   Grazia  Mancini,  poet,  the  total   de  facto   population   was   35,597,784, 

dramatist,   and   novelist;    Raffaello   Giovagnoli,  the  density  being  about  321.8  per  square  mile, 

dramatist,   poet,   lecturer;    Francesco  Novati,  a  The  population   returned  as  over   15   years  of 

distinguished  mediaevalist.    Alessandro  d'Ancona  age  m   1911  numbered  22,817,755,  of  whom  8,- 

died  late  in  1914.    Renato  Serra  ( Bologna) »  au-  039,129  were  unmarried,  12,613,993  married,  2,- 

thor  of  Lettere  and  a  popular  journalist,  has  147,325    widowed,    and     17,308    unascertained, 

been  killed  in  action.  The  communal  population  of  Naples  in  1911  was 

See  also  Philology,  Modern.  678,031,  Milan  599,200,  Rome  542,123,  Turin  427,- 

ITALIAN  SOMALrLAND.  An  Italian  col-  106,  Palermo  341,088,  Genoa  272,222,  Florence 
ony  in  eastern  Africa,  bordering  the  coast  of  232,860,  Catania  210,703,  Boloffna  172,628,  Venice 
the  Indian  Ocean  from  the  (British)  Somaliland  160,719,  Messina  126,557,  Leghorn  105,315;  Bari 
Protectorate  southward  to  the  Juba  River.  £s-  103,670,  Padua  96,230,  Ferrara  95,212,  Brescia 
timated  area,  357,000  square  kilometers  (about  83,338,  Verona  81,909,  Foggia,  76,688. 
137,800  square  miles).  Estimated  population,  The  number  of  marriages  in  1912  and  1913  re- 
300,000.  In  1911-12,  imports  were  valued  at  spectively  was  264,674  and  264,325 ;  living  births, 
5,533,462  lire,  and  exports  2,055,018;  in  1912-13,  1,133,985  and  1,122,484;  stillbirths,  47,571  and 
6,188,211  and  2,062,692.  For  1913-14,  the  esti-  46,871;  deaths  exclusive  of  stillbirths,  635,788 
mated  revenue  was  6,031,000  lire  (local,  852,000;  and  663,966.  Emigrants  in  1912  numbered  711,- 
state  contribution,  3,629,000;  extraordinary,  1,-  446  (of  whom  403,306  went  overseas  and  308,140 
550,000) ;  estimated  expenditure,  5,770,999  lire  to  European  countries  or  other  countries  on  the 
(including  1,052,265  extraordinary).  The  de-  Mediterranean);  in  1913,  872,598  (559,566  and 
pendency  is  adntinistered  by  a  governor,  real-  313,032).  Infant,  primary,  normal,  and  second- 
dent  at  Mogadiscio.  ary  schools  are  maintained. 

ITALY.    A  southern  European  constitutional  Pboduction.    In   the   table   below   are  given 

monarchy,  composed  of  the  Apennine  Peninsula,  the  area  in  hectares  sown  to  principal  crops  and 

the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  a  number  the  yield  in  metric  quintals;  with  the  yield  per 

of  minor  islands.    The  capital  is  Rome.  hectare  in  1913-14: 


Heetar§s 

1918-14  1914-16 

Wheat    4,768,5^0  5,069.600 

Rye   122,600  119.000 

Barley     246,800  246,000 

OaU     491.000  488,800 

Corn    1,500,000  1,600,000 

Rice     146.000  146,000 

Flax  *    18,000  18,000 

Beeto 40.000  60,000 

Vinee  f    4,858,000  4,400,000 

Tobacco     8,000  8,000 

Olives  t    2,890,000  2,800,000 

Potatoes    290,000  800,000 

*  Production   of  seed;    fibre  production  was  25.000  qa.  in  1918-14. 
t  Produetion  in  hectoliters. 


Quintalt 


«•• 


191814 

1914-15 

ha. 

46,115,000 

46,414.000 

9.7 

1,886.000 

1,108.000 

10.9 

1,505,000 

2,406,000 

6.1 

8,894,000 

4,564.000 

7.9 

26.000,000 

80,000.000 

16.9 

5.482,000 

5.800,000 

87.8 

80.000 

70.000 

4.6 

14,000.000 

15.000,000 

887.5 

46.000,000 

28.000.000 

18.0 

1,700,000 

1,600,000 

.  •  • 

16,680.000 

16,000,000 

67.8 

Abea  and  Population.  The  area,  in  square 
kilometers  (according  to  the  calculations  of  the 
Military  Geographical  Institute),  the  number  of 
provinces  in  each  compartimento,  the  population 
as  taken  at  the  census  of  June  10,  1911,  and  the 
population  as  taken  at  the  census  of  Feb.  10, 
1901,  are  given,  by  compartimenti,  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

P.  Sq.km.  1901  1911 

Piedmont     4  29.367  8,817,401  8.424,450 

Liguria     2  5,278  1,077,478  1.197.281 

Lombardy     8  24,085  4,282.728  4,790,478 

Venetia     8  24.647  8,134,467  8.627,860 

Emilia    8  20,701  2,446.035  2.681,201 

Tuscany     8  24.105  2,649.142  2.694,706 

The  Marches 4  9,712  1,060,755  1,098,258 

Umbria     1  9,709  667,210  686.596 

Rome    1  12.081  1,196,909  1,802,424 

Abruzzi  e  Moliae.  .  4  16,629  1,441,661  1,480,706 

Campania     5  16,295  8.160.448  8.811,990 

Apulia    8  19.109  1,959.668  2.180.151 


Live  stock  (1908):  839,723  horses,  388,337 
mules,  6,198,861  cattle,  19,266  buffaloes,  11,162,- 
926  sheep,  2,714,878  goats,  2,507,798  swine. 

Tlie  forest  products  were  valued  in  1909  at 
124,132,000  lire.  Sericulture  is  carried  on 
throughout  the  coimtry,  particularly  in  Pied- 
mont and  Lombardy.  The  quantity  of  eggs 
placed  for  hatching  in  1913  was  300,000  hecto- 
grams, producing  32,000,000  kilograms  of 
cocoons. 

Following  are  the  productive  mines  in  operation 
and  the  output  in  metric  tons  in  1912;  and  the 
value,  in  lire,  of  the  output  for  1910  and  1912: 


No.     U.tOTia       Lire  1919 


Iron     27 

Manganese    . .        5 

Copper     7 

Zinc     1 

Lead    }>94 

Lead  and  sine  J 


682,066 

2.641 

86,001 

149,776 

41.680 

800 


12,406,887 

99.160 

1,683.921 

18,286.272 

7.785,269 

5.400 


LiT€  1910 

7.619,031 

134,798 

1,036.674 

14,808,100 

5,808,855 

8,600 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ITALY 


343 


MALY 


No, 

U,ton» 

Lir$  1918 

Lir$1910 

Siher    1 

27 

77.200 

42.400 

Gold    2 

2,866 

66.856 

58.730 

Antimony    ...        2 

1,878 

112.245 

149.769 

Mercury    8 

88.200 

4.870.400 

8.729.852 

Pyritea    11 

Min.    fael 42 

277,585 

5.966,819 

2.864.581 

663,812 

6.111,004 

4.926,950 

Sulphur    868 

Aaph,    ft   bit.      18 

2.504.408 

29.600.684 

82,888.409 

181.946 

8.012.848 

2,826.670 

Boric  acid    ..       7 

2,309 

900.610 

900.720 

Total    656 

*94,218,228 

♦80.867.479 

*  Including  other. 

The  output  of  chemical  industriee  was  valued 
in  1912  at  181,000,000  lire.  The  total  number 
of  industrial  establishments  returned  by  the 
census  of  June  10,  1911,  was  243,985,  with  2,- 
305,698  employees,  and  1,573,774  aggregate  horse 
power.  There  were  70,914  persons  employed  in 
the  quarries  in  1912;  total  value  of  output,  64,- 
258,333  lire.  Employed  in  lime  and  brick  kilns, 
106,730  persons;  value  of  output,  189,211,416 
lire.  The  output  from  the  quarries  was  valued 
in  1910  at  54,567,420  lire;  from  lime  and  brick 
kilns,  at  167,988,073.  In  the  fishing  industry, 
28,402  boats,  with  a  tonnage  of  78,981,  were  em- 
ployed Dec.  31,  1911;  persons  engaged,  127,792; 
value  of  total  catch  in  home  waters,  24,265,000 
lire,  of  which  4,111,000  lire  from  the  tunny 
fisheries  and  76,320  from  coral  fisheries.  Fish- 
eries products  (1909),  3,486,000  lire  for  tunny, 
and  22,407,000  for  other  fish. 

CoMMEBCB.  By  royal  decree  dated  Aug.  1, 
1914,  the  export  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
maize,  rice,  and  flour  has  been  prohibited  since 
that  date.  Exceptions  may,  however,  be  granted 
to  this  order.  By  royal  decree  dated  August 
6,  the  export  of  the  above-mentioned  products 
to  Italian  colonies  has  been  permitted  since 
August  8.  B^  decree  of  January  5,  no  further 
modification  m  the  prohibition  of  rice  export 
has  been  permitted.  By  decree  of  Sept.  2,  1915, 
raw  cotton  was  declared  contraband  of  war.  The 
imports  for  consumption  and  export  of  domestic 
produce — ^merchandise,  and  coin  and  bullion — 
are  given  below  for  three  years  (values  in  lire) : 

1909  1911  1918 

Imps.    mdse. . 8.111.710,447  3,889,208,000  8,687,771.000 
*'       C.ftB.*       18,000.800       28.896.500       21,014.000 


Total 


.8,129,711.247  8.418.194.500  8.658,785,000 


Expe.    mdse. .1.866.889.562  2.204,927,000  2.508.914,000 
"       O.ftB.*      54.067,700       42,091.900       80.287,000 

Total    1,920,957,262  2.247.018,900  2.584.201.000 

*  Inclttdea  all  precious  metals. 

In  thousands  of  lire  are  given  in  the  table 
below  some  details  of  the  special  trade  for  the 
year  1913: 


ImporU  1000  lir$ 

Cereals    488,700 

Coal  and  coke 878,800 

Raw  cotton 886,500 

Machinery 120,000 

Timber     189,200 

Raw  silk 178,700 

Pig  iron    85,100 

Wool    118,400 

Coffee 44,400 

Instruments    79.800 

Hides 126,000 

Chem.  products    ..202,800 

Iron   mfrs 80.800 

SUk  mfrs 44,800 

Pish     68,700 

Woolens    64.400 

Tobacco     44,200 


Exportt  1000  lir$ 

Raw    silk    898.000 

Cotton    mfrs 210.200 

SUk  mfrs 109,900 

Fruits    128.200 

Wines    82,500 

Cheese    73,600 

Dried  fruits 54,100 

Hemp  (raw) 71,000 

Hides     78,400 

Eggs    48.800 

Sulphur     37,200 

Flour     84.000 

Pulp  of  wheat   . .  .    34,000 

Yarn,  etc 88,500 

Automobiles     31,900 

Fresh  yegetables  .  .   29,400 
Hate    89,400 


ImporU  1000  Ur« 

Cottons    49,200 

Ships  and  boats  . .   26,800 

Stone 40,100 

Wooden  wares   . . .   89,800 

Oil   seed    88,400 

Copper,   etc 80,200 

RuDDer  mfrs 82,700 


Export*  1000  liro 

Rubber  mfrs 50,000 

Wooden  wares   .  . .  40,003 

Chem.  products    . .  98,800 

Woolens     83.800 

Jute  mfrs 81.800 

Keats     28,900 

Rice     25.700 


The  export  of  wines  in  1910  was  valued  at 
86,481,113  lire;  spirits,  13,361,500;  olive  oil, 
66,600,468;  cheese,  58,002,150;  eggs  and  poultry, 
40,942,200;  almonds,  40,095,565;  lemons,  28,412,- 
175.  The  total  transit  trade  amounted  to  77,- 
878,000  lire  in  1910,  78,754,000  in  1911,  and 
84,037,000  in  1912.  The  more  important  coun- 
tries of  origin  and  destination  follow,  with  values 
in  thousands  of  lire: 


ImporU  BxporU 

1909         1918                Country                1909  1918 

608.464  612.700 Germany 807.202  848.400 

490,648  571,800 U.  K 167,929  260,500 

890,198  522,700 U.  S 272.874  262.900 

829.106  288,400 France     198,717  281.500 

809,808  264,700.    Austria-Hungary     .156,087  221.100 

209,600  287,400 Russia     88,597  60,900 

120,901   166,600 Argentina    150,849  185,600 

97,466  146.000 .  .    British   India  *    .  .   28,008  44,800 

73,845     77,000 Belgium    88,781  57,800 

80,498     86,800 Switzerland 216,768  249,200 

71,426     84,200 T^key     79,068  44,800 

*With  Ceylon. 

In  1910,  142,487  Italian  and  13,788  foreign 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  51,213,901, 
were  entered,  and  142,646  Italian  and  13,768 
foreign  vessels  (61,177,007  tons)  were  cleared 
at  Italian  ports.  The  total  number  of  vessels 
entered  at  Italian  ports  in  1911  trade  was  173,- 
437,  of  56,056,306  tons,  of  which  159,647  ves- 
sels, of  35,924,881  tons,  were  Italian;  cleared, 
173,353  of  56,082,448  tons,  of  which  159,552,  of 
35,945,206  tons,  were  Italian.  In  1912,  176,603 
vessels,  of  56,858,021  tons,  were  entered  (162,- 
325,  of  35,415,209  tons,  Italian),  and  176,671, 
of  56,866,200  tons,  were  cleared  (162,394,  of  35,- 
428,871). 

Ilie  merchant  marine  included  Jan.  1,  1912, 
757  steamers,  of  696,994  tons,  and  4713  sailing, 
of  410,991  tons;  a  total  of  5470  vessels,  of  1,- 
107,985  tons;  1913,  5532  vessels,  of  1,137,109 
tons   (893  steamers,  of  762,274  tons). 

Communications.  Open  for  traffic  March  1, 
1913,  were  17,634  kilometers  of  railway,  13,769 
operated  by  the  state.  Tramways  in  operation, 
5150  kilometers.  Telegraphs  June  30,  1913,  53,- 
518  kilometers,  with  335,282  kilometers  of  wires. 
State  tel^^aph  stations,  6356;  railway  and 
other,  1952.  Marconi  stations,  18;  on  board 
vessels,  159.  Telephone  lines,  urban,  12,089  kilo- 
meters, with  192,838  kilometers  of  wires;  inter- 
urban,  31,662,  with  63,321.     Post  offices,  11,363. 

With  the  outbreak  of  war  the  Italian  rail- 
ways passed  under  military  control  as  had 
beoi  arranged  in  times  of  peace.  The  plans 
worked  out  provided  that  during  mobilization 
the  railway  service  should  become  entirely 
subject  to  the  military  authorities,  who  reg- 
ulate the  conditions  of  operation,  not  only 
for  military  transport,  but  also  for  ordinary 
traffic.  In  accordance  with  this  scheme,  imme- 
diately on  mobilization  a  "Direction  of  Trans- 
port'' was  established  with  full  powers  in  regard 
to  operations  and  the  Director  of  Transport  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  special  department  at- 
tached to  the  military  general  staff.  The  duties 
of  the  "Direction  of  Transport"  include  repair- 


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ing  and  rebuilding  lines  and  bridges,  etc.,  when 
necessary,  for  which  purpose  it  has  under  its 
control  a  special  military  railway  engineering 
organization.  The  system  provea  admirably 
efficient  under  actual  war  conditions.  The  whole 
of  the  mobilization  was  carried  out  without  sus- 
pending the  ordinary  passenger  and  freight  traf- 
fic, and  the  very  few  cases  of  temporarily  re- 
duced service  were  determined  more  for  eco- 
nomic than  for  military  reasons.  The  enormous 
increase  of  traffic,  in  some  cases  even  a  hundred- 
fold, was  handled  on  lines  whose  facilities  were 
considered  inadequate  even  for  normal  traffic 
requirements  without  a  breakdown,  and  a  record 
of  punctuality  for  the  military  trains  was  made. 
FuxAVCK.  Revenue  and  expenditure  are  given 
in  lire  in  the  table  below  for  three  financial 
years : 

1909-10  1918-18  191814 

Revenue     .  .2,602,168.826  8,252.078,918  2,688.995.971 
Expend.     ..2,551.286.013  8.248.789.972  2.648.280.072 

Budget  totals  for  1914-16  follow,  in  thousands 
of  lire: 


Bev. 
Ordinarr 
Rxtraord. 

Total  . . 


1000  lirs    .  Sxp&nd.  1000  Uf 

2.580.788    Ordinarr    2,284,745 

812.811   Eztraord 678.468 

2.848.544        Total 2,868,218 


Appropriations  for  the  ministries  of  war  and 
marine  were  estimated  at  380,507,834  and  258,- 
396,528  lire  ordinary,  and  88,310,513  and  21,320,- 
610  lire  extraordinary,  respectively. 

Capital  of  the  debt  June  30,  1915:  9,922,420,- 
633  lire  consolidated  debt;  redeemable,  4,640,- 
247,111;  permanent,  64,179,773;  tribute,  to  the 
Holy  See,  64,500,000;  treasury  obligations,  1,- 
236,370,000;  floating  debt,  3,062,436,330— total, 
18,990,154,847.  Assets  in  the  treasury,  182,- 
747,717;  leaving  actual  debt,  18,807,407,130  lire. 
The  interest,  including  premium,  of  the  total 
public  debt  in  1912-13  was  523,084,574  lire,  sink- 
ing fund,  1,921,047;  in  1914-15,  616,777,824  and 
6,500,372  lire. 

The  monetary  unit  is  the  lira,  par  value, 
19.295  cents.     . 

Abmt.  The  army  of  Italy  is  organized  under 
the  law  of  July  17,  1910,  which  provided  for  the 
creation  of  high  commands,  the  organization  and 
increase  of  the  artillery,  and  the  reduction  of 
the  auxiliary  service.  When  the  war  began,  in 
1914,  one-third  of  all  the  Italian  r^ments  were 
in  Libya,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  army 
was  still  in  progress.  The  artillery  was  being 
supplied  with  new  guns,  the  aSro  car  needed 
reforming,  and  serious  faults  were  noted  in  the 
territorial  forces.  Appropriations  from  Parlia- 
ment had  been  inadequate,  but  when  the  atten- 
tion of  the  government  and  the  people  was 
aroused  liberal  provision  was  made,  and  troops 
and  materials  were  got  ready  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. The  minimum  number  of  men  in  the  army 
was  fixed  at  1,000,000,  and  prpvision  was  made 
for  increased  numbers.  In  April,  1915,  the  active 
forces  consisted  of  600,000  men,  whereas  in  1914 
there  were  14,121  officers  and  250,000  men.  The 
territorial  militia  was  increased  to  450,000.  On 
May  23rd  an  order  for  mobilization  was  issued, 
and  the  first  reserve  militia  up  to  the  year  1883 
was  called  out,  and  the  territorial  militia,  sec- 
ond reserve,  up  to  the  year  1876,  including  those 


ITALY 


under  the  age  of  39.  The  approximate  war 
strength  of  the  Italian  army  was  about  3,400,- 
000,  the  accompanying  statistics  giving  an  ap- 
proximation of  the  available  forces: 

Pr€9€iU  Uinimum  Uaaeimum 

Permanent  Army 515,000  734,401 

Mobile   Militia    245.000  820.170 

Territorial  Militia    840,000  2,275.681 

Total    1,100,000  8.880,202 


The  military  forces  were  organized  into  four 
armies,  each  of  two  to  four  army  corps  and  one 
cavalry  division.  The  Italian  army  corps  con- 
tains two  regular  divisions,  or  two  and  an  extra 
mobile  militia  division :  First  case — ^25,000  men, 
with  104  guns  and  18  machine  guns.  Second 
case — 37,000  men,  with  134  guns  and  26  machine 
guns. 

Strength  of  the  first  line  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  was  estimated  at  700,000,  consisting  of 
14  army  corps,  with  26  Alpine  battalions,  38 
mobile  militia  companies,  in  the  second  line; 
and  26  Alpine  battalions  in  the  third  line.  Be- 
hind the  foregoing  were  54  mountain  batteries, 
6  battalions  of  carabinieri,  and  23  battalions  of 
customs  guards  with  militia  formations  behind 
them. 

An  analysis  of  the  three  lines  gave  the  fol- 
lowing distribution  of  the  organization: 

Battalions  of  Infantry    824 

Squadrons  of  Cavalry 180 

Batteries  of  field-ffuns 860 

Batteries  of  fortress  artillery 475 

The  infantry  was  armed  with  the  Mannlicher- 
Garcano  6.5  mjlimeter  magazine  rifie,  pattern 
1891,  and  the  cavalry  with  a  carbine  of  the  same 
calibre  and  pattern. 

For  the  field  artillery  one  hundred  fleld-bat- 
teries  with  the  75  milimeter  rapid-fire  Krupp, 
mostly  had  been  replaced  by  the  Deport  gun  of 
the  same  calibre,  pattern  1911.  Siege  guns  in- 
cluded 9,  12,  15  centimeter  guns  and  15  and  21 
centimeter  howitzers  and  a  new  30  centimeter 
howitzer  was  successfully  tested  at  Genoa. 
There  was  also  a  machine  gun  of  a  new  pattern 
capable  of  discharging  1400  shots  a  minute. 

The  Italian  infantry  experienced  considerable 
modification  as  the  result  of  the  war  of  lYipoli, 
although  the  organization  remained  practically 
unchanged.  An  infantry  brigade  comprises  two 
regiments,  each  of  three  batallions  of  four  double 
companies.  The  equipment  also  improved  and 
was  excellent,  the  pack  weighing  about  30  pounds 
and  including  a  portion  of  a  shelter  tent.  As 
regards  the  cavalry,  each  corps  had  a  cavalry 
division,  a  regiment  of  cavalry  being  composed 
of  five  squadrons  excellently  mounted,  with 
horses  supplied  for  the  most  part  from  govern- 
ment operating  establishments.  Each  cavalry 
division  had  two  battalions  of  Bersaglieri  cy- 
clists, who  do  no  scouting  but  are  intended  for 
dismounted  work.  See  also  Military  Progress, 
passim. 

Navy.  The  Italian  navy  classes  armored 
cruisers  as  battleships.  The  authorized  per- 
sonnel is  40,063.  The  programme  projected  in 
1914  contemplated  the  completion  by  1916  of 
dreadnoughts  to  make  a  total  of  10  in  commis- 
sion. The  Dante  Alighieri  (19,400  tons)  was 
completed  in  August,  1912,  and  was  the  first  Ital- 
ian dreadnought;  if  her  speed  (24  knots)  is  re- 


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ILT 


••  •»  i 

.  >  a 


Photograph  by  Paul  Thompsoo 

ANTONIO  SALANORA 
Pr«mier  and  Mlnltter  of  Interior 


Fbosocrai;^)  Dr  Piuii  Tnoniiieon 

Baron  SIDNEY  SON  NINO 
MNn  later  of  Foreign  Affair* 


Prince  BERNHARD  VON   BULOW 

German  Ambatiador  to  Italy 


Count  LUIQI  CADORNA 
Lieutenant  Ganeral  and  Chief  of  Staff 


FOUR  MEN  PROMINENT  IN  ITALY,  1915 


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ITALY 


ported  correctly,  she  was  at  that  time  the  fastest 
vessel  of  that  type  afloat.  The  Conte  di  Cavour, 
the  Leonardo  da  Vind,  and  the  Oiulio  Cesare 
(all  dreadnoughts)  were  completed  in  1913. 
Two  others  of  the  same  type,  the  Andrea  Doria 
and  the  Duilio,  were  laid  down,  one  in  March, 
the  other  in  April,  1911.  Authorized  were  two 
more,  the  Moroaini  and  the  Dandolo.  The 
cruiser  Quarto  was  completed  in  1912  and  the 
Nino  Bixio  and  the  Marsala  were  launched. 
The  new  destroyers  have  a  speed  of  30  knots; 
the  new  torpedo  boats  26  knots. 

The  number  and  displacement,  April  1,  1914, 
of  warships  built  of  1500  or  more  tons,  and  of 
torpedo  craft  of  50  tons  and  over,  were  as  fol- 
lows: 3  battleships  (dreadnought  type),  having 
a  main  battery  of  all  big  guns,  11  inches  or 
more  in  calibre,  of  62,644  tons  (and  7,  of  87,150 
tons  estimated,  building) ;  8  battleships  (pre- 
dreadnought  type),  of  96,100;  9  armored  cruis- 
ers, of  74,020;  6  cruisers,  of  18,830  tons  (and  2, 
of  4888  tons,  building) :  36  torpedo-boat  destroy- 
ers, of  16,807  tons  (and  15,  of  14,203  tons,  build- 
ing) ;  68  torpedo  boats,  of  11,584  tons  (and  2,  of 
272  tons,  building) ;  19  submarines,  of  5475  tons 
(and  8,  of  5842  tons,  building) — ^a  total  tonnage 
built  of  285,460,  and  212,355  building,  making  a 
total  tonnage  built  and  building  of  497,815. 
Excluded  from  the  foregoing  are  ships  over  20 
years  old,  unless  reconstructed  and  rearmed 
within  5  years;  torpedo  craft  over  15  years  old; 
transports,  colliers,  repair  ships,  torpedo-depot 
ships,  and  other  auxiliaries.  See  also  Naval 
Pboqress. 

GovEKNMENT.  The  King  (Victor  Emmanuel 
III)  is  the  executive,  acting  through  a  responsi- 
ble council  of  11  ministers.  The  legislative 
authority  is  vested  conjointly  in  the  King  and 
a  Parliament  composed  of  a  Senate  (318  mem- 
bers) and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  (508  mem- 
bers). The  King  is  required  to  convoke  the 
Parliament  annually,  but  may  dissolve  it  at  will. 
Heir-apparent,  Prince  Humbert,  born  Sep.  15, 
1904. 

History 

Development  of  the  War  Spirit.  From 
the  historic  parliamentary  session  of  Dec.  3, 
1914,  in  the  course  of  which  Premier  Salandra 
had  declared  his  policy  of  "armed,  alert  neu- 
trality," to  the  final  rupture  between  Italy  and 
Austria-Hungary,  May  23,  1915,  the  war  spirit 
in  Italy  constantly  gained  in  strength.  Not- 
withstanding the  protests  of  Socialists  (see  So- 
cialism) whose  internationalist  convictions 
were  opposed  to  aggressive  wars;  notwithstand- 
ing the  pro-Austrian  sentiment  expressed  in  cer- 
tain clerical  circles;  and  in  spite  of  the  desire 
of  the  Giolitti  party  for  "strict  neutrality,"  the 
movement  for  the  achievement  of  "national  as- 
pirations" rapidly  gathered  headway.  The  dip- 
lomatic efforts  of  Prince  von  Buelow,  Germany's 
persuasive  representative,  and  the  strong  influ- 
ence which  German  industrial  interests  in  Italy 
were  supposed  to  exert,  proved  powerless  to  stem 
the  current.  In  January  the  leaders  of  the 
Radical  Party  removed  all  doubt  as  to  their 
position  by  boldly  pronouncing  for  war  in  behalf 
of  Italian  aspirations.  Count  della  Torre  de- 
clared that  even  the  clerical  faction,  which  had 
been  suspected  of  pro- Austrian  inclinations,  was 
willing  to  support  intervention  in  the  war,  if 
necessary  for  the  realization  of  national  ideals. 
At  the  same  time,  recurrent  reports  indicated 


that  the  Italian  government  was  busily  pre- 
paring the  army  for  the  great  event. 

PARLIAItfENT  IN  FEBRUARY  AND  MaRCH.      When 

Parliament  convened,  February  18th,  interven- 
tion was  the  question  of  the  hour.  Kepublicans, 
Reformist  Socialists,  Radicals,  and  Nationalists 
with  a  single  voice  demanded  participation  in 
the  war  against  the  Central  Powers.  In  reply 
to  the  importunities  of  Deputy  E.  Chiesa,  Feb- 
ruary 19th,  Premier  Salandra  refused  to  commit 
the  government  to  immediate  action,  but  on 
February  26th  the  premier  declared:  "Italy 
does  not  desire  war  for  war's  sake,  or  neutrality 
at  any  price,  but  is  ready  to  make  any  sacrifice 
to  realize  her  ambitions."  He  was  warmly  sup- 
ported by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Bills  were 
introduced  in  March  to  authorize  rigorous  treat- 
ment of  spies,  of  contraband  dealers,  and  of 
persons  indiscreetly  publishing  data  regarding 
Italy's  military  preparations.  The  government 
was  empowered  to  control  industries  vital  to 
national  defense,  as  well  as  wireless  and  aviation 
establishments.  After  passing  these  and  other 
warlike  measures,  the  Chamber  adjourned, 
March  22nd,  to  the  middle  of  May.  The  senti- 
ment of  the  press  was  meanwhile  becoming  ever 
more  emphatic  in  favor  of  war.  On  March  7th, 
to  quote  but  a  single  instance,  the  Qiomale 
d'lialia  declared:  "It  will  be  extremely  diffi- 
cult for  Italy  longer  to  remain  neutral." 

The  Crisis.  While  the  nation  was  unmis- 
takably preparing  for  war,  the  government  con- 
tinued negotiations  with  Austria-Hungary,  with 
the  object  of  obtaining,  if  possible,  substantial 
territorial  concessions  as  the  price  of  Italy's 
non-intervention.  Prince  von  Buelow,  the  former 
German  Imperial  Chancellor,  who  had  been  dis- 
patched as  Extraordinary  Ambassador  to  tlie 
Quirinal  in  December,  1914,  indefatigably  labored 
for  the  reconciliation  of  Austria-Hungary  and 
Italy.  Popular  sentiment  in  Italy,  however,  was 
by  this  time  in  so  belligerent  a  mood  that  even 
though  Austria-Hungary  ofl'ered  to  make  im- 
portant concessions,  war  was  insistently  de- 
manded. On  May  4th  Italy  denounced  the 
Triple  Alliance  treaty  with  Austria-Hungary. 
On  May  5th,  Gabriele  d'Annunzio,  the  poet  of 
Italian  chauvinism,  made  a  flery  speech  in  favor 
of  intervention.  On  May  10th  the  Idea  Vazion- 
aZe  declared:  "Italy  desires  war :  (1)  In  order 
to  obtain  Trent,  Trieste,  and  Dalmatia.  The 
country  desires  it.  A  nation  which  has  the  op- 
portunity to  free  its  land  should  do  so  as  a  mat- 
ter of  imperative  necessity.  ...  (2)  ...  in 
order  to  conquer  for  ourselves  a  good  strategic 
frontier  in  tne  North  and  East.  ...  (3)  ... 
because  to-day  in  the  Adriatic,  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, the  Mediterranean,  and  Asia,  Italy  should 
have  all  the  advantages  it  is  possible  for  her 
to  have  and  without  which  her  political,  eco- 
nomic, and  moral  power  would  diminish  in  pro- 
portion as  tliat  of  others  increased.  ...  If  we 
would  be  a  great  Power  we  must  accept  certain 
obligations;  one  of  them  is  war  in  order  to  keep 
us  a  great  Power."  Two  days  later  the 
Oiomale  d'ltalia  proclaimed  that  "Italy  is  de- 
termined to  realize  her  national  aspirations, 
cost  what  it  may."  As  a  test  of  his  strength, 
Premier  Salandra  offered  his  resignation,  May 
14th,  but  on  May  15th,  in  response  to  an  out- 
burst of  warlike  enthusiasm,  the  King  requested 
Signor  Salandra  to  retain  the  office.  The  re- 
instatement of  the  Salandra  cabinet  marked  the 
defijiite  failure  of  ex-Premier  Giolitti's  opposi- 


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346 


IVINS 


tion  to  the  war.  On  May  20th,  Premier  Salan- 
dra  asked  Parlianient  to  ratify  his  war  policy. 
In  a  veritable  frenzy  of  patriotism  the  Chamber 
cheered  and  applauded  the  premier's  declara- 
tions. By  an  overwhelming  majority  of  407  to 
74,  only  the  Socialists  and  a  few  of  Giolitti's 
followers  opposing,  the  Chamber  voted  a  bill 
conferring  extraordinary  powers  on  the  govern- 
ment and  practically  authorizing  the  cabinet 
to  make  war.  The  Senate  likewise  approved  the 
government's  intentions  and  ratified  the  bill  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote,  May  21st.  War  was 
declared  May  23rd,  and  be^un  May  24th.  The 
international  aspects  of  this  step,  and  the  de- 
tails of  the  Austro-Italian  negotiations,  are 
discussed  in  the  article  on  the  Wab  of  the  Na- 
tions (q.v.).  In  this  place,  however,  it  may 
not  be  amiss  to  mention  the  interpretation  which 
the  German  Imperial  Chancellor  in  his  speech 
of  May  28th  placed  upon  the  action  of  Italy. 
"According  to  the  observation  of  the  best  judge 
of  the  situation  in  Italy,  in  the  first  days  of 
May  four-fifths  of  the  Senate  and  two-thirds  of 
the  Chamber  were  against  war,  and  in  that  ma- 
jority were  the  most  important  and  responsible 
statesmen.  But  common  sense  had  no  voice. 
The  mob  alone  ruled.  Under  the  kindly  dis- 
posed toleration  and  with  the  assistance  of  the 
leading  statesmen  of  a  cabinet  fed  with  the  gold 
of  the  Triple  Entente,  the  mob,  imder  the  guid- 
ance of  unscrupulous  war  instigators,  was  roused 
to  a  frens^  of  blood  which  threatened  the  King 
with  revolution  and  all  moderate  men  with  mur- 
der if  they  did  not  join  in  the  war  delirium." 
Premier  Salandra,  in  a  speech  on  June  2nd, 
replied  to  the  chancellor's  insinuations,  and  re- 
taliated by  vehemently  denouncing  the  endeavors 
of  Prince  von  Buelow  to  bribe  Italy  to  keep  the 
peace. 

War  Against  Tubket.  Although  the  Hodeida 
incident  (consult  the  Year  Book  for  1914,  p. 
711)  had  been  settled  in  January,  1915,  relations 
between  Italy  and  Turkey  were  strained  to  the 
breaking  point  in  August,  1915.  The  Italian 
declaration  of  war  against  Turkey,  August  2l8t, 
was  prefaced  by  indignant  representations  to  the 
Porte  in  respect  of  Italian  nationals,  whom,  it 
was  alleged,  the  Turkish  authorities  had  de- 
tained in  Turkish  ports. 

Cabinet  Change.  Toward  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember Vice-Admiral  Leone  Viale  resigned  his 
post  in  the  cabinet  as  minister  of  marine, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-Admiral  Camillo 
Cord. 

The  Cabinet  Suppobted.  In  December,  after 
six  months  of  fighting,  in  which  Italy  had  failed 
to  conquer  even  the  territory  which  Austria- 
Hungary  had  ofi'ered  to  cede,  the  Parliament 
still  unwaveringly  supported  the  Italian  govern- 
ment in  prosecuting  the  war,  in  fulfillment  of 
the  pledge  which  Italy  had  given,  promising 
solidarity  with  the  Entente  (consult  Wab  of 
the  Nations).  On  December  4th  Premier  Sa- 
landra in  a  speech  before  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, reiterated  his  assurances  of  ultimate  vic- 
tory, and  hinted  that  certain  journals  hostile 
to  the  government  would  be  suppressed.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  thereupon  passed  a  vote 
of  confidence,  and  a  few  days  later  conferred  full 
financial  powers  upon  the  government  for  the 
next  six  months.  A  minority  of  about  50  depu- 
ties opposed  the  ministry. 

Otheb  Events.  Consult  also  articles  on 
Albania;     Earthquakes;     Roman     Cathouc 


CHUBCH;    SOCIAUSIC;    UNITED    STATES    AND   THE 

Wab;  Wab  of  the  Nations,  passim. 

rVTNSy  William  Mills.  American  lawyer, 
died  July  23,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Freehold, 
N.  J.,  in  1861,  and  received  an  academic  educa- 
tion in  Brooklyn.  He  studied  law  at  Columbia 
Law  School,  graduating  in  1873,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  the  same  year,  beginning  the 
practice  of  law  in  Brooklyn  as  a  member  of  the 
firm  of  Bergen  &  Ivins.  At  the  same  time  he 
began  to  take  an  active  interest  in  politics,  join- 
ing the  movement  headed  by  General  Slocum 
a^inst  the  "Brooklyn  Ring."  This  fight  was 
directed  against  Hugh  McLaughlin,  then  the  un- 
disputed boss  of  the  Brooklyn  Democratic  or- 
ganization, and  it  was  so  successful  that  it  drove 
McLaughlin  into  retirement  for  three  years.  In 
1881,  Mr.  Ivins  became  private  secretary  to 
Mayor  William  R.  Grace.  He  joined  the  County 
Democracy  and  was  active  in  opposition  to 
Tammany  Hall  until  the  election  of  Mayor  Ed- 
son.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  a  school  commis- 
sioner of  the  city  and  served  until  1885.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  industrial  educa- 
tion. He  was  chamberlain  of  New  York  City 
for  two  terms,  returning  thereafter  to  the  prac- 
tice of  law.  In  1891  he  was  counsel  for  the 
Senate  Investigating  Committee  which  was  ap- 
pointed to  examine  into  the  government  of  New 
York  City.  His  cross  examination  of  Richard 
Croker  during  this  proceeding  revealed  him  as 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  cross-examiners  ever 
produced  by  the  bar,  and  his  elaborate  report  of 
the  work  of  the  committee  established  his  repu- 
tation as  an  expert  in  municipal  affairs.  In 
1892-93  he  was  counsel  to  the  Brazilian  govern- 
ment in  a  contest  with  the  Argentine  government 
over  the  Misiones  territory,  a  matter  which  was 
finally  arbitrated  by  President  Cleveland  and  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Brazil.  Mr.  Ivins  was  largely 
interested  in  the  growing  and  marketing  of  rub- 
ber in  South  America  and  became  president  of 
the  General  Rubber  Company.  In  1905  he  ac- 
cepted the  Republican  nomination  for  mayor  of 
New  York  City,  being  defeated  by  the  Demo- 
cratic nominee,  George  B.  McClellan.  Four 
years  later  he  managed  the  mayoralty  campaign 
of  William  R.  Hearst  in  the  three-cornered  con- 
test between  William  J.  Gaynor,  Otto  T.  Ban- 
nard,  and  Mr.  Hearst.  Mr.  Ivins,  after  leaving 
the  County  Democracy  in  the  earlier  years  of 
his  political  career,  became  an  enrolled  Republi- 
can, but  he  was  notably  independent,  and  did  not 
always  vote  for  Republican  nominees.  He  was 
brought  prominently  before  the  public  in  1915 
as  counsel  for  William  Barnes  in  the  latter's 
suit  for  libel  against  Theodore  Roosevelt,  his 
cross-examination  of  Mr.  Roosevelt  and  other 
witnesses  attracting  wide  attention.  His  efforts 
previous  to  and  during  this  trial  were  so  try- 
ing that  they  resulted  in  a  physical  collapse 
which  ended  in  his  death.  While  Mr.  Ivins's 
fame  was  gained  as  a  lawyer,  he  was  a  student 
of  literature  and  of  modern  languages,  a  col- 
lector of  art  objects,  a  brilliant  orator,  and  a 
keen,  capable  man  of  business.  He  began  to 
write  a  history  of  diplomacy,  but  was  obliged 
to  lay  aside  the  work.  He  spoke  fiuently  many 
modem  languages,  and  was  especially  fond  of 
reading  Greek  poets  in  the  original.  His  col- 
lection of  Napoleon  medals  forms  a  complete 
medallic  history  of  Napoleon.  He  acquired 
many  rare  books,  among  them  four  folios  of 
Shakespeare.    He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 


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State  Bar  Association,  and  took  a  leading  part 
in  organizing  the  Reform  Club,  which  aided  the 
cause  of  tariff  reform,  and  the  Commonwealth 
Club,  which  agitated  for  ballot  reform. 

IVOBY  COAST.  One  of  the  colonies  compos- 
ing the  government-general  of  French  West 
Africa,  llie  capital  is  Bingerville,  with  78  Eu- 
ropean and  780  native  inhabitants.  Other  cen- 
tres are:  Grand-Bassam,  164  European  and  2832 
native  inhabitants;  Abidjan,  110  and  613;  La- 
hou,  78  and  3050;  Tiassal^,  17  and  1548; 
Aboisso,  38  and  1241;  Assinie,  38  and  1135. 
The  principal  products  for  export  are  mahogany 
and  other  woods,  palm  kernels  and  oil,  rubber, 
manioc,  and  ground  nuts.  Neither  the  climate 
nor  the  vegetation  is  conducive  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  grazing  industry.  The  railways  un- 
der construction  are  destined  to  put  into  com- 
munication with  the  coast,  by  way  of  the  equa- 
torial forests,  the  regions  of  Bousik^,  Kong,  and 
Koroko.  The  main  line  in  operation  starts  at 
Abidjan,  on  Lagoon  Ebri6,  and  extends  through 
Dimbokro  on  the  N'Zi,  an  affluent  of  the  Ban- 
dama,  as  far  as  Bouak^,  a  distance  of  316  kilo- 
meters (196  miles).  The  line  will  ultimately 
reach  the  frontier.  See  French  West  Africa. 
I.  W.  W.  See  Industrial  Workers  of  the 
World. 

JAMAICA.  The  largest  of  the  British  West 
Indies;  a  crown  colony,  with  dependencies  as 
follows:  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands,  Cayman  Is- 
lands, Morant  Cays,  and  Pedro  Cays.  Area  of 
Jamaica,  4207  square  miles.  Population,  831,- 
383  (15,605  white,  163,201  colored,  630,181 
black,  22,396  East  Indian).  Kingston  (57,379 
inhabitants  in  1911)  is  the  capital  and  has  a  fine 
harbor.  Available  for  cultivation,  2,612,480 
acres;  returned  as  under  crops  in  1912-13,  922,- 
633  (tilled  lands,  267,276  acres;  guinea  grass, 
152,527;  commons,  502,830).  Area  under  sugar 
cane  (1913),  31,160  acres;  under  coffee,  20,023; 
under  bananas,  85,468.  Imports  (1913),  £2,- 
837,446;  exports,  £2,430,207  (bananas,  £988,236; 
sugar,  £52,171;  coffee,  £158,578;  rum,  £101,328; 
dyewoods,  £113,839;  pimento,  £88,148;  cacao, 
£114,738;  ginger,  £36,373;  oranges,  £58,967). 
Railway,  197  miles.  Revenue  (1913-14),  £1,- 
267,643;  expenditure,  £1,276,250.  Debt  (March 
31,  1914),  £3,810,447. 

In  May,  word  was  sent  to  Gen.  Sir  H.  W. 
Manning,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  that  the  Im- 
perial government  had  decided  to  accept  the 
offer  of  the  colony  to  furnish  a  war  contingent 
for  duty  at  the  front.  By  July,  subscriptions  in 
the  colony  to  various  war  funds  had  amounted 
to  £20,000.  The  Legislative  Council  also  granted 
£50,000  to  pay  for  a  gift  of  sugar  to  the  mother 
country. 

JAPAN.  An  empire  of  the  Far  East,  com- 
posed of  four  large  and  many  small  islands,  to- 
gether with  Korea  (q.v.),  Formosa  (q.v.),  the 
southern  part  of  Sakhalin,  and  the  leasehold  of 
Kwantung   (q.v.).     The  capital  is  Tokyo. 

Area  and  Population.  The  following  table 
shows  the  principal  islands  and  the  number  of 
adjacent  islands  composing  Japan  proper,  their 
area  in  square  miles,  and  the  total  legal  popu- 
lation on  Dec.  31,  1908: 


No, 
iMlands  Adj. 

Ghishim**      

S»do     

Oki     1 

Awajl     1 

Ikl      1 

TBushixna 6 

Riukiut     

Ogssawarajixna  t    •  • 


UU.  Adj.      Total 

6,024  . . . 

885  ... 

180  ... 

218  1 

51  ... 

262  4 

084  ... 

27  ... 


6,024 
885 
180 
210 

51 
266 
084 

27 


ToUl     418   145.024  2,683 


Pop. 
1908 

8,458 
120,510 

88.849 
210,646 

40.622 

89,264 

501.815 

8.505 

49,688.804 


No. 
lalanda  Adj, 

Honahiu     167 

Shikoku     75 

Kiushiu     150 

Hokkaido     18 


Square  miXea  Pop. 

IbU.      Adj.      Total         1908 

86.805   470  86.775  87.041,187 

6,856       175      7.081      8,288,810 

13,768   1,820   15,588      7,167,148 

80,144      162  80,276     1,184.002 


*  81  islands, 
t  55  islands. 
i  20  islands,  not  including  the  volcanic  Iwojima. 

The  resident  population  Dec.  31,  1908,  num- 
bered 51,742,486  (as  compared  with  45,403,041 
at  the  end  of  1898).  The  reported  resident  pop- 
ulation at  the  end  of  1914  was  53,696,884;  the 
population  of  the  dependencies  was  calculated  at 
19,687,666,  making  a  total  of  73,384,550.  The 
area  and  estimated  population  of  the  dependen- 
cies are  as  follows:  Chosen  (Korea),  84,106 
square  miles,  16,508,872  inhabitants;  Taiwan 
(Formosa),  13,841  and  3,612,184;  Karafuto 
(Japanese  Sakhalin),  13,155  and  49,463;  Kwan- 
tung (Kwanto),  1221  and  617,147;  Hokoto 
(Pescadores),  48  square  miles;  total,  111,160 
square  miles,  19,687,666  inhabitants.  The  re- 
ported number  of  Japanese  resident  abroad  at 
the  end  of  1913  was  334,950,  of  whom  77,736 
(66,879  males,  10,857  females)  in  the  United 
States.  The  number  of  foreigners  in  Japan  at 
the  end  of  1911  is  reported  at  15,221,  of  whom 
8190  were  Chinese,  2673  British,  1794  Ameri- 
cans, 837  Germans,  and  543  French. 

The  number  of  marriages  in  1910  was  442,498, 
and  the  annual  average  for  1901-10,  402,469; 
divorces,  59,681;  living  births,  1,726,522  and  1,- 
553,754;  still  births,  157,392  and  154,645; 
deaths,  1,073,732  and  1,006,646;  marriage  rate, 
8.74  and  8.37;  divorce  rate,  1.18  and  1.30;  living 
birth  rate,  33.9  and  32.2;  of  living  births,  the 
number  of  boys  per  100  girls,  103.9  and  104.65; 
percentage  of  still  births,  3.35  and  9.06;  death 
rate,  21.1  and  20.9. 

Resident  population  of  the  larger  cities  as 
calculated  for  Dec.  31,  1911:  Tokyo,  2,099,200; 
Osaka,  1,387,400;  Kioto,  508,100;  Nagoya,  448,- 
000;  Kobe,  440,800;  Yokohama,  396,100;  Naga- 
saki, 160,500;  Hiroshima,  159,600;  Kanazawa, 
127,300. 

Education.  Japan  has  a  highly  efficient  edu- 
cational system.  Primary  instruction  is  com- 
pulsory. Public  primary  schools  in  1913  num- 
bered 25,673,  with  158,601  teachers  (115,187 
male,  43,414  female)  and  7,037,430  pupils  (3,- 
767,665  male,  3,269,766  female).  Secondary 
schools  for  boys  numbered  315,  with  6220  teachers 
and  128,973  students;  superior  schools  for  girls, 
299,  with  3818  teachers  (of  whom  1646  male) 
and  75,128  students;  normal  schools,  86,  with 
1619  teachers  and  27,653  students  (of  whom 
19.007  male) ;  superior  normal  schools,  4,  with 
223  teachers  and  1750  students  (of  whom  1091 
male).  Medical  schools  in  1913,  16,  with  6600 
students  (of  whom  242  female)  ;  theological 
schools,  23,  with  1744  students  (of  whom  27  fe- 
male) ;  schools  of  political  science,  law,  etc.,  749, 
with  15,821  students  (all  male)  ;  special  schools 
of  letters,  12,  with  1758  students  (of  whom  526 
female)  ;  lyc^s,  8,  with  358  teachers  and  6537 
students.  In  addition,  there  are  technical  and 
special  schools  and  4  universities.  The  univer- 
sities   are   the    Imperial   University    of    Tokyo 


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(with  5094  students),  the  Imperial  University 
of  Kioto  (1474),  the  Imperial  University  of  the 
Northeast  (1891),  and  the  Imperial  University 
of  Kiushiu  (487) ;  total  number  of  university 
students,  8946;  teachers,  792. 

Agriculture.  Of  the  arable  land,  about 
three-fifths  is  cultivated  by  peasant  proprietors, 
and  the  remiiinder  by  tenants.  The  taxed  land 
owned  by  private  persons  and  local  corporations 
Jan.  1,  1914,  was  reported  at  14,839,426  cho 
(1  cho  =  2.4607  acres,  or  0.99174  hectares),  of 
which  6,266,094  were  under  cultivation,  7,827,987 
under  forest,  and  1,286,411  open  field. 

For  some  of  the  principal  crops,  the  area  in 
hectares  and  the  yield  in  metric  quintals  are 
shown  in  the  following  table  for  1913-14  and 
1914-15,  together  with  the  yield  per  hectare  in 
1913-14  (the  figures  for  1914-15  are  prelimi- 
nary) : 


exports  of  Japanese  produce,  and  2,366,921  yen 
in  1912  and  2,933,963  yen  in  1913  were  reex- 
ports. 

The  principal  articles  of  trade,  with  their 
values  in  thousands  of  yen  (excluding  reimport 
and  reexport  values),  are  as  follows: 


ImporU  1911  1919  1918  1914 

Rice     17,721  80.192  48.472  24.824 

Wheat 8.729  4,401  12.851  8.489 

Wheat    flour     1.708  1,722  1.782  1.266 

Soys   beanB    10,806  10,222  10.892  18.807 

Sugar    9,167  16,047  86,802  21.698 

Raw   cotton    146.455  200.824  228,599  218.975 

Cotton   BhirtingB   and 

prints    8.053  8.262  2.720  1.004 

Cotton    satina    1,904  8,119  8.484  2.054 

Wool     11.268  16.834  15.998  14,784 

Woolen  yarn    4,788  8,226  10,087  4,111 

Woolen  cloth    10,656  6,011  10,498  9,067 

Oil  cake    29,862  27.480  89.499  84,860 

Petroleum     18,066  12.488  11.102  8.667 


H4eiar€9 


Qwdaolf 


1918-14  1914-18  1918-14  1914-18  ko. 

Rice     8.008.818  8.060.510  108.088,637  100.728,426  84.8 

Wheat     475,979  475.046  6.890,814  6.441.760  12.4 

Barley     1.888,110  1,298.075  19.891.264  21,280.898  14.9 

Com     57.100  58.804  958.816  952.288  16.7 

Oata     60.828  65,662  844.790                  16.8 

Potatoes    76.700  78.662  6,804.874  6,826,000  89.9 

Tobacco     85.900  81.000  525,000  480.000  14.6 


Live  stock  at  the  end  of  1912  and  1913,  re- 
spectively: horses,  1,581,743  and  1,582,126;  cat- 
tle, 1,399,498  and  1,388,708;  sheep,  3308  and 
2946;  goats,  101,475  and  89,488;  swine,  308,970 
and  309,995. 

Othes  Industries.  Value  of  mineral  and 
metal  products  in  1912,  in  yen:  coal,  61,412,837 
(tons,  19,639,755);  copper,  40,252,061;  petro- 
leum, 8,377,073;  gold,  6,799,072;  silver,  5,986,- 
084;  iron,  2,304,614;  sulphur,  1,372,824;  steel, 
745,795;  lead,  531,282. 

The  total  fisheries  products  were  valued  in 
1912  ait  137,984,518  ven,  as  compared  with  124,- 
578,815  yen  in  1911,  and  116,792,553  in  1910. 

On  June  14,  1914,  there  were  42  cotton-spin- 
ning companies,  with  2,402,573  spindles;  con- 
sumption, 398.729,214  pounds  of  cotton;  produc- 
tion, 345,738,547  pounds  of  yarn.  Cotton-weav- 
ing companies  numbered  17,  with  24,100  looms; 
production,  227,902,240  pounds.  Other  impor- 
tant manufactures  are  paper,  matches,  earthen- 
ware, lacquered  ware,  matting,  and  leather. 

OOMKERCE.  The  following  table  shows  the 
value  in  thousands  of  yen  of  total  imports  and 
exports,  distinguishing  merchandise  from  coin 
and  bullion: 


1911  1918 

Imports  mdse.    ..518.806     618.992 
Imports   0.    ft   B.     6.168        11.544 


1923 
729.482 
1.021 


1914 
575.470 
9,107 


Total     519,974     680,587     730.453     584,577 


Kxports  mdse.    ..447,437     626,982 
Exports  G.  ft  B..    24.398       28,825 


632.460 
27,093 


672.706 
29,650 


Total     471,832     555,307     659.554     602.856 

Total  imports  of  merchandise  in  1912  and 
1913,  respectively,  618,992,277  and  729,431.644 
yen;  exports,  526,981,842  and  632,460,213.  Of 
these  totals  for  merchandise,  618,160,786  yen  in 
1912  and  728,626,129  yen  in  1913  represented 
imports  of  foreign  produce,  and  831,491  yen  in 
1912  and  805,515  yen  in  1913  represented  re- 
imports of  Japanese  produce;  524,614,911  yen 
in  1912  and  629,526,250  yen  in  1913  represented 


1911  1919  1918  1914 
Iron  bars,   rods,   and 

plates     5,878  85,600  82.817  24.745 

Enfcines  'and    rolling 

stock    2.225  2,563  4,461  1.957 

Machinery     28,289  34.426  24,147 

ExpvrU: 

Cotton  yarn    40.218  53.681  70,998  78,555 

Cotton    shirtings    ...      7.382  25,760  88.612  84.844 

Raw   silk    128.875  150  325  188,929  161.797 

Silk  waste    7.786  10.546  10.471  4.678 

Bilk    mfrs 80.686  26,882  84,882  80.894 

Coal     17,990  20.324  28.671  23.962. 

Matches     10,073  12,044  11,865  11 052 

Copper     20,008  24,921  28,184  27.197 

Camphor     8.148  2.827  2.286  2.780 

Tea    14,879  18.467  10.077  12.718 

Rice     3,941  4,388  4,875  4,974 

Matting     8,746  3.758  4.054  2.814 

Earthenware     5,378  6.462  6.689  6.914 

Straw-plait    4.717  17.888  15.692  14.856 

Sake    2,136  2.223  2.198  2.112 

Refined   sugar    1,885  8.477  15.881  12.888 

Toys    1,898  2,490  2,592 

Imports  and  exports  of  merchandise  by  prin- 
cipal countries  were  valued  as  follows  in  1912 

and  1913,  in  thousands  of  yen: 


JmporU 

1912  1918 

V.  Kingdom 116.147  122,787 

France     5,421  5.829 

Oermanv      61,076  68,395 

Other    Europe    .  .    20.665  23.229 

China     54.807  61.223 

Kwantung     25.707  30.878 

Honsrkong     882  1.195 

Fr.  IndoChina  .  .    10.644  24.700 

Du.  E.  Indies    .  .    19,068  37,889 

Br.  India 134,742  173,174 

Other  Asia 14,193  19.396 

United    States    ..127,016  122.408 

Other     28,629  88.679 

Total    618,992  729,482 


ExporU 


1918 

1918 

29.792 

32.870 

48,871 

66.230 

18,488 

13,132 

27.162 

40.497 

114824 

154.660 

27.645 

29.836 

28.713 

88.622 

849 

1.055 

4.343 

6.149 

23.648 

29,878 

19,305 

21.782 

168,709 

184.475 

26,238 

25.886 

526.982 

682,460 

Shipping.  There  were  entered  at  the  ports 
in  1913  in  the  over-sea  trade  10,242  vessels,  of 
24,720,415  tons;  of  these,  Japanese,  6576  ves- 
sels, of  12,676,467  tons;  British,  2172,  of  7.338,- 
390  tons;  German,  469,  of  1,683,800  tons;  Amer- 
ican, 182,  of  1,330,594  tons;   other,  845,  of  1,- 


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891,104  tons.  Japanese  shipping  in  the  foreign 
trade  receives  government  subsidy.  Merchant 
marine,  Jan.  1,  1914:  vessels  of  European  con- 
struction, 2072  steamers,  of  1,528,264  tons,  and 
7343  sail,  571,872  tons;  sailing  craft  of  Japa- 
nese construction,  20,635. 

CoMMUNiCATiONB.  The  reported  length  of 
railway  (including  the  railway  of  Korea  and 
Formosa)  in  operation  March  31,  1913,  was 
10,986  kilometers,  of  which  7837  kilometers  state 
and  3149  kilometers  private.  Electric  tramway, 
1098  kilometers. 

The  final  plans  for  the  construction  of  the 
government  railway  line  from  Tokyo  to  Kot6, 
cutting  off  the  haul  over  the  Hakone  Mountains 
by  boring  a  tunnel  through  the  mountains  near 
Atomi,  were  adopted  during  1914.  It  was  pro- 
posed to  use  electric  power  for  hauling  through 
the  tunnel.  During  the  year  1914  the  Imperial 
Japanese  government  opened  175  miles  of  new 
sections  of  railway.  The  1914  extension  in- 
cluded 25  miles  on  the  Tokushima  line,  23  on 
the  Sakata  line,  and  20  miles  each  on  the  Mura- 
kami and  Gwanyetsu  lines.  The  new  central 
station  in  Tokyo  was  completed  in  1914,  and  a 
government  electric  railway  was  opened  between 
Tokyo  and  Yokohama.  This  narallels  the  exist- 
ing steam  track  and  is  19  miles  in  length,  with 
14  intermediate  stations.  Soon  after  this  rail- 
way was  opened  in  1914,  for  a  few  days  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  it  was  necessair  to  discontinue 
the  service,  as  trouble  developed  with  the  over- 
head equipment. 

A  general  plan  of  railway  construction  was 
adopted  in  1915.  This  contemplated  the  com- 
pletion of  the  railway  system  for  the  country 
within  10  years,  and  the  addition  of  1219  miles 
to  the  mileage  already  operated.  During  the 
fiscal  year  new  lines  of  79  miles  were  to  be 
completed  and  opened  to  traffic.  Within  the 
succeeding  six  years  238  miles  were  to  be  com- 
pleted. Lack  of  capital  prevented  the  announce- 
ment of  a  programme  lor  the  remaining  con- 
struction. All  the  light  railway  lines,  with  a 
total  length  of  331  miles,  were  to  be  postponed 
until  the  year  1916-17,  or  later. 

Telegraphs  (1913),  4478  offices,  with  40,379 
kilometers  of  line  and  179,295  kilometers  of 
wire.  Radiotelegraphic  stations,  31,  and  sta- 
tions on  board  ship,  20.  Post  offices  (1914), 
7983. 

f^NANCE.  The  standard  of  value  is  gold;  the 
monetary  unit  is  the  yen,  having  a  par  value 
of  49.846  cents.  In  1911-12,  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure amounted  to  657,192,221  and  585,374,- 
613  yen,  respectively;  in  1912-13,  687,392,484 
and  593,596,445.  For  1914-15,  revenue  was  es- 
timated at  654,282,173  yen,  and  expenditure  at 
559,759,598  yen;  for  1915-16,  estimated  revenue 
and  expenditure  balanced  at  556,396,000  yen.  In 
the  1914-15  budget,  ordinary  revenue  was  placed 
at  534,065,202  yen,  and  extraordinary  at  120,- 
216,971;  ordinary  expenditure,  414,682,071,  and 
extraordinary,  145,077,527.  The  larger  items  of 
estimated  ordinary  revenue  for  1914-15  were: 
public  undertakings  and  state  property,  133,- 
671,011  yen;  liquor  tax,  91,030,740;  land  tax, 
75,120,976;  posts  and  telegraphs,  60,824,265; 
customs,  57,863,480;  monopolies,  54,151,634;  in- 
come tax,  31,296,279;  stamps,  30,531,533;  busi- 
ness tax,  26,433,398.  The  larger  estimated  dis- 
bursements for  1914-15  were,  by  departments: 
finance,  188,463,862  yen  (including  interest  on 
the   debt) ;    army,   75,542,228;    communications. 


61,644,342;  navy,  40,887,512.  Public  debt, 
March  31,  1913,  2,493,969,745  yen;  March  31, 
1914,  2,545,070,505,  of  which  1,054,633,854  in- 
ternal and   1,490,436,651   foreign. 

Abmy.  In  1915  the  army  of  Japan  was  mak- 
ing further  progress  towards  organization  es- 
tablished by  tiie  law  of  1907,  which  contemplated 
an  army  of  1,637,000  trained  men,  of  whom 
742,000  were  in  the  standing  army,  780,000  in 
the  reserve,  and  115,000  in  the  last  reserve. 
Each  year  450,000  men  reach  militarv  age,  but 
the  annual  recruit  list  amounts  to  only  130,000, 
and  the  training  commences  December  1st. 
Every  male  subject  between  the  ages  of  17  and 
40  is  liable  for  service,  and  the  recruit  con- 
tingent is  obtained  by  general  conscription.  In 
the  army  the  length  of  service  is  two  years  for 
the  infantry,  and  three  years  for  the  other 
branches,  while  in  the  navy  it  is  four  years. 
Service  in  the  first  line  reserve  is  four  years 
for  the  army,  and  three  years  for  the  navy;  in 
the  second  line,  ten  years  for  the  army,  and  dye 
years  for  the  navy.  There  are  also  first  and 
second  levies  on  the  last  reserves  consisting  of 
those  who  have  passed  out  of  the  reserves  and 
those  who  have  been  excused  from  service.  Non- 
commissioned officers  are  selected  from  privates 
who  show  the  requisite  capacity,  while  the  offi- 
cers come  from  military  academies  and  from 
civil  life,  on  a  basis  of  family  standing  and 
competitive  examination.  Those  failing  to  reach 
a  certain  grade  by  a  certain  age  come  to  the 
inactive  list,  so  that  a  young  corps  of  officers  is 
provided,  while  a  corps  of  reserve  officers  is 
maintained. 

The  army  consists  of  1  guard  and  18  line 
divisions,  the  former  being  recruited  from  the 
whole  country,  while  the  18  line  divisions,  of 
which  the  9th  and  a  special  brigade  are  in  Korea, 
and  the  5th  and  a  brigade  for  a  railway  guard 
are  in  Manchuria,  come  from  districts,  each  dis- 
trict for  recruiting  and  mobilization  purposes 
furnishing  a  division.  A  division  is  composed 
of  2  infantry  brigades,  each  brigade  of  2  regi- 
ments of  3  battalions  of  4  companies,  and  of  a 
machine  gun  section  with  six  guns  each.  A  di- 
vision has  a  cavalry  regiment  of  3  squadrons, 
1  regiment  of  field  artillery,  and  six  6-inch 
batteries,  1  three-company  battalion  of  engi- 
neers, and  2  companies  in  tiiie  train.  The  guard, 
1st,  8th,  and  15th  divisions  possess  about  twice 
the  cavalry  and  artillery  strength  of  the  others. 

The  total  strength  of  the  Japanese  army  in 
organization  consists  of  248  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, 89  squadrons  of  cavalry,  152  field  bat- 
teries, 9  moimtain  batteries,  57  heavy  artillery 
batteries,  and  57  engineer  companies,  12  railway 
companies,  6  telegraph  companies,  1  afiro  bat- 
talion, and  36  companies  of  train  troops.  On  a 
war  strength  each  division  possesses  12,000 
rifles,  450  sabres,  36  field  pieces,  and  24  machine 
guns.  The  arm  of  the  infantry  is  the  Arisaka 
rifie,  model  of  1905,  calibre  65  mm. 

The  Budget  Committee  of  the  Japanese  Diet 
approved  during  the  year  a  measiu-e  providing 
for  an  addition  of  two  divisions,  about  24,000 
men,  to  the  Japanese  army. 

Navy.  The  number  and  displacement  of  war- 
ships of  1600  or  more  tons,  and  of  torpedo  craft 
of  50  or  more  tons,  built  and  building,  on  July 
1,  1914,  are  reported  as  follows:  Dreadnoughts: 
built,  2,  of  41,600  tons;  building,  4,  of  122,400 
tons.  Predreadnoughts:  built,  13;  building, 
none.    Coast  defense  vessels:   built,  2,  of  9086 


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tons;  building,  none.  Battle  cruisers:  built,  2, 
of  55,000  tons;  building,  2,  of  55,000  tons.  Ar- 
mored cruisers:  built,  13,  of  138,483  tons;  build- 
ing, none.  Cruisers:  built,  13,  of  57,915  tons; 
building,  none.  Torpedo-boat  destroyers:  built, 
50,  of  20,487  tons;  building,  2,  of  1676  tons. 
Torpedo  boats:  built,  27,  of  3017  tons;  building, 
none.  Submarines:  built,  13,  of  2672  tons; 
building,  2,  of  1200  tons.  Total  tonnage  built, 
519,640;  building,  180,276.  Excluded  from  the 
foregoing  are:  ships  over  20  years  old  from  date 
of  launch  unless  recoflstructed  and  rearmed 
within  five  years;  torpedo  craft  over  15  years 
old;  transports,  colliers,  repair  ships,  torpedo- 
depot  ships,  and  other  auxiliaries;  vessels  not 
actually  begun  or  ordered,  although  authorized. 
On  July  1,  1914,  Japan  was  fifth  among  the  na- 
tions in  the  amount  of  warship  tonnage  both 
built  and  building.    See  also  Naval  Pbogbess. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is  the 
Emperor,  acting  through  a  cabinet  of  ministers 
whom  he  appoints  and  who  are  responsible  to 
him.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  par- 
liament, or  imperial  diet,  consisting  of  two 
chambers — a  house  of  peers  having  366  members, 
and  a  house  of  representatives  having  379  mem- 
bers elected  for  four  years.  The  Emperor  is 
Yoshihito,  bom  at  Kioto,  Aug.  31,  1879,  and 
succeeded  his  father,  Mutsuhito,  July  30,  1912. 
The  accession  ceremony  took  place  Nov.  10,  1915. 
Yoshihito  married  Princess  Sadako,  May  10, 
1900.  Heir  apparent,  Prince  Hirohito,  born 
April  29,  1901. 

HiSTOBT 

Elections.  After  the  dissolution,  Dec.  25, 
1914,  of  the  intractable  House  of  Represaitatives, 
which  had  refused  to  ratify  an  increase  of  two 
divisions  in  the  army,  elections  were  called  for 
March  25,  1915.  Although  there  was  evidence 
of  a  strong  current  of  popular  opinion  against 
the  bureaucratic  methods  and  against  the  mili- 
tary proposals  of  the  government,  nevertheless 
the  ministerial  party  was  returned  victorious 
with  a  majority  of  some  80  seats  in  the  new 
Plouse  of  Representatives.  If  the  statements  of 
disappointed  opponents  of  the  government  may 
be  accepted  as  trustworthy,  the  ministerial  vic- 
tory was  due  to  the  use  of  corruption  {infra) 
and  tlie  unjustifiable  exercise  of  governmental 
pressure  upon  the  electorate,  as  well  as  to  the 
fact  that  under  the  very  restricted  franchise, 
which  excluded  the  poorer  classes  from  the  suf- 
frage, popular  opinion  was  not  adequately  or 
faithfully  expressed. 

Victory  fob  National  Defense.  The  most 
obvious  result  of  the  elections  was  the  approval 
of  the  government's  plans  for  national  defense, 
which  had  been  vetoed  by  the  defunct  House  of 
Representatives  but  could  now  be  adopted.  The 
army  increase  was  passed,  June  1st,  without  seri- 
ous opposition  from  the  anti-militaristic  minor- 
ity, by  a  vote  of  232  to  131.  The  chief  feature 
of  the  military  programme  was  the  creation  of 
two  new  army  divisions  for  Korea.  The  regular 
naval  appropriations  were  approved  at  the  same 
time. 

Criticism  of  Chino-Japanese  Negotiations. 
If  the  Opposition  could  not  defeat  the  military 
proposals  of  the  government,  it  could  at  least 
voice  its  disapproval  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
negotiations  for  special  privileges  in  China  were 
conducted  (consult  China).  In  attacking  Count 
Okuma's  Chinese  policy  the  anti-militarists  of 


the  Opposition  who  considered  Japan's  demands 
quite  unjustifiable  could  count  also  upon  the 
support  of  the  extreme  chauvinists  who  com- 
plained that  the  Japanese  government  was  al- 
lowing itself  to  be  hoodwinked  by  the  dilatory 
tactics  of  Chinese  diplomacy.  With  character- 
istic political  shrewdness.  Count  Okuma,  by  pre- 
senting an  ultimatum  to  the  Chinese  government, 
May  7th,  forced  China  to  accept  most  of  the 
Japanese  demands.  May  9th,  about  a  week  be- 
fore the  Japanese  Diet  was  convened,  so  that  the 
Diet  could  have  no  opportunity  of  interfering 
with  the  negotiations,  but  only  the  thankless 
task  of  criticising  a  fait  accompli.  The  newly 
elected  House  of  Representatives  met  for  the 
first  time  on  May  17th,  and  elected  as  its  presi- 
dent, Saburo  Shimada,  who,  by  the  way,  was  a 
conspicuous  opponent  of  a  large  Japanese  navy, 
on  the  ground  that  Japanese  naval  aggrandize- 
ment might  antagonize  the  United  States.  The 
Diet  was  formally  opened  by  the  Emperor,  May 
20th.  Before  passing  to  the  consideration  of 
the  Chinese  question,  the  Diet  briefly  discussed 
the  California  land  question.  Baron  Kato,  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  explained  that  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  was  cordially  dis- 
posed towards  Japan,  and  that  the  Japanese 
government  expected  an  amicable  settlement  of 
the  California  land  dispute.  The  California 
question  having  been  debated,  and  the  military 
programme  approved  {supra),  the  Diet  pro- 
ceeded with  the  criticism  of  Count  Okuma's  deal- 
ings with  China.  On  June  2nd  an  Opposition 
speaker  introduced  a  resolution  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  voicing  the  opinion  that  the  at- 
tempt of  Japan  to  gain  a  privileged  position  in 
China  had  been  a  complete  fiasco.  Instead  of 
working  to  establish  a  firm  foundation  for  peace 
in  the  Orient,  the  Japanese  government  had 
caused  bitterness  between  China  and  Japan  and 
had  aroused  the  suspicions  of  foreign  powers. 
Furthermore,  the  concessions  granted  by  China 
(see  China)  were  likely  to  furnish  occasion  for 
future  complications,  instead  of  forming  the 
basis  of  friendly  relationships.  The  debate  on 
the  resolution  gave  rise  to  a  heated  altercation 
on  the  fioor  of  the  House.  Deputies  K.  Hara, 
M.  Inukai,  and  H.  Ogawa  violently  denounced 
the  government.  Among  the  most  interesting 
stat^ents  was  the  assertion  made  by  antago- 
nists of  the  government  that  Group  V,  containing 
the  most  important  demands  on  China,  had  been 
dropped  by  Japan  as  a  result  of  diplomatic  in- 
tervention* by  the  Powers.  Baron  Kato,  the  for- 
eign minister,  repudiated  the  insinuation,  and 
declared  that  Japan  had  modified  her  demands 
as  a  proof  of  her  conciliatory  and  pacific  inten- 
tions. After  two  days'  excited  debate,  the  Cham- 
ber rejected  the  condemnatory  resolution,  June 
3rd. 

The  Cabinet  Crisis.  Unable  to  defeat  the 
government  on  the  question  of  the  Chinese  ne- 
gotiations, the  Opposition  resorted  to  an  attack 
upon  the  honor  of  the  cabinet.  On  June  5th 
the  Opposition  proposed  a  resolution  expressing 
lack  of  confidence  in  Viscount  Kanetake  Oura, 
minister  of  the  interior,  on  the  ground  that  he 
had  given  bribes  in  an  efi'ort  to  purchase  votes 
in  favor  of  the  Army  Bill.  Again,  on  June  7th, 
the  Opposition  introduced  a  resolution  declaring 
lack  of  confidence  in  the  entire  cabinet  on  the 
ground  that  the  ministry  had  interfered  in  the 
last  election.  Viscount  Oura  denied  the  charge 
that  he  had  attempted  to  corrupt  members  of 


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COUNT  OKUMA,  JAPANESE  PRIME  MINISTER.  IN    CORONATION    ROE 


Pbotoip-aplis  by  Paul  Tbompson 

SHINTO  PRIESTS  WATCHING  THE  CORONATION  PROCESSION 

CORONATION  OF  THE  MIKADO  OF  JAPAN 


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JAPAM  351  JEWS  AMB  JITDAIHH 


the   DiK,  bst   follovins  mm  iBTMti^tioB  nade  Kato  remlixMt  homrrtr,  thmt  JapdUi  vovU  Mt 

by  the  ministry  of  justke,  lie  soddnlr  Tt»isJ»ed  be  iiaume,  if  Geraaar  vcre  snoeeasfal:  tfc»T«^ 

b'U   portfolio  of   the   interior.     Viscooat   Oora's  fore,  he  Diaiataiaed  that  the  cfjfintrr  mwst  be  ia 

snddcB   re«£aatii>a.  coapkd  with  the  arrest  of  rcadiacssa  to  and  troops  to  Europe  if  it  beeaase 

K.  Haja^hida.  chief  «Kr«taij  of  the  Hoose.  vho  m*r*aBMry  in  or^W  to  'flcare  the  ^nre^^a  of  the 

adautted  harij&jr  r«ceiT«d  bribe*  for  di^tribatioB  AUUm.     With      tb*     fTiraeie     Ktoat^jfl      lhia!lr 


to   C»p{M)«itioa    aieiBt^rSw    caused    a    treavwloaa  ckarcd  np.  Japaa.  ia  J  air.  dceid^  to  off#r  aid 

apaaatioa  aad   aa  oct r«r«t   of  popular  indi^aa*  to  the  All>»  ia  the  forai  of  wmr  mnniti^jtuL    Jap- 

tioB  asaiast  the  soTcraawBt.     Coaat  Oknaia.  aa-  ancae  forts  ia  Maachoria  were  ftripfwd  tA  their 

siuain^  rcspcttsi'Lilitr  for  the  aetioos  of  hia  mh-  jEreat  ^:iibs:   b«)o€a.  eTplo«ir««.  aaaiasitifl*,  aad 

ordiaates  ia  the  cMbimgt,  teadervd  the  resizaatioa  fua  caiea  were  auuiufa/rtartd   ia   fcr^at  ^oaati- 

of  the  Biimiftrx  oa  Jolr  ^>th.     While  the  Oppo-  ti#«  aad  shipped  aeroai   Ra«ua  to  the  w^jiCeni 

«itioa   ilf  laiiid   the  iBitaI]ati<:-«   of  ex-PrcBier  froat.     Xew     aiimitioaa     fa^rtAcie*     were     enNH 

Siioaji  as  the  head  of  a  aew  caiiiiaet.  aad  other  stnteted  ia  aaaj  porta  of  Japaa,  taraiajr  o«t 

adrcraaries   of    Cocat    <>taau    pr::c<Mcd    Baroa  znmt    ^naatitica    of    war    wa^'/.i*^    for    wii>!h 

Goto  for  the  p^Kztw':«.  the  Eii*r  Stateas^a  ad-  Fraace  aad  Gr»t  Brttaia  pVik^  piTm^t.     Ia 


iriaed  the  Eaus^Eror.  aad  Tcdcjo  bosaeai-am  aec-  Aasrast.  the  aaarjaaflOBeat  waa  ande  that 

oaded  the  adv^>:e,  shit  •'.j<iat  •PcxmaL  be  retaiaed  th*  UjtIss:!!^  <rf  th*  war  Japaa  had  lr>ft   \^A 

aa   preauer.     Tie    JLcLZ^yr   tii.»ret>re   r^^seated  awa  ia  k.:>d  aad  wjoadiid.     Late  ia  O^t/i*^'.  the 

Coiiat  t.iirzaaa  to  r««;i:e.«.'>r  h.«  r«^iiuc.'>a.  and  Japaaea?  r>T<raaMat  aasy-^MSvei^d  th^kt.  ia  a^irncd- 

oa  Ai^^Q^  *th  t^  lAn^sr  r«»;e«rT>n.ed  h:s  cafci-  aaee  with   a   n^^a«t   wa>^   had   b^oi    r»«etTed 

aet  aa  f:  !:.>«*:  Pr^MiJir  atl  K.Lil*t«-  *>f  foretza  t^^a  daj*  *arI>T.  -^apaa  had  pT*»  h^  ad?te«Mi. 

aJaira.    «  *:t2.i    SL-js^a^.-cn   ••i.sBA:    SMaL««T   of  0«?tAfi«T    IVJi.   to  the   Part   *€   tyasdrja.   Uiiiiaic 

naaaee.    TiiCMKH:    TAJiL<!^*-i«.i    aL.=.i«&<!r   of    att-  Lva^.  aa  ta«  «<^f»r  Fateate  Alj>a  had  aircadr 

riae,   V^;^?-Ai^.rAI  T:«Aai.-rrr>   Ka&>:   Krister  dr^.a*^,  wX  to  efla»?rade  a  fe^aralK  tr^atj  «#  fcaev 

of  war.  L:.*':i--j-!L  I'lLj^'jt^Jut  OkAi  WLialstgr  of  witi  ta^  Oatral  P-?wert 

justice,    V"i*;-->  V'SkA.:    E^-.<ster   <if   crjoiia zL**a-         F-vr  J1kZmMH^mt  rwatir-a*  whh  the  f/irrted  ^^Catec 

ti-^a.  Kat^smii  >f i».iira:  at^^icT  «f  »nf=jw»rw  ci'tt*;i>i   Uyjira  «^7Af«».  F'i**^^  £«c«fM«a/  inr 

aad    a«r->^".rLr»,    H_ro«iaia    K-.w:-:    auiutiifr   of  i^Atj^'.^at  wrta.  C^iaa..  y^aaait  •'mtva- 
edneati-:*.  S.  Zik^u,:  Kl£.«ier  «€  iat«r>-.r.  Efta-        JAPAJHESB  PUVUUL     S«^  AJmsBPncs. 

k;ira   Jti-t^     F,«r   4*7*   LkSiW   E*r.--«    KJrs::r*        JAVA,     S>e  Irrfru  E.%JWt  f ystM.       

I^-L  aBLtajie(fc^:r  i.>  t  rk&^e^  ame^vd  tiu^  p»'.rt'        JMLWISM  AGB^CUUTUMAL  AJTD  JJiJHIS- 

fclio  of  Ue^-Ti  M^hiTt  in  Li<^  apw  «l<msa  taJu-  TMi  AT    ATD   SOdKTT.    See    AistmrnrrmAL 

act.     It  i»  ju:cjii»a.*>  Ti*t  tii*  f-r«Mja.  aiiaJj&v  Cltary  ^^ ..^.^ 

a»l  th#^  ±jrA:i«i>*r  3L^-^><Mr.  -vi^v  is^  ut^im,  twaa  mt-        JEWS  AMD  JITDAIBK.     It  9  «t<L3  iBfaa^ 

Tcr-^T    M3.^«fi7«Ht    -57    tAfl»    L'.f»t.   we   'KLStzaai^d  «c:u*-  tA  rrr**-  ?»ii:i.iije  aad  x^-^A^^kkte  atatii^Lita  4f 

fro^'thvs-  r*«'^:»!s*cni'.i>^  »*I*'ji*»t     Lase  ;a  S*^«.iaB-  tJ**-  "wtrjC  *  -^pPTfli  jrcnLasia^BL     1^  1 

Ver   a   jr*-..!!  i^rr    ^-iiL.tiAl   ZLT.«c.jBuij:a   f;iiai£  aaif  aTnii:rr:*srT*-  ^^znaSi*:.   that  ^  TV?  J« 

K.    HajA-iii  ilA.   lilt*    «H»r-*tArT   '.<    tiit   H.iue    4^  -raa  /-fyrwa  F'fiar  Av:^  Jir  I  >!*-!<    m^rtaa  ta«e 

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the  Diet,  but  following  an  investigation  made 
by  the  ministry  of  justice,  he  suddenly  resigned 
his  portfolio  of  the  interior.  Viscount  Oura's 
sudden  resignation,  coupled  with  the  arrest  of 
K.  Hayaahida,  chief  secretary  of  the  House,  who 
admitted  having  received  bribes  for  distribution 
to  Opposition  members,  caused  a  tremendous 
sensation  and  an  outburst  of  popular  indigna- 
tion against  the  government.  Count  Okuma,  as- 
suming responsibility  for  the  actions  of  his  sub- 
ordinates in  the  cabinet,  tendered  the  resignation 
of  the  ministry  on  July  30th.  While  the  Oppo- 
sition demanded  the  installation  of  ex-Premier 
Saionji  as  the  head  of  a  new  cabinet,  and  other 
adversaries  of  Count  Okuma  proposed  Baron 
Goto  for  the  position,  the  Elder  Statesmen  ad- 
vised the  Emperor,  and  Tokyo  business-men  sec- 
onded the  advice,  that  Count  Okuma  be  retained 
as  premier.  The  Emperor  therefore  requested 
Count  Okuma  to  reconsider  his  resignation,  and 
on  August  8th  the  latter  reconstructed  his  cabi- 
net as  follows:  Premier  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  Count  Shigenobu  Okuma;  minister  of 
finance,  Tokitoshi  Taketomi;  minister  of  ma- 
rine, Vice- Admiral  Tomasaburo  Kato;  minister 
of  war,  Lieut.-Gen.  Tchinosuke  Oka;  minister  of 
justice,  Yukio  Ozaki;  minister  of  communica- 
tions, Katsundo  Minoura;  minister  of  commerce 
and  agriculture,  Hironaka  Kono;  minister  of 
education,  S.  Takata;  minister  of  interior,  Kito- 
kura  Ichiki.  Four  days  later  Baron  Kikujiro 
Ishii,  ambassador  to  France,  accepted  the  port- 
folio of  foreign  affairs  in  the  new  Okuma  cabi- 
net. It  is  noticeable  that  the  foreign  minister 
and  the  finance  minister,  who  had  b^  most  se- 
verely censured  by  the  Diet,  were  eliminated 
from  the  reconstructed  cabinet.  Late  in  Septem- 
ber a  preliminary  judicial  investigation  found 
K.  Hayashida,  the  secretary  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  guilty  of  bribery  in  connection 
with  the  attempt  to  secure  support  for  the  Army 
Bill  by  corrupt  methods.  Seventeen  members 
and  former  members  of  the  House  were  likewise 
found  guilty  of  corruption.  The  sums  given  to 
Secretary  Hayashida  by  ex-Minister  Oura  and 
distributed  as  bribes  amounted  in  all  to  about 
40,000  yen   ($20,000). 

Japan  and  the  Eubopean  War.  Japan's  ac- 
tivities throughout  1914  with  regard  to  the  Eu- 
ropean war  had  been  mainly  confined  to  the 
capture  of  Kiaochow  and  the  imprisonment  of 
German  and  Austrian  soldiers  and  sailors. 
Early  in  January,  1915,  a  desire  was  manifested 
in  the  French  press  that  Japan  be  asked  to  send 
troops  to  the  western  battle  front.  Prominent 
among  those  who  advocated  this  action  were  M. 
Pichon  and  M.  Clemenceau.  The  proposition 
was  discountenanced  in  Great  Britain  on  the 
ground  that  Kitchener  would  soon  be  able  to 
send  another  British  army  to  the  Continent,  and 
the  Japanese  would  not  be  needed.  Further- 
more, Great  Britain  knew  that  Japan  was  likely 
to  ask  for  financial  assistance  and  freedom  of 
action  in  China  in  return  for  her  military  aid, 
and  British  statesmen  questioned  whether  the 
assistance  which  Japan  might  offer  would  be 
worth  this  price.  Japan,  however,  had  little 
thought  of  sending  an  army  into  France  or  Ger- 
many. Baron  Kato,  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
said  late  in  January:  "It  is  a  question  which 
should  not  be  lightly  discussed,  as  it  has  no  di- 
rect bearing  on  either  Japanese  national  exist- 
ence or  the  peace  of  the  Far  East,  and  it  further 
would  seriously  affect  Japan's  finances."    Baron 


Kato  realized,  however,  that  Japan  would  not 
be  immune,  if  Germany  were  successful;  there- 
fore, he  maintained  that  the  country  must  be  in 
readiness  to  send  troops  to  Europe  if  it  became 
necessary  in  order  to  ensure  the  success  of  the 
Allies.  With  the  Chinese  situation  finally 
cleared  up,  Japan,  in  July,  decided  to  offer  aid 
to  the  Allies  in  the  form  of  war  munitions.  Jap- 
anese forts  in  Manchuria  were  stripped  of  their 
great  guns;  boots,  explosives,  ammunition,  and 
gun  cases  were  manufactured  in  great  quanti- 
ties and  shipped  across  Russia  to  the  western 
front.  New  munitions  factories  were  con- 
structed in  many  parts  of  Japan,  turning  out 
great  quantities  of  war  supplies,  for  which 
France  and  Great  Britain  pledged  payment.  In 
August,  the  announcement  was  made  that  since 
the  beginning  of  the  war  Japan  had  lost  1200 
men  in  killed  and  wounded.  Late  in  October,  the 
Japanese  government  announced  that,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  request  which  had  been  received 
ten  days  earlier,  Japan  had  given  her  adhesion, 
October  19th,  to  the  Pact  of  London,  binding 
herself,  as  the  other  Entente  Allies  had  already 
done,  not  to  conclude  a  separate  treaty  of  peace 
with  the  Central  Powers. 

For  Japanese  relations  with  the  United  States, 
consult  United  States,  Foreign  Relations;  for 
relations  with  China,  consult  China. 

JAPANESE  POWDBB.    See  Antiseptics. 

JAVA.    See  Dutch  East  Indies. 

JEWISH  AOBICT7LTTTBAL  AND  INDUS- 
TBIAL  AID  SOCIETY.  See  Agbicultukal 
Credit 

JEWS  AND  JUDAISM.  It  is  still  impos- 
sible to  give  reliable  and  up-to-date  statistics  of 
the  world's  Jewish  population.  The  most  recent 
and  authoritative  estimate,  that  of  The  Ameri- 
can Jewish  Year  Book  for  191&-16,  reckons  the 
total  Jewish  population  of  the  world  as  13,277,- 
542,  distributed  as  follows:  Africa,  413,259; 
America,  2,500,054;  Asia,  356,617;  Australia, 
19,415;  and  Europe,  9,988,197.  By  countries, 
the  same  estimate  shows  55,000  Jews  in  the  Ar- 
^ntine  Republic;  17,287  in  Australia;  2,258,262 
in  Austria-Hungary;  15,000  in  Belgium;  37,656 
in  Bulgaria;  75,681  in  Canada;  100,000  in 
France;  615,000  in  Germany;  6127  in  Greece; 
43,929  in  Italy;  269,015  in  Rumania;  6,060,415 
in  the  Russian  Empire;  5729  in  Serbia;  4000  in 
Spain;  19,023  in  Switzerland;  188,900  in  Tur- 
key; 245,000  in  the  United  Kingdom;  and  2,- 
349,754  in  the  United  States.  Most  of  these 
figures,  however,  fall  considerably  below  the 
actual  present  populations  in  the  respective  coun- 
tries. For  instance,  Russia  at  the  close  of  1915 
is  estimated  to  have  had  approximately  7,000,000 
Jewish  inhabitants;  the  United  States,  3,000,- 
000;  Galicia,  1,000,000;  and  Serbia,  6500.  But 
the  war,  by  creating  a  large  "floating"  Jewish 
population  in  the  various  war-zones,  practically 
nullifies  the  most  careful  estimates.  Likewise, 
ante-bellum  estimates  for  the  non-belligerent 
countries  having  an  appreciable  immigration  in 
normal  times  are  apt  to  run  too  high  just  to 
the  extent  that  they  are  reckoned  upon  the  regu- 
lar tide  of  immigration  which  the  war  has 
checked. 

General  Events.  With  close  to  three-quar- 
ters of  a  million  Jews  under  arms  and  more 
than  three-fourths  of  the  world's  Jewish  popu- 
lation living  in  the  war  zone,  all  accounts  of 
Jewish  life  and  progress  during  1915  must  still 
be  written  in  terms  of  the  great  world-conflict. 


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JEWS  AND  JUDAISM 


362 


JEWS  AND  JUDAISM 


In   the   eastern    European    theatre   alone   more 
than  half  the  Jews  of  the  world  are  directly  af- 
fected by  the  clash  of  arms,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  over   250,000   of  them   have   already   been 
killed  or  incapacitated  at  the  various  war  fronts. 
While  in  1914  the  greatest  Jewish  suffering  pre- 
vailed in   Galicia,  this  year  the  changing  for- 
tunes of  war  have  wrought  the  greatest  havoc 
among  the  Jews  of  what  was  formerly  Russian 
Poland.    In    the    German    capture    of    Warsaw 
alone  upwards  of  306,000  Jews  were  concerned 
directly — and  perhaps  twice  that  number  indi- 
rectly,  since  tJiis  great  Polish  city    (with   its 
306,061    Jewish   inhabitants   in    1010)    was   the 
largest  Jewish  centre  in  Europe  and  the  very 
heart  and  soul  of  east  European  Jewry.     Like- 
wise, with  the  fall  of  Kovno  the  greatest  centre 
of  Jewish  culture  in  Russia  was  temporarily  or 
permanently  destroyed.    Indeed,  it  appears  that 
all  the  open  country  of  Poland  has  been  entirely 
denuded  of  its  Jewish  population,  where  it  con- 
stituted one-sixth   of  the  total  number  of  in- 
habitants.   Such  of  them  as  have  not  fled  to  the 
interior  of  Russia  are  now  under  German  do- 
minion, and  the  uncertainty  of  their  social  and 
political  status  makes  their  lot  unusually  pre- 
carious.   Nor   has  the   situation   of  the   Pales- 
tinian  Jews   improved  during   the  year.     Even 
the  herculean  efforts  of  Ambassador  Morgcnthau 
could  not  check  the  Turkish  atrocities,  which  not 
only  have  ruined  the  prosperous  Zionist  colony, 
but  encompassed  the  ruin  and  expulsion  of  the 
rest  of  the  Jews  who  would  not  embrace  Mo- 
hammedanism and  swear  allegiance  to  the  Cres- 
cent. 

Under  such  untoward  circumstances,  all  nor- 
mal Jewish  communal  life  has  necessarily  lan- 
guished. Instead,  all  Jewish  organized  activity 
in  the  non-belligerent  countries — and  more  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States — has  been  directed  to 
measures  of  relief,  appeals  for  which  from  Jew- 
ish war-sufferers,  as  from  all  others,  taxed  all 
the  available  resources.  To  cope  with  this  im- 
precedented  task,  for  which  all  the  existing  phil- 
anthropic organizations  soon  proved  woefully  in- 
adequate, three  special  relief  organizations  were 
formed  during  the  year — ^The  American  Jewish 
Relief  Committee,  The  Central  Relief  Committee, 
and  The  People's  Relief  Committee — ^in  the 
United  States  alone.  The  very  energetic  work 
of  these  organizations,  all  of  which  have  their 
headquarters  in  New  York  City,  may  be  set  down 
as  one  of  the  greatest  events  of  the  year  in 
Jewish  life.  Several  million  dollars  have  al- 
ready been  paid  or  pledged  to  the  above-men- 
tioned committees  (over  a  million  at  a  single 
mass  meeting  on  December  21st  in  Carnegie 
Hall,  New  York)  for  Jewish  relief  in  the  war 
zone,  and  the  $5,000,000  mark  will  probably  be 
reached  early  in  1916. 

Alonff  with  these  efforts  toward  temporary 
alleviation  of  want  and  suffering  among  their 
war-ridden  oo-religionists,  the  Jews  of  America 
have  been  making  plans  for  the  permanent  bet- 
terment of  Jewish  life  after  the  war.  These  in- 
volve the  calling  of  a  Jewish  Congress,  as  soon 
as  circumstances  are  favorable,  to  consider  ways 
and  means  for  safeguarding  Jewish  interests  in 
all  belligerent  countries  when  peace  shall  have 
been  made.  Naturally,  the  date  for  such  a  con- 
vocation, which  won  the  favor  during  the  year 
of  23  large  national  and  central  Jewish  organiza- 
tions (with  a  total  membership  of  914,840)  and 
of  960  independent  organizations  not  affiliated 


with   any   of  the   former,   was  not  set  during 
1915.     But  the  unwonted  unanimity  thus  mani- 
fested  is  in  itself  one  of  the  most  significant 
Jewish  events  of  the  year,  if  not  of  the  century. 
Disabilities    and    Pebsecution.    While    the 
Jew's  readiness  to  serve  with  the  colors  of  his 
respective  domicile  has  silenced  considerable  hos- 
tile criticism  of  the  Jewish  race,  there  has  been 
no  appreciable  lessening  of  his  disabilities  or 
abatement  in  his  persecution  during  the  second 
year  of  the  war.    The  only  two  instances  of  the 
former  were  the  extension  of  the  Pale  of  Settle- 
ment by  Russia,  which,  forced  to  accommodate 
the  large  influx  of  Jews  from  Poland,  thus  made 
a  virtue  of  necessity;  and  the  granting  of  equal 
educational  rights  by  Germany  to  her  new  Jew- 
ish subjects  in  the  conquered  Polish  territory. 
But  even  this  seemingly  clear  gain  appears  to 
have  been  offset  by  a  loss  in  religious  rights. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  neither  Russia 
nor  Germany  has  shown  a  true  change  of  heart 
so  far  as  the  Jews  are  concerned,  although  in 
the  former  many  strong  pleas  were  made  in  their 
behalf   in   the  last  Duma.     Both   evinced   some 
eagerness  at  times,  especially  when  the  wavering 
fortunes  of  war  on  the  plains  of  Galicia  and 
Poland  made  military  aid  precious,  to  conciliate 
the  Jews.    But  the  moment  the  steam  roller  of 
the  victorious  army  would  pass,  new  horrors  of 
abuse  and  persecution  would  be  enacted.    Thus, 
when  Przemysl  was  taken  by  the  Russians  (with 
the  help  of  many  Jewish  soldiers,  to  be  sure) 
about  7000  Jews  were  expelled  from  that  Ga- 
lician  city.     A  somewhat  similar  act  of  ingrati- 
tude to  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Jews  fight- 
ing under  the  Russian  colors  was  the  Tsar's  sus- 
pension of  every  Jewish  newspaper  or  periodical 
in  the  summer  of  1915,  while  the  postal  edict 
against  all  Yiddish  correspondence  remained  in 
full  force,  thus  making  impossible  all  written 
intercourse  for  thousands  of  Jews  knowing  but 
their  own  language.    At  the  same  time  the  Jews 
in  the  Russo-Prussian  war-zone  became  the  mil- 
itary scapegoats,  whom  the  losing  side  would 
invariably  blame  for  the  changing  fortunes  of 
war,  charging  them  with  espionage  and  other 
connivance  with  the  enemy.    In  tliis  way  over 
500,000  Jews  were  expelled  during  the  year  from 
the  eastern  war-zone  alone,  while  the  treatment 
of  those  who  were  spared  was  but  little  better 
than  downright  expulsion.    The  only  slight  con- 
cession to  Jewish  pride  by  either  Slav  or  Teuton 
in  the  year  under  review — and  this  so  obviously 
a  military  measure — ^was  Germany's  prohibition 
of  the  circulation  of  picture-cards  casting  reflec- 
tions on  Jewish  soldiers. 

Labob  and  Legislation.  The  year  has  been 
unusually  free  from  large  labor  strikes  involving 
the  Jewish  trades.  Nor  was  there  much  legisla- 
tion enacted  affecting  Jews  in  particular.  In 
the  United  States  Jewish  interests  were  directly 
favored  in  several  ways.  Of  these,  the  law 
passed  by  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  (emu- 
lating that  previously  enacted  by  the  Empire 
State)  prohibiting  all  racial  or  religious  dis- 
crimination in  hotel  or  boarding-house  advertise- 
ments is  socially  the  most  important.  The  new 
New  York  law  making  it  a  misdemeanor  falsely 
to  label  meat  or  other  food  "Kosher"  (that  is, 
strictly  in  compliance  with  Jewish  dietary  prin- 
ciples) is  another  instance.  Of  general  legisla- 
tion concerning  Jews,  together  with  other  foreign 
races,  mention  should  1^  made  of  the  defeat  of 
the  literacy  test  for  voters  in  the  State  of  New 


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York;  the  spread  of  the  movement  against  Bible- 
reading  in  public  schools;  and  the  Supreme 
Court  ruling,  reversing  two  lower  Federal 
Courts,  that  only  the  fitness  of  the  immigrant, 
and  not  the  external  conditions  of  the  place  of 
his  destination,  should  determine  his  admissibil- 
ity to  the  United  States.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  compulsory  Sunday-closing  law,  so  onerous 
to  Jewish  storekeepers,  remained  on  the  statute 
books  of  New  York  and  other  States.  The  infa- 
mous Frank  case  furnished  the  only  semblance 
of  anti-Semitism  in  the  United  States  during  the 
year. 

LlTDIAJElT  AND  MiNOB  EVENTS.      Hie  eKoduS  of 

Jewish  writers  and  scholars  from  belligerent 
Europe  to  the  United  States  ^eatly  dimin- 
ished during  1016.  Literary  activity,  however, 
has  been  stimulated  considerably  by  the  impor- 
tant arrivals  of  last  year,  as  well  as  by  the  re- 
newed general  interest  in  Jews  and  Judaism 
incident  to  the  war.  By  far  the  greatest  Jewish 
literary  event  of  the  year  was  the  actual  com- 
pletion of  the  new  version  of  the  Bible,  upon 
which  an  eminent  board  of  Jewish  scholars  ^d 
translators  had  been  engaged  for  seven  years. 
Of  somewhat  similar,  though  lesser  importance, 
was  the  conference  of  Hebrew  scholars,  held  on 
August  19th,  to  consider  plans  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  classics.  The  formation  in 
England  of  The  Society  of  Hebraic  Studies,  with 
the  object  of  encouraging  Jewish  learning  and 
research,  may  be  regard^  as  one  of  the  most 
promising  literary-educational  Jewish  events  of 
the  year.  Among  minor  and  miscellaneous 
events  of  Jewish  commimal  or  religious  life,  we 
may  mention  the  celebration  of  the  25th  anni- 
versaries of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund,  the  Edu- 
cational Alliance  of  New  York,  and  the  Relief 
Societies  of  Newark  and  Kansas  City ;  the  golden 
jubilees  of  the  Temple  Israel  of  Akron,  and  the 
Jewish  Hospital  of  Philadelphia;  the  70th  anni- 
versary of  the  Temple  Emanu-el,  which  has 
thrown  its  doors  open  during  the  year  to  daily 
noon-hour  services;  and  the  75th  anniversary  of 
the  Beth  Israel  Congregation  of  Philadelphia. 
In  this  connection,  the  dissolution  of  the  Jewish 
Social  Service  Federation  of  Denver,  Colo.,  might 
also  be  mentioned. 

Zionism.  Whatever  is  to  be  the  future  of 
Zionism  after  this  great  war — and  it  is  very 
likely  to  take  on  new  life  and  meaning  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  war's  bitter  lessons — for  the  present 
this  spiritual  movement  is  absolutely  sit  a  stand- 
still. The  year  under  review  completed  the  ruin 
of  the  prosperous  and  promising  Jewish  colony 
in  Palestine  which,  before  the  war  broke  out, 
seemed  destined  to  reach  the  150,000  population 
mark  by  1920.  At  the  same  time  the  exigencies 
of  war-relief,  as  already  stated,  have  completely 
diverted  all  Jewish  organized  endeavor  into 
other  directions.  Under  this  double  set-back, 
necessarily  accentuated  during  the  second  year 
of  war,  the  Zionist  cause  has  made  no  progress 
whatever  in  1915.  It  has,  on  the  contrary,  gone 
considerably  backward  so  far  as  its  objective 
manifestation  is  concerned.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  death  during  the  year  of  the 
famous  Zionist  leader,  David  Wolffsohn,  assumes 
a  somewhat  symbolic  significance. 

JITNEY.  During  1915  there  spread  through 
the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  and  even 
in  certain  Eastern  States,  a  movement  in  city 
transportation  which  had  its  effect  on  the  older 
methods    and    aroused    considerable   discussion. 

T.  B.— la 


This  was  the  use  of  itinerant  automobiles  or 
auto  busses  known  as  "jitneys,"  a  term  that 
originated  in  Los  Angeles  and  originally  repre- 
sented the  five-cent  piece.  The  first  jitneys  were 
to  be  seen  in  Los  Angeles,  and  from  that  city 
the  idea  spread  to  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  and 
other  coast  cities,  Texas,  to  Detroit,  Toledo,  and 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  vehicles  em- 
ployed varied  all  the  way  from  four-passenger 
cars,  which  often  were  loaded  far  in  excess  of 
their  capacity,  to  large  busses,  and  the  routes 
selected  were  along  the  most  traveled  highways. 
The  rule  was  to  receive  five  cents  for  any  length 
of  ride  within  the  limits  of  operation,  and  many 
owners  of  cheaper  cars  rushed  into  this  business 
which  originally  was  carried  on  without  fran- 
chise or  municipal  regulation.  Naturally  the 
competition  was  felt  by  the  street  railway  or 
omnibus  lines  operating  under  franchise  and  in 
many  cases  returning  to  the  city  a  portion  of 
their  receipts  for  the  privilege  of  carrying  on 
such  service.  Like  other  civic  ideas  with  so 
rapid  a  spread,  the  jitney  fiourished  for  a  few 
months,  and  while  it  continued  in  a  certain  num- 
ber of  cities  on  more  favorable  routes,  yet  it  was 
not  considered  a  permanent  feature.  The  de- 
preciation, even  on  the  cheaper  cars  employed, 
was  too  much  to  make  the  undertaking  profit- 
able, and  while  the  public  was  anxious  to  avail 
itself  of  such  cheap  means  of  transportation,  the 
operators  soon  came  to  realize  the  lack  of  profit. 
Municipal  councils  were  called  upon  to  pro- 
tect the  holders  of  franchises  as  well  as  the 
users  of  the  streets  by  adopting  license  regu- 
lation systems  which  interfered  materially  with 
the  ease  with  which  the  jitney  could  be  put  to 
work. 

JOFFBEy  Joseph  Jacques  C£saibe  (1852 — ). 
A  French  soldier  and  mathematician,  born  in 
Rivesaltes,  Pyr^^s.  He  was  a  student  of  mili- 
tary engineering  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  when 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  broke  out.  He  served 
with  an  artillexy  battery  during  that  war.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1874  and  fought  at  Tong- 
king  and  in  Dahomey.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  French  occupation  of  Timbucktu  (1894) 
and  in  the  campaigns  in  Madagascar  (1897). 
Upon  his  return  to  France  he  taught  in  the 
Higher  War  School.  In  1911  he  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  general  staff.  He  was  an  ardent 
advocate  of  the  three  years'  military  service  bill 
which  became  a  law  in  1913.  Upon  the  out- 
break of  the  great  war  in  1914,  he  was  made 
conmiander  in  chief  of  all  the  French  armies,  and 
was  the  guiding  genius  who  turned  back  the 
great  German  offensive  against  Paris  in  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Marne  (September,  1914).  President 
Poincar^  decorated  him  with  the  military  medal 
for  his  efficient  service  in  this  war.  See  Fbance, 
History;  and  Wab  op  the  Nations. 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  TTNIVEBSITY.  An  in- 
stitution for  higher  learning  and  special  educa- 
tion, founded  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1876.  The 
total  number  in  all  departments  (including  sum- 
mer students)  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  about 
1600.  The  faculty  numbered  256.  E.  H.  Griffin, 
dean  of  the  college  faculty,  resigned  in  June, 
1915,  and  M.  P.  Brush  was  appointed  acting 
dean.  The  productive  fiuds  of  the  university 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to 
about  $7,000,000,  and  the  income  during  1914-15 
to  $545,149.  The  library  contained  about  190,- 
000  volumes. 

JOHOBE.     A    native    state    located    at    the 


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southern  extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
under  British  control.  Estimated  area,  9000 
square  miles;  population  (1911),  180,412,  about 
half  Malays  and  one-third  Chinese.  Johore 
Bharu,  the  capital,  has  about  20,000  inhabitants. 
Imports  and  exports  (1913),  9,304,509  and  14,- 
212,850  Straits  Settlements  dollars.  Revenue 
and  expenditure  (1913),  4,378,555  and  3,267,484 
dollars;  public  debt,  8,852,492  dollars.  A  rail- 
way, constructed  by  the  Federated  Malay  States 
Railways,  connects  Kuala  Gemas  on  the  Negri 
Sembilan  border  with  Johore  Bharu  (120^ 
miles). 

JONES,  Henbt  Abthub.  See  Dbama,  Ameb- 
ic an  AND  EnGUSH. 

JOYCE,  John  Alexandeb.  An  American  sol- 
dier and  writer,  died  Jan.  18,  1915.  He  was 
born  at  Shraugh,  Ireland,  in  1840,  and  when  still 
a  young  man  removed  with  his  parents  to  Con- 
necticut. He  graduated  from  the  Highland  T^it- 
erary  Institute  in  1859,  and  afterwards  studied 
law.  He  entered  the  Union  service  as  a  private 
in  1861,  rising  to  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant 
in  the  following  year,  but  was  discharged  for 
wounds  in  1864.  After  the  war  he  practiced  law, 
at  the  same  time  devoting  much  time  to  writing. 
His  published  writings  include:  Checkered  JAfe 
(1883);  Peculiar  Poems  (1885);  Jewels  of 
Memory  ( 1 896 ) ;  Complete  Poems  ( 1899 ) ; 
Oliver  Ooldsmith  ( 1900) ;  Edgar  Allan  Poe 
( 1901 ) ;  Personal  Recollections  of  Shakespeare 
(1901) ;  Robert  Bums;  and  The  Life  of  Lincoln. 

JXXDAISIC.    See  Jews  and  Judaism. 

JT7PITEB,  Satellites  or.    See  Astbonomt. 

JUVENILE  COXTSTS.  Juvenile  courts  are 
at  present  largely  restricted  to  the  cities,  an.d  in 
rural  communities  arrest  and  conviction  are  for 
the  most  part  still  in  use.  The  West  of  the 
United  States  is  in  advance  of  the  East  in  this 
matter.  The  advocates  of  the  juvenile  court 
with  its  probation  officers  and  social  service 
work  urge  that  seeking  out  and  remedying  social 
conditions  is  more  important  than  technical 
trials  and  verdicts.  The  condition  of  the  child 
must  be  considered  rather  than  the  majesty  of 
the  law.  However,  it  is  felt  that  the  impres- 
sion must  be  made  that  proceedings  are  con- 
nected with  established  legal  principles.  The 
abolishment  of  trial  by  jury  and  its  replace- 
ment by  private  hearings  before  the  judge,  with 
the  motive  of  protecting  erring  and  delinquent 
children  as  well  as  their  parents,  is  now  very 
widely  approved.  The  delinquent  child  is  con- 
sidered in  need  of  the  protection  and  care  of  the 
State.  Clinics  are  recommended  to  correct  phys- 
ical defects  in  children  which  are  held  in  large 
degree  to  be  responsible  for  violations  of  the 
law,  and  such  clinics  have  now  been  established 
in  most  of  the  larger  cities.  Mr.  Bernard  Flex- 
ner  even  suggested  that  in  speaking  of  child  de> 
linquency  criminal  terminology  be  altogether 
abandoned. 

Scientific  Studies.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant phases  of  the  development  of  the  juvenile 
court  idea  is  the  opportunity  afforded  to  make 
numerous  physical  and  psychological  examina-. 
tions  of  delinquent  children.  Thus  the  psycho- 
pathic laboratories  and  clinics  in  connection  with 
the  Chicago  Boys'  Court,  and  the  juvenile  courts 
at  Boston  and  New  York,  showed  from  numerous 
observations  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  de- 
fendants, especially  the  repeaters  and  those  ar- 
rested on  trivial  charges,  were  mentally  subnor- 
mal and  therefore  unfit  to  meet  the  requirements 


of  city  life  and  discipline.  Some  investigators 
have  estimated  the  proportion  of  feeble-minded 
among  child-offenders  as  high  as  25  per  cent  or 
more.  But  Dr.  Augusta  F.  Bronner,  assistant 
director  of  the  Psychopathic  Institute,  attached 
to  the  Juvenile  Court  in  Chicago,  thinks  this  a 
gross  exaggeration.  She  made  a  study  of  505 
boys  and  girls  in  the  detention  home  of  the  Juve- 
nile Court.  She  found  88.9  per  cent  of  these  chil- 
dren undoubtedly  normal,  90.6  per  cent  of  the 
boys  and  87.2  per  cent  of  the  girls;  7  per  cent  of 
the  boys  and  11.2  per  cent  of  the  girls  were 
feeble-minded,  and  2.4  per  cent  were  doubtful. 
She  emphasized  the  point  that  the  proportion  of 
subnormal  was  probably  not  over  10  per  cent 
and  therefore  not  nearly  so  large  as  careless  in- 
vestigators have  led  us  to  expect. 

The  Ohio  Bubeau  of  Juvenile  Reseabch,  es- 
tablished July  1,  1914,  works  on  the  principle 
that  the  welfare  of  the  race  requires  that  artifi- 
cial restraints  be  imposed  on  the  undue  multipli- 
cation of  defective  stocks.  One  section  of  the 
Ohio  statute  says,  "All  minors,  who  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  court  require  State  constitutional 
care  and  guardianship,  shall  be  wards  of  the  State 
and  shall  be  committed  to  the  care  and  custody  of 
the  *Ohio  Board  of  Administration,'  which  board 
thereupon  becomes  vested  with  the  sole  and  ex- 
clusive guardianship  of  such  minors."  The 
records  of  observations  and  examinations  upon 
children  are  to  be  kept  in  the  most  scientific 
manner  and  will  enable  the  authorities  to  deal 
with  each  child  much  more  intelligently  than 
heretofore. 

Judge  Lindset.  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsey, 
founder  of  the  Juvenile  Court  of  Colorado,  was 
arrested  on  the  charge  of  contempt  of  court  and 
of  conniving  at  the  commission  of  perjury.  The 
case  developed  as  follows:  A  12  year  old  boy, 
the  son  of  a  woman  under  trial  for  murder  of 
her  husband,  testified  that  he  fired  the  fatal  shot 
while  striving  to  wrest  from  his  mother's  hands 
the  gun  which  she  picked  up  in  self  defense.  The 
boy  was  brought  before  Judge  Lindsey  and  ex- 
amined as  to  the  accuracy  of  his  story  after  a 
pledge  of  sacred  confidence  on  the  part  of  the 
judge.  The  judge  claimed  he  desired  to  make 
tests  of  the  hoy's  veracity  because  of  the  value  of 
such  psychological  experiments  in  his  work  as 
judge  of  the  juvenile  court.  Judge  Lindsey  was 
then  called  upon  to  testify  at  the  trial  and  re- 
veal what  the  boy  had  told  him.  He  refused  to 
disclose  what  he  had  learned,  saying  that  such 
action  would  destroy  the  strength  of  the  juvenile 
court.  He  was  then  tried  before  Judge  Perry  of 
the  Second  Judicial  District  of  Colorado,  who 
handed  down  the  decision  that  Judge  Lindsey 
was  guilty.  This  case  was  appealed  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  State.  "The  whole  theory  of 
the  juvenile  court  is  founded  on  the  building  up 
of  a  relation  of  trust  between  the  judge  and 
those  who  come  before  him  in  the  position  of 
wards.  The  successful  handling  of  each  new 
problem  which  confronts  the  judge  is  based  upon 
the  reputation  for  fairness  and  honor  which  he 
has  established  in  treating  the  problems  of  the 

fast."  *  While  opinion  was  divided  as  to  Judge 
lindsey's  guilt  when  viewed  from  narrow  legal- 
istic points  of  view,  there  was  general  belief  that 
on  broad  principles  of  public  policy  his  action 
was  justified.    See  also  Oolobado,  Politics, 

XAISEB-WILHELMSLANB.     That  part  of 
what  was,  until  the  War  of  the  Nations,  the 
*  The  OutlooK  110  :  846. 


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KANSAS 


protectorate  of  German  New  Guinea,  which  is  in 
the  Island  of  New  Guinea.  The  area,  estimated 
at  70,135  square  miles,  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Oklahoma.    See  German  New  Guinea. 

KAJCEBXTN.  A  German  protectorate  on  the 
west  coast  of  central  Africa,  between  Nigeria  and 
French  Equatorial  Africa.  Its  northerly  exten- 
sion reaches  Lake  Chad,  and  its  easterly,  at  one 
point,  the  Ubangi  River.  The  coast  line  is 
broken  by  Rfo  Muni  y  Cabo  San  Juan  (Spanish 
Guinea).  The  estimated  area  is  700,000  square 
kilometers  (305,000  square  miles,  an  area  about 
46  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  Germany,  or 
nearly  three  times  as  large  as  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania  combined).  Exclusive 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  territory  ceded  by 
France  in  1011,  the  native  population  is  esti- 
mated at  2,640,000;  other  colored,  2000;  the 
population  of  the  ceded  territory  is  supposed  to 
approximate  1,000,000.  The  number  of  whites, 
Jan.  1,  1013,  was  1871,  of  whom  Germans,  1643. 
Missions,  three  Protestant,  and  one  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Government  schools,  four,  with  over  800 
pupils.  Upwards  of  24,000  pupils  receive  mis- 
sion instruction.  In  the  year  1012-13,  72  whites 
and  11,220  natives  were  convicted  in  the  courts. 
The  military  in  1014  included  205  Germans  and 
1650  natives;  police,  47  and  1450.  Imports  and 
exports  increased  in  value  from  23,806,000  and 
12,500,000  marks  respectively  in  1007  to  26,580,- 
000  and  10,024,000  in  1010,  34,242,000  and  23,- 
336,000  in  1012,  and  34,616,000  and  20,151,000 
in  1013.  Chief  exports  in  1012  and  1013:  Rub- 
ber, 11,302,000  and  12,122,000  marks;  palm  ker- 
nels, 4,406,000  and  6,226,000;  cacao,  3,721,000 
and  5,718,000;  palm  oil,  1,622,000  and  1,061,000; 
kola  nuts,  167,000  and  071,000;  timber,  606,000 
and  041,000;  ivory,  536,000  and  824,000.  Im- 
ports from  and  exports  to  Germany  in  1011,  23,- 
047,000  and  18,471,000;  in  1012,  27,216,000  and 
10,841,000.  At  the  end  of  1013  there  were  in 
operation  310  kilometers  (103  miles)  of  rail- 
way, the  Northern  Railway  having  an  extension 
of  160  kilometers,  and  the  Midland,  150;  under 
construction,  133  kilometers.  Local  revenue  in 
1012-13  and  1013-14,  8,000,000  and  11,306,000 
marks  respectively;  expenditure,  13,340,000  and 
17,260,000;  in  the  former  vear  an  additional  ex- 
penditure of  2,000,000  marks  was  met  by  a  loan, 
and  in  the  latter  year  15,230,000  marks.  The 
budget  for  1014-15  balanced  at  32,400,400  marks, 
estimated  local  receipts  amounting  to  14,004,001 
marks;  imperial  contribution,  3,163,318;  and 
loan,  15,230,000.  The  administrative  headquar- 
ters is  Bute. 

The  Anglo-French  forces  which  had  begun  the 
invasion  of  the  Kamerun  protectorate  in  the 
autunm  of  1014  (see  1014  Yeab  Book)  made 
rapid  progress  in  1015.  While  a  blockade  was 
maintained  against  the  coast,  a  French  column 
advanced  up  the  Sanaga  River,  penetrating  in- 
land from  Duala  and  Edea,  which  had  been  cap- 
tured in  1014.  A  simultaneous  attack  was  de- 
livered in  the  north  from  the  direction  of  Yola 
(in  Nigeria).  The  forces  from  Nigeria  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Garue,  on  the  Benue  River, 
on  June  11th.  Ngaundere,  over  100  miles  fur- 
ther south,  fell  on  June  20th.  The  German 
forces,  attacked  from  both  sides,  were  unable  to 
put  up  any  effective  resistance,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  colony  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Allies. 

KANSAS.  Population.  The  population  of 
the  State  in  1015  according  to  the  decennial  cen- 


sus was  1,672,545.     In  1010  the  population  was 
1,600,040. 

Agbiculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1014-15  were  as  follows: 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu, 

Yaiue 

Corn    

..1915 

5.500,000 

172,060,000 

$87,746,000 

1914 

5,850,000 

108,226,000 

68,182.000 

Wheat     .  . 

..1916 

8.525,000 

106.588,000 

94,819.000 

1914 

8.660,000 

177,200.000 

168.840.000 

Gate     

..1916 

1,650,000 

48,725,000 

16.178,000 

1914 

1,760,000 

58,960,000 

24,763,000 

Rye    

..1915 

50.000 

800,000 

608,000 

1914 

50.000 

1,000,000 

800,000 

Barley     .  . 

..1915 

270,000 

8.370,000 

8,515;000 

1914 

240,000 

5.880,000 

2,764.000 

Potatoes    . 

..1916 

71,000 

5,898,000 

4.861.000 

1914 

72,000 

4.464.000 

8,437,000 

Hay     .... 

..1915 

1,766,000 

a  4,062,000 

22,747,000 

1914 

1,650,000 

2,492.000 

18,441,000 

a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1015,  horses  numbered  1,100,000  and 
1,132,000,  valued  at  $107,573,000  and  $105,276.- 
000;  mules  numbered  245,000  and  233,000, 
valued  at  $26,725,000  and  $23,766,000;  milch 
cows  numbered  762,000  and  726,000,  valued  at 
$46,177,000  and  $46,101,000;  other  cattle  num- 
bered 1,045,000  and  1,768,000,  valued  at  $81,- 
106,000  and  $75,140,000;  sheep  numbered  341,000 
and  316,000,  valued  at  $1,010,000  and  $1,548,000; 
swine  numbered  2,815,000  and  2,656,000,  valued 
at  $25,616,000  and  $26,826,000.  The  production 
of  wool  in  1015  and  1016  was  1,403,000  and  1,- 
456,000  pounds,  respectively. 

MiXERAi  Pboduction.  The  production  of  coal 
in  the  State  in  1014  was  6,860,088  short  tons, 
valued  at  $11,238,253.  This  is  a  decrease  of 
341,222  tons  and  $708,030  in  value  under  the 
output  of  1013.  There  were  no  strikes  of  im- 
portance during  the  year.  The  number  of  men 
employed  in  the  coal  mines  in  1014  was  12,413. 
There  were  31  fatal  accidents.  The  output  of 
petroleum  in  1014  increased  by  more  than  30 
per  cent.  There  were  produced  3,103,585  bar- 
rels, compared  with  2,375,020  barrels  in  1013. 
The  value  of  oil  in  1014  was  $2,433,074,  com- 
pared with  $2,248,283  in  1013.  The  total  value 
of  mineral  products  in  1014  was  $25,866,351. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  on  June  30,  1014,  was  310,803.  Of  this, 
154,047  were  males  and  156,756  were  females. 
The  total  number  of  schools  was  14,844.  In  the 
high  schools  were  enrolled  42,831  pupils.  The 
total  expenditures  for  educational  purposes  were 
$12,210,174. 

Charities  and  Corbections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control  of 
the  State  include  the  State  Sanitarium  for  Tu- 
berculosis at  Norton,  the  State  Orphan's  Home 
at  Atchison,  Parsons  State  Hospital  for  Epi- 
leptics, State  Home  for  the  Feeble-minded  at 
Winfield,  the  Osawatomie  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane,  Topeka  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 
Lamed  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  The  leg- 
islature of  1015  provided  that  at  the  tuberculosis 
sanitorium,  counties  should  pay  three  dollars  a 
week  for  county  patients,  and  that  private  pa- 
tients should  pay  ten  dollars  per  week. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1014,  showed 
a  balance  on  July  30,  1013,  of  $1,735,276.  The 
receipts  for  the  period  amounted  to  $8,000,640, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


KANSAS 


366 


KEKTUCKY 


and  the  disbursements  to  $9,283,607,  leaving  a 
balance  on  June  30,  1914,  of  $1,451,318.  The 
State  bonded  debt  amounted  to  $1,590,000,  and 
will  be  paid  in  full  on  Jan.  1,  1916. 

Transportation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  Jan.  30,  1914,  was  7366.  Of  this, 
5226  was  single  track,  and  269  second  track. 
The  remainder  was  yard  track  and  sidings. 
Railroads  having  the  longest  mileage  were  the 
Missouri  Pacific,  2061;  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  F4,  1820;  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa- 
cific, 1133. 

Politics  and  Govebnicent.  The  L^slature 
met  in  1915  and  passed  several  important  meas- 
ures. These  included  two  measures  aimed  at 
strengthening  the  prohibition  law  of  the  State. 
One  of  these  provided  that  the  mimicipality 
where  liquor  is  sold  is  liable  for  damage  for  in- 
jury to  persons  or  property  resulting  from  in- 
toxication. The  other  measure  was  aimed  at 
those  who  permit  so  called  ''keg  parties"  to  be 
held  on  their  premises.  It  opposes  similar  lia- 
bility upon  the  owner  of  the  property  where 
liquor  is  sold  or  given  away.  (See  also  Legisla- 
tion IN  1916j  Liquor  Regulation.)  By  rule  of 
the  State  Civil  Service  Commission  beginning 
with  July  1,  1915,  all  State  employees  must  be 
total  abstainers.  On  January  25th,  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  declared  unconstitutional 
the  Kansas  statute  which  prohibited  an  employer 
from  requiring  that  an  employee  should  not  be  a 
member  of  the  labor  union. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Arthur  Cap- 
per; Lieutenant-Governor,  W.  Y.  Morgan;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  J.  T.  Botkin;  State  Auditor, 
W.  E.  Davis;  State  Treasurer,  Earl  Akers;  At- 
torney-General, S.  M.  Brewster;  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  W.  D.  Ross;  Superinten- 
dent of  Insurance,  Carey  J.  Wilson. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
William  A.  Johnston;  Justices,  Rousseau  A. 
Burch,  Henry  F.  Mason,  John  Marshall,  Silas 
Porter,  John  S.  Dawson,  J.  S.  West. 

State  Legislature: 

Senats  Houtt  Joi-nt  BaUot 

Democrate 21  49                  70 

Republicans    18  66                  84 

ProgreBsiveB    1  9                  10 

Socialists    0  1                   1 

Majority 2D  7R  8E 

KANSAS,  University  op.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  in  1866  at 
Lawrence,  Kan.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  2490.  The 
faculty  numbered  218.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  university  is  supported  almost  en- 
tirely by  legislative  appropriations,  which 
amounted  in  1915-16  to  $625,000,  and  has  an  en- 
dowment fund  of  about  $160,000.  The  library 
contained  100,000  volumes. 

KAOLIN.     See  Fuller's  Earth. 

KAT7S0LITE.  See  Chemistry,  Industrial, 
Exploaivea. 

KEDAH.  A  native  state  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  under  British  protec- 
tion. Area,  with  the  Langkawi  group  of  islands, 
3800  square  miles.  According  to  the  1911  cen- 
sus, the  population  was  245,986,  of  whom  80  per 
cent  were  Malay  and  13  per  cent  Chinese.  Sam- 
jHung  numbered  nearly  65,000,  and  Siamese  over 


8000.  Capital,  Alor  Star.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
and  rice,  coconuts,  and  rubber  are  planted.  Es- 
timated revenue  for  the  year  1913,  2,407,195 
Straits  Settlements  dollars;  expenditure,  2,341,- 
238.  Native  affairs  are  administered  by  the  Sul- 
tan (Abdul  Hamid  Halimshah  ibni  ^mat  Ta- 
judin),  or  at  present,  on  account  of  the  Sultan's 
ill-health,  by  his  eldest  son  (Tunku  Ibrahim)  as 
regent.  There  is  a  British  adviser.  The  loan 
(2,600,000  S.  S.  dollars),  negotiated  with  the 
Siamese  government  in  1905,  was  taken  over  by 
the  Federated  Malav  States  government  upon  the 
transfer  in  1909  of  the  suzerainty  of  the  state 
from  Siam  to  Great  Britain. 

KELANTAN.  A  protected  native  state  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Malay  Peninsula;  admin- 
istered by  the  hereditary  Rajah,  Muhammed 
(IV)  bin  Almerhum  Sultan  Muhammed,  under 
the  direction  of  a  resident  British  adviser.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  5870  square  miles,  and  the 
population  (1911)  at  286,752  (268,707  Malays, 
9844  Chinese,  5355  Siamese,  108  Europeans). 
Chinese  laborers  are  brought  in  to  work  on  the 
rubber  plantations.  Kota  Bharu,  the  capital, 
has  about  12,000  inhabitants,  and  contains  the 
Rajah's  palace  and  the  British  residency.  Other 
towns  are  Tumpat  (4000  inhabitants),  Bachak 
(2000),  Tabal  (2000),  Pasir  Puteh  (2000).  Ag- 
riculture, rubber  cultivation,  cattle-raising,  and 
fishing  are  the  principal  industries;  rice  and 
paddy,  copra,  rubber,  and  betel  nuts  are  exported. 
Gold  is  mined  and  tin  deposits  occur.  Roads  are 
building,  and  a  railway  from  Tumpat  is  under 
construction  across  the  state,  to  connect  ulti- 
mately with  the  Federated  Malay  States  system. 
The  (1913)  imports  amounted  to  3,948,325 
Straits  Settlements  dollars;  the  exports,  to 
2,022,307;  the  revenue  was  676,020,  and  the  ex- 
penditure, 672,137.  Kelantan  was  formally 
ceded  by  Siam  to  the  protection  of  Great  Britain, 
July  15,  1909. 

KELP.    See  Fertilizers. 

KENNEDY,  Sir  William  Rann.  An  Eng- 
lish jurist,  died  Jan.  15,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
1846,  educated  at  Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  later  became  a  fellow  of  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1871  he  was  made  a  bar- 
rister at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1885  was  ap- 
pointed Queen's  Counsel.  He  was  Judge  of  the 
King's  Bench  Division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  from  1892-1907,  in  the  latter  year  being 
made  a  Lord  of  Appeal,  and  knighted.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  authorities  on  maritime  law. 
He  contested  several  seats  in  Parliament. 

KENTUCKY.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
2,365,185.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,289,- 
905. 

Agriclxture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  foUow^s: 


Corn    1915 

1014 
Wheat 1915 

1014 
OatB    1015 

1014 
Rye   1015 

1014 
Barley 1015 

1014 
Potatoes    ..1015 

1014 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

8,800,000 

114,000,000 

8,650.000 

01,250,000 

000,000 

0,000,000 

760,000 

12,540,000 

210,000 

5,460,000 

175,000 

8,676,000 

24,000 

288,000 

22,000 

801,000 

6,000 

180,000 

5,000 

142,000 

51,000 

6,426,000 

50,000 

2,460,000 

Digitized  by  Vn 

Value 

$68,840,000 

68.400,000 

10.805.000 

12.016,000 

2.621,000 

1,948,000 

271,000 

286,000 

180,000 

109.000 

8.584,000 

1.890,000 


le 


1014        400,000     864.000,000     80.576.000 
o  Tbni.     b  Ponnds. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  434,000  and 
443,000,  valued  at  $39,060,000  and  $42,086,000; 
mules  numbered  229,000  and  231,000,  valued  at 
$23,368,000  and  $24,486,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 406,000  and  390,000,  valued  at  $18,189,000 
and  $17,746,000;  other  cattle  numbered  670,000 
and  643,000,  valued  at  $17,666,000  and  $16,607,- 
000;  sheep  numbered  1,166,000  and  1,229,000, 
valued  at  $6,660,000  and  $6,162,000;  swine  num- 
bered 1,709,000  and  1,582,000,  valued  at  $11,108,- 
000  and  $11,390,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1916  and  1914  was  3,643,000  and  3,662,000 
pounds,  respectively. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  The  output  of  petro- 
leum was  602,441  barrels,  compared  with  624,- 
668  barrels  in  1913.  The  value  of  the  oil  pro- 
duced in  1914  was  $498,666,  compared  with  a 
value  of  $676,748  in  1913.  The  output  of  coal  in 
1914  surpassed  all  previous  records.  There  were 
mined  20,382,763  short  tons,  valued  at  $20,862,- 
463.  This  exceeded  the  previous  high  mark  in 
1913  by  766,163  tons.  The  increase  was  all  the 
more  notable  because  it  was  made  in  the  year 
when  most  of  the  coal  fields  in  the  country 
showed  a  decrease,  and  it  was  due  to  activity  in 
the  coal  mining  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State, 
particularly  along  the  Virginia  border,  and  to 
the  construction  of  new  railroads.  The  number 
of  men  employed  increased  from  26,332  in  1913 
to  28,764  in  1914.  The  number  of  fatal  acci- 
dents during  the  year  was  61.  The  value  of  the 
total  mineral  production  in  1914  was  $26,668,474. 

Education.  The  latest  available  statistics 
for  education  are  for  1914.  In  that  year  the 
total  school  population  was  726,204.  The  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools  was  617,299,  and 
the  average  daily  attendance  was  362,602.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  in  that  year  was  11,- 
300.  The  average  monthly  salary  of  male 
teachers  was  $62.47,  and  of  female  teachers, 
$43.92.  The  disbursements  for  educational  pur- 
poses in  rural  schools  were,  in  1913,  $4,390,607, 
and  for  city  schools,  $2,248,964. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1914,  which  is 
the  latest  report  available,  showed  a  balance  in 
the  treasury  on  July  1,  1912,  of  $312,649.  The 
receipts  for  the  year  amounted  to  $7,666,781,  and 
the  debt  to  $7,606,427,  leaving  a  balance  on  July 
30,   1913,  of  $361,903. 

Charities  and  Ck)RRECTiON8.  The  charities 
and  corrections  under  the  State  Board  of  Control 
include  the  Eastern  State  Hospital  at  Lexington, 
Central  State  Hospital  at  Lakeland,  Western 
State  Hospital  at  Hopkinsville,  and  Feeble- 
minded Institute  at  Frankfort.  The  total  aver- 
age per  capita  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  in- 
mates of  these  institutions  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1916,  was  $166,027. 

Transportation.  The  total  operating  mile- 
age in  the  State  on  June  30,  1916,  was  3961. 
This  is  less  than  the  operating  mileage  on  June 
30,  1914,  because  the  tracks  of  two  railroads, 
measuring  in  all  41  miles,  were  torn  up  and  dis- 
continued. The  tangible  property  of  the  State 
railways  in  1914  was  valued  at  $70,261,072. 


ernor,  E.  r.  Morrow  by  the  Kepubiicans,  ana 
Fred  J.  Drexler  by  the  Ptogressives.  On  Novem- 
ber 2nd,  Mr.  Stanley,  Democrat,  was  elected. 
At  a  special  term  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  Pike- 
ville  began,  February  1st,  a  trial  of  1100  voters 
who  were  charged  with  bribery  alleged  to  have 
been  committed  in  the  election  of  1914.  More 
than  2000  indictments  were  returned  in  the  va- 
rious counties  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State. 
On  February  6th,  11  of  the  persons  under  trial 
were  convicted  and  4  acquitted.  A  fine  of  $100 
and  disfranchisement  was  imposed  on  all  those 
found  guilty. 

Sixty-five  persons,  some  of  them  citizens  of 
prominence,  were  arraigned  in  the  court  at  Hart- 
ford in  August,  when  the  State  began  its  prose- 
cution of  the  alleged  members  of  the  band  of 
night-riders,  who  under  the  guise  of  hunters  had 
terrorized  the  western  part  of  the  State  for 
months,  whipping  men  and  women,  and  killing 
one  negro.  Two  of  the  men  on  trial  pleaded 
guilty  and  were  sentenced  to  three  years  each 
m  the  penitentiary.  The  authorities  alleged 
that  scores  of  persons,  white  and  black,  were 
whipped  by  the  night-riders  and  their  homes  rid- 
dled with  bullets;  the  purpose  of  the  riders 
being  to  "regulate  conduct,"  displacing  blacks 
with  whites  in  labor,  and  fixing  prices  of  goods 
in  the  stores  of  western  Kentucky. 

State  Government.  Governor,  A.  0.  Stan- 
ley; Lieutenant-Governor,  James  D.  Block;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  Barksdale  Hamlett;  Treasurer, 
Sherman  Goodposter;  Auditor,  Robert  L. 
Greene;  Attorney-General,  M.  M.  Logan;  Super- 
intendent of  Education,  V.  O.  Gilbert;  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture,  M.  S.  Cohen — all  Demo- 
crats. 

Judiciary.  Court  of  Appeals:  Chief  Justice, 
Shackelford  Miller;  Justices,  W.  E.  Settle,  C.  C. 
Turner,  J.  B.  Hannah,  John  D.  Carroll,  C.  S 
Nunn,  Rollin  Hurt;  Commissioner  of  Appeals, 
W.  R.  Clay;  Clerk,  Robert  L.  Greene. 

State  Legislature; 

S^nat4      Hou$€        Joint  BaUot 

DemocraU     27  68  90 

Republicans    11  87  48 


Democraiio  majority . .      Id 


26 


42 


KHABSIVAN.     See  Salvarsan  and  Nbosal- 

VARSAN. 

KIAOCHOW.  A  harbor  town  (Tsingtao) 
and  district  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Shantung,  leased  by  Germany  from 
China  for  99  years  from  March  6,  1898.  The 
district  was  declared  a  German  protectorate 
April  27,  1898.  Area  of  the  protectorate  (ex- 
clusive of  the  bay),  552  square  kilometers  (213 
square  miles).  Native  population,  about  190,- 
000;  whites,  Jan.  1,  1913,  4470,  of  whom  Ger- 
mans, 4256.  Imports  and  exports  ( including  the 
trade  of  the  hinterland  passing  through  Tsing- 
tao) were  valued  at  82,374,000  and  34,225,000 
marks  respectively  in  the  fiscal  year  1907;  in 
1910,  65,464,000  and  64,732,000;  in  1912,  114,- 
938,000  and  80,295,000;  in  1913,  121,254,000  and 
79,640,000.  In  the  last  two  years,  imports  from 
China  were  valued  at  47,880,000  and  32,439,000 
marks  respectively.  The  larger  imports  in  the 
fiscal   years    1912   and    1913,    in    thousands   of 


4 


KIAOCHOW 


858 


KOBEA 


marks:  cotton  yam,  21,427  and  29,161;  cotton 
goods,  24,640  and  23,752;  paper,  10,978  and 
9440;  petroleum,  5516  and  5393;  aniline  dyes, 
3897  and  4802;  sugar,  3687  and  4586;  matches, 
4188  and  4577;  metals,  2480  and  3742;  cig- 
arettes, 1927  and  2478.  Leading  exports  in  the 
fiscal  years  1912  and  1913,  in  thousands  of 
marks:  straw  braid,  33,398  and  17,590;  peanuts, 
10,848  and  11,691;  Shantung  pongees,  4058  and 
8009;  yellow  silk,  6479  and  7507;  raw  cotton, 
3424  and  5612;  cattle  hides,  1770  and  3169;  cat- 
tle, 1511  and  2671;  coal,  2573  and  2593.  Vessels 
(exclusive  of  junks)  entered  at  Tsingtao  in  1912, 
785,  of  1,209,154  tons.  The  Shantung  Railway, 
with  a  length  of  434.4  kilometers  (270  miles), 
extends  from  Tsingtao  to  Tsinan,  the  capital  of 
Shantung,  with  a  branch  from  Changtien  to  Po- 
shan.  Ix>cal  revenue  in  the  fiscal  years  1913  and 
1914,  7,230,000  and  8,065,000  marks;  expendi- 
ture, 16,790,000  and  18,410,000.  For  the  year 
1914-15,  the  budget  balanced  at  18,411,590 
marks,  estimated  local  receipts  amounting  to 
1,358,387  marks;  imperial  contribution,  9,988,- 
602;  and  treasury  balance,  1,358,387. 

The  leased  territory  of  Kiaochow  was  surren- 
dered to  Japanese  forces  by  Germany  on  Nov.  10, 
1914  (consult  1914  Yeab  Book,  p.  775).  The 
future  status  of  Kiaochow  was  the  subject  of  ne- 
gotiations between  China  and  Japan  during  the 
year  1915  (see  China),  and  on  May  25th  the 
Japanese  government  promised  that  Kiaochow 
would  be  returned  to  China  after  the  war,  on  con- 
dition that  the  German  privileges  in  the  leased 
territory  be  turned  over  to  Japan. 

KINOy  Henby.  An  American  editor,  died 
March  15,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Salem,  Ohio,  in 
1842.  His  family  went  to  Illinois  when  he  was 
still  a  boy  and  there  he  learned  the  printer's 
trade.  He  enlisted  in  the  Union  army  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  captain. 
In  1883  he  became  a  member  of  the  staff  of  the 
St.  Louis  O lobe- Democrat  after  having  for  sev- 
eral years  edited  papers  in  Topeka,  Aan.,  and 
Quincy,  111.  In  1897  he  was  appointed  manag- 
ing editor  of  the  Olohe'Detnocrat  and  held  this 
position  until  shortly  before  his  death.  In  1891 
he  organized  a  Republican  Editorial  Association 
in  Missouri. 

KITCHENEBy  Field  Marshal  Eabl.  See 
Gbeat  Britain,  Historyy  and  Wab  of  the  Na- 
tions. 

KLEIN,  Chables.  An  American  playwright, 
died  May  7,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  London  in 
1867,  and  was  graduated  at  North  London  Col- 
lege. He  moved  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
was  employed  as  a  play  reader  by  Charles  Froh- 
man.  In  1890  he  wrote  his  first  play,  A  Mile 
a  Minute,  and  two  years  later  By  Proxy.  His 
first  important  success  was  The  District  Attor- 
ney (1895),  in  which  he  collaborated  with  Har- 
rison Grey  Fisk.  To  his  earli<*r  period  belong 
also:  Heartsease  (1897);  The  Auctioneer 
( 1901 )  ;  and  The  Honorable  John  Grigsby 
(1902).  He  made  a  remarkable  success  later 
with  The  Music  Master  (1904),  which  was  writ- 
ten for  David  War  field,  and  in  1906  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse,  also  a  success. 
Among  his  other  plays  may  be  mentioned: 
Daughters  of  Men  (1906),  The  Third  Degree 
(1908),  and  The  Oamblers  (1910).  Mr.  Klein 
was  a  victim  of  the  torpedoing  of  the  Lusitania. 
See  also  Dbama,  American  and  English. 

KLT7CK,  Alexandeb  Heinbich  Rudolf  von. 
See  Wab  of  the  Nations. 


KODAK  DECISION.    See  Photoobafht. 

KOUuEN,  Gebbet  John.  An  American  edu- 
cator, died  Sept.  5,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  the 
Netherlands  in  1843,  and  removed  to  the  United 
States  in  1851.  In  1868  he  graduated  from 
Hope  College,  and  became  assistant  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  that  col- 
lege in  1871.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  applied  science  and  economy,  and  in  1893 
was  chosen  president.  He  served  until  1911 
when  he  was  retired  as  president  emeritus. 
During  his  connection  with  the  college  he  se- 
cured endowments  aggregating  $500,000,  and  new 
buildings  valued  at  $150,000. 

KOBEAy  or  officially  Chosen.  A  coimtry 
of  eastern  Asia  occupying  the  peninsula  between 
the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Japan.  It  was 
formerly  an  independent  monarchy;  it  became  a 
Japanese  protectorate  March  2,  1906,  and  was 
annexed  to  Japan  Aug.  29,  1910.  The  capital  is 
Seoul. 

Abea,  Population,  etc.  The  estimated  area 
is  14,123  s(]^uare  ri  (84,606  square  miles).  The 
population  m  1913  was  estimated  at  15,164,066, 
and  in  1914  at  15,508,872.  The  population  for 
12  prefectures  on  April  1,  1915,  was  15,458,863. 
Population  of  the  chief  towns  (1911):  Seoul, 
256,381;  Fusan,  81,438;  Kwangju,  42,910;  Ping- 
yang,  39,769;  Haisyong,  38,025;  Taiden,  32,822; 
Taiku,  31,140;  Chemulpo,  26,187;  Wttnsan,  20,- 
093.  At  the  end  of  1912,  Japanese  inhabitants 
numbered  243,729  (131,618  males,  112,211  fe- 
males), and  foreigners  16,589  (15,212  and  1377). 
The  foreigners  are  chiefly  Chinese.  Christianity 
has  made  considerable  progress  in  Korea,  but 
ancestor  worship  prevails  throughout  the  coim- 
try.    There  are  numerous  mission  schools. 

Schools  in  1913:  Japanese:  primary,  199, 
with  691  teachers  and  21,882  pupils;  other,  14, 
with  163  teachers  and  1974  pupils.  Native:  pri- 
mary, 367  schools,  with  1586  teachers  and  43,562 
pupils;  other,  1341  schools,  with  3196  teachers 
and  57,385  pupils. 

Pboduction,  Commerce,  etc.  Agriculture  is 
the  only  important  industry,  but  cultural  meth- 
ods are  primitive  and  transportation  facilities 
inadequate.  The  principal  crops  are  rice  and 
other  cereals,  beans,  tobacco,  hemp,  cotton,  and 
ginseng.  Stock  raising  and  sericulture  are 
practical.  Live  stock  as  reported  for  1912: 
cattle,  1,040,720;  horses,  46,565;  goats,  10,373; 
swine,  625,095.  Various  minerals  occur,  but 
there  is  little  mining;  gold  mining,  however,  is 
carried  on  with  some  success.  The  gold  output 
was  valued  at  4,433,838  yen  in  1911,  and  4,579,- 
963  yen  in  1912.  Fisheries  products  were  valued 
at  9,035,445  ven  in  1911,  and  12,619,356  yen  in 
1912. 

Imports  and  exports  of  merchandise  were 
valued  in  1912  at  67,115,447  and  20,985,617  yen, 
respectively;  in  1913,  71,580,247  and  30,878,944; 
in  1914,  53,606,448  and  15,667,340.  Leading  im- 
ports are  cotton  piece  goods,  cotton  yarn,  tim- 
ber, kerosene,  sugar,  co^,  wheat  and  flour,  mat- 
tings, galvanized  iron,  etc.  The  principal  ex- 
ports in  1912  and  1913,  respectively,  were,  in 
thousands  of  yen:  rice,  7525  and  14,494;  beans, 
5001  and  57i9;  cattle  hides,  1032  and  1268. 
The  gold  export  in  1913  was  valued  at  9,972,- 
515  yen.    The  trade  is  principally  with  Japan. 

Railway  open  to  traffic  at  the  end  of  1914,  992 
miles.  The  Korean  railway  system  is  connected 
with  the  Russian  and  Chinese  systems  by  the  line 
running   from    Antung   to   Mukden.    Telegraph 


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line,  3785  miles.  Post  offices  in  1912,  632;  in 
1913,  559. 

The  second  railway  programme,  which  involved 
the  construction  of  lines  connecting  the  capital 
with  W(5nBan  (Gensan)  on  the  northeast  coast, 
and  Taiden  on  the  Seoul-Fusan  line  with  Kun- 
san  and  Mokpo  in  the  southwest,  was  completed 
in  1914,  the  Konan  (Honam)  Railway  being 
finished  in  January,  and  the  Keigen  (Seoul-Gen- 
san)  Railway  in  August.  The  Gensan- Yong- 
heung  line,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  third  pro- 
gramme, was  started  on  October  1st,  and  that 
portion  of  the  track  which  runs  from  Gensan  to 
Munchong,  a  distance  of  five  miles,  was  nearing 
completion  in  1915.  The  reconstruction  of  the 
Seoul-Fusan  line  was  begun  on  Oct.  5,  1914,  and 
the  work  on  the  Chongjin-Hoiryong  Railway 
(58.6  miles)  was  started  during  the  same  month. 
They  were  to  be  completed  in  four  years.  The 
total  mileage  of  railways  in  operation  in  Korea 
was  994  miles.  During  1914  the  following  sec- 
tions were  opened:  Seiyu  to  Koteiri  on  the  Ko- 
nan line,  35.5  miles;  and  Kenfutsuro  to  Kozan 
on  the  Keigen  line,  23.8  miles;  making  a  total  of 
59.3  miles  newly  opened  to  traffic.  Surveying 
was  in  progress  on  the  following  lines,  though 
it  had  not  been  decided  when  the  actual  construc- 
tion would  be  undertaken:  (1)  Taiku  to 
Mokpo;  (2)  Hamheung  to  Chongjin;  (3)  Ping- 
yang  to  Gensan;  (4)  a  line  running  along  the 
Yalu  River. 

The  monetary  unit  is  the  yen,  par  value  49.846 
cents.  In  the  year  1912-13,  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure amounted  to  62,126,894  and  51,781,- 
225  yen,  respectively;  the  1914-15  budget  bal- 
anced at  59,412,966  yen.  The  Governor-General 
is  Gen.  Count  Terauchi  Masakata. 

KUBIA  KCUBIA  ISLANDS.  Attached  to 
Aden   (q.v.). 

XWAlf GCHOW-WAN.  A  territory  <m  the 
coast  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Kwangtung, 
leased  by  China  to  France  for  99  years  from 
April  11,  1898.  It  forms  a  division  of  French 
Indo-China.  The  area  is  stated  at  1000  square 
kilometers.  The  population  in  1911  was  about 
158,881.  The  budget  for  1914  balanced  at  323,- 
000  piasters. 

KWANTO.    See  Kwantuno. 

XWANTTTNO.  Japanese  name,  Kwanto. 
A  Japanese  leasehold  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Liaotung  peninsula,  Manchuria.  The  area 
is  1221  square  miles.  The  population  at  the 
end  of  1912  is  stated  at  570,421,  as  compared 
with  547,145  at  the  end  of  1911.  These  figures 
include  residents  of  Kwantung  who  were  in  Man- 
churia. In  1910,  Dairen,  the  chief  port,  had 
40,758  inhabitants;  Ryojun  (Port  Arthur),  16,- 
797.  Imports  and  exports  in  1912,  46,132,749 
and  56,782,534  yen,  respectively;  in  1913,  the 
imports  were  valued  at  59,839,330  yen.  Trade 
is  principally  with  Japan.  Kwantung  forms  a 
customs  district  under  the  Chinese  Maritime 
Customs.  There  are  about  80  miles  of  railway 
in  operation.  In  1912-13,  the  revenue  was  6,- 
162,770  yen,  and  the  expenditure,  5,359,504  yen; 
for  1914-15,  the  budget  balanced  at  4,444,319 
yen.  Kwantung  is  administered  by  a  Governor- 
General,  resident  at  Ryojun. 

LABOR.  The  year  1915  was  one  of  progres- 
sive improvement  in  the  conditions  of  labor  in 
the  United  States.  Even  from  the  principal  na- 
tions at  war  there  were  repeated  reports  of  de- 
crease in  unemployment  and  advances  in  wages. 
The  radical  wing  of  the  labor  movement  repre- 


sented by  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 
(q.v.)  was  comparatively  quiescent  in  the  United 
States,  while  syndicalism  had  lost  complete  im- 
portance as  a  radical  labor  propaganda  in  Eu- 
rope and  Australia.  The  year  was  notable  for 
the  unusual  number  of  strikes,  some  of  which  are 
described  imder  Strikes  and  Lockouts  (q.v.). 
Toward  the  close  of  the  year  there  were  many 
reports  of  advances  in  wages.  Thus  on  Decem- 
ber 28th  at  New  York  City  alone  increases  were 
announced  by  street  railway  companies,  contrac- 
tors in  the  building  trades,  employers  in  the  mil- 
linery trade,  by  restaurants  and  hotel  managers, 
by  the  Pullman  Company,  and  by  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard,  granting  advances  to  more  than  200,- 
000  employees.  The  following  day  an  announce- 
ment of  a  5  per  cent  advance  was  made  for  the 
75,000  mill  workers  in  principal  centres  in  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island. 
Previously  there  had  been  substantial  improve- 
ments for  railway  employees  and  for  workers  in 
all  branches  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  in- 
cluding numerous  cognate  industries  stimulated 
by  the  excessive  demand  for  war  supplies.  The 
condition  as  regards  employment  is  indicated  in 
the  article  on  Unemployment.  In  the  article 
on  Trade  Unions  (q.v.)  will  be  found  an  ac- 
count of  the  movement  of  organized  labor  in 
various  countries.  The  industrial  problems  con- 
nected with  women  and  children  are  treated 
under  Child  Labor;  Minimum  Wage;  Pensions 
FOR  Mothers;  and  Women  in  Industry.  Other 
phases  of  the  labor  problem  will  be  found  under : 
Arbitration  and  Conciliation,  Industrial; 
Boycott;  Child  Labor;  Industrial  Relations 
Commission;  Labor,  American  Federation  of; 
Labor  Legislation;  Labor  Legislation,  Amer- 
ican Association  fob;  Occupational  Dis- 
eases; Old- Age  Pensions;  Prices;  and  Work- 
men's Compensation. 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  The  year's  his- 
tory of  this  bureau  was  notable  for  greatly  in- 
creased activities  and  new  ventures.  Among 
other  things  the  publication  of  a  Monthly  Re- 
view was  begun  in  July,  to  be  issued  thereafter 
on  the  29th  day  of  each  month.  This  was  to 
serve  as  a  medium  for  the  dissemination  of  use- 
ful information  not  readily  accessible  to  the  in- 
terested public.  It  summarizes  the  results  of 
original  investigations,  labor  legislation,  court 
decisions,  reports  of  State  and  foreign  labor  bu- 
reaus, and  gives  other  information  regarding  the 
labor  movement.  The  Bulletin  of  the  bureau  is 
published  under  various  series  treating  respect- 
ively the  following  subjects:  wholesale  prices; 
retail  prices  and  cost  of  living;  wages  and  hours 
of  labor;  women  in  industry;  workmen's  insur- 
ance and  compensation;  industrial  accidents  and 
hygiene ;  conciliation  and  arbitration ;  labor  laws 
of  the  United  States;  foreign  labor  laws;  and 
miscellaneous.  Among  the  notable  publications 
during  the  year  of  the  Bulletint  was  No.  3  of 
the  Wholesale  Price  Series  (whole  number  173), 
"Index  Numbers  of  Wholesale  Prices  in  the 
United  States  and  Foreign  Countries,"  of  which 
part  I,  pages  6-114,  was  a  complete  exposition 
of  the  theory  of  index  numbers  by  Prof.  Wesley 
C.  Mitchell. 

Among  the  new  subjects  of  investigation  taken 
up  by  the  bureau  were  the  following:  Profit 
sharing  and  other  forms  of  gain  sharing;  ad- 
ministrations of  labor  and  compensation  laws; 
employment  bureaus  of  industrial  and  mercan- 
tile establishments;  labor  conditions  in  Hawaii; 


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and  the  annual  "turnover''  of  labor.  By  the  last 
IB  meant  the  number  of  men  employed  and  dis- 
charged in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  Woman's 
Division  of  the  bureau  has  undertaken  a  study 
of  the  effects  of  accidents  resulting  in  death  or 
disability  upon  family  life,  with  a  view  of  de- 
termining the  adequacy  of  compensation  in  such 


Alien  Labor.  Numerous  efforts  have  been 
made  by  various  States  to  restrict  the  industrial 
opportunities  of  foreigners.  Thus  in  Louisiana 
an  alien  is  prohibited  from  securing  a  contract 
for  public  printing;  in  Michigan  he  cannot  se- 
cure a  barber's  license;  in  various  States  he  can- 
not get  a  liquor  license;  in  six  States  he  is  pre- 
vented from  hunting  and  fishing  for  a  living;  in 
Wyoming  he  cannot  serve  as  a  guide ;  in  Virginia 
he  cannot  become  a  dealer  in  junk.  But  the 
most  notable  cases  have  been  those  of  Arizona 
and  New  York  laws.  The  Arizona  law,  adopted 
by  a  referendiun  vote,  required  every  employer 
of  five  or  more  persons  to  hire  not  less  than  80 
per  cent  of  qualified  electors  or  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  This  law  was  declared  uncon- 
stitutional by  a  special  circuit  court,  and  in  No- 
vember this  opinion  was  afiirmed  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  In  the  opinion  written 
by  Justice  Hughes  it  was  held  that  this  law  was 
at  variance  with  the  14th  amendment  in  that 
it  denied  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws,  this 
guarantee  applying  to  aliens  as  well  as  to  citi- 
zens. The  justice  pointed  out  that  the  "right  to 
work  for  a  living  m  the  common  occupations  of 
the  community  is  of  the  very  essence  of  the  per- 
sonal freedom  and  opportunity  that  it  was  the 
purpose  of  the  14th  amendment  to  secure."  One 
who  cannot  work  in  a  community  cannot  live 
there.  This  law  had  been  protested  by  the  Eng- 
lish and  Italian  governments,  and  was  being 
carefully  observed  by  the  Japanese  in  California. 
It  was,  however,  aimed  largely  at  Mexicans  em- 
ployed in  mines  and  on  ranches. 

A  New  York  law  enacted  in  1898  forbade  the 
employment  of  aliens  on  public  works,  and  pro- 
vided that  the  contracts  of  those  disobeying  this 
prohibition  should  be  forfeited.  This  law  was 
tested  in  two  cases  growing  out  of  subway  con- 
struction in  New  York  City.  It  was  held  con- 
stitutional by  the  local  courts,  by  the  Court  of 
Appeals  of  New  York,  and  finally  in  November 
by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  The  opin- 
ion of  the  Supreme  Court  declared  that  any  civil 
authority  could  prescribe  the  conditions  upon 
which  it  would  permit  public  work  to  be  done  in 
its  behalf.  Such  a  matter  was  wholly  a  ques- 
tion of  public  policy  with  reference  to  which  the 
courts  have  no  authority.  This  decision  tempor- 
arily affected  subway  contracts  involving  mil- 
lions of  dollars.  Notice  was  given  that  at  least 
10,000  men,  mostly  Italians  and  Austrians,  must 
be  discharged.  Moreover,  work  on  the  Barge 
Canal  and  elsewhere  in  the  State  was  affected. 
However,  between  the  decision  of  the  Court  of 
Appeals  in  February  and  the  Supreme  Court  de- 
cision in  November  the  law  had  been  modified  so 
as  to  permit  employment  of  aliens  when  Ameri- 
cans were  not  available. 

Kansas  Coebcion  Law.  A  Kansas  statute 
which  forbade  an  employer  to  require  a  working- 
man  to  sign  an  agreement  not  to  join  a  labor 
union  and  which  had  been  sustained  by  the  State 
courts  was  in  February  declared  unconstitu- 
tional by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 
Similar  statutes  had  been  enacted  in  13  other 


States.  The  majority  opinion  held  that  the  stat- 
ute impaired  the  liberty  of  contract  guaranteed 
by  the  Constitution,  destroyed  the  equality  of 
right  enjoyed  by  employer  and  emplovee,  and  se- 
cured no  purpose  necessary  or  beneficial  to  the 
general  welfare.  A  dissenting  opinion  written 
by  Justice  Day  was  concurred  in  by  Justice 
Hu^es  and  Justice  Holmes.  The  opinion  occa- 
sioned some  surprise,  inasmuch  as  IJie  Supreme 
Court  had  previously  declared  that  employers 
and  employees  do  not  stand  upon  an  equality 
since  the  former  lay  down  the  rules  and  the  lat- 
ter are  practicallv  compelled  to  obey  them.  It 
had  also  previously  held  that  the  liberty  of  con- 
tract is  not  absolute  but  relative.  The  dissent- 
ing opinion  held  that  instead  of  the  purpose  of 
the  statute  bearing  no  relation  to  general  wel- 
fare "it  would  be  difficult  to  select  any  subject 
more  intimately  related  to  good  order  and  the  se- 
curity of  the  community  than  that  under  consid- 
eration— ^whether  one  takes  the  view  that  labor 
organizations  are  advantageous  or  the  reverse." 
Seaman's  Act.  The  Seaman's  Act  was  passed 
by  the  Sixty-third  Congress  in  March,  1915,  after 
a  struggle  of  many  years  on  the  part  of  seamen 
supported  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 
Andrew  Furuseth,  president  of  the  International 
Seamen's  Union,  was  largely  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  this  and  previous  improvements 
in  the  laws  governing  seamen.  The  specific  pur- 
poses claim^  were  to  liberate  seamen;  to  pro- 
mote safety  at  sea;  and  to  build  up  an  Ameri- 
can mercantile  marine  without  the  use  of  sub- 
sidies. The  law  is  international  in  effect  since 
it  applies  to  all  vessels  touching  at  American 
ports.  It  grants  the  right  of  American  and  for- 
eign seamen  to  quit  service,  a  right  long  denied 
to  crews  of  American  vessels  in  foreign  ports, 
and  to  seamen  on  practically  all  foreign  vessels 
in  American  ports.  An  American  statute  law 
combined  with  20  or  more  foreign  treaties  has 
denied  this  liberty  by  holding  seamen  to  terms 
of  contracts  which  all  seamen,  under  the  laws  of 
every  nation,  are  required  to  sign  upon  accepting 
employment.  The  Seaman's  Act  repeals  this 
statute  and  provides  for  the  abrogation  of  such 
parts  of  the  treaties  as  require  the  arrest  and 
punishment  of  seamen  for  what  is  called  "deser- 
tion." The  act  declares  that  on  and  after  June 
4,  1916,  for  foreign  vessels,  or  as  soon  as  treaties 
with  foreign  countries  can  be  abrogated,  and 
Nov.  4,  1915,  for  American  vessels,  the  seamen 
shall  not  be  held  in  compulsory  servitude  when 
their  ships  are  within  any  harbor  of  the  United 
States  or  its  territories.  The  law  provides  a  lan- 
guage test  for  all  seamen,  and  specifies  the  per- 
centage of  able  seamen  to  be  carried  on  all  ves- 
sels touching  American  ports.  Further  provi- 
sions include  a  nine-hour  day  and  no  work  on 
Sunday  and  legal  holidays  while  in  port;  men 
shall  not  be  required  to  work  alternately  in  the 
fireroom  and  on  deck ;  a  minimum  number  of  life- 
boats and  liferafts  as  well  as  the  number  of  men 
manning  these  is  specified;  ship's  officers  are  not 
to  be  considered  as  fellow  servants  of  seamen, 
thus  facilitating  the  recovery  of  damages  in  case 
of  accident,  ^irther  changes  in  the  existing 
law  deal  with  the  manning  of  inspected  vessels, 
scale  of  provisions,  advance  and  allotment,  ship- 
ment in  place  of  deserter,  rules  for  payment  of 
wages,  money  due  in  port,  mutual  release,  at- 
tachment of  wages,  discharge  in  foreign  port, 
better  forecastles,  survey  of  vessel,  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  capital  punishment.    The  most  rad- 


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LABOB 


ical  provision  of  the  bill  is  the  one  which  makes 
the  law  applicable  to  all  diips  leaving  the  ports 
of  the  United  States  whether  flying  the  United 
States  flag  or  not.  Advocates  of  the  bill  believe 
this  is  important  because  by  equalizing  condi- 
tions of  service  and  operation,  it  will  put  other 
nations  on  the  same  footing  as  the  United  States 
and  will  do  more  than  anything  which  has  yet 
been  attempted  to  build  up  an  American  mer- 
chant marine.  The  scope  of  the  law  was  greatly 
restricted  by  the  decision  of  the  Departments  of 
Justice  and  of  Commerce  that  the  safety  provi- 
sions of  the  act  do  not  apply  to  foreign-built 
ships  admitted  to  American  registry  under  the 
President's  order  suspending  survey,  inspection, 
and  measurement  laws,  nor  to  vessels  of  foreign 
countries  whose  navigation  laws  "approximate" 
those  of  the  United  States. 

There  was  much  opposition  to  the  enforcement 
of  the  act.  The  United  States  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, the  National  Association  of  Manufac- 
turers, the  National  Foreign  Trade  Council,  Pa- 
cific Mail  Steamship  Company,  and  the  Robert 
Dollar  Company  were  among  prominent  opponents 
of  the  act.  A  vigorous  publicity  campaign  in 
opposition  during  the  summer  was  based  on  the 
claims  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company 
and  the  Robert  Dollar  Company  of  California 
that  they  were  going  out  of  business  because  the 
Seaman's  Law  made  it  impossible  to  use  Chinese 
or  Japanese  crews.  Shipowners  opposed  the  law 
because  it  would  raise  wages  and  otherwise  in- 
crease the  costs  of  operation,  and  place  the  Amer- 
ican shippers  at  a  disadvantage.  But  Secretary 
of  Labor  Wilson  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
McAdoo  in  various  addresses  declared  that  the 
Robert  Dollar  vessels  had  been  transformed  to 
American  registry  primarily  to  secure  the  pro- 
tection of  the  American  flas  during  the  war,  and 
that  the  Pacific  Mail  vessels  were  transferred  to 
the  Atlantic  partly  because  the  Panama  Canal 
Act  forbade  railroads  owning  competing  vessels 
to  operate  them  through  the  canal,  and  partly 
because  the  unprecedented  demand  due  to  war 
shipments  made  the  vessels  worth  much  more  in 
the  Atlantic  than  in  the  Pacific. 

Germ  AN- Austrian  Activities.  Extensive  and 
varied  efforts  were  made  by  agents  of  the  Ger- 
man and  Austrian  governments  to  foment  strikes 
and  otherwise  prevent  the  manufacture  of  war 
supplies  and  their  shipment  to  Europe.  It  was 
on  this  account  that  the  United  States  govern- 
ment officially  requested  the  recall  of  Ambassa- 
dor Dumba.  The  seizure  of  correspondence 
found  in  the  cabin  of  James  E.  J.  Archibald,  an 
American  citizen,  when  the  liner  Rotterdam 
touched  at  Falmouth,  England,  showed  that 
Dumba  had  engaged  in  such  conspiracies.  He 
wrote,  "We  can  disorganize  and  hold  up  for 
months,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  the  manufacture 
of  munitions  in  Bethlehem  and  the  Middle  West, 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  German  military  at- 
tache, is  of  great  importance,  and  amply  out- 
weighs the  expenditure  of  the  money  involved." 
He  defended  himself  for  entertaining  such  a 
proposition,  in  a  letter  to  Secretary  of  State 
Lansing,  by  saying  that  he  was  looking  after 
the  interests  of  Austro-Hungarian  subjects  who 
were  laying  themselves  open  to  persecution  by 
their  home  government  for  the  aid  they  were 
rendering  the  Allies  through  their  work  in  Amer- 
ican munitions  factories.  Together  with  the  let- 
ters of  Dr.  Dumba  were  others  written  by  Cap- 
tain von  Papen,  the  military  attache  of  the  Ger- 


man Embassy.  These  letters  dealt  mainly  with 
the  attempts  of  German  agents  to  prevent  Amer- 
ican firms  from  embarking  on  the  supply  of  war 
material  or  the  effort  to  induce  such  firms  to 
acquiesce  in  the  non-fulfillment  of  contracts  and 
the  non-delivery  of  contracted  material. 

Another  ext^sive  conspiracy  was  that  involv- 
ing Captain  Franz  von  Rintelen,  who  was 
a  leading  German  secret  service  official,  com- 
missioned either  to  foment  labor  disturbances  or 
to  bring  about  an  invasion  of  Mexico  by  the 
United  States.  He  attempted  both.  He  had  ap- 
parently unlimited  credit  and  financed  an  or- 
ganization known  as  Labor's  National  Peace 
Council.  This  organization  was  formed  osten- 
sibly to  carry  out  neutral  purposes,  and  at  first 
enlisted  the  support  of  distinguished  American 
labor  leaders.  Mr.  Samuel  Gompers,  president 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  however, 
early  resigned  as  first  vice-president  of  the  Coun- 
cil, charging  that  it  was  being  used  as  a  shield 
by  agents  of  the  German  government  in  their 
propaganda  against  the  export  of  mimitions. 
On  December  28th,  eight  men  were  indicted  by 
the  Federal  Grand  Jury  at  New  York  for  con- 
spiracy to  prevent  the  manufacture  and  ship- 
ment of  articles  needed  in  warfare  from  this 
country  to  Great  Britain  and  her  allies.  These 
indictments  were  the  first  handed  down  for  in- 
stigation of  strikes  and  attempts  to  obstruct  the 
manufacture  of  munitions,  this  jury  having  been 
in  session  since  September.  A  new  grand  jury 
was  sworn  in  to  take  up  the  work.  IHie  men  in- 
dicted were:  Franz  von  Rintelen,  who  at  the 
time  was  a  prisoner  in  England ;  Rep.  Frank  Bu- 
chanan of  the  Seventh  District  of  Illinois,  a 
former  head  of  the  Council;  Robert  Fowler,  for- 
mer Congressman  from  the  24th  district  of  Il- 
linois and  a  lawyer  for  the  Council;  Frank  S. 
Monnett,  ex-Attomey-General  of  Ohio,  also  con- 
nected with  the  Coiucil;  David  Lamar,  known 
as  the  "Wolf  of  Wall  Street";  Jacob  C.  Taylor, 
Buchanan's  successor  as  president  of  the  Coun- 
cil; Henry  B.  Martin,  secretarv  of  the  Council; 
and  Herman  Schulteis,  also  identified  with  the 
Council.  Under  the  section  of  the  Sherman 
Anti-Trust  Law  under  which  these  indictments 
were  returned  the  men  if  found  guilty  can  be 
sent  to  prison  for  one  year  or  fined  $6000  or 
both.  In  addition  to  the  hampering  of  the  man- 
ufacture of  munitions,  the  prevoition  of  ship- 
ment, and  the  instigation  of  strikes,  the  indict- 
ment alleged  a  publicity  campaign. 

BibUography.  G.  D.  H.  Cole,  Labor  in  War- 
time; J.  R.  Commons  and  J.  B.  Andrews,  Princi- 
ples of  Labor  Legislation;  F.  G.  Cooley,  Voca- 
tional Education  in  Europe;  H.  B.  Drury,  Scien- 
tific Management:  a  History  and  Criticism;  J. 
Eaton,  Commercial  Work  and  Training  for 
Oirls;  Fabian  Society,  The  War,  Women,  and 
Unemployment;  C.  R.  Henderson,  Citizens  in  In- 
dustry; R.  F.  Hoxie,  Scientific  Management  and 
Labor;  Robert  Hunter,  Labor  in  Politics;  A.  L. 
Bowley  and  A.  R.  B.  Hurst,  Livelihood  and  Pov- 
erty; F.  A.  Kellor,  Out  of  Work;  C.  M.  Lloyd, 
Trade  Unionism;  and  Arthur  F.  Suffern,  Con- 
ciliation and  Arbitration  in  the  Coal  Industry  of 
America. 

LABOB^  AoBicuLTUBAL.  See  Agbicultube, 
Agricultural  Labor;  Aqricultubai.  Legisla- 
tion; and  Child  Laboh. 

LABOB,  American  Federation  of.  Founded 
in  1881,  this  has  become  the  largest  and  by  far 
the  most  influential  organization  of  workers  in 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


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the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world.  It  is  composed  of  affiliated  belies  which 
are  primarily  organized  on  the  basis  of  trades  or 
crafts,  though  some  of  its  largest  constituents, 
notably  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  North 
America  and  United  Brewerv  Workers,  are  or- 
ganized so  as  to  include  all  trades  in  the  in- 
dustry. The  federation  carries  out  the  princi- 
ples of  individual  trade  union  autonomy  in  so 
far  as  such  a  policy  does  not  interfere  with  the 
interests  of  the  labor  movement  in  general.  It 
has  during  recent  years  manifested  marked  hos- 
tility to  Socialism,  syndicalism,  the  I.  W.  W., 
and  other  radical  labor  movements;  and  it  has 
repeatedly  pronounced  itself  against  all  forms  of 
violence  during  strikes  and  labor  disputes.  For 
a  number  of  years  it  has  carried  on  a  vigorous 
campaign  to  secure  the  limitation  of  the  power 
of  the  courts  to  issue  injunctions  during  labor 
disputes.  This  resulted  in  the  inclusion  in  the 
Clayton  Anti-Trust  Law  of  1914  of  sections  de- 
claring that  "the  labor  of  a  human  being  is  not 
a  conunodity  or  article  of  commerce,"  and  guar- 
anteeing certain  rights  in  connection  with  or- 
ganization and  the  use  of  the  boycott  (q.v.).  It 
was  largely  instrumental  in  securing  the  passage 
of  the  Seaman's  Act  (see  under  Labor).  It  has 
steadfastly  refused  affiliation  with  any  political 
party. 

Among  its  most  important  constructive  activi- 
ties in  1915  were  its  practial  efforts  to  reduce 
the  evils  of  unemployment.  It  favored  the  in- 
crease of  compensation  for  fatal  injuries  to  66% 
per  cent  of  wages  in  place  of  the  usual  50  per 
cent  provided  by  most  laws,  an  extension  of  the 
period  of  compensation,  compensation  for  widows 
during  widowhood,  and  the  complete  elimination 
of  private  employers'  liability  companies.  It 
continued  its  opposition  to  certain  phases  of 
scientific  management,  especially  physical  ex- 
aminations, the  use  of  stop  watches,  and  all  sys- 
tems of  speeding  up  the  workers.  It  strongly 
advocated  industrial  education  and  trade  train- 
ing; a  weekly  rest  day  with  a  Saturday  half 
holiday;  public  employment  agencies;  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  contract  system  for  public  work;  the 
abolition  of  sweat  shops;  sanitary  inspection  of 
factories,  mines,  and  homes;  public  ownership 
of  municipal  utilities  and  of  telephone  and  tele- 
graph lines;  old  age  pensions  for  all  civil  service 
employees;  minimum  wage  laws;  and  the  prohi- 
bition of  interstate  shipment  of  convict-made 
goods. 

Its  annual  convention  was  held  at  San  Fran- 
cisco in  November.  The  principal  matters  under 
discussion  were  the  war,  unemployment,  indus- 
trial unionism,  and  the  eightrhour  day.  For 
several  years  efforts  have  been  made  in  each  an- 
nual convention  to  commit  the  body  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  industrial  unionism.  While  the  coal 
miners,  brewery  workers,  metal  miners,  and  ma- 
chinists have  already  gone  far  in  the  direction  of 
organization  on  the  basis  of  industry,  the  con- 
vention has  consistently  voted  against  the  pro- 
posal. A  considerable  faction  of  the  Federation 
favors  the  enactment  of  eight-hour  law  applic- 
able to  all  industries.  The  defeat  of  such  legis- 
lative proposals  in  California  and  Washington 
in  1914  was  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  President 
Samuel  Gompers  of  the  Federation  had  repeat- 
edly declared  opposition  to  securing  an  eight- 
hour  day  by  legislative  enactment.  While  the 
Federation  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the 
enactment  of  laws  rquiring  the  eight-hour  day  on 


public  works,  a  resolution  in  the  1915  conven- 
tion favoring  the  legislative  method  of  securing 
an  eight-hour  day  in  private  employment  was 
voted  down  by  a  considerable  majority.  The 
convention  voted  down  resolutions  protesting 
against  military  training  in  the  schools.  As  to 
unemployment,  it  was  resolved  to  urge  munici- 
palities to  provide  food  and  shelter  for  men  out 
of  work  and  to  appoint  a  committee  to  investi- 
gate unemployment  and  vagrancy.  It  was  voted 
to  ask  each  of  the  2,000,000  members  to  devote 
one  hour's  wage  on  January  27th,  President 
Gompers's  birthday,  to  the  relief  of  the  Danbury 
Hatters  (see  Botcott).  The  report  of  the  In- 
dustrial Relations  Commission  (q.v.)  was 
warmly  endorsed:  the  restriction  of  immigration 
by  a  literacy  test  was  favored;  and  it  was  re- 
solved to  put  forth  greater  efforts  to  organize 
migratory,  casual,  and  unskilled  labor. 

The  Federation  in  1915  was  composed  of  110 
national  and  international  unions,  with  about 
22,000  local  bodies.  There  are  five  major  de- 
partments, namely,  building  trades,  metal 
trades,  union  label,  mining,  and  railroads.  It 
has  44  State  branches,  631  city  central  bodies, 
and  485  local  unions  not  belonging  to  national 
or  international  organizations.  Ihe  paid  mem- 
bership slightly  exceeds  2,000,000,  and  its  1715 
organizers  work  under  the  slogan  "now  for  the 
three  million  mark."  It  publishes  the  Amerioan 
Federationisi,  a  monthly;  and  the  affiliated  un- 
ions publish  about  540  weekly  or  monthly  papers. 
Its  headquarters  are  at  801-809  G  -Street  N.  W., 
Washington,  D.  C.  President,  Samuel  Gompers; 
secretary,  Frank  Morrison;  and  treasurer,  John 
B.  Lennon. 

LABOBy  Dbpabthent  of.  See  section  so  en- 
titled under  Aiibitbation  and  Conciliation. 

LABOB  EXCHANGES.  See  under  the  ar- 
ticle Unemployment  the  paragraphs  on  Public 
Employment  Exchanges, 

LABOB  LEGISLATION.  During  1916  leg- 
islative bodies  met  in  all  the  States  except  Ken- 
tucky, Maryland,  and  Mississippi,  and  while  the 
volume  of  labor  legislation  was  considerable,  it 
was  not  unusually  great,  nor  did  it  take  novel 
forms  nor  new  directions.  In  addition  to  the 
classified  statement  below  the  reader  should  con- 
sult Arbitration  and  Conciliation;  Child  La- 
bor; INDUSTRDIL  RELATIONS  COMMISSION;  MINI- 
MUM Wage;  Old  Aob  Pensions;  Trade  Un- 
ions; Unemployment;  Women  in  Industry; 
and  Workmen's  Compensation. 

Administration.  By  far  the  most  notable  im- 
provement in  administrative  organization  was 
that  taken  in  the  creation  of  the  New  York  State 
Industrial  Commission.  This  type  of  organiza- 
tion had  been  established  first  in  Wisconsin,  and 
in  1916  was  also  adopted  with  slight  modifica- 
tions in  Colorado  and  Montana.  The  New  York 
Conunission  is  ccmiposed  of  six  commissioners,  of 
whom  John  Mitchell  is  chairman.  There  is  in 
addition  an  industrial  council  of  10  members, 
five  of  whom  represent  employers  and  five  of 
whom  represent  employees.  This  council  serves 
in  a  purely  advisory  capacity  to  the  Industrial 
Commission,  and  serves  without  either  salary  or 
expenses.  The  work  of  the  commission  combines 
the  activities  previously  carried  on  by  the  fol- 
lowing bodies:  The  State  Labor  Department,  the 
Workmen's  Compensation  Commission,  and  the 
State  Insurance  Fund,  the  State  Bureau  of  Me- 
diation and  Arbitration,  the  State  Bureau  of 
Inspection,  the  State  Bureau  of  Industrial  Hy- 


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LABOB  LEGIl 


giene,  the  State  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  and 
Information,  the  State  Information  Bureau,  and 
the  State  Bureau  to  Formulate  an  Industrial 
Code.  All  of  these  bodies  had  branch  offices  in 
New  York,  Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Syracuse,  and 
the  commission  maintains  branches  in  the  same 
cities,  as  well  as  in  Utica.  The  organization  in- 
cludes three  deputies,  respectively  in  charge  of 
inspection,  of  compensation,  and  of  mediation 
and  arbitration.  This  consolidation  and  unifi- 
cation of  all  branches  of  the  labor  department  is 
expected  to  eliminate  waste  and  duplication,  and 
increase  efficiency.  In  October  the  commission 
began  the  issue  of  the  Bulletin — to  be  published 
monthly  and  to  contain  information  regarding 
the  activities  of  its  different  departments.  The 
Colorado  Commission  does  not  displace  existing 
administrative  bodies,  but  was  superimposed  on 
them  as  an  investigating,  supervising,  and  rule- 
making authority.  In  Montana  a  newly  created 
Industrial  Accident  Board  was  given  extensive 
authority  not  merely  over  safety  and  workmen's 
compensation,  but  over  every  industry  and  place 
of  employment :  it*  may  formulate  rules  and  give 
any  order  deemed  advisable  in  the  interest  of 
safety.  Indiana  and  Nevada  likewise  provided  for 
the  administration  of  the  compensation  and  the 
labor  laws  by  one  body;  and  in  New  Jersey  the 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  was  merged  with 
the  Department  of  Labor.  Connecticut  changed 
the  offices  of  Factory  Inspector  and  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  into  the 
Department  of  Labor  and  Factory  Inspection. 
The  powers  of  the  commissioner  of  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  in  California  were  greatly  ex- 
panded: he  was  authorized  to  appoint  two  depu- 
ties, and  an  assistant  deputy  to  reside  at  Los 
Angeles;  and  to  open  offices  at  San  Francisco, 
Los  Angeles,  Sacramento,  and  San  Diego.  The 
California  Legislature  also  declared  labor  camps 
not  conforming  to  regulations,  nuisances  which 
may  be  abated  by  order  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Immigration  and  Housing.  Delaware  likewise 
authorized  a  cannery  inspector  to  close  any  can- 
nery violating  the  law  until  needed  changes  are 
made;  upon  a  third  offense  the  cannery  may  be 
closed  by  court  order  and  reopened  only  at  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 

Mines.  Laws  relating  to  labor  in  mines  were 
enacted  in  12  States  and  1  Territory.  In  Alaska 
a  detailed  mine  safety  code  was  enacted.  Laws 
were  merely  amended  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  Illi- 
nois, Kansas,  Missouri,  Nevada,  New  Mexico, 
Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  and  Texas;  but  West 
Virginia  not  merely  rewrote  her  code  but  enacted 
important  additions  including  the  creation  of  a 
Bureau  of  Mine  Research  at  the  State  Univer- 
sity. Arizona  created  a  Bureau  of  Mines  for 
purposes  of  investigation,  but  without  adminis- 
trative authority.  Illinois  authorized  a  commis- 
sion to  investigate  mines  and  report  on  revision 
of  laws  relating  to  coal  mines;  and  Indiana 
created  a  commission  to  codify  mining  laws  and 
suggest  amendments.  Pennsylvania  permitted 
mine  owners  to  employ  unlicensed  mine  foremen, 
but  made  all  mine  foremen  and  fire  bosses  agents 
of  the  owners  under  the  liability  laws. 

Wages  and  Houbs.  Seven  States  and  Alaska 
enacted  laws  relating  to  the  hours  and  wages  of 
labor,  not  including  laws  relating  to  the  employ- 
ment of  women  and  children,  and  mothers'  pen- 
sions. California  fixed  an  eight-hour  day  for 
laborers  on  work  for  public  utility  districts,  and 
Oregon   excepted    State   departments   from   the 


eight-hour  law  for  public 
scribed  an  eight-hour  day  f 
placing  them  on  the  same 
in  the  Territory.  Iowa  r 
panics  to  pay  their  employ 
Kansas  applied  a  similar  li 
except  civil,  and  Pennsylvi 
thorities;  Minnesota  requi 
porations  to  pay  wages  tw 
scribed  penalties  in  cases  c 
wages  by  contractors;  Cal 
monthly  payment  in  cash  o 
public  authorities  and  by 
at  least  six  employees;  ai 
corporations  employing  ove 
tractors  on  public  works, 
monthly  out  of  current  i 
improvements  on  real  estat 
the  hours  of  labor  in  gro< 
week  for  persons  above  th 
hours  on  five  days  and  15 
Carolina  required  railroads 
ees  semi-monthly.  South  ( 
alty  for  failure  to  pay  wag< 
discharged;  and  forbade  tl 
ployees  trade  or  pay  che 
quired  employers  to  red< 
money.  Utah  enacted  a  h 
the  hour  of  closing  for  all 
cantile  houses  except  drug 
perishable  foods. 

Special  Laws.  Among 
readily  classified  may  be  mi 
sey  law  authorizing  street 
sions  in  cities  of  the  first  ( 
tributory  pension  systems 
A  New  York  law  forbiddin 
aliens  on  public  works  w( 
make  such  employment  h 
must  be  preferred  if  avails 
BOB.)  South  Carolina  reqi 
of  races  in  textile  factoi 
Carolina  statute  prohibited 
ginia  increased  the  numbe 
and  enlarged  their  powei 
safety  and  sanitary  regulal 
Connecticut,  California,  Ma 
Illinois,  and  South  Carolin 
required  the  establishment 
emergency  kits  in  all  man 
ments;  California  required 
drinking  water;  Illinois  ps 
tions  regarding  heating, 
and  the  guarding  of  : 
passed  similar  provisions  foi 
and  required  the  installatioi 
separate  rooms  for  negroef 
quired  the  installation  of  fi 

Finland.  The  general  Is 
of  factory  workmen  enacted 
fective  Jan.  1,  1916.  The 
factories,  building  operatioi 
on  railways,  canals,  harbo: 
agricultural  work  where 
power  are  used.  It  contaii 
ing  light,  ventilation,  and 
and  protection  against  ds 
and  requires  an  air  space  < 
feet  for  each  workman.  1 
authorized  to  require  the  ] 
lunch  rooms  for  workingmei 
Imperial  Senate  is  required 
dangerous  trades,  and  issL 
for.    This  section  also  proi 


LABOB  LEGISLATION 


364 


LAKDS 


tion  of  the  labor  of  women  and  children.  It  was 
expected  that  the  law  would  require  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  inspectors  from  two  to  eight. 

LABOB  LEGISLATION,  American  Assooi- 
ATioN  FOB.  This  American  branch  of  the  Inter- 
national Association  for  Labor  Legislation  has 
established  branches  in  most  of  the  industrial 
States  and  has  won  prestige  in  the  advancement 
of  legislation  for  the  improvement  of  industrial 
conditions.  Its  headquarters  are  at  131  East 
23d  St.,  New  York  City;  its  president,  Prof. 
Henry  R.  Seger  of  Ck)lumbia  University;  and  its 
secretary,  John  B.  Andrews.  It  publishes  the 
American  Labor  Legislation  Review,  a  quarterly, 
the  fifth  volume  of  which  was  issued  in  1015. 
During  the  past  year  it  devoted  its  attention  pri- 
marily to  the  problems  of  unemployment  and 
workmen's  compensation.  With  reference  to  un- 
employment, as  the  result  of  investigations  in 
116  different  communities  covering  300  organi- 
zations and  individuals  dealing  with  the  ex- 
tremely critical  problem  of  unemployment  in 
the  winter  of  1014-15,  it  formulated  a  set  of 
"Standard  Recommendations"  as  follows:  (1) 
A  permanent  community  organization,  preferabhr 
a  committee  appointed  by  the  mayor  and  includ- 
inff  all  classes  concerned,  should  be  brought  into 
existence  in  each  industrial  centre.  (2)  A  per- 
sistent campaign  of  education  should  be  carried 
out  to  inform  every  citizen  on  all  aspects  of  un- 
employment. (3)  Every  possible  effort  should 
be  made  to  supply  employment  at  standard  rates 
on  part-time  before  such  emergency  measures  as 
bread  lines,  bimdle  days,  or  soup  kitchens  are 
resorted  to.  (4)  The  unemployable  should  be 
differentiated  from  the  unemployed  and  special 
facilities  provided  for  the  sick,  the  mentally  de- 
fective, the  aged,  the  vagrant,  the  inefficient, 
and  the  handicapped.  (5)  Industrial  training 
classes  for  imemployed  workers  should  be  organ- 
ized. (6)  A  centrally  located  and  amply  financed 
employment  exchange  should  be  organized.  (7) 
Public  work  providing  especially  for  resident 
heads  of  families  at  usual  hours  and  wages 
should  be  undertaken  during  critical  periods. 
(8)  Private  employers  should  be  urged  to  regu- 
late their  demand  for  labor,  taking  advantage  of 
slack  periods  to  carry  out  repairs  and  improve- 
ments. (0)  Compulsorv  unemployment  insur- 
ance should  be  provided  by  contributions  from 
employers,  employees,  and  the  State. 

LABOB  STATISTICS,  Bubeau  of.  See  Oo- 
cuPATioNAL  Diseases,  section  so  entitled. 

LABBADOB.  A  peninsula  in  the  northeast^ 
em  part  of  British  America.  Except  a  strip 
along  the  coast,  which  belongs  to  Newfoundland, 
it  is  included  in  the  Canadian  Province  of  Que- 

LABTJAN.    See  Straits  Settlements. 

LAFAYETTE  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1832,  at  Easton, 
Pa.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments  in 
the  autumn  of  1915  was  612.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 54.  John  H.  MacCracken,  LL.D.,  was  in- 
stalled as  president  of  the  university  in  1915. 
Prof.  A.  K.  Hackell,  Ph.D.,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  dean  of  the  college,  in  place 
of  Prof.  Allen  Roberts,  resigned.  Prof.  Alvin 
Davidson  died  in  1915,  and  Prof.  F.  Kunkel, 
Ph.D.,  was  appointed  professor  of  biology  to  suc- 
ceed him.  Prof.  William  H.  Smith,  Ph.D.,  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and  regis- 
trar in  place  of  Prof.  J.  J.  Hardy,  who  died. 
The  productive  funds  amounted,  at  the  end  of 


the  fiscal  year,  to  $620,128.  The  library  con- 
tained 41,292  volumes. 

LA  FOLLETTE  SEAMEN'S  LAW.  See 
Shipping. 

LAOEBLOF,  Selma.  Her  novel  The  Em- 
peror of  Portugal.  See  Scandinavian  Litera- 
ture, StoedUh  Fiction, 

LAKE  MOHONX  CONFEBENCE.    See  In- 

TERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION   AND   PeACE. 

LAKE      WASHINGTON      CANAL.       See 

Canals. 

LAMPBECHTy  Karl.  Distinguished  German 
historian,  died  at  Leipzig,  on  May  12,  1915.  He 
was  born  at  Jessen  on  Feb.  25,  1856,  and  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  GOttingen,  Leip- 
zig, and  Munich.  He  became  professor  at  the 
University  of  Bonn  in  1885,  at  Marburg  in  1890, 
and  at  Leipzig  in  1891.  His  works  include: 
Beitrage  zur  Oeachickte  dea  franzosischen  Wirt- 
achaftalehena  im  elf  ten  Jahrhundert  (1878); 
Deutacheir  Wirtechaftalehen  im  Mitteldlter 
(1886);  Die  rSmiache  Frage  von  Konig  Pipin 
hia  auf  Kaiaer  Ludvig  den  Frommen  (1889); 
Die  Kulturhiatoriache  Methode  (1900) ;  What  ia 
Hiatoryt  (1905),  written  after  a  visit  to  the 
United  States;  and  his  famous  Deutache  Oe- 
achichte  (13  vols.,  1891-1908),  a  work  based  on 
the  theory  that  history  is  not  primarily  politi- 
cal, but  is  chiefly  concerned  in  tracing  the  un- 
folding of  the  "social  soul,"  a  task  which  necessi- 
tates a  social-psychological  point  of  view. 
Lamprecht's  History  of  Germany  made  a  deep 
impression  and  aroused  much  opposition,  his 
chief  opponent  being  Dietrich  Schftfer.  He  was 
rector  of  the  University  of  Leipzig  in  1910-11, 
and  received  honorary  degrees  from  Columbia 
University,  the  University  of  Christiania,  and 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews.  In  1882  he 
founded  Die  toeatdeutache  Zeitachrift  fiir  Qe- 
achichte  und  Kunat^  and  after  1904  was  in  charge 
of  Heeren  and  Ukert*s  Allgemeine  Staatenge- 
achichte.  In  his  behalf  the  University  of  Leip- 
zig established  an  Historical  Institute,  with  fa- 
cilities unrivaled  in  Europe.  As  chief  exponent 
of  the  so-called  Kultur-geachichte  he  was  an 
ardent  believer  in  the  rightful  supremacy  and 
claims  of  German  Kultur,  and  he  engaged  in 
controversies  on  questions  concerning  the  great 
war.  He  vigorously  contended  that  the  war  was 
a  conflict  with  which  not  only  the  Kaiser  and 
tlie  German  military  caste,  but  the  whole  Ger- 
man people,  were  in  full  sympathy,  and  for  which 
they  were  alike  responsible;  and  a  few  months 
before  his  death  he  wrote  a  letter  to  that  effect 
to  Dr.  Charles  W.  Kliot  and  Dr.  Nicholas  Mur- 
ray Butler, 

Lamps,  Electbic.    See  EtEGTRic  Lighting. 

LANDSCAPE  GABDENING.  See  Citt 
Planning. 

LANDS,  Public.  The  total  area  of  public 
and  Indian  lands  originally  entered  and  allowed 
during  the  flscal  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  was 
16,861,214  acres,  an  increase  of  338,362  acres,  as 
compared  with  the  area  entered  during  1914. 
The  area  patented  during  the  fiscal  year  was 
13,025,427  acres,  a  decrease  of  1,365,643  acres, 
as  compared  with  the  fiscal  year  1914.  Of  the 
above  area,  9,594,973  acres  were  patented  under 
the  Homestead  laws,  and  32,360  acres  were  pat- 
ented as  soldiers'  additional  entries. 

The  total  cash  receipts  for  the  sale  of  public 
land,  including  fees  for  the  fiscal  year  1915,  was 
$3,786,319,  compared  with  $4,256,102  in  1914. 

During  the  year  56  withdrawals  for  power  site 


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preserves  covering  an  area  of  292,134  acres  were 
made.  Applications  for  withdrawals  covered 
1,048,654  acres,  compared  with  315,209  acres  in 
1914. 

Radical  changes  were  made  in  the  regulations 
under  which  the  desert-land  entries  are  allowed. 
Applications  are  now  referred  for  a  field  exami- 
nation as  to  feasibility  prior  to  final  action. 
For  the  relief  of  those  who  might  make  entries, 
but  could  secure  no  adequate  water  supply.  Con- 
gress passed  remedial  legislation  in  1915.  Dur- 
ing the  fiscal  year  2711  desert- land  entries  were 
patented,  embracing  488,752  acres,  compared  with 
2127  desert-land  entries,  embracing  346,794 
acres  in  1914. 

LANOIiOTZ,  Carl  A.  American  educator 
and  musician,  died  Nov.  25,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Germany  in  1833,  a  son  of  a  musician  at  the 
Court  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Gynmasium  Bernhardinum.  He  also  studied 
music  at  Weimar.  When  Wagner  conducted  the 
first  production  of  Lohengrin^  Professor  Langlotz 
was  a  member  of  the  orchestra.  He  removed  to 
the  United  States  and  opened  a  studio  in  Phila- 
delphia. In  1856  he  became  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  Princeton  University  as  a  teacher  of 
German.  In  1859  he  composed  the  melody  for 
"Old  Nassau,''  a  prize  poem,  written  for  the 
Nassau  Literary  Magazine  by  Harlan  Page  Peck. 
In  the  course  of  years  it  has  obtained  great 
popularity,  and  is  now  recognized  as  the  anthem 
of  the  university.  Professor  Langlotz  was  the 
only  survivor  of  the  Princeton  faculty  of  fifty 
years  ago. 

I«ANGIVANy  Louis  Philip.  Canadian  Arch- 
bishop, died  June  15,  1915.  He  was  born  at 
St.  Isador,  Quebec,  in  1855.  In  1881  he  joined 
an  order  of  oblates,  and  in  1882  was  ordained  a 
priest.  He  served  for  a  time  as  a  professor  in 
the  Catholic  College  at  Ottawa.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  St.  Boniface,  Manitoba,  in  1895.  In 
1908  he  completed  the  construction  of  a  new 
cathedral. 

LANSING,  Robert.  American  Secretary  of 
State  by  appointment  of  President  Wilson  on 
June  23,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Watertown, 
N.  Y.,  in  1864,  and  in  1886  graduated  from  Am- 
herst College.  After  studying  law  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1889,  and  for  several  years 
practiced  at  Watertown.  In  1902-03  he  acted 
as  associate  counsel  for  the  United  States  in  the 
Behring  Sea  Arbitration,  and  was  counsel  for 
the  American  government  in  the  Behring  Sea 
Claims  Commission  in  1896-97.  In  1903  he  was 
solicitor  for  the  United  States  in  the  Alaskan 
Boundary  Tribunal,  and  was  counsel  in  the 
North  Atlaiiiic  Coast  Fisheries  Arbitration  of 
The  Hague  in  1909-10.  He  acted  as  agent  for 
the  United  States  in  the  American  and  British 
Claims  Arbitration  in  1914  and  1915.  On  March 
20th  of  ttie  latter  year  he  was  appointed  coun- 
selor for  the  Department  of  State  to  succeed 
John  Bassett  Moore,  who  resigned.  In  addition 
to  his  work  for  the  United  States  government, 
Mr.  Lansing  was  in  1894-95  counsel  for  the 
Mexican  and  Chinese  litigation  in  Washington. 
For  an  account  of  Mr.  Lansing's  work  in  the 
State  Department  in  1914-15,  see  articles  United 
States,  Government;  and  United  States  and 
THE  War. 

LAOS.  The  largest  of  the  territories  compos- 
ing the  dependency  of  French  Indo-China.  Capi- 
tal, Vientiane.  Luang  Prabang,  Bassac,  and 
Muong   Sing    (three   protected   states)    are   in- 


cluded under  Laos.  Teak  is  cut  in  the  forests 
and  agriculture  and  mining  are  carried  on.  See 
French  Indo-China. 

lA-BB  AND  LABB  SUBSTITUTES.  See 
Food  and  Nutrition. 

LABOSAN,  also  known  as  Stoeltzner'b 
Casein  Calcium.  Larosan  is  prepared  by  treat- 
ing a  watery  suspension  of  casein  with  calcium 
hydroxide  in  such  quantities  as  will  yield  a  solu- 
tion neutral  to  phenolphthalein,  and  then  evap- 
orating to  dryness.  It  occurs  as  a  light,  white, 
nearly  odorless  and  tasteless  powder,  and  has  a 
calcium  equivalent  of  2.5  per  cent  of  calcium 
oxide.  It  is  indicated  in  the  diarrhceal  diseases 
of  infants  and  wherever  it  becomes  necessary  to 
introduce  calcium  into  the  body  tissue. 

ItASSEN  PEAK.    See  Volcanoes. 

ItAW,  BoNAR,    See  Great  Britain,  History. 

LAWN  TENNIS.  The  European  war  pre- 
vented the  holding  of  any  international  lawn  ten- 
nis matches  in  1916,  but  in  the  United  States 
the  sport  flourished  as  never  before.  The  sensa- 
tion of  the  year  was  the  playing  of  William  M. 
Johnston  of  San  Francisco,  a  youth  barely  out 
of  his  teens.  During  the  early  part  of  the  sea- 
son Johnston  attracted  little  attention,  as  he 
went  down  to  defeat  before  several  players  of 
comparatively  mediocre  ability.  His  entry  in 
the  All-Comers*  tournament  on  the  courts  of  the 
West  Side  Tennis  Club  at  Forest  Hills,  L.  I., 
therefore,  was  practically  unnoticed  by  close  fol- 
lowers of  the  game. 

R.  Norris  Williams,  2nd,  the  national  cham- 
pion of  1914,  and  Maurice  E.  McLoughlin,  who 
had  lost  the  title  to  Williams,  were  the  logical 
favorites  when  play  in  the  All-Comers'  started. 
Karl  Behr,  who  had  defeated  McLoughlin  in  a 
previous  tourney,  also  was  regarded  as  a  possi- 
ble winner. 

No  upsets  occurred  until  the  fourth  round  was 
reached,  when  Johnston  sprang  into  the  lime- 
light by  conquering  Behr  \n  a  hard-fought  four- 
set  match.  Williams  and  McLoughlin,  in  the 
meantime,  had  mowed  down  their  opponents  with 
ease. 

Clarence  J.  Griffin  was  the  next  to  bow  to  the 
skill  of  Johnston,  going  down  to  defeat  after 
five  thrilling  sets.  This  victory  gave  Johnston 
the  right  to  meet  Williams  in  the  following 
round. 

Williams  won  the  first  set  at  7-5  after  captur- 
ing six  games  in  a  row  and  it  appeared  as 
though  his  youthful  opponent  was  hopelessly 
outclassed.  The  second  set,  however,  told  a  dif- 
ferent story,  for  Johnston  rallied  strongly  and 
emerged  victor  at  6-4.  Williams  took  the  third 
set  at  7-5. 

Then  came  the  rest  period.  Johnston  returned 
to  his  task  with  a  fierceness  that  carried  Wil- 
liams off  his  feet,  and  won  the  fourth  set  at 
6-2.  The  fifth  and  last  set  found  Williams  ut- 
terly bewildered  by  the  vicious  speed  shown  by 
his  rival,  who  was  again  victorious  by  the  same 
score,  6-2, 

In  the  final  round  McLoughlin  took  the  first 
set  easily  at  6-1,  Johnston  appearing  unable  to 
get  going.  The  complexion  of  things  changed 
in  the  second  set  when  Johnston  smashed  his  way 
through  without  giving  his  opponent  a  single 
game.  In  both  the  last  two  sets  McLoughlin 
gained  early  leads  only  to  weaken  before  the 
vigorous  attack  he  was  obliged  to  face,  Johnston 
winning  at  7-5  and  10-8. 

Johnston  scored  another  triumph  in  the  double 


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LAWN  TENNIS  36 

matches,  where,  teamed  with  Griffin,  he  wrested 
the  title  from  McLoughlin  and  Thomas  C. 
Bundy. 

The  United  States  National  Lawn  Tennis  As- 
sociation, in  its  official  ranking  for  the  year, 
5 laced  Johnston  at  No.  1,  Williams  at  No.  2,  and 
[cLoughlin  at  No.  3.  Others  to  win  places 
among  the  first  ten  were,  in  order:  Karl  Bchr, 
Theodore  R.  Pell,  N.  W.  Niles,  C.  J.  Griffin, 
W.  M.  Washburn,  G.  M.  Church,  and  W.  M. 
Hall. 

No  summary  of  the  year  in  lawn  tennis  would 
be  complete  without  mention  of  the  brilliant 
playing  of  Miss  Molla  Bjurstodt,  of  Christiania, 
Norway,  who  won  the  national  indoor  title,  the 
national  championship,  the  metropolitan  cham- 
pionship, and  the  national  clay  court  title. 

After  making  practically  a  clean  sweep  on  the 
Eastern  courts.  Miss  Bjurstedt  went  to  the  Pa- 
cific Coast,  where  she  met  Mrs.  Thomas  C. 
Bundy,  Mrs.  George  W.  Wightman,  Miss  Mary 
Browne,  and  Miss  Florence  Sutton.  In  all  of 
these  special  matches  Miss  Bjurstedt  was  suc- 
cessful save  for  those  with  Mrs.  Bundy,  who 
defeated  her  twice  and  lost  to  her  once. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  All-Comers'  tourna- 
ment was  held  at  Forest  Hills,  L.  I.,  instead  of 
at  Newport,  which  for  34  years  had  been  the 
"capital"  of  the  United  States  lawn  tennis  world. 
The  change  was  due  to  the  campaign  waged  by 
Karl  Behr  and  other  prominent  players  who 
contended  that  this  national  fixture  should  not 
be  restricted  to  any  one  club. 

A  summary  of  the  principal  tournaments  in 
the  United  States  follows : 

All-Comers'  National,  at  Forest  Hills.  Men's 
singles,  final  round,  W.  M.  Johnston  defeated 
M.  E.  McLoughlin,  1-6,  6-0,  7-6,  10-8;  men's 
doubles,  challenge  round,  W.  M.  Johnston  and 
C.  J.  Griffin  defeated  M.  E.  McLoughlin  and 
T.   C.   Bundy,   2-6,  6-3,   6--4,   3-6,  fi-3. 

Women's  National,  at  Philadelphia.  Singles, 
final  round,  Miss  Molla  Bjurstedt  defeated  Mrs. 
G.  W.  Wightman,  4-6,  6-2,  6-0;  doubles,  final 
round,  Mrs.  Wightman  and  Miss  Sears  defeated 
Mrs.  M.  McLean  and  Mrs.  G.  M.  Chapman,  10-8, 
fi-2. 

Clay  Court,  at  Pittsburgh.  Singles,  final 
round,  R.  N.  Williams,  2nd,  defeated  G.  M. 
Church,  7-6,  6-3,  2-6,  8-6;  doubles,  final  round, 
G.  M.  Church  and  Dean  Mathey  defeated  R.  N. 
Williams,  2nd,  and  W.  M.  Washburn,  6-3,  6-^. 
Women's  singles,  final  round.  Miss  Molla  Bjur- 
stedt defeated  Mrs.  G.  M.  Wightman,  3-6,  6-1, 
6-3. 

National  Indoor,  at  New  York  City.  Singles, 
final  round,  G.  F.  Touchard  defeated  A.  M.  Ix>vi- 
bond,  6-3,  6-2,  3-6,  6-2;  doubles,  final  round, 
G.  F.  Touchard  and  W.  M.  Washburn  defeated 
T.  R.  Pell  and  K.  H.  Behr,  7-6,  3-6,  3-6,  6-2,  6-3. 

Women's  National  Indoor,  at  New  York  City. 
Singles,  final  round.  Miss  Molla  Bjurstedt  de- 
feated Miss  Marie  Wagner,  6-4,  6-4;  doubles, 
final  round,  Mrs.  Marshall  McLean  and  Mrs.  S. 
F.  Weaver  defeated  Miss  Molla  Bjurstedt  and 
Miss  Florence  Ballin,  3-6,  8-6,  6-2. 

Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  at  San  Francisco. 
Men's  singles,  final  round,  M.  E.  McLoughlin  de- 
feated W.  M.  Johnston,  7-9,  4-6,  8-6,  6-2,  6-4; 
men's  doubles,  final  round,  W.  M.  Johnston  and 
J.  R.  Strachan  defeated  G.  M.  Church  and  Dean 
Mathey,  6-2,  2-6,  7-6,  6-1.  Women's  sineles, 
final  round.  Miss  Anita  Myers  dcfoated  Miss 
Marjorie  Wale,  6-4,  6-2. 


B  LEAD 

Intercollegiate,  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Singles, 
final  round,  R.  N.  Williams,  2nd,  Harvard,  de- 
feated Leonard  Beekman,  Princeton,  6-2,  6-1, 
6-2;  doubles,  final  round,  R.  N.  Williams,  2nd, 
and  R.  Harte,  Jr.,  Harvard,  defeated  Caner  and 
Curtis,  Harvard. 

Interscholastic,  at  Forest  Hills,  L.  I.  Sin- 
gles, final  round,  H.  A.  Throckmorton,  Wood- 
bridge  High  School,  N.  J.,  defeated  C.  S.  Gar- 
land, Fdgewood  High  School,  N.  J.,  6-3,  7-5, 
2-6,  6-3. 

Metropolitan.  Men's  singles,  final  round,  W. 
M.  Washburn  defeated  Robert  Le  Roy,  6-1,  6-3, 
7-6;  doubles,  final  round,  H.  H.  Hackett  and 
W.  M.  Hall  defeated  A.  M.  Lovibond  and  J.  H. 
Steinkampf,  10-8,  6-3,  6-0.  Women's  singles, 
final  round.  Miss  Molla  Bjurstedt  defeated  Mrs. 
Barger  Wallach,  6-3,  6-1;  doubles,  final  round, 
Mrs.  Marshall  McLean  and  Mrs.  Miles  defeated 
Miss  Bjurstedt  and  Miss  Florence  Ballin,  6-2, 
6-1. 

LAW  SCHOOLS.  See  Univebsities  and  Col- 
leges. 

LEAD,  llie  output  of  refined  lead  produced 
in  the  United  States  from  domestic  ores  in  1914 
was  612,794  short  tons,  valued  at  $39,997,932,  a 
gain  of  100,916  tons  in  quantity,  and  $3,762,668 
in  value  over  1913.  The  largest  contribution 
made  by  the  States  was  by  Missouri,  194,276 
tons,  a  gain  of  41,846  tons.  Idaho  ranks  sec- 
ond, gaining  in  1914  40,026  tons.  The  lead 
mines  of  Utah  also  showed  a  considerable  gain 
during  the  year.  The  world's  production  of  lead 
in  1913  was  1,270,468  short  tons.  Next  to  the 
United  States,  Spain  produced  the  largest  quan- 
tity—223,767  tons.  Germany  produced  199,627, 
and  Australia  127,867.  The  total  value  of  the 
lead  imported  in  1914  was  valued  at  $604,978. 
Tlie  exports  amounted  to  68,722  short  tons, 
valued  at  $4,601,674. 

With  the  great  demand  for  lead  due  to  the 
war,  both  the  production  and  the  export  of  this 
metal  in  the  United  States  showed  a  great  in- 
crease in  1916  over  1914.  The  output  of  Ameri- 
can lead  refineries,  which  included  lead  obtained 
both  from  foreign  and  domestic  sources,  was 
estimated  at  more  than  600,000  tons  in  1916  by 
the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  of  New 
York,  the  production  being  distributed  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  estimates  from  the  same 
authority.  The  total  exports  of  lead  from  the 
United  States  for  1916  were  estimated  at  119,000 
tons,  of  which  43,000  tons  approximately  were 
derived  from  lead  of  foreign  origin,  as  compared 
with  31,061  tons  in  1914.  The  ore  and  base 
bullion  imported  into  the  United  States  for  re- 
fining comes  chiefiy  from  Mexico  and  Chile. 
The  prices  for  lead  in  New  York  progressively 
increased  during  the  year,  reaching  in  June, 
6.932  per  pound,  from  which  there  was  a  slight 
recession,  and  then  a  recovery  in  December,  so 
that  at  tiie  close  of  1916  lead  stood  at  6.60,  com- 
pared with  3.729  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

See  Metallurgy. 

Pboduction  or  Lbad  (Bbtinsby  Statistics)* 
{Engineering    and    Mining    JoumeA,    New    York) 

1912         1918        1914  1918 

Domestic :  ClaBs 

DesiWerixed    286,207  261.616  818.697  817.468 

Antimonial     9.239     16,845     17.177     24.870 

S.  E.  Missouri 145.866  188,203  177.418  197.427 

S.  W.  Missouri    .  . .      19,224     22.812     25,448     26.096 

Totals     410,086  438.476  688.786  565.856 

Digitized  by  VnOO^iC 


LEAD                                   367  LEATHER 

.                        191B       1918      1914        1918  authorities  for  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 

Foreign:  shoes  and  harness.    Towards  the  end  of  the  year 

Desilverized     82,715      64,774     28,475     47,405  ^hnra  xsrtLu  a  wihta  omi^rfil  tavivaI  of  himinMa    anH 

Antimonial   6,003      2,800      1.119      2.492  ^^^?  ^  *  ™^'®  general  revival  oi  Dusines^  ana 

stocks  of  leather  were  at  low  ebb.     In  some  Euro- 

Totah   87,718    67,074    29,594    49,897  pean  countries  embargoes  were  laid  on  hides  and 

Grand  totala  . .  497,754  490,550  668,829  615.263  g^ins,  but  South  American  cattle  skins  were  in 

*  These  figures  include  the  lead  derived  from  serap  good  supply.  Gk>at  skins,  colt  skins,  calf  skins, 
and  jnnk  by  primary  smelters.  ^^  y^^^^  j^j^^  ^g^^  scarce,  while  heavy  leather 
•  was  in  considerable  demand.    Tanneries  experi- 

LEAB  POISONING.    See  Occitpational  Dib-  enced  difficulty  on  account  of  the  limited  supplies 

EASPfl.  of  tanning  materials  and  chemicals.    The  prices 

LEARNED,  Walter.    American  banker  and  for  dyes,  and  in  fact  all  raw  materials,  advanced 

author,   died  Dec.    12,    1915.     He  was   bom   in  so  that  a  correspondingly  high  price  was  asked 

New  London,  Ck>nn.,  in  1847,  and  received  a  high  for  the  finished  product.    There  was  a  scarcity 

school  education.     For  nearly  his  entire  life  he  of  tanning  extracts,  leading  to  an  increased  cost 

was  engaged  in  the  banking  business.    He  was  of  tanning,  and  during  the  year  there  was  to  be 

a  director  and  official  in  several  important  finan-  noticed    an    increased    use    of    substitutes    for 

cial  institutions.     As  an  author  his  chief  vol-  leather,  this  being  developed  and  made  of  bet- 

umes  were  translations  of  the  works  of  Francois  ter  quality  with  the  demand,  especially  for  motor 

Copp^,  and  a  volume  of  verses  entitled  Between  vehicles.    The   German   dyestuffs  and   continen- 

TimeSf  published  in  1899.     He  was  a  contributor  tal  calf  skins  have  been  cut  off  entirely,  and  at 

to   several   magazines,   and   was   editor    of   the  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  recognized  that  not 

Treasury   of    Famous    Poems    (1891)    and    the  only  were  hides  high,  but  would  probably  ap- 

Treasury  of  Favorite  American  Poems   (1897).  preciate  in  value.     Foreign  competition  was  elim- 

He  was  a  member  of  many  societies  and  associa-  inated  from  the  American  leather  market  and 

tions.      exports  of  leather  products  had  been  large  to 

LEATHEB.  The  leather  business  in  the  the  British  colonies.  South  America,  South  Af- 
United  States  during  1915  experienced  unusual  rica,  East  Indies,  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  In 
conditions  on  account  of  the  European  war,  Switzerland  the  Federal  government  expressed 
while  in  the  European  countries  themselves  the  its  intention  of  commandeering  all  tanning  ma- 
entire  industry  was  disorganized  and  for  the  terials,  while  in  Germany  it  had  become  neces- 
most  part  under  government  supervision.  Amer-  sary  for  the  government  to  regulate  the  prices 
lean  authorities  were  unanimous  in  considering  of  such  chemicals  and  other  tanning  materials 
the  leather  industry  dull  and  depressed.  The  which  had  gone  up,  especially  the  imported, 
prices  constantly  increased  during  the  year.  The  War  Leather  Ck>mpany  regulated  almost  the 
reaching  a  record  point  of  27  cents  for  packer  entire  hide,  leather,  and  shoe  industry  of  Ger- 
calf skins,  though  a  slight  reaction  was  mani-  many,  and  also  controlled  the  bark  question, 
fested  late  in  the  year.  War  orders  took  largely  For  these  materials  the  maximum  price  was  to 
from  the  stock  of  heavy  leather  for  military  be  fixed  by  the  government  authorities.  In  Aus- 
shoes  and  harness,  and  it  was  impossible  to  tria  a  maximum  price  had  been  fixed  by  the 
obtain  from  abroad  many  materials  once  im-  government  on  calf  as  well  as  other  kinds  of 
ported.  In  fact,  America  exported  the  very  leathers,  and  shoe  manufacturers  in  Hungary 
same  materials  that  once  it  had  secured  from  were  expressing'  their  inability  to  meet  the  hard 
foreign  markets.  Great  Britain  imported  ffreat  conditions  involved  in  filling  government  con- 
quantities  of  sole,  upper,  and  belting  stock,  as  tracts.  The  French  government  reduced  the 
the  tanneries  were  turned  over  to  the  military  weight  of  calf  skins  that  might  be  exported. 


AVERAGE  PRIOES  OF  HIDES  IK  THE  UNITED  STATES 

PAOKSB  HIDBS 

I          i     I  I  I           I 

P«fc.rHM«.                   11                      ^?         l|       IS  ll        ||         Is          ? 

^5           5            *5          -25         t2  ^o         So           sS           S, 

SS5        i        85       |S5     |S$  s5      |5        So        % 

Averags,     1915 24.26      21.87      21.48      21.12    20.89  28.56  22.97  20.90  19.24 

1914 19.76      18.56      19.28      18.77     18.20  18.94  19.27  18.49  16.20 

1918 18.88      17.42      18.06      17.72     17.26  17.28  17.27  17.19  14.82 

1912 17.69       16.17       16.68      16.14     16.88  16.40  16.80  16.71  14.07 

1911 14.81      18.50       14.82      18.54     18.47  18.87  18.50  12.56  12.11 


t  M 

16.89  21.167 

16.15  18.25 

18.80  16.920 

12.03  15.697 

10.50  18.218 


COUNTBT  HIDB8 


I  ^^  ?  I  i  &       « 

Cim^ryHidee                  ^\  t^  ^%  t^  ^  ^\  ^ 

Average,    1916 19.67  18.62  19.06  16.18  18.98  16.65  17.92  16.90 

1914 16.56  16.84  16.42  14.63  16.68  17.70  15.64  18.98 

"           1918 15.89  14.48  15.00  18.54  16.05  16.60  14.81  12.78 

1912 14.26  18.12  14.06  12.88  14.05  14.91  18.02  11.22 

*<           1911 12.24  10.72  11.82  10.02  11.82  12.80  10.70  10.01 


^1 

21.60 
21.90 
17.18 
18.60 
16.84 

i    i 

19.60      18.718 
19.26      16.89 
16.74     14.997 
16.01      14.167 
18.28      11.979 

Digitized  by  VnOOQ 

le 


LEATHER 


368 


LEGISLATION  IN  1915 


In  August  a  maximum  of  27.19  for  heavy  na-  Emplotebs'  Liabiutt  and  Workmen's  Gomfen- 

tive  steer  hides  was  attained,  while  the  average  sation,  laws  relating  to  banks  and  banking  un- 

prices  for  1015  were  the  highest  on  record  in  the  der  Banking,  and  the  principal  measures  relat- 

United  States.  ing  to  railway  under  Railways.    In  this  arti- 

LIVB   STOCK  BLAUGHTEB  AT  PRINOIPAL  POI  NTS  FOR  YEAR  ENDING  DECEMBER.   1915-1914 

OatiU                         Oalvet  Sheep                                 Hog* 

1915  1914  1915          1914  1915  1914              1915  1914 

Chicago     1,881,049  1.480.770  411.879     849,905  8,252,010  4,106,081  6,519,125  5.827.454 

Kansas  City    851,828  925,899  88,202     103,604  1,198,862  1,511,996  2,118.780  1.880.178 

Omaha    682.529  528.898  1,898,916  1,875,092  2,012,259  1,927.954 

St.   Loais    828.089  784.495  576,176  696,846  1,600,873  1,569,524 

St.   Joseph    246,111  204,887  20,972       22,845  614,608  651,901  1,528.563  1,572,674 

Fort   Worth    267,489  481,483  94,421      189,484  201,220  295,689         891,408  462,862 

IndianapoUs     141,550  148,776  38,974        88,096  40,070  62,952  1,495,711  1,812,406 

Oklahoma    City    119,632  185.016  12,871        20,291  41.149  21.628        475,352  418,179 

Wichita     67,836  73,075 18,912  18,099         471,164  411,906 

Sioux  City    222,965  148,161  21,287        15,847  209,595  814,807  1,189,202  1,027,448 

Totols    5,308.518     4.860,908     678.056     689,572     8,046,518     9,548,591  17,791.987    15,860,585 

Increase    442.606  1,981,852  

Decrease     11,516       1,502,078  

Wichita,  St  Loais  and  Omaha  count  calves  as  cattle. 


LEEWABD  ISLANDS.  A  British  colony; 
the  most  northerly  group  of  the  (British)  Lesser 
Antilles.  The  five  constituent  presidencies,  with 
their  area  and  their  population  according  to  the 
1011  census,  are  as  follows: 

8q.  M,  Pop.  OapiUA 

Antigna*     171  82,266 . . .  .Bt  John  % 

Montserrat    88  12,196 Plymouth 

St  Kitts  A  Neris  f . .     150  43.808 Basseterre 

Dominica    804  88,868 . . .  .Roseau 

Virgin  Islands 58  5,562 ....  Road  Town 

Total 716       126.818 

*  With  its  dependencies,  Barhuda  and  Redonda 
(62^  square  miles,  991  inhabitants),  t  Including  An- 
guilla  (85  square  miles,  4075  inhabitants),  t  Capital 
of  the  colony. 

Elementary  education  in  the  islands  is  de- 
nominational, except  in  Dominica,  the  denomina- 
tions receiving  grants-in-aid.  Government  sav- 
ings banks  are  established  in  all  the  presidencies. 
There  is  no  railway  or  internal  telegraph.  Cable 
connection  exists  with  the  continent.  Statistics 
of  trade  and  finance  for  the  colony  are  given  be- 
low for  four  years : 

19078     190910     1910-11      191814 

Imports     £517,424  £485,398  £667,817  £558,862 

Exports     521,509     441,728     558,165     577,256 

Revenue  *     152,608     149,670     164,875     174,456 

Expenditure*..     186,047     149,906     159,268     171,128 

*  Not  including  government  grants. 

See  articles  on  the  separate  presidencies. 

LEOISIiATION  IN  1915.  Following  is  given 
a  summary  of  the  most  important  acto  passed 
by  the  legislative  sessions  in  various  States, 
lliere  were  in  session  in  1915,  43  State  L^s- 
latures.  In  these  there  were  introduced  approxi- 
mately 58,600  bills,  and  over  16,000  separate 
statutes,  and  of  these  more  than  1000  were  ve- 
toed by  the  governors  of  States,  leaving  approx- 
imately 15,000  which  became  laws.  Ilie  great 
majority  of  these  statutes  were  local,  special,  or 
comparatively  unimportant,  but  a  laree  number 
of  general  statutes  were  added  to  the  law.  The 
chief  measures  passed  have  been  classified  below, 
the  laws  relating  to  elections  are  treated  in  the 
article  Elegtobal  Befobm,  the  liquor  laws  un- 
der Liquor  Regulation,  the  labor  laws  under 
Labob  Legislation,  child  labor  laws  under 
Chiu)  Labob,  laws  relating  to  employees  under 


cle  are  discussed  only  those  measures  which  do 
not  properly  come  under  any  of  these  articles. 

Abministbation  of  Justice;  The  Legisla- 
tures of  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Vermont 
passed  importimt  practice  acts.  The  common 
purpose  of  these  is  to  simplify  procedure  and 
hasten  the  final  determination  of  cases.  Each 
is  a  modification  or  evolution  of  the  modified 
common  law  systems  which  have  always  been  in 
use  in  these  States.  The  Michigan  and  Vermont 
acts  abolish  all  the  common  law  forms  of  action, 
except  assumpsit,  trespass,  replevin,  and  eject- 
ment. The  most  notable  feature  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania act  is  the  extension  of  the  use  of  affidavit 
of  defense.  It  also  abolished  special  pleadings 
and  demurrers.  The  Michigan  act  provides,  that 
where  at  the  close  of  testimony  a  motion  is  made 
for  a  directed  verdict  and  is  denied,  the  trial 
court  on  motion  or  the  appellate  court  on  ap- 
peal may  render  a  judgment  in  favor  of  the 
party  thereto,  notwithstanding  the  verdict. 
Similar  acts  were  passed  by  the  Legislatures  of 
Minnesota  and  Wyoming.  The  Legislature  of 
Massachusetts  added  a  provision  Uiat  "When 
exception  to  any  ruling  or  direction  of  a  judge 
shall  be  alleged,  or  any  question  of  law  shall  be 
reserved,  in  the  course  of  a  trial  by  jury,  and 
the  circumstances  shall  be  such  tiiat,  if  the 
ruling  or  direction  at  the  trial  was  wrong,  the 
verdict  or  finding  ought  to  have  been  entered  for 
a  different  party  or  for  larger  or  smaller  dam- 
ages or  otherwise  than  as  was  done  at  the  trial, 
the  judge  may  reserve  leave,  with  the  assent  of 
the  jury,  so  to  enter  the  verdict  or  find,  if  upon 
the  question  or  questions  of  law  so  raised  the 
court  shall  decide  that  it  ought  to  have  been  so 
entered.'' 

The  Michigan  Legislature  also  passed  a  meas- 
ure prohibiting  the  setting  aside  of  a  verdict  or 
granting  a  new  trial  on  account  of  merely  tech- 
nical errors.  The  New  Jersey  Legislature 
passed  an  important  measure  affecting  equity 
practice.  The  Pennsylvania  Legislature  also 
made  a  radical  change  in  the  theory  of  equity 
practice.  This  provides  that  a  suit  in  equity 
may  be  begun  as  in  an  action  of  law  by  summons, 
without  first  filing  a  bill. 

A  number  of  Legislatures  passed  bills  in  rela- 
tion to  trial  of  cases.  Perhaps  the  most  radi- 
cal was  in  Pennsylvania.  This  measure  author- 
izes in  any  action  of  law  a  written  demand  by 
either  party  for  a  jury  trial,  and  further  pro- 


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LEOISLATIOXr  IN  1915  3 

Tides  that  if  neither  party  files  such  a  demand 
he  shall  be  deemed  to  forfeit  his  right,  and  the 
court  shall  proceed  to  try  the  case  without  a 
jury.  Somewhat  the  same  measure  was  passed 
by  the  California  Legislature.  The  L^slature 
of  South  Dakota  provides  for  a  verdict  by  five- 
sixths  of  the  jury  in  civil  cases. 

Several  Legislatures  provided  new  remedies, 
but  these  were  not  of  great  importance.  They 
are  interesting  chiefly  to  the  practitioner.  The 
Legislature  of  South  Dakota  provides  that  be- 
fore any  action  for  libel,  other  than  a  libel  of  a 
female,  can  be  brought  against  a  newspaper  the 
plaintiff  must  give  at  least  three  days'  notice, 
and  if  the  statements  were  published  in  good 
faith  and  a  retraction  is  made,  as  prescribed  by 
the  act,  damages  cannot  be  recovered. 

There  was  little  legislation  of  importance  in 
the  field  of  criminal  law.  An  interesting  act 
passed  by  the  North  Carolina  Legislature  makes 
it  a  misdemeanor  for  any  officer  to  require  any 
person  charged  with  a  criminal  offense  to  appear 
in  court  for  trial  in  any  other  apparel  than  ordi- 
nary civilian's  dress  or  with  head  shaved  or 
cropped  unless  so  shaven  or  cropped  while  the 
person  was  serving  a  term  of  imprisonment  for 
the  commission  of  crime.  The  Ohio  Legislature 
makes  it  a  misdemeanor  for  any  one  having  the 
custody  of  a  person  suspected  or  accused  of  a 
crime  to  refuse  to  permit  such  person  to  consult 
privately  at  any  reasonable  hour  with  an  attor- 
ney. The  death  penalty  was  abolished  in  North 
Dakota,  Oregon,  and  South  Dakota.  Laws  pro- 
viding for  indeterminate  sentence  were  passed  in 
New  York  and  Montana,  and  the  Rhode  Island 
Legislature  made  provision  for  the  parole  of 
prisoners.  The  Kansas  act  makes  it  a  misde- 
meanor to  expose  or  threaten  to  expose  a  pa- 
roled or  discharged  prisoner  in  order  to  extort 
money  or  prevent  his  obtaining  employment.  In 
New  York  the  office  of  coroner  was  abolished, 
and  the  place  of  chief  medical  examiner  created. 

Several  measures  relating  to  the  conduct  of 
attorneys  were  prepared.  The  Oregon  Legisla- 
ture made  it  a  misdemeanor  for  an  attorney  or 
any  other  person  to  advertise  for  business  in  di- 
vorce matters,  and  in  Pennsylvania  it  was  made 
a  misdemeanor  for  attorneys  to  receive  compen- 
sation for  insurance  sold  to  or  solicited  from 
clients. 

Oboanizaixon  and  Administration  of  Statb 
Government.  There  was  comparatively  little 
legislation  of  importance  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject. The  North  Dakota  and  Washington  Legis- 
latures passed  measures  creating  State  budget 
systems,  and  the  Illinois  Legislature  revised  the 
present  budget  system.  New  Hampshire  Legis- 
lature also  gave  the  Governor  a  certain  d^^ee 
of  control  over  the  finances,  by  requiring  that 
the  expenditure  or  all  money  appropriated  to 
carry  on  the  work  of  any  department  of  the 
State  government  shall  be  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Governor  with  the  advice  of  the 
council  under  such  general  regulations  as  the 
Governor  and  council  may  prescribe.  In  Minne- 
sota a  constitutional  amendment  was  proposed 
which  would  permit  the  Governor  to  approve  in 
part  single  items  on  an  appropriation  bill.  In 
New  Jersey  a  measure  was  passed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  economy  and  efficiency,  by  consolidating 
some  half  a  dozen  boards  and  commissions  into 
a  department  of  conservation  and  development. 
In  California  the  office  of  State  Purchasing 
Agent  was  created.    In  Kansas  and  Wisconsin 


69  LEGISLATION  IN  1915 

conmiissions  were  created  to  investigate  the  busi* 
ness  methods  of  the  State.  In  New  York,  how- 
ever, the  permanent  State  department  of  effi- 
ciency and  economy  was  abolished. 

Agricultural  boards  or  commissions  were  es- 
teblished  in  several  Stetes,  among  them  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  and  Ohio.  In  New  Hampshire 
the  Stete  highway  department  was  established, 
and  in  South  Carolina  a  Stete  board  of  charities 
and  corrections  was  created.  In  Kansas  all  per- 
sons in  the  Stete  service  were  classified,  and  the 
civil  service  commission  te  appoint  commissions 
was  created.  The  removal  for  religious  or  po- 
litical infiuence  or  affiliation  is  prevented,  and 
in  all  cases  the  removing  officer  must  give  notice 
te  the  commission,  which  is  authorized  te  inves- 
tigate the  same.  The  appointment  by  Stete 
officials  of  persons  related  to  them  in  certein 
degrees  of  relationship  is  forbidden  in  Idaho  and 
Nevada.  California  forbids  the  employment  of 
any  person  other  than  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  by  the  Stete  or  any  county,  or  municipal- 
ity, with  certein  exceptions.  Colorado  adopted 
a  State,  song,  and  New  Jersey  a  Stete  fiag.  In 
Missouri  the  first  Monday  of  Octeber  was  made 
a  holiday,  te  be  known  as  Missouri  Day. 

Municipal  Home  Rule.  Municipalities  in 
Connecticut  and  Virginia  were  given  the  power 
te  frame  their  own  charters.  In  Massachusetts 
an  act  was  passed  authorizing  one  of  four 
plans  in  government.  The  Legislature  of  Ne- 
vada provided  for  the  submitting  of  local  and 
special  legislation  for  the  approval  of  the  electors 
in  the  locality  affected,  and  prevents  the  repeal 
of  such  laws  without  the  consent  of  the  voters  of 
the  locality  which  adopted  them. 

Education.  Compulsory  education  laws  were 
passed  in  Texas,  Florida,  and  South  Carolina. 
In  Pennsylvania  a  Stete  bureau  of  vocational 
education  was  created,  and  in  Nebraska  and  Ver- 
mont provision  was  made  for  the  esteblishment 
of  vocational  schools.  A  Stete  department  of 
education  was  created  in  Kansas,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia a  Stete  board  was  authorized  to  determine 
the  course  of  study  in  high  schools,  and  upheld 
Stete  subsidy  in  high  schools  whose  courses  were 
not  approved  by  the  board.  The  Legislature  of 
Illinois  appropriated  $5,000,000  for  the  Stete 
University.  This  is  probably  the  largest  siun 
ever  appropriated  in  one  year  to  a  single  insti- 
tution of  higher  education  in  the  country.  The 
Texas  Legislature  proposed  a  constitutional 
amendment  authorizing  the  counties  te  lend 
money  to  students  to  complete  their  education. 

Revision  and  Amendment  op  State  Consti- 
tutions. The  question  of  calling  a  constitu- 
tional convention  was  submitted  to  the  voters  in 
New  Hampshire,  South  Dakote,  and  Tennessee. 
If  authorized,  the  New  Hampshire  convention 
will  meet  in  1018,  and  the  Tennessee  convention, 
Nov.  15,  1010.  In  Tennessee  amendments  that 
are  recommended  by  the  convention  will  be  sub- 
mitted separately. 

Uniform  State  Laws.  Bills  recommended  by 
the  Conference  Commissioners  on  Uniform  Stete 
Laws  were  passed  by  the  Legislatures  of  Okla- 
homa, Idaho,  Arkansas,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania, 
Wisconsin,  and  Nevada.  The  Legislature  of 
Wisconsin  passed  a  uniform  marriage  act.  The 
measures  passed  in  other  States  are  for  the  most 
part  uniform  bills  of  lading,  uniform  desertion 
and  non-support  acte,  uniform  partnership  acte, 
ete. 

The  Pbepabation  of  Legislation.    In  several 


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States  measures  were  passed  providing  for  care- 
ful preparation  of  measures,  before  presentation 
to  the  Legislature.  In  Vermont  a  provision  was 
made  for  revision  by  draftsmen,  who  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  providing  members  of  the  House 
and  Senate.  Other  legislation  was  the  provision 
for  the  appointment  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  a 
commission  to  revise,  redraft,  consolidate,  and 
arrange  the  public  statutes  of  the  State  for  sub- 
mission to  the  next  Legislature.  Commissioners 
to  revise  and  codify  general  branches  of  the  law 
were  created  in  several  States,  including  Indiana, 
Utah,  and  Connecticut.  A  measure  was  passed 
by  the  Legislature  of  Illinois  regulating  lobby- 
ing. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  The  State  depart- 
ment of  health  was  created  in  West  Virginia. 
Provision  for  the  collection  of  vital  statistics 
was  made  by  the  Legislatures  of  Illinois  and 
California.  In  Vermont  several  penalties  were 
brought  against  persons  who  married  while  suf- 
fering from  certain  diseases.  The  sale  or  trans- 
fer of  habit-forming  drugs  was  regulated  and 
restricted  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  Massachusetts, 
Michisran,  Minnesota,  Montana,  and  Nebraska. 

LEHIGH  TJNIVEBSITS'.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1866,  at  South 
Bethlehem,  Pa.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  710,  with 
76  members  of  the  faculty.  There  were  no  nota- 
ble changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  productive  funds  amounted 
to  $1,480,000,  and  the  income  from  all  sources  in 
1914-16  was  $297,959.  The  library  contains 
about  137,000  volumes. 

LELAND  STANFORD  JTTNIOB  UNIVER- 
SITY. An  institution  for  higher  education 
founded  at  Stanford  University,  California,  in 
1891.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  2037.  The  faculty 
numbered  228.  Mr.  Clarke  Butler  Whittier,  for- 
merly of  the  law  faculty  of  the  university  and 
recently  of  the  law  school  of  Chicago  University, 
was  made  professor  of  law.  Dr.  Bailey  Willis, 
of  Washington,  D.  C,  was  appointed  head  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy,  filling  the  vacancy  due  to 
the  transfer  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Branner  to  the  acting 
presidency  of  the  university.  These  appoint- 
ments all  took  effect  on  Aug.  1,  1915.  At  the 
close  of  1915,  President  Branner  retired,  and  Dr. 
Ray  Lyman  Wilbur,  a  graduate  of  the  university, 
and  the  present  dean  of  its  medical  school,  be- 
came third  president  on  Jan.  1,  1916.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  appointments  noted  above,  John  S.  P. 
Tatlock,  formerly  of  Michigan  University,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  English  philology.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  at  the  end  of  1915  were  $24,105,- 
920,  and  the  income  $1,235,891.  The  library 
contained  263,256  volumes.  Ray  Lyman  Wilbur, 
A.M^  M.D.,   was  chosen   president   in   October. 

LEMNOS.  The  Island  was  used  as  a  base  of 
supplies  by  the  Anglo-French  forces  operating 
against  the  Dardanelles. 

LEMON  OIL.  See  Chemistry,  Iitdustbial, 
New  Method  of  Extracting  Lemon  Oil, 

LEMONS.     See  Hobticultube. 

LE  MOYNEy  Sarah  (Cowell).  American 
actress,  died  July  17,  1915.  She  was  born  in 
New  York  City,  and  began  her  stage  career  in 
1878,  when  she  joined  the  Palmer  stock  com- 
pany in  the  Union  Square  Theatre  in  New 
York  City.  She  made  an  American  success,  and 
among  the  plays  in  which  she  was  a  star  were: 


Two  Orphans;  The  Banker'a  Daughter;  Mother 
and  Son;  and  Falee  Friends.  After  three  sea- 
sons at  this  theatre  she  decided  that  her  field  was 
that  of  the  reader  and  elocutionist.  She  se- 
lected Shakespeare  and  Browning  as  subjects  and 
soon  achieved  wide  fame.  Her  "Browning  after- 
noons" at  the  Lyceum  Theatre  became  extremely 
popular.  Her  greatest  success  was  as  an  in- 
terpreter of  Browning,  and  during  one  of  her 
visits  to  England  Robert  Browning  paid  her 
many  compliments  as  an  exponent  of  his  works. 
In  1888  she  married  William  J.  Le  Moyne,  and 
for  four  years  was  associated  with  her  husband 
on  the  stage.  One  of  the  greatest  tributes  to  her 
art  was  her  selection  to  read  the  dedicatory  ode 
at  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  on  Oct. 
21,  1892.  Her  last  appearance  on  the  stage  was 
in  Margaret  Anglin's  revival  of  Lady  Winder- 
mere's Fan  in  New  York  City  in  1914. 

LEPBOSY.  Additional  testimony  to  the  value 
of  chaulmoogra  oil  in  the  cure  of  leprosy  was 
brought  to  light  in  Manila,  where  23  former  in- 
mat^  of  the  Culion  Leper  Colony  were  thor- 
oughly examined  and  placed  under  a  period  of 
observation  to  determine  whether  the  oil  treat- 
ment, as  administered  at  the  colony,  had  been 
effective.  It  was  agreed  by  the  experts  who 
examined  them  that  all  evidence  of  tiie  disease 
had  passed  away  and  the  patients  were  allowed 
to  go  to  their  homes.  They  will,  however,  be 
kept  under  observation  for  two  or  three  years. 

LESCHETIZKY,  Theodob.  Austrian  pian- 
ist, died  Nov.  1,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Lancut, 
Galicia,  in  1830.  His  talents  early  made  him  a 
notable  figure  in  the  musical  world,  and  in  1852 
he  went  to  Petrograd,  where  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  he  was  a  Pole,  his  success  was  very  marked. 
He  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Imperial 
Russian  Musical  Society.  In  1878  he  accepted 
a  post  in  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory.  Al- 
though he  still  retained  his  great  skill  as  a 
virtuoso,  he  rarely  played  after  he  began  to 
teach.  In  the  early  eighties  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  and  there  he  remained  until  a  short 
time  ago,  when  he  went  to  live  near  Dresden. 
In  Vienna  he  always  had  many  pupils  from 
every  country,  often  as  many  as  200.  The  best 
known  of  his  pupils  is  Ignace  Paderewski,  but 
many  other  famous  players  received  their  early 
instruction  from  him.  Since  the  time  of  Liszt 
no  piano  teacher  has  earned  such  unquestioned 
authority.  He  wrote  numerous  compositions  for 
the  piano,  and  an  opera  called  The  First  Wrin- 
kle,   

LEUCOCYTE  EXTRACT.  An  extract  of  the 
white  blood  corpuscles  obtained  from  exudates 
artificially  produced  in  the  pleural  cavities  of 
rabbits  by  the  injection  of  an  irritant  (aleure- 
nat).  The  serum  is  believed  to  raise  the  resist- 
ing power  of  the  body  against  bacterial  poisons 
and  to  aid  the  action  of  specific  serums  or  anti- 
toxins. It  is  given  by  hypodermic  injection,  and 
it  is  especially  indicated  in  infections  before  the 
correct  bacteriologic  diagnosis  can  be  made.  It 
is  particularly  beneficial  in  pneumonia  and  ery- 
sjpelas. 

LIBBY,  Chables  Fbeeman.  American  law- 
yer, died  June  3,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Limer- 
ick, Me.,  in  1844,  and  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1864.  He  studied  law  at  the  Colum- 
bia Law  School,  and  in  1866  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  engaging  in  practice  in  Portland.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Maine  Senate  from  1899-1902, 
and  was  for  one  year  president  of  that  body. 


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From  1891  to  1012  he  was  president  of  the  over- 
seers of  Bowdoin  College.  In  1009-10  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Bar  Association. 

LIBERIA.  An  independent  negro  republic  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  covering  an  area  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  35,000  to  41,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  from  1,500,000  to 
2,000,000,  including  about  12,000  Americo-Li- 
berians.  The  indigenous  negroes  are  mainly 
pagans,  except  the  Mohammedan  Mandingo  tribe. 
About  50,000  of  the  coast  negroes  may  be  con- 
sidered civilized.  Monrovia  (with  about  6000 
inhabitants)  is  the  capital. 

Native  industries  are  backward,  and  trade  is 
carried  on  under  difficulties ;  roads  being  few  and 
railroads  unknown.  Dense  forest  covers  great 
tracts  through  which  passage  is  not  possible  un- 
der present  conditions.  The  imports  for  1911 
are  stated  at  $1,154,924,  and  the  exports  at 
$1,013,849;  1912,  $1,667,857  and  $1,199,152; 
1913,  $1,411,237  and  $1,112,187  (pahn  oil  and 
kernels,  piassava  fibre,  coffee,  rubber,  and  ivory). 
Trade  is  mostly  with  Hamburg,  the  United  King- 
dom, the  Netherlands,  and  the  United  States. 
Monrovia  (since  1910)  is  a  station  on  the  cable 
route  from  Germany  to  Brazil,  and  (beginning 
with  1912)  a  station  on  the  French  cable  route 
to  French  West  Africa.  Revenue,  "  1910-11, 
$489,656;  1912-13,  $618,809;  1913-14  (budget), 
$531,500.  Expenditure,  $470,000  for  the  year 
1911-12;  $529,548  for  1912-13:  $531,500  for 
1913-14.  External  debt  (1913),  $1,352,000;  in- 
ternal debt,  $200,000.  A  president  elected  for 
four  years  (Jan.  1,  1912-16,  Daniel  Edward 
Howard)  is  the  executive. 

IiTBHATlY  ASSOCIATION,  American.  A 
society  organized  in  1876  and  incorporated  in 
1879  for  promoting  the  welfare  of  libraries  in 
America.  The  membership  in  September,  1915, 
was  3024.  The  37th  regular  annual  meeting, 
presided  over  by  President  Hiller  C.  Wellman, 
was  held  at  Berkeley,  Cal.,  on  June  3-9,  1915, 
at  which  779  members  were  present.  The  prin- 
cipal papers  read  at  the  meeting  included:  'The 
Book/'  Henry  W.  Kent;  'TBulletins  and  Library 
Printing,"  Everett  R.  Peary;  "The  Fine  Art  of 
Printing,"  T.  M.  Cleland;  *The  Changing  Liter- 
ary Taste  and  the  Growing  Appeal  of  Poetry,'' 
"Mky  Massee;  "Educational  Opportunity  of  Li- 
braries in  Bringing  Children  and  Books  To- 
gether," Willis  H.  Kerr;  "The  Province  of  the 
Public  Library,"  Richard  Rogers  Bowker;  "New 
Features  in  Library  Architecture,"  Chalmers 
Hadley;  "How  Far  Should  the  Library  Aid  the 
Peace  Movement  and  Similar  Propaganda?" 
George  F.  Bowerman;  "The  Theory  of  Reference 
Work,"  William  W.  Bishop;  'Tionecring  in 
Utah,"  Mary  E.  Downey. 

The  officers  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  were 
as  follows:  President,  Mary  Wright  Plummer, 
Library  School,  Public  Library,  New  York;  first 
vice-president,  Walter  L.  Brown,  Public  Library, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  second  vice-president,  Chalmers 
Hadley,  Public  Library,  Denver,  Colo.  The  exec- 
utive board  consists  of  these  officers  and  in  addi- 
tion Harrison  W.  Craver,  Herbert  Putnam,  Ar- 
thur E.  Bostwick,  Judson  T.  Jennings,  M.  S. 
Dudgeon,  and  S.  H.  Ranck.  The  secretary  is 
George  B.  Utley,  78  East  Washington  Street, 
Chicago,  and  the  treasurer,  Carl  B.  Roder,  Pub- 
lic Library,  Chicago.  Special  committees  were 
also  appointed  for  1915-16  to  study,  among 
other  things:  cost  and  methods  of  cataloging: 
code  for  classifiers;   deterioration  of  newsprint 


paper;  promotion  and  cooperation  in  the  devel- 
opment of  printed  catalogue  cards  in  relation 
with  international  arrangements;  ventilation 
and  lighting  of  public  library  buildings;  and 
library  work  in  hospitals  and  charitable  and 
correctional  institutions. 

The  American  Library  Association  conferences 
are  made  of  greater  value  by  a  system  of  sec- 
tions whereby  the  different  classes  of  workers 
may  attend  meetings  and  discussions  especially 
adapted  to  their  needs.  These  are  as  follows: 
College  and  Reference  Section;  Trustees  Sec- 
tion (chairman,  W.  T.  Porter,  Cincinnati,  Ohio) ; 
Catalogue  Section  (chairman,  Sula  Wagner,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  Public  Library) ;  Library  Work 
with  Children  (chairman,  Gertrude  E.  Andrus, 
Seattle,  Ore.,  Public  Library) ;  Professional 
Training  (chairman,  Frances  Simpson,  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  Library  School,  Urbana) ;  Agri- 
cultural Libraries  Section  (chairman,  Malcom 
G.  Wyer,  University  of  Nebraska  Library,  Lin- 
coln) ;  School  Libraries  Section  (chairman, 
Mary  E.  Hall,  Girls*  High  School  Library, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.). 

Affiliated  with  the  American  Library  Associa- 
tion are  four  national  organizations  of  kindred 
purpose:  National  Association  of  State  Libraries 
(president,  A.  J.  Small,  Iowa  State  Law  Library, 
Des  Moines;  secretary-treasurer,  Elizabeth  M. 
Smith,  New  York  State  Library,  Albany) ; 
League  of  Library  Commissions  (president,  Fan- 
nie C.  Rawson,  Kentucky  Library  Commission, 
Frankfort;  secretary- treasurer,  Sarah  B.  Askew, 
New  Jersey  Public  Library  Commission,  Tren- 
ton) ;  American  Association  of  Law  Libraries 
(president,  E.  J.  Lien,  Minnesota  State  Library, 
St.  Paul;  secretary,  Gertrude  E.  Woodard,  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  Law  Library,  Ann  Arbor; 
treasurer,  Edward  H.  Redstone,  Social  Law  Li- 
brary, Boston ) ;  Special  Libraries  Association 
(president,  Andrew  Linn  Bostwick,  Municipal 
Reference  Branch,  St.  Louis  Public  Library,  206 
City  Hall,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  secretarv  and  treas- 
urer, Jesse  Cunningham,  Missouri  School  of 
Mines,  Rolla,  Mo.). 

An  important  activity  of  the  association  is 
that  of  its  Publishing  Board,  whose  publications 
are  put  out  at  the  society's  headquarters  in  the 
Chicago  Public  Library  Building.  These  include 
the  A.  L.  A.  Booklist  (edited  by  May  Massee) 
and  the  official  Bulletin,  besides  nearly  100  pub- 
lications in  print.  The  new  publications  for 
1915  include:  a  new  edition  of  Cataloging  for 
Small  Libraries,  by  Theresa  Hitchler;  Indew  to 
Kindergarten  Songs,  by  Margery  C.  Quigley; 
Rural  School  Libraries;  Books  for  Boys  and 
Oirls,  by  Caroline  M.  Hewins;  Graded  List  of 
Stories  for  Reading  Aloud,  by  Harriot  E.  Hass- 
ler  and  Carrie  E.  Scott;  Library  Rooms  and 
Buildings,  by  Charles  C.  Soule;  and  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Binding  for  Small  Librarie4s,  by  A.  L. 
Bailey.  In  addition  to  the  chapters  of  the 
A.  L.  A.  Manual  of  Library  Economy  already 
published,  there  appeared  in  1915  the  following 
chapters:  "3 — State  Library,"  by  J.  I.  Wyer, 
Jr.;  "7— The  High  School  Library,"  by  G.  O. 
Ward;  "8— Special  Libraries,"  by  R.  H.  John- 
ston; "16 — Book  Selection,"  by  Elva  L.  Bascom; 
"23 — Government  Documents  (State  and  City)," 
by  J.  I.  Wyer,  Jr.;  "24— Bibliography,"  by  Isa- 
dore  G.  Mudge;  "30— Library  Work  with  the 
Blind,"  by  Mary  C.  Chamberlain.  Six  chapters 
of  the  entire  32  are  yet  to  bo  printed.  The 
American  Library  Association  prepared  an  exten- 


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flive  exhibit  for  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition 
in  1016. 

LIBBABY  BTTHiDINOS.  See  Abchitbo- 
TUBE;  and  Libbabt  Progbess. 

LIBBABY  OF  CONOBESS.  The  library 
contained,  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1915, 
2,363,873  books,  a  gain  of  110,564;  147,553  maps 
and  charts,  a  gain  of  5336;  727,808  volumes  and 
pieces  of  music,  a  gain  of  23,853;  and  385,757 
prints,  a  gain  of  8045.  Among  the  important 
bequests  was  a  series  of  writings,  books,  maps, 
and  manuscripts  from  the  late  Henry  Harris. 
The  bequest  consisted  of  220  volumes  and  pam- 
phlets dealing  chiefly  with  American  history,  and 
included  many  documents  of  rarity.  Several  im- 
portant additions  were  made  to  the  East  Asiatic 
collection,  including  documents  in  Chinese  and 
other  languages.  Several  important  gifts  of 
manuscripts  were  received  during  the  year.  In 
February  the  last  volume  of  the  correspondence 
of  George  Washington  was  published,  and  many 
important  papers  relating  to  the  colonial  history 
of  the  United  States  were  added  to  the  library. 
The  total  number  of  copyright  registrations  dur- 
ing the  year  was  1,935,574. 

LIBBABY  PBOOBESS.  The  year  1015  in 
American  libraries  was  one  of  steady  growth 
marked  by  no  extraordinary  events.  The  annual 
meeting  of  the  American  Library  Association 
was  held  at  Berkeley,  Cal.,  early  in  June  (see 
Libbabt  Association,  Amebican).  The  new 
School  Libraries  Section  had  its  first  annual 
meeting  with  a  large  attendance,  showing  the 
interest  in  this  rapidly  developing  form  of  li- 
brary activity. 

Libbabt  Legislation.  Despite  the  fact  that 
in  1015  the  Legislatures  of  43  States  were  in  ses- 
sion, a  small  amount  of  constructive  legislation 
affecting  libraries  was  placed  on  the  statute 
books.  West  Virginia  alone  passed  a  general 
library  law,  and  this  merely  a  permissive  meas- 
ure, allowing  municipalities  to  establish  and 
maintain  public  libraries.  Attempts  to  pass 
general  legislation  failed  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Indiana.  An  increase  in  appropriations  for 
library  purposes  was  granted  in  a  number  of 
States,  while  no  serious  decreases  were  suffered. 
Connecticut,  Iowa,  and  South  Dakota  made 
slight  changes  in  their  general  laws  governing 
libraries.  Kansas  increased  the  tax  limit  for 
libraries  from  four-  to  five-tenths  of  a  mill  in 
cities  of  less  than  40,000  inhabitants,  while  in 
cities  of  a  greater  size  the  limit  was  placed  at 
one-fourth  of  a  mill.  Texas  and  Montana  each 
made  provision  for  county  libraries,  differing 
materially  as  to  details  of  operation.  This 
makes  14  States  in  which  county  libraries  are 
recognized  by  law.  Arizona  established  a  State 
Library  and  California  a  branch  of  its  State 
Library  in  San  Francisco  to  care  for  the  Sutro 
Library,  given  to  the  State  by  the  heirs  of 
Adolph  Sutro.  North  Carolina  created  a  legis- 
lative reference  library  under  the  control  of  the 
State  Historical  Commission. 

Libbabt  Appointments.  Willard  Austen  suc- 
ceeded to  the  librarianship  of  the  Cornell  Uni- 
versi^  Library  on  the  retirement  of  G.  H.  Har- 
ris; George  P.  Winship  was  made  custodian  of 
the  Widener  Memorial  Collection  at  Harvard  on 
the  death  of  Luther  S.  Livingston;  William  W. 
Bishop  succeeded  T.  W.  Koch  as  librarian  of  the 
University  of  Michigan. 

Necboloot.  Mr.  John  Edmands,  one  of  the 
oldest  librarians  of  the  country,  and  long  head 


of  the  Mercantile  Library  of  Philadelphia,  died 
at  the  age  of  05.  Prof.  George  T.  Little,  the 
veteran  librarian  of  Bowdoin  College;  Erastus 
S.  Willcox,  librarian  of  the  Peoria  (111.)  Public 
Library;  Dr.  Luther  S.  Livingston,  custodian  of 
the  Widener  Memorial  Collection  at  Harvard, 
and  one  of  the  foremost  bibliographers  of  the 
world;  and  Mr.  F.  A.  Crandall,  formerly  super- 
intendent of  documents  and  lately  in  charge  of 
the  Monthly  Catalog  of  Government  Documents, 
were  among  the  year's  losses  by  death. 

Libbabt  Buildings.  The  great  Widener  Li- 
brary of  Harvard  University  was  completed  and 
occupied  in  June.  This  is  the  largest  university 
library  building  in  the  country,  and  is  remark- 
able in  many  w^ays  other  than  size.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri  has  completed  the  central 
portion  of  a  new  building,  and  Johns  Hopkins 
has  finished  but  has  not  yet  occupied  Gilman 
Hall,  the  new  library  building.  Several  large 
and  important  buildings  are  under  way  or  have 
been  provided  for,  some  of  which  should  be  com- 
pleted in  1016.  Even  more  noteworthy  than 
many  a  new  building  was  the  successful  fire- 
proofing  and  remodeling  of  the  Boston  Athe- 
naeum. 

Libbabt  Litebatubb.  As  usual,  the  Library 
of  Congress  published  important  contributions 
to  professional  literature,  the  most  notable  being 
Mr.  F.  W.  Ashley's  Catalogue  of  the  John  Boyd 
Thatcher  Collection  of  Incunabula.  The  Manu- 
scripts Division  contributed  four  imposing  vol- 
umes indexing  the  Washington  Correapor^ience, 
and  vol.  xxii  of  the  Journals  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  The  third  volume  of  the  List  of  Oeo- 
graphical  Atlases  was  published,  completing  the 
work.  A  Ouide  to  Spanish  Law  was  issu^  by 
the  Law  Library,  while  the  classification  sched- 
ules were  published  for  certain  sections  of  Litera- 
ture, Folklore,  and  General  Works.  The  Bureau 
of  Education  issued  its  welcome  list  of  Public, 
Society,  and  School  Libraries  (Bull.  1015,  No. 
25),  and  a  brochure  on  Library  Instruction  in 
Universities,  Colleges,  and  yormal  Schools,  by 
H.  R.  Evans.  Other  notable  publications  were: 
A.  E.  Bostwick,  Relationship  Between  the  Li- 
brary and  the  Public  Schools  (White  Plains, 
N.  Y.,  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.) ;  M.  Mann,  Rules  for 
Filing  Cards  (Pittsburgh,  Carnegie  Library) ; 
F.  H.  Garrison,  Life  of  John  Shaw  Billings 
(New  York,  Putnam) ;  T.  Hitchler,  Cataloging 
for  Small  Libraries  (rev.  ed.,  Chicago,  American 
Library  Association  Publishing  Board);  G.  P. 
Winship,  The  John  Carter  Brown  Library 
(Providence,  The  Library) ;  A.  J.  Gates,  Catalog 
of  Technical  Periodicals:  Libraries  in  the  City 
of  New  York  and  Vicinity  (Library  Board  of  the 
United  Engineering  Societies) ;  G.  D.  Fellows, 
Cataloguing  Rules  (Bulletin,  New  York  State 
Library  School,  Albany,  No.  36)  ;  I.  T.  E.  Fir- 
kins, Indew  to  Short  Stories  (White  Plains,  N. 
Y.,  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.) ;  A.  E.  Bostwick,  Making 
of  an  American's  Library  (New  York,  Appleton 
&  Co.). 

'  LIBYA.  An  Italian  possession  on  the  Medi- 
terranean coast  of  Africa,  composed  of  Tripoli 
and  Cyrenalca.  It  lies  between  Tunis  and  Al- 
geria on  the  west  and  Egypt  on  the  east.  As  a 
result  of  the  Turco-Italian  War,  Tripoli,  hitherto 
a  vilayet  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  was  pro- 
claimed at  Rome,  Nov.  5,  1011,  together  with 
Cyrenalca,  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
The  area,  with  Cyrenalca  (or  Bengazi,  or  Barca), 
is  estimated  at  405,800  square  miles,  and  the 


Digitized  by 


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LIBYA                                  373  LIQUOB  BEOTTLATIOK 

population  at  about  1,000,000.  The  city  of  marks,  25  lighted  buoys,  170  unlighted  buoys, 
Tripoli,  with  75,000  inhabitants,  is  the  capital  and  53  minor  lights  (including  6  float  lights). 
of  Tripoli;  Bengazi,  with  30,000,  of  Bengazi;  The  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses  also  reported 
both  Mediterranean  ports.  The  trade  stream  that  fixed  lights  were  changed  to  flashing  or 
flows  through  these  ports,  and  is  fed  by  the  occulting  at  20  stations.  The  illuminant  of  21 
caravan  routes  across  the  Sahara,  which  are  the  lights  was  changed  to  incandescent  oil  vapor, 
natural  outlet  by  which  Sudanese  trade  reaches  the  illuminant  of  24  lights  (including  1  light 
the  sea.  Railway  construction  was  begun  in  vessel)  was  changed  to  acetylene,  and  the  illumi- 
1012.  Caravans  now  cross  the  Sahara  in  from  nant  of  3  lights  (including  1  light  vessel)  was 
3  to  5  months,  according  to  the  route  taken,  changed  to  oil  gas.  New  light  vessels,  with 
and  the  number  and  strength  of  robber  bands  to  flashing  lights  and  compressed-air  fog  signals, 
be  overcome.  were  established  at  Poe  Reef,  Straits  of  Macki- 
The  total  commerce  of  the  country  is  reported  nac.  Lake  Huron,  Mich.,  and  Buffalo  entrance, 
for  1012  as  follows:  27,781,085  lire  imports.  Lake  Erie,  N.  Y.,  former  light- vessel  stations, 
4,028,520  lire  exports  (esparto,  hides  and  skins,  which  had  been  temporarily  discontinued, 
ostrich  feathers,  sponges,  live  animals,  wool.  New  light  and  fog  signal  stations  were  con- 
cereals,  etc.).  The  revenue  has  been  derived  structed  at  Brandy  wine  Shoal,  Del.,  and  Thim- 
from  taxation  on  the  wealth  of  the  individual  ble  Shoal,  Va.,  in  place  of  former  structures, 
and  from  tithes.  Large  state  subventions  are  and  a  complete  new  system  of  lighted  aids  was 
now  necessary.  established  at  the  approaches  to  the  Cape  Cod 

History.    On  February  8th  a  column  of  300  Canal,  Mass.,  which  was  opened  in  1014. 

Italian  troops  was  attacked  by   1000  rebels  at  An  important  lighthouse  was  under  construc- 

Du-nedjem,   about  50  miles   from  the  Mediter-  tion  in  1015  by  the  United  States  at  Navassa  Is- 

ranean  coast.    After  a  day's  fighting  the  rebels  land,  an  isolated  rock  between  Cuba  and  Haiti, 

scattered.     Early  in  May  the  Arab  chiefs  at  Sirte  and  in  the  track  of  vessels  sailing  between  the 

rebelled  against  the  Italians  and  in   the  fight  North   Atlantic  ports  and  the  Panama   Canal, 

that  followed  4000  irregular  native  troops  went  This  new  lighthouse  is  a  round  tower  of  reSn- 

over  to  the  support  of  the  rebels.    More  than  forced  concrete,  and  the  focal  plane  of  the  lens 

700  regular  troops  were  killed  and  wounded.     It  is  402  feet  above  water  level.     The  light  is  56,- 

was  felt  that  the  Italian  government  had  placed  000  candle  power,  giving  a  double  white  flash 

too  much  confidence  in  the  loyalty  of  the  Arab  every  30  seconds,  and  was  to  be  visible  for  27 

chiefs  and  immediate  steps  were  taken  to  pre  nautical  miles. 

vent  a  repetition  of  the  revolt.    Ten  days  later,  LIOHT-STBOKB.    It  has  long  been  recog- 
however,  a  column  of  infantry  and  cavalry  was  nized  that  light,  in  spite  of  its  healing  and  re- 
attacked    at    Misurata,    and    15    Italians    were  storative  powers  and  its  potency  in  destroying 
killed.     On  July  15th  General  Tassoni,  Governor  pathogenic  bacteria,  may  be  a  pathological  agent, 
of  Tripoli,  was  recalled  to  Italy,  and  General  In  this  connection  the  work  of  certain  investi- 
Ameglio,  Governor  of  CjrrenaTca,  was  made  ad-  gators  into  the  photodynamic  action  of  certain 
ministrator  of  both  provinces.  organic  substances  is  of  great  interest.     It  has 
IiIFE  AND  ADVENT  UNION,   The.    See  been    shown    that    if   suitable    sensitizing   com- 
Adventists.  pounds    are    injected    into    albino    mice,    which 
LIFE  INSTJBANCE.    See  Insubanob.  from  their  lack  of  skin-pigments  and  hair-pig- 
LIOHT.    See  Electric  Liohtino;  and  Pho-  ments  possess  little  natural  protection  against 
TooRAPHY.  the  direct  action  of  the  light  rays,  these  animals 
LIGHTHOUSES.     The  number  of  aids  to  nav-  are  rendered  peculiarly  irritable  when  exposed  to 
igation  maintained  by  the  United  States  Light-  ^^^  light,  although  they  are  unaffected  in  the 
house   Service  on  June  30,    1015,   as  compared  dark.     Hematoporphyrin,  which  is  derived  from 
with  1014,  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  table:  the  pigments  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles,  is  gen- 

erally  used  in  such  investigations.     While  it  is 

TotalJttn€80 —  not  toxic  in  itself,  when  injected  into  animals 

Cia$9                                           1914        1915  which   are   subsequently   exposed   to   the   light. 

Lighted  aids:  these  animals  develop  cutaneous  lesions,  subcu- 

Lighte  (other  than  minor  lighu) . . .     1.588      1,662  taneous  edemas,  and  other  severe  disturbances. 

Minor  lights    2,790      2,887  either    acute   or    chronic   and   not   infrequently 

QM^hnm    "**^**'*"   454         479  ^atal.    Hausmann   has  succeeded   in   sensitizing 

Float  lights  *!!.'!!!!!!!.'!!!.'!!!!!       lis         124  animals  to  such  a  degree  that  profound  reactions 

are  produced  immediately  on  exposure  to  light. 

^®***  ^'^^^      ^'^^^  They   enter   promptly  into  a  state  of  narcosis 

Unlighted  aids:  terminating  fatallv  within  a  few  minutes.    There 

Pof  signals   519         627  is  *  certain  analogy   between   these  manifesta- 

Submarine  signals    48           50  tions  and  those  of  true  heat-stroke ;  and  further 

B<Jl*&''"Xgi.(23"5!'?*!.: ::::::       28*        at?  experimentation  may  enaWe  acientUte  to  deter- 

Other   buoys 6,823      6.488  nime  the  now  obscure  relationship  between  light 

Day   beacons    1,975       2,001  and  heat. 

T,^.  ,                                               oiftft      Qftfto  LIONIN.    See  Chemistry,  Industbiax,  Cot- 

^^**^    _M88   JM89  ^on  Substitutes. 

Grand  total   14,185     14,544  UNDSEY,   Ben   B.     See   COLOBADO,   Politics 

and  Oovemment;  and  Juvenile  Coubts. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1015,  LIQUOB  BEOTJLATION.  Three  States,  Ala- 
there  was  a  net  increase  of  350  in  the  total  num-  bama,  Arizona,  and  Colorado,  became  prohibition 
ber  of  aids  to  navigation  maintained  by  the  States  in  1915,  Alabama  imder  the  operation  of 
United  States  Lighthouse  Service,  including  74  a  new  statute  passed  by  the  Legislature,  and  Ari- 
lights  above  the  order  of  minor  lights,  1  light  zona  and  Colorado  as  the  result  of  constitutional 
vessel,  8  fog  signals,  2  submarine  &lls,  26  day-  amendments  carried  in  1014.    Measures  regulat- 

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LIQUOB  BEOULATION 


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LIQUOBS 


ing  the  liquor  traffic,  and  practically  amounting 
to  prohibition,  were  passed  in  other  States.  In 
Arkansas  the  Newberry  State-wide  prohibition 
bill  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  and  signed  by 
the  Governor.  This  bill  prohibits  the  sale  of 
liquor  after  Jan.  1,  1916.  It  makes  violation  a 
felony,  providing  terms  of  imprisonment  of  one 
year  or  more  in  the  State  penitentiary,  and  for- 
bids suspended  sentence.  For  liquor  legislation 
in  Arizona,  see  Arizona,  Polittcs  and  Oovem- 
ment.  The  Idaho  Legislature  passed  a  State- 
wide prohibition  bill,  which  makes  the  manu- 
facture and  transportation  for  sale  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  unlawful  after  Jan.  1,  1916. 
The  Legislature  also  passed  a  resolution  provid- 
ing for  the  submission  to  the  voters  at  the  next 
general  election  of  a  constitutional  amendment 
prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  after  May  1,  1917.  The  Iowa  Leg- 
islature passed  a  measure  repealing  the  Mulct 
Law,  and  providing  for  statutory  prohibition, 
pending  action  of  a  constitutional  amendment. 
A  resolution  was  also  adopted  by  the  Iowa  Legis- 
lature providing  for  the  submission  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  question  of  constitutional  prohibition, 
if  it  is  successful  in  the  Legislature  convening  in 
1917.  A  county  option  bill  was  passed  b^  the 
Minnesota  Legislatu|-e.  Under  its  provisions 
elections  were  held  in  the  majority  of  the  coun- 
ties during  the  year.  A  resolution  providing  for 
the  submission  of  a  constitutional  amendment 
for  State-wide  prohibition  was  defeated  in  the 
lower  house  of  the  Legislature.  The  Legislature 
of  Montana  passed  a  measure  providing  for  the 
submission  of  the  question  of  prohibition  to 
referendum,  instead  of  submitting  a  constitu- 
tional amendment.  Under  the  terms  of  this 
measure  prohibition  would  become  effective  Dec. 
31,  1919.  A  local  option  bill  which  passed  the 
New  Jersey  Senate  was  defeated  in  the  House  of 
Assembly,  by  a  vote  of  44  to  13,  after  one  of  the 
most  stormy  sessions  in  recent  years. 

State-wide  prohibition  becomes  effective  in 
Oregon  on  Jan.  1,  1916,  as  a  result  of  a  consti- 
tutional amendment  carried  in  1914.  The  Legis- 
lature of  South  Dakota  passed  a  resolution  pro- 
viding for  the  submission  to  the  people  of  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  for  State-wide  prohibi- 
tion. The  amendment  will  be  voted  on  at  the 
general  election  in  1916.  The  Legislature  of 
Utah  passed  a  State-wide  prohibition  measure 
which  was  vetoed  by  the  Governor.  However,  a 
bill  was  passed  imposing  heavy  penalties  for  the 
shipment  of  liquor  from  wet  to  dry  territory. 
The  General  Assembly  of  South  Carolina  devoted 
a  large  part  of  its  session  to  the  discussion  of 
prohibition.  A  State-wide  law  for  submission 
to  referendum  at  the  election  of  Sept.  12,  1915, 
was  passed,  as  well  as  a  statute  making  effective 
in  the  State  the  provision  of  the  Webb-Kenyon 
Federal  Act,  against  the  shipment  of  liquor  from 
wet  to  dry  territory.  The  statute  also  provided 
that  there  might  be  shipped  not  more  than  one 
gallon  of  alcoholic  liquor  to  anv  one  person  in 
the  State,  during  any  one  month.  The  Legisla- 
ture of  Tennessee  passed  a  measure  providing  for 
the  removal  from  office  of  State,  county,  or  city 
officers  other  than  holders  of  constitutional  of- 
fices who  failed  to  enforce  the  laws  of  the  State. 
This  is  directed  especially  against  failure  to  en- 
force the  prohibition  law.  Other  measures  aim- 
ing at  a  more  stringent  enforcement  of  the  law 
were  passed.  The  Vermont  Legislature  voted  to 
submit  a  prohibition  law  to  the  people  at  the 


municipal  elections  in  the  spring  of  1916.  This 
law  makes  no  provision  for  the  sale  of  liquor  for 
medical  purposes.  In  West  Virginia  the  Legisla- 
ture enacted  amendments  to  the  prohibition 
laws,  which  limited  shipments  of  liquor  into  the 
State,  and  forbade  a  person  to  have  liquor  at  a 
public  place,  even  for  his  own  use.  In  the  New 
York  Legislature  a  bill  providing  for  State-wide 
referendum  on  prohibition  was  defeated. 

The  most  impK>rtant  election  relating  to  liquor 
regulation  was  in  Ohio  where,  on  November  2nd, 
the  State-wide  prohibition  amendment  was  de- 
feated by  a  vote  of  over  40,000.  In  Illinois,  in 
an  election  held  on  April  6th,  most  of  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  counties  voted  no-license.  The 
women  who  voted  at  this  election  divided  their 
ballots  almost  evenly  on  the  issue.  The  elections 
held  in  Michigan  on  April  5th  showed  that  the 
no-license  voters  were  successful  in  14  counties, 
and  license  voters  in  2.  Ck>unty  option  elections 
were  held  in  Minnesota.  Ten  counties  voted 
license,  and  one  no-license.  There  were  material 
gains  for  no-license  in  Wisconsin  in  the  election 
held  on  April  6th.  No-license  gained  13  towns, 
and  license  1  town.  The  largest  cities  voting  on 
the  question  went  for  license. 

LIQUOBS.  The  year  1915  will  be  a  memor- 
able one  for  those  interested  in  liquors.  The 
war  in  Europe,  with  its  effect  on  labor  and  con- 
sumption, the  ravages  of  vine  disease  in  the 
French  districts  in  which  a  good  vintage  was  ex- 
pected to  be  obtained,  legislation  and  edicts  by 
several  of  the  warring  nations  against  the  use 
of  spirituous  beverages,  and,  in  the  United 
States,  the  continued  fight  for  prohibition,  to- 
gether with  the  Federal  taxation  of  still  and 
fortified  wines,  champagnes,  and  cordials,  all 
combined  to  make  the  road  of  those  engaged  in 
the  business  a  difficult  one. 

Legislation.  By  a  joint  resolution  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  December,  1915,  con- 
tinued for  a  year  the  new  emergency  war  revenue 
tax  of  8  cents  a  gallon  on  wines,  20  cents  a 
quart  on  champagne,  24  cents  a  gallon  on  cor- 
dials, 50  cents  a  barrel  additional  on  beer,  and 
55  cents  a  proof  gallon  on  brandy  used  in  for- 
tifying wines.  The  practice  of  having  govern- 
ment gaugers  gauge  spirits  for  rectifiers  was 
abolished.  The  PkarmacopcHa  has  withdrawn 
whiskey  and  brandy  from  the  new  edition. 

Seven  additional  States  will  "go  dry**  Jan  1 
1916,  as  follows:  Colorado,  Iowa,  Washington! 
Oregon,  Idaho,  Arkansas,  and  South  Carolina, 
making  19  States  which  will  be  dry  in  1916,  with 
a  combined  population  estimated  at  8,250,000. 
See  also  Liquor  Reguuition. 

The  Government  of  Great  Britain  has  taken 
over  the  sale  of  liquors  in  many  towns,  and  has 
limited  the  hours  during  which  liquors  may  be 
sold;  the  board  of  control  appointed  to  deal 
with  the  munitions  areas  has  ordered  that  there 
shall  be  no  treating,  and  has  prohibited  the  giv- 
ing of  credit  for  liquor.  The  hours  of  sale  are 
from  12  M.  to  2:30  p.m.,  and  from  6  to  8  pm 
No  orders  can  be  accepted  for  spirits  to  be  con- 
sumed off  the  premises  on  Saturday  or  Sunday. 
The  United  Kingdom  has  also  passed  an  act 
called  the  British  Immature  Spirit  (restriction) 
Act,  which  provides  that  all  malt  and  grain 
whiskey  must  be  bonded  for  three  years  after  it 
is  made. 

The  Russian  government  has  prohibited  the 
sale  of  vodka. 

A  bill  has  been  introduced  in  the  French  Cham- 


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LIQUOBS 


375 


LIQUOBS 


ber  of  Deputies  providing  for  a  reform  in  the 
liquor  trade.  This  provides  for  the  suppression 
of  privileges  enjoyed  by  private  individuals  to 
distil  brandy  from  their  own  fruits;  for  an  in- 
crease in  the  tax  on  alcohol  from  $2.40  to  $5.00 
a  gallon;  and  for  a  tax  of  $1.00  a  gallon  on  ap- 
petizers and  liqueurs.  It  further  suggests  that 
the  government  create  a  monopoly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  industrial  alcohol. 

In  Germany  the  production  and  quality  of 
beer  has  been  lowered  by  the  demand  for  grain 
by  the  army,  so  that  sugar  is  extensively  used 
as  a  grain  substitute. 

Sweden,  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  has 
been  curtailing  the  sale  of  liquors.  The  so- 
called  "Stockholm  System"  has  bc«n  extended  un- 
til it  includes  approximately  one-third  of  the 
districts,  and  will  after  Jan.  1,  1910,  apply  to 
the  entire  country.  According  to  this  system 
each  citizen  is  allowed  only  a  fixed  quantity  of 
spirituous  liquor. 

Wines.  All  reports  from  France  seem  to 
agree  that  the  champagne  crop  will  be  an  ex- 
cellent one,  the  vines  in  some  cases  extending 
even  to  the  German  lines,  and,  according  to  the 
Temps*8  expert,  the  vintage  of  1015  should  be  a 
second  miracle  of  the  Mame. 

For  the  rest  of  France  the  reports  are  not  as 
good.  In  the  southern  and  western  parts  the 
vineyards  have  suffered  severely  from  mildew, 
caused  bv  the  abnormally  heavy  rains  and  insuffi- 
cient cultivation,  due  to  the  scarcity  of  trained 
labor.  In  the  Department  of  Gard  the  vin- 
tage will  probably  be  a  total  failure.  The  yield 
will  hardly  exceed  330,000,000  gallons,  or  one- 
half  of  an  average  yield.  Prices  for  wines  have 
doubled.  One  cause  for  the  increased  price  of 
wine,  in  addition  to  the  failure  of  the  1015  vin- 
tage, is  that  the  government  is  making  a  special 
effort  to  supply  the  men  at  the  front  with  wines, 
spirituous  liquors  not  being  allowed  in  the  zone 
occupied  by  the  armies  of  France. 

To  add  to  the  troubles  of  the  wine  growers, 
casks  and  laborers  are  very  scarce.  To  aid  the 
wine  growers,  prisoners  of  war  are  provided,  on 
reque^  of  the  mayoralties  of  the  different  com- 
munities, to  assist  in  the  cultivation.  The  grow- 
ers pay  for  the  support  of  the  nien  and  give  to 
each  prisoner  four  cents  (American)  a  day  for 
pocket  money.  The  only  saving  grace  in  the 
situation  is  that  the  1914  wines  are  developing 
into  a  very  promising  product. 

In  Algeria  the  crop  will  probably  be  short  on 
account  of  mildew. 

In  Italy  only  one-half  a  crop  is  expected. 

From  Germany  the  reports  are  favorable.  In 
fact  it  is  expected  that  throughout  the  Cologne 
district  the  vintage  will  rival  the  famous  ones 
of  1893  and  1911.  Statistics  for  the  1914  vin- 
tage are:  Area  cultivated,  251,928  acres;  pro- 
duction, 24,335,327  gallons;  total  value,  $9,924,- 
600;  value  per  gallon,  41  cents. 

In  California  conditions  both  natural  and  le- 
gal have  hurt  the  wine  industry.  The  vines  have 
been  more  or  less  damaged  by  mildew.  The 
yield  of  dry  wine  should  be  about  75  per  cent 
of  that  of  normal  times.  As  regards  sweet 
wines,  the  production  will  be  low, — just  what  is 
ordered  by  the  Association.  This  is  due  to  the 
heavy  Federal  tax  of  55  cents  a  gallon  on  the 
brandy  used  in  fortification.  As  a  heavy  stock 
of  fortified  wines  had  been  carried  over  from  pre- 
vious years,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  make 
much  of  these  wines  to  meet  normal  trade  de- 


mands. A  considerable  quantity  of  sweet  wine 
grapes  will  be  made  into  dry  wines;  the  balance 
of  the  crop  used  will  be  made  into  raisins  or 
used  for  the  production  of  brandy  which  will  be 
aged  in  bonded  warehouses.  A  normal  produc- 
tion of  California  sweet  wine  would  be  18,000,- 
000  gallons,  which  under  the  old  laws  would 
have  paid  $125,000  in  tax.  It  is  doubtful  if  over 
3,000,000  gallons  will  be  produced  this  year. 
For  the  fiscal  year  1915  the  tax  collected  on 
brandy  used  in  fortification  was  as  follows: 

Ai     8  cents  per  proof  gallon (128,858 

At  55  oenU  per  proof  jrallon f  188.888 

Total  gallons  of  fortifled  wines  produced.  .17,218,662. 

Fermented  Liquobs.  The  following  table 
shows  the  production  of  fermented  liquors,  per 
capita  consumption,  etc.,  in  the  United  States 
for  the  past  two  years: 


Year  BbU.  beer 

1014  ...66,180,478 

1015  ...50,808,210 


Per  capita  No.  of  Botatt 

ffoUona  hrotoorU*  doaUre 

20.61  1,802  15.760 

1,845  18,740 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  production  has  dropped 
about  one-tenth. 

If  statistics  were  available  it  would  be  inter- 
esting to  know  the  production  of  the  so-called 
near-oeers,  that  is,  fermented  liquors  containing 
less  than  ^  per  cent  of  alcohol.  The  spread  of 
prohibition  has  given  a  tremendous  impetus  to 
this  class  of  liquors,  but  as  no  tax  is  required, 
no  records  are  available. 

In  Germany  it  is  calculated  that  the  produc- 
tion of  beer  will  be  only  about  60  per  cent  of 
normal,  owing  to  the  lack  of  grain,  and  that 
about  20  per  cent  of  this  amount  will  be  requisi- 
tioned for  the  army. 

Distilled  Spirits.  The  following  amounts  of 
distilled  spirits  were  produced  and  consumed  in 
the  United  States  in  1914  and  1915: 


Year         Production 
proof  ffoUofu 
1914  ...181,010,542 
1015  ...140,656,108 


Tax  paid  for 
consumption 
proof  goUont 
180,188.501 
124,155,178 


Per  capita 
conawmption 
proof  gallone 
1.46 


There  were  bottled  in  bond  in  1914  10,441,588 
proof  gallons  of  spirits,  and  in  1915,  9,748,978 
gallons. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  conclusions  from  these 
figures,  since  there  has  been  an  over-production 
for  some  years,  and  the  decrease  in  1915  may  be 
due  to  an  attempt  to  catch  up  and  not  to  a  real 
decrease  in  consumption,  although  the  bottled  in 
bond  figures  indicate  that  there  was  a  less  de- 
mand for  this  class  of  goods. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  figures  on  illicit 
distilling.  In  1914,  2667  stills  were  seized;  in 
1915,  3832.  While  making  the  raids  on  the  cap- 
tured stills,  four  officers  were  killed.  The  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue  states  that  "The 
business  of  the  'moonshiner'  in  whiskey  in  the 
Southern  States  appears  to  be  increasing.'* 

It  is  stated  that  many  large  orders  for  alcohol 
have  been  placed  in  this  country  by  some  of  the 
warring  nations,  as  it  is  a  very  necessary  ad- 
junct to  the  manufacture  of  the  nitro-cellulose 
explosives.  It  is  estimated  that  every  time  a 
14- inch  gun  is  fired  a  barrel  of  alcohol  is  con- 
sumed.    In  order  to  supply  some  of  these  orders 


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a  new  distillerT  has  been  erected  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  which  will  be  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Denatured  Alcohol.  The  following  table 
shows  the  number  of  denaturing  warehouses  and 
their  output  for  the  past  two  years: 


may  be  mentioned  at  random  books  from  the 
pens  of  John  Oman,  John  Holland  Rose,  and  the 
Earl  of  Cromer. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  Draica, 
American  and  English;  Philoloot,  Modern; 


FUeol  year 


1014 
1915 


Number 

cf  dena- 

twing 

ware' 

htnuee 

25 

28 


Toua 

CompUUlv        SpecidUy 

denatMred      denatured      Wine  gaUone       Proof  pattone 

5.218.129-56  5,191,846.08   10,404,975.59     17,811,078.2 
5,386,646.96  8,599,821.81  18.986.468.77     25.411.718.8 


LITEBATXTBE.  See  French  Literature; 
German  Literature;  Italian  Literature;  Lit- 
erature, English  and  American;  Scandina- 
vian Literature;  Spanish  Literature. 

LITEBATUBE,  English  and  American.  In 
every  branch  of  literature  the  influence  of  the 
War  of  the  Nations  was  felt  in  1915.  The  pre- 
occupation with  the  conflict  was  more  evident 
in  France  (see  French  Literature)  and  in  Ger- 
many (see  German  Literature)  than  in  Eng- 
land, where  its  literary  influence  was  not  as 
pervasive  as  might  have  been  expected.  British 
scholarship  and  British  letters — and  the  same  is 
measurably  true  of  French  productions  in  these 
fields — ^have  shown,  during  the  war,  remarkable 
qualities  of  coolness  and  self-possession.  In 
England  books  came  from  the  press  in  1916 
without  startling  signs  of  abatement,  and  the 
same  was  true  of  America.  The  high  tides  of 
emotion  which  swept  over  Europe  from  the 
war  have  as  yet,  strange  as  it  appears,  found  no 
adequate  expression  in  the  poetry,  the  fiction, 
or  the  drama  of  any  of  the  European  nations,  or 
in  America,  unless  the  work  of  d'Annunzio  be 
excepted,  and  will  perhaps  remain  to  provide 
an  imposing  epic  tlieme  for  some  titanic  genius 
of  the  future.  What  is  stranger  still,  the  war 
has  failed  to  cast  a  gloom  over  the  books  of  the 
year  in  either  England  or  America — a  phenom- 
enon to  be  explained,  perhaps,  as  a  reaction  of 
the  imagination  from  the  haunting  terrors  of 
the  time,  by  a  desire  to  find  in  the  spell  of  art 
an  escape  from  tragic  preoccupations,  or  by  the 
fact  that  this  year's  books,  like  last  year's,  were 
in  large  part  planned  or  written  before  England 
felt  the  full  effects  of  the  struggle.  The  spirit- 
ual depths  have,  however,  been  stirred  by  the 
war,  and  men  of  religion  and  philosophy  have 
pondered  its  bearing  upon  the  faith  and  doctrine 
of  Christendom  or  upon  the  foundations  of  their 
philosophies. 

Only  by  qualities  imrelated  to  their  special 
purpose  do  war  books  come  within  the  scope  of 
a  survey  primarily  literary.  Since  the  list  of- 
fered in  the  1914  Year  Book,  more  than  600 
books  and  pamphlets  about  the  war  have  ap- 
peared in  English,  descriptive  bibliographies  of 
which  are  conveniently  accessible  in  four  issues 
(1916)  of  the  New  York  Timea  Revieio  of  Books. 
These  works  cannot  here  be  discussed.  Certain 
of  the  best  of  them  are  cited  in  the  article  War 
OF  THE  Nations.  Suffice  it  to  remark  in  this 
place  that  some  of  our  most  accomplished  writers 
have  had  their  say  about  the  conflict  in  books  of 
the  year's  publication,  among  them  Arnold  Ben- 
nett, H.  G.  Wells,  Rudyard  Kipling,  Miss  May 
Sinclair,  Mrs.  Wharton,  and  Hilaire  Belloc, 
while  historians  and  scholars  have  been  prompt 
with  occasional  works,  concerned  in  a  more  or 
less  philosophic  spirit  with  the  remote  causes 
and  broader  aspects  of  the  struggle,  among  which 


Philosophy,  PhUotophy  and  the  War;  and  So- 
ciology, for  books  in  the  fields  indicated  by  those 
titles. 

Fiction.  In  both  England  and  America  in 
1916  fiction  bulked  largest  in  the  output  of 
books,  though,  as  against  1914,  there  was  a 
decrease  in  quantity — a  decrease  not  offset  by 
any  marked  improvement  in  quality.  The  pub- 
lic taste  in  novels,  if  not  above  criticism,  was 
still  not  beneath  it,  and  there  is  ground  for  satis- 
faction in  recalling  that  novels  as  good  as  Hop- 
kinson  Smith's  Felix  O'Day,  W.  J.  Locke's  Jef- 
fery,  and  Winston  Churchill's  A  Far  Country 
were  among  the  year's  best-sellers,  while  a 
strong  partiality  was  shown  for  Arnold  Ben- 
nett's Tkeee  Ttoain,  and  H.  G.  Wells's  The  Re- 
search  Magnificent, 

English.  In  English  fiction  it  was  the  realistic 
novelists  who,  in  1916,  held,  and  deserved  to  hold 
— ^be  it  said  without  prejudice  to  romance — the 
close  attention  of  the  public.  This  year  Arnold 
Bennett  ended,  with  These  Ttoain,  the  trilogy 
that  began  with  Clayhanger  and  continued  with 
Hilda  Lesstoays,  and  in  so  doing  completed  a  mas- 
terly and  searching  study  of  middle-class  life  and 
character  among  the  ovens,  chimneys,  and  smelt- 
ing furnaces  of  the  towns  of  North  Staffordshire. 
H.  G.  Wells  held  his  own  as  novelist  and  critic  of 
society  and  morals  in  The  Research  Magnificent, 
a  story  of  the  quest  of  the  noble  life  and  the 
means  of  spreading  it  in  widest  commonalty. 
And  his  fertility  was  once  more  evinced  by  the 
appearance  in  the  same  twelve-month  of  a  sec- 
ond and  very  different  book,  the  farcical,  whim- 
sical BeaJhy  with  its  kaleidoscopic  succession  of 
comic  incidents.  As  a  masterly  poser,  through 
the  art  of  fiction,  of  present  day  English  prob- 
lems, John  Galsworthy  made  a  characteristic 
appearance  with  The  Freelands,  a  study  of  the 
agricultural  laborer  and  his  relations  to  the 
landed  gentry.  And  to  1916  belongs  the  same 
author's  series  of  satirical  character  sketches, 
The  Little  Man  and  Other  Satires.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Alice  and  Wilfrid  Meynell,  Miss  Alice 
Meynell,  told  in  Columbine  the  story  of  a  young 
man  of  letters  who  had  his  amatory  difficulties 
in  choosing  between  a  would-be  actress  and  an 
attractive  and  withal  self-respecting  stenogra- 
pher. Realistic,  but  in  a  vein  sufficiently  dif- 
ferent from  the  works  above  mentioned,  is  Eden 
Philpotts's  Delahole  in  which  the  author  turned 
from  Dartmoor  to  write  a  moving  story  of  the 
slate  quarries  of  Cornwall.  Quite  as  faithfully 
realistic,  but  concerned  with  life  on  the  higher 
social  levels,  is  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward's  Eltham 
House,  where  we  hear  of  the  disastrous  effect  of 
a  dubious  divorce  and  matrimonial  rearrange- 
ments on  the  career  of  a  titled  and  ambitious 
young  Englishman.  W.  Somerset  Maugham's  Of 
Human  Bondage  was  a  novel  that  found  a  cor- 
dial welcome.    It  was  especially  interested  in  the 


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effect  upon  a  young  man's  character  of  his  cos- 
mopolitan education  in  English  schools,  in  a 
German  university,  as  an  art  student  in  Paris, 
and  as  a  medical  student  in  London.  Anthony 
Hope,  the  quondam  romancer,  offered  a  trans- 
cript of  modern  life  everywhere  in  contact  with 
contemporary  reality  in  A  Young  Man's  Year,  a 
record  of  a  red-letter  year  in  a  gentlemanly 
young  man's  life.  Like  Arnold  Bennett,  J.  D. 
Beresford  completed  in  1915  the  third  voliune 
of  an  expansive  realistic  trilogy — The  InvisxUe 
Event— concerned  with  the  fortunes  of  Jacob 
Stahl.  And  to  this  year  belongs  Archibald  Mar- 
shall's The  Old  Order  Changeth,  which,  in  its 
literal  faithfulness  to  the  life  of  the  old  gentry, 
the  judicious  have  compared  to  the  work  of 
Trollope.  £.  F.  Benson's  laboriously  realistic 
Arundel  is  not  likely  to  add  to  his  fame,  nor 
Canon  Hannay's  Minnie's  Bishop  and  Other 
Stories  to  his.  Two  compatriots  of  the  Canon's, 
the  ladies  who  collaborate  as  E.  A.  0.  Somer- 
ville  and  Martin  Ross,  leave  him  far  behind,  as 
they  always  have  left  him,  as  writers  of  racy 
Irish  stories.  For  "divilment  and  divarshion," 
for  wit,  spontaneous  fun,  and  sheer  refreshment 
we  commend  the  reader  to  their  stories,  and  not 
least  cordially  to  their  latest,  Mr.  Knox's  Coun- 
try. Richard  Price  in  David  Penstephen  made 
a  study  of  the  irregular  union  of  an  ''advanced" 
couple  who  would  not  wed,  and  of  the  consequent 
penalties  paid  to  society,  even  to  the  second 
generation.  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  in  a  story  of 
French  Canada,  The  Money  Master,  wrote  in  his 
best  vein  one  of  the  best-sellers  of  the  year. 

The  historical  romance  will  not  willingly  die. 
This  year  men  fit — and  unfit — for  adventure  in 
this  literary  field  were  not  wanting.  In  The  Olo- 
rious  Rascal,  Justin  Huntley  McCarthy  made 
Villon  his  hero,  and  idealized  that  engaging  black 
sheep  in  stagy  and  unconvincing  fashion.  John 
Trevena  is  responsible  for  Matrimony  and  Moyle 
Church  Town — ^the  first  a  picture  of  true  love  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  sacramentally  sealed  in  mar- 
riage; the  second  a  tale  of  Cornwall  in  the  eight- 
eenth century.  S.  R.  Crockett  offered  his  Bal  o' 
the  Ironsides,  an  historical  novel  of  Cromwell's 
time;  and  A.  E.  W.  Mason  his  Jacobean  story 
Latorence  Clavering.  Baroness  Orczy  brought 
history  into  fiction  in  The  Bronze  Eagle,  which 
follows  Napoleon  from  Elba  to  Waterloo,  and 
also  wrote  a  story  of  another  type  in  A  Bride  of 
the  PlainSf  which  involves  charming  pictures  of 
Hungarian  country  life. 

A  strong  infusion  of  romantic  sentiment,  inci- 
dent, or  adventure  is  present  in  Joseph  Conrad's 
Victory,  a  fine  tale  of  the  Eastern  seas  and  is- 
lands, worthy  to  stand  beside  The  Nigger  of  the 
Narcissus;  in  Maurice  Hewlett's  The  Little  Il- 
iad, an  old  story  in  modern  guise,  complicated 
by  matrimonial  difiiculties  and  with  room  enough 
for  the  play  of  wit  and  satire;  in  Jeffery,  one  of 
the  year's  *  best-sellers,  and  a  work  thoroughly 
characteristic  of  its  author,  W.  J.  Locke;  and  in 
H.  Rider  Haggard's  Allan  and  the  Holy  Flower, 
where  we  gladly  meet  again  our  old  friend  Allan 
Quartermain,  now  plunged  in  desperate  adven- 
tures with  crafty  Kaffirs  and  Zulus  fierce  but 
faithful. 

America/n.  At  present,  in  America  as  in  Eng- 
land, it  is  the  realists  who  best  repay  a  reading. 
They  picture  faithfully,  and  often  fruitfully  in- 
terpret, in  works  that  now  and  again  reach  a 
high  standard  of  excellence,  representative  as- 
pects of  American  life,  and  types  of  national 


character  observed  from  sea  to  sea  and  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  Mexican  border.  Some  half 
dozen  of  these  must  claim  attention  in  any  es- 
timate of  the  year's  literature.  Amon^  them 
Winston  Churchill  has  won  repeated  triumphs, 
and,  on  the  score  of  earnest  endeavor  at  least, 
earns  for  each  appearance  a  wreath  of  greenest 
laurels.  This  year  he  wrote,  in  The  Far  Country, 
a  story  concerned  with  those  regions  of  Amer- 
ican politics  or  high  finance  into  which  our  enter- 
prising prodigals  too  often  stray — a  story  that 
brings  the  erring  son  to  his  right  mind  before  the 
parable  is  ended.  In  earlier  novels  of  his,  this 
author,  if  less  impressive  as  a  preacher,  has  been 
more  beguiling  as  story-teller.  By  the  sympa- 
thetic realism,  or  naturalism,  of  such  books  as 
Jennie  Oarhart,  Theodore  Dreiser  attracted  a  not 
undiscriminating  audience — ^an  audience  not 
likely  to  be  as  well  pleased,  however,  with  his 
latest  novel.  The  Genius,  where  we  follow  the 
career  of  an  artist  who  drifts  from  his  native 
Indiana  town  cityward  to  undergo  varying  for- 
tunes, artistic,  amatory,  and  financial.  Mr. 
Dreiser's  tendency  to  interpret  life  too  exclu- 
sively in  terms  of  natural  instinct  here,  as  else- 
where in  his  work,  impairs,  perhaps,  that  com- 
plete correspondence  to  the  complex  truth  of 
hiunan  motive  upon  which  the  realist  chiefly 
prides  himself.  Be  that  as  it  may,  handsome 
acknowledgments  are  due  this  author  for  the 
light  he  has  thrown  upon  certain  aspects  of  so- 
cial life  and  certain  types  of  character,  which, 
thanks  to  that  illumination,  may  be  more  clearly 
seen  and  better  understood.  Realism  and  ro- 
mantic feeling  blend  in  Frank  Hopkinson  Smith's 
Felix  O'Day,  which  has  the  freshness  and  genial 
warmth  that  characterize  the  work  of  this  tal- 
ented and  versatile  man  whose  career  but  now 
ended  abruptly,  while  he  still  seemed  in  the  full- 
ness of  his  powers.  It  is  a  story  of  separation  and 
reconciliation,  which  includes  engaging  sketches 
of  warm-hearted  working  people  of  New  York's 
East  Side.  Felix  O'Day  has  been  named  as  among 
the  best-sellers  of  1916,  and  so  also  Booth  Tark- 
ington's  The  Turmoil.  The  scene  of  the  latter  book 
is  in  the  Middle  West,  and  it  has  for  hero  a 
young  man  who,  in  the  world  of  commercialism, 
strives  to  keep  his  idealism  and  imagination  vigor- 
ous and  fresh.  Partly  Middle- Western  in  scene 
is  also  Dorothy  Canfield's  The  Bent  Twig,  where, 
as  in  her  other  stories,  a  serious  attempt  is  made 
at  interpreting,  as  well  as  presenting,  the  Amer- 
ican life  the  author  has  known,  whether  in  the 
Middle  West  or  in  New  England.  In  her  hero- 
ine, the  "twig"  of  the  story,  whose  upward  bent 
towards  things  of  good  report  effectively  protects 
her  from  the  alluring  desires  of  the  moment, 
there  is  a  something  distinctively  of  her  own 
country.  A  sound  piece  of  this  year's  realism 
is  Willa  S.  Cather's  The  Bong  of  the  Lark,  with 
a  prima  donna  made  in  America — and  well 
made — for  a  heroine.  The  public  that  has  en- 
joyed the  work  of  Robert  Grant  should  find  en- 
tertainment in  his  new  story  of  Boston  life, 
The  High  Priestess,  the  latest  of  the  long  series 
of  Judge  Grant's  novels,  for  the  quality  of  which 
his  recent  election  to  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Letters  may  stand  sponsor.  Among 
the  pronounced  successes  of  the  year  was  Ernest 
Poole's  The  Harbor,  which  throws  a  blended  light 
of  poetry  and  realistic  truth  over  New  York 
Bay,  past  and  present. 

The  embarrassment  of  choice  among  the  host 
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Chester,  Mrs.  Deland,  with  her  familiar  literary 
grace,  leads  us  among  old  and  valued  friends. 
In  John  Corbin's  The  Edge,  a  young  New  York 
couple,  bred  in  wealth  and  fashion,  slide  down 
the  social  scale,  victims  of  the  fateful  combina- 
tion of  marriage,  children,  and  an  income  quite 
beneath  contempt.  Under  the  light  and  pleasant 
surface  of  William  Farquhar  Payson's  Love  Let- 
ters of  a  Divorced  Couple,  and  at  the  heart  of  a 
story  of  estrangement  and  reconciliation,  is  a 
pith  of  moral  common  sense,  which,  while  it  be- 
guiles the  reader,  may  edify  him  unawares. 
Marion  Harland,  with  many  years  and  many 
and  varied  labors  of  the  pen  behind  her,  in  A 
Long  Lane,  wrote  vigorously  of  village  life  in 
the  New  Jersey  hills  she  knows  so  well.  It  is 
village  life  of  which  we  read  in  David  Grayson's 
Hempaeed,  steeped  in  sweet  sentiment  and  opti- 
mistic sunshine,  a  tale  exactly  to  the  taste  of 
those  whose  artistic  appetites  were  appeased  by 
The  Old  Homestead  and  Shore  Acres.  Bathed 
in  sunshine  and  sentiment,  too,  is  George  Barr 
McCutcheon's  Mr.  Single,  a  book  ebullient  with 
the  most  benevolent  amiability,  and  certainly 
worthy  of  a  place  of  honor  among  the  other  pro- 
ductions of  the  same  pen.  From  Gouverneur 
Morris  came  The  Seven  Darlings,  an  ephemeral 
tale  of  the  smoothly  running  true  loves  of  six 
heroines  and  as  many  heroes;  from  Robert  W. 
Chambers  the  not  less  ephemeral  Athalie,  a  book 
full  of  unreal  people  set  down  in  the  real  city  of 
New  York.  Montague  Glass,  in  the  short  stories 
of  The  Competitive  Nephew,  wrung  good  enter- 
tainment from  the  clothing  trade  and  other 
phases  of  Jewish  life  in  the  metropolis.  A  book 
made  to  be  swallowed  whole  by  young  people  in 
their  mating  season  was  Mary  Shipman  An- 
drews's August  First,  A  cluster  of  best-sellers, 
various  in  kind  and  quality,  also  invite  atten- 
tion here.  There  are  Kathleen  Norris's  Julia 
Page,  which  tells  how  dear  a  woman  pays  for 
one  transgression;  Henry  Sydnor  Harrison's 
Angela* s  Business,  hardly  likely  to  rival  Queed 
or  V.  y.'s  Eyes;  Mary  Roberts  Rhinehart's  iT, 
with  its  buoyant  and  happy  heroine;  Gene  Strat- 
ton  Porter's  Mich<iel  0*Halloran,  with  its  ap- 
pallingly voluble  super-newsboys,  its  unreal  lay 
figures,  and  its  gushes  of  optimistic  sentimen- 
tality; Mrs.  Eleanor  Hodgman  Porter's  Polly- 
a/nna  Grows  Up,  where  the  heroine  makes  glad 
the  heart  of  poor  Jamie  of  Murphy's  Alley,  Bos- 
ton, and  gladdens,  too,  the  heart  of  the  wealthy, 
yet  lonely  widow  of  Commonwealth  Avenue  of 
the  same  city;  and  Harry  Leon  Wilson's  Rug- 
gles  of  Red  Gap,  a  farcical  novel  setting  off 
genteel  English  social  conventions  against  a 
background  of  crude,  democratic  American  sim- 
plicity. 

America  provided  in  1916  its  quota  of  ro- 
mance, historical  and  other.  In  Jeffrey  Farnol's 
Beltane  the  Smith,  a  story  effusively  welcomed 
in  all  but  rigorously  critical  quarters,  the  air  is 
thick  with  tlie  aroma  of  medifeval  cliivalry — 
knights  and  ladies  in  bower  and  hall,  knights 
panoplied  for  errant  adventure,  and  a  hero  right- 
ing wrongs  and  winning  a  duchess  for  his  pains. 
By  valor  and  strength  of  thew,  tlie  hero  of  an- 
other mediaeval  romance.  Miss  Mary  Johnson's 
The  Fortunes  of  Garin,  also  wins  a  lady  of  high 
degree.  Randall  Parish,  in  Beyond  the  Frontier, 
chose  frontier  life  in  the  days  of  La  Salle  for 
his  theme.  Mrs.  Frances  Hodgson  Burnett,  in 
The  Lost  Prince,  dealt  romantically  with  a  Ser- 
bian legend.     Among  the  historical  novels  of  the 


year  was  Stewart  Edward  White's  The  Gray 
Dawn,  set  in  the  hurly-burly  of  the  fifties  of  Cali- 
fornia, when  the  vigilantes  were  active — the  third 
part  of  the  trilogy  that  began  with  Gold. 

A  group  of  stories  full  of  incident  and  adven- 
ture or  tinged  with  romantic  feeling  may  be 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  romances  and 
historical  novels.  The  sensational  effectiveness 
and  vigor  of  Jack  London  were  exemplified  this 
year  in  The  Star  Rover,  where  they  were  brought 
to  the  support  of  prison  reform,  and  combined, 
with  other  qualities,  to  fashion  a  series  of  short 
stories  which  the  idea  of  reincarnation  binds  into 
a  single  sheaf.  This  year  brought  forth  also 
the  same  author's  The  Scarlet  Plague,  where  we 
have  a  forecast  of  the  world  of  the  future  lapsed 
into  barbarism,  which  does  not  represent  Mr. 
London  at  his  best  in  theme  or  manner.  Two 
stirring  Western  stories  are  Rex  Beach's  Heart 
of  Sunset,  a  best-seller  for  1915,  crammed  with 
the  thrilling  adventures  of  a  shilling-shocker, 
and  Zane  Grey's  Lone  Star  Ranger,  also  one  of 
the  year's  best-sellers,  and  a  lurid  tale  of  the 
Texas  border  in  the  seventies,  with  abounding  ad- 
ventures among  outlaws  and  rangers,  punctuated 
by  the  exhilarating  crack  of  the  revolver.  From 
Richard  Harding  Davis's  practiced  hand  came 
Somewhere  in  France,  in  which  that  popular  au- 
thor applied  his  familiar  method  to  fresh  ma- 
terial, notably  to  an  incident  of  the  present  war. 
Sinclair  Lewis,  who  first  appeared  creditably 
with  a  novel  last  year,  appeared  again  this  year 
with  his  Trail  of  the  Hawk,  which  goes  about  its 
varied  business,  East  and  West,  with  enlivening 
briskness,  and  displays  qualities  of  vigor,  in- 
vention, and  clear-eyed  observation  that  en- 
courage the  hope  of  better  things  from  the  same 
pen.  What  part  of  literature  is  now  closed  to 
the  activities  of  feminism?  Certainlv  not  the 
hunting-ground  of  the  detective,  real  or  ficti- 
tious, witness  Anna  Katherine  Green's  The 
Golden  Slipper,  and  Bertha  Runkle's  Straight 
Down  the  Crooked  Lane,  where  two  detectives  of 
the  fair  sex  ply  their  trade  with  eminent  success. 

PoETBT.  English.  An  increasing  demand  for 
poetical  work  in  various  kinds  marks  this  year 
as  it  marked  last  year,  and  the  world  would  ap- 
pear willing,  and  waiting,  to  listen  once  more 
to  the  poet  as  to  the  voice  of  modern  life.  High 
among  the  lyrics  of  the  year  are  those  of  the 
Irish  poet,  W.  E.  Russell— "iE"— whose  Col- 
lected Poems  are  rare  and  subtle  verses  that  cap- 
ture mystic  moods  in  nets  of  lovely  word  and 
phrase  to  a  music  all  their  own.  Katharine 
Tynan  Hinkson,  also  an  Irish  poet,  in  The  Flower 
of  Peace,  a  volume  of  devotional  verse,  has  the 
simplicity,  freshness,  and  fine  skill  in  words  and 
music  which  commended  her  earlier  volumes  of 
poetry.  Those  who  from  the  prose  fantasies  of 
James  Stephen,  another  Irish  singer,  have  drawn 
a  favorable  opinion  of  their  author,  will  only 
imperil  that  opinion  by  making  the  acquaintance 
of  the  slender  volume  of  lean  lyrics  entitled  The 
Rocky  Road  to  Dublin,  which,  remembering  Blake 
and  Stevenson,  and  aiming  at  childlike  naivete, 
achieve  chiefly  childishness  and  fatuity.  Full  of 
promise  were  The  Collected  Poems  of  Rupert 
Brooke,  true  poetry,  sound  and  vigorous,  and 
often  of  a  finished  art.  The  author  of  them 
died  untimely  in  the  war.  In  Laurence  Binyon's 
The  Winnowing  Fan,  we  have  a  collection  of  war- 
time verses  of  manly  and  generous  fibre;  and  in 
Alfred  Noyes's  The  Lord  of  Misrule,  all  the 
poems,  including  war  lyrics,  that  Mr.  Noyes  has 


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RUPERT  BROOKE 
Died  April  23,  1915 


EDGAR  LEE   MASTERS 
Amerietn  Poet 


Ig)  Pirie  HacDonald,  N.  T. 

Cenon  JAMES  OWEN  HANAY 
(George  A.  Dirmingham) 


F.  HOPKINSON   SMITH 


Died  April  7,  1915 


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written  since  his  Collected  Poems  (1913),  none 
of  which  will,  however,  add  to  his  fame.  This 
year  G.  K.  Chesterton  courted  the  muse  with 
good,  business-like  verses  in  a  kind  of  omnium- 
gatherum  entitled  Poems,  The  volume  is  thor- 
oughly characteristic  of  his  blustering  optimism 
and  orthodoxy,  and  his  habit  of  striking  an  at- 
titude. Not  the  least  engaging  feature  of  the 
book  is  the  Rabelaisian  portrait  of  the  author 
with  which  it  is  embellished.  Mgr.  (R.  H.)  Ben- 
son's Poems,  a  slender  sheaf,  interesting  rather 
as  a  personal  revelation  than  as  poetry,  also 
made  its  appearance.  Stephen  Phillips  (q.v.) — 
who  died  in  the  current  year — was  represented  in 
1915  by  his  ambitious  Armageddon^  a  dramatic 
war  poem  in  the  Miltonic  manner,  in  which  mor- 
tals and  immortals  mingle,  Satan  and  the  spirit 
of  Joan  of  Arc,  and  corps  commanders  of  the 
belligerent  nations  being  alike  dramatis  per- 
sonce — one  more  instance  of  the  general  failure 
in  literature  to  voice  the  feelings  that  are  sweep- 
ing over  the  nations  engaged  in  the  great  conflict. 
The  same  author  was  represented  again  by  his 
Panama  and  Other  Poems,  where  he  struck  out 
some  sparks  of  the  old  fire  and  brilliant  imagery 
that  made  him  famous. 

American.  Here  several  familiar  names  are 
conspicuous.  From  E.  A.  Robinson,  than  whom 
none  of  his  compatriots  is  writing  better  poetry, 
came  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  his  Cap- 
tain Craig;  from  Percy  Mackaye  The  Present 
Hour,  concerned  largely  with  the  war,  and  the 
lyrical  drama  The  Immigrant;  from  Clinton 
Scollard  The  Vale  of  Shadows  and  Italy  in 
Arms;  from  Madison  Cawein,  posthumously.  The 
Cup  of  Comus;  from  James  Whitcomb  Riley  The 
Old  Soldier's  Story;  from  Cale  Young  Rice  Col- 
lected Poems,  in  two  volumes  and  more  than 
1000  pages.  Among  younger  American  poets 
several  are  more  prolific  and  more  widely  known 
than  John  6.  Neihardt,  but  in  his  best  moments 
he  can  move  and  delight  as  well  as  the  best  of 
his  craft;  to  1915  l^longed  his  The  Song  of 
Hugh  Class,  a  narrative  poem  of  epic  cast,  with 
early  Western  frontier  life  on  the  Missouri  as 
its  theme.  With  his  Shoes  of  Happiness  Edwin 
Markham  failed  to  arrive  at  any  moment  within 
measurable  distance  of  his  fine  ''The  Man  With 
the  Hoe.''  Bliss  Carman  sustained  his  enviable 
reputation  as  a  lyrist  by  the  lyrics  of  his  own 
composition  in  Earth  Deities  and  Other  Lyric 
Masques  in  which  Mary  Perry  King  was  his  col- 
laborator. A  distinguished  little  volume  is  Jap- 
anese Lyrics,  which  assembles  translations  by 
Lafcadio  Hearn,  characteristically  Oriental  in 
their  swift,  brief,  vivid  impressionism.  No  sur- 
vey of  this  year's  verse  could  forget  Edgar  Lee 
Masters's  Spoon  River  Anthology  which  encloses 
the  quintessence  of  a  group  of  rural  souls  in  its 
frank  post-mortem  appraisals  of  character  and 
achievement,  from  whose  searching  truth  the 
unctuous  prevarications  of  conventional  obitu- 
ary and  epitaph  would  shrink  back  aghast.  In 
Mr.  Masters's  work  as  in  that  of  several  of  the 
younger  poets,  there  is  a  departure  from  the 
beaten  track  of  regular  prosody,  and  a  break  into 
the  by-ways  of  free  verse.  This  is  not  true,  how- 
ever, of  the  work  of  Thomas  Walsh  and  Joyce 
Kilmer,  who  have  no  verse  hobbies  to  ride,  and 
who  express  themselves  happily  and  without  con- 
straint in  traditional  poetic  forms.  Their  two 
books,  Bufl3ciently  different  in  spirit  and  manner, 
are,  respectively.  The  Pilgrim  Kings,  poems 
throughout  of  a  fine  poetic  texture,  and  with  a 


strong  Catholic  flavor,  inspired  often  by  Spanish 
art  and  the  life  of  old  Spain,  and  Trees,  in  which 
the  themes  are  homelier  and  nearer  home.  Rob- 
ert Frost's  North  of  Boston,  with  its  presen- 
tation, in  verses  rugged,  homely,  and  direct, 
of  New  England  life  and  character,  made  a 
marked  impression.  The  lyrics  of  Miss  Sara 
Teasdale — her  Rivers  to  the  Sea  was  of  this  year 
— ^were  among  the  best  of  the  1915  harvest: 
they  are  commended  by  simple  beauty  of  form, 
and  by  a  steadfastness  of  feeling  that  contrasts 
favorably  with  the  transitory  fervors  of  certain 
fevered  latter-day  rhapsodists. 

A  poetic  novelty,  well  to  the  front  this  year, 
and  found  on  both  sides  of  the  sea,  is  provided 
by  the  "Imagist"  poets,  who  seek,  first  of  all,  to 
convey  their  ideas  and  emotions  through  clear- 
cut  imagery,  abjuring  the  blurred  and  vaguely 
suggestive,  and  who,  secondly,  shaking  free  for 
the  most  part  of  the  shackles  of  rhyme  and  reg- 
ular meter  seek  to  catch  the  rhythm  of  the  speak- 
ing voice,  with  its  breathing  spaces,  and  to  build 
their  poems  on  the  laws  of  cadence — ^whatever 
those  laws  may  be.  Startling  by  its  extrava- 
gances, eccentricities,  and  general  departure  from 
the  poetically  decorous,  "Imagism"  may  have 
sprung  from  a  mood  akin  to  &at  of  the  latest 
practitioners  of  novel  techniques  in  painting  and 
sculpture:  the  value  of  its  contribution  to  art 
time  will  determine.  Specimens  of  "Imagist" 
work,  English  and  American,  are  in  Some  Im- 
agist Poets  (Boston),  and  a  representative  poet 
of  the  group  is  Miss  Amy  Lowell,  whose  Sword 
Blades  and  Poppy  Seeds  is  of  the  present  year. 

To  those  who  would  follow  the  annual  drift  of 
American  verse  W.  S.  Braithwaite's  Anthology 
of  Magazine  Verse  and  Year  Book  of  American 
Poetry   (New  York)   may  be  commended. 

EliSATS,    LiTEBABT    CbITICISM,    AND    CbITIGAL 

Biographies.  The  harvest  of  essays  for  the  two 
seasons  of  1915  seems  neither  very  plenteous, 
nor,  on  the  whole,  very  noteworthy.  Literary 
criticism  and  critical  biographies  were  appar- 
ently more  abundant  and  of  better  quality. 

English.  Each  year  brings  one  or  more  vol- 
umes from  the  pen  of  Arthur  Christopher  Ben- 
son, and  1915  brought  Escape  and  Other  Essays. 
Docile  in  spirit,  mellow  and  urbane  in  style,  this 
book  still  has,  like  some  of  its  predecessors,  a 
certain  revolutionary  aspect  in  scoring  the  Eng- 
glish  public  schools  for  their  worship  of  social 
standing  and  athletic  prowess,  and  for  their  cool- 
ness toward  things  of  the  intellect.  Nearer  the 
centre  of  the  troubled  stream  of  the  hour  are 
the  essays  in  G.  W.  E.  Russell's  Spirit  of  Eng- 
land, studies  of  the  varied  effects  of  the  war 
upon  Englishmen  who  remain  at  home  or  fight 
abroad.  Prof.  J.  W.  Mackail  paid  a  tribute  to 
one  of  England's  allies  in  Russians  Oift  to  the 
World,  an  essay,  compact,  comprehensive,  and 
knowledgable,  on  Russia's  contribution  to  the 
world  in  letters,  art,  and  science.  Substantial 
and  suggestive,  as  well  as  finished  in  form,  is  G. 
Lowes  Dickinson's  The  Civilizations  of  India, 
China,  and  Japan.  A  fantastic  satirical  com- 
mentary on  phases  of  the  life  of  to-day,  not 
forgetting  the  literary  life,  is  Boon:  The  Mind 
of  the  Race,  which  may  perhaps  find  place  here 
as  well  as  elsewhere.  H.  G.  Wells  provided  its 
introduction,  and  to  him,  indeed,  its  authorship 
was  confidently  ascribed,  though  the  title-page 
carried  the  name  of  Reginald  Bliss.  Underlying 
its  irony  and  banter  is  the  serious  conviction 
that  the   world's  hope   is   in  the   labors  of   its 


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writing  men  who  strive  to  bring  reason  and  order 
into  our  muddled  life. 

The  generality  of  readers,  with  its  limited 
and  haphazard  literary  experience,  is  always  at 
a  loss  for  a  just  judgment  regarding  the  merits 
of  living  writers,  and  their  standing  in  the  field 
of  their  special  endeavor;  hence  the  usefulness 
of  critical  oiographies  by  those  qualified  to  guide 
the  bewilder^  man  in  the  street  through  the 
contonporary  labyrinth  of  letters — this  apropos 
of  the  Writers  of  the  Day  series  of  little 
books,  of  which  John  Palmer's  Rudyard  Kipling, 
F.  J.  H.  Darton's  Arnold  Bennett,.  J,  D.  Beres- 
ford's  H.  G,  Wells,  and  W.  L.  George's  Anatole 
France  have  already  appeared;  and  apropos  also 
of  such  more  extended  works  as  P.  P.  Howe's 
Bernard  Shaw,  Forrest  Reid's  W.  B,  Yeate,  Miss 
Una  Taylor's  Maeterlinck,  and  F.  A.  Swinner- 
ton's  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  which  last  work  is 
hardly  less  than  an  antagonistic  critical  study, 
representing  a  reaction  from  the  sustained 
chorus  of  praise  we  have  heard  so  long. 

American,  A  literary  curiosity,  and  one  cer- 
tain of  a  welcome  from  those  who  know  what  fine 
and  subtle  criticism  can  add  to  the  delights  of  the 
book  lover,  is  Lafcadio  Heam's  Interpretations  of 
Literature  (2  vols.).  It  consists  of  papers  se- 
lected from  a  mass  of  notes  taken  in  English,  and 
as  nearly  verbatim  as  possible,  from  the  lips  of 
Heam  by  Japanese  students  at  the  University  of 
Tokyo  to  whom  he  was  endeavoring  to  interpret 
English  literature.  The  volumes  are  edited  by 
Prof.  John  Erskine,  who  himself  offered  this  year 
a  volume  of  essays,  full  of  pith  and  point,  under 
the  title  The  Moral  Obligation  to  be  Intelligent. 
Second  to  none  among  our  literary  critics, 
thanks  to  his  scholarly  equipment,  his  fine  liter- 
ary faculty,  and  his  fruitful  critical  method  is 
Paul  Elmer  More,  who  this  year  added  tO'  his 
Shelbume  Essays  the  volume  Aristocracy  and 
Justice,  a  plea  for  an  aristocracy  of  intelligence, 
a  potent  protest  against  our  national  vice  of 
pandering  to  the  multitude,  and  a  call  to  men 
of  superior  intelligence  to  stand  for  their  own 
without  deference  to  popular  notions  or  preju- 
dices. Bent  as  of  old  upon  epigram  and  para- 
dox, and  resolved  to  corruscate  at  any  cost, 
James  Huneker  shows  himself  an  accomplished 
and  competent  critic  of  the  contemporary  in  its 
picturesque  variety  in  Ivory,  Apes,  and  Peacocks, 
a  series  of  papers  on  poets,  painters,  play- 
wrights, etc.,  most  of  them  all  palpitating  with 
modernity.  Richard  Le  Gallienne,  whether  in 
prose  or  verse  a  finished  artist,  brought  out  this 
year  his  Vanishing  Roads  and  Other  Essays. 
Miss  Amy  Lowell's  Siof  French  Poets,  consisting 
of  studies  and  translations,  besides  its  general 
appeal  to  lovers  of  poetry,  should  appeal  par- 
ticularly to  those  interested  in  vers  libre  and  to 
the  practitioners  of  it  at  home  and  abroad.  Out 
of  the  fullness  of  his  ripe  knowledge  came  Wil- 
liam Winter's  valuable  Shakespeare  on  the 
Stage.  Prof.  Fred  Lewis  Pattee,  in  his  History 
of  American  Literature  Since  1870,  covered  a 
field  never  before  attempted  in  a  single  volume, 
and  in  so  doin^  wrote  a  book  full  of  vitality, 
bristling  with  ideas,  and  quite  unacademic  in 
temper  and  point  of  view,  which  will  doubtless 
have  to  be  reckoned  with  by  all  literary  his- 
torians who  in  future  busy  themselves  with  the 
period  in  question.  Clayton  Hamilton's  devo- 
tion to  Stevenson  found  expression  in  his  attrac- 
tive On  the  Trail  of  Stevenson,  which  follows  R. 
L.  S.  over  the  world,  up  to  the  time  he  left  for 


the  South  Seas,  and  gleans  many  fresh  and  in- 
teresting bits  of  reminiscence.  Notable  schol- 
arly books  of  mingled  biography  and  critieiflm 
are  Prof.  George  Lyman  Kittredge's  Chaucer  and 
His  Poetry,  Prof.  William  Lyon  Phelps's  Broum- 
ing:  How  to  Know  Him,  Prof.  Bliss  Perry's 
Carlyle:  How  to  Know  Him,  O.  W.  Firkin's 
Emerson,  the  late  Prof.  Thomas  Lounsbury's 
Life  and  Times  of  Tennyson,  and  Prof.  J.  Me- 
Clean  Harper's  Life  of  Wordsu>orth. 

HiSTOBT,  Generax  Biogbapht,  and  Memoibs. 
During  the  year  historians  turned  their  atten- 
tion largely,  as  was  said,  to  occasional  works 
concerned  in  one  way  or  another  with  the  war. 
For  all  that,  there  remains  a  goodly  number  of 
important  histories  unconcern^  with  that  ab- 
sorbing topic,  while  the  biographies  of  1915  are 
alone  sufficient  to  give  the  year  distinction  in 
literary  annals. 

English,  A  new  book  of  importance  in  this 
department  was  Sir  Percy  Sykes's  A  History  of 
Persia  (2  vols.),  which  fills  the  long  felt  want 
of  an  authoritative  and  up-to-date  work  in  its 
field.  Its  author  lived  for  more  than  a  decade 
as  a  British  official  in  Persia,  and  the  excellence 
of  these  volumes  puts  them  in  the  front  rank  of 
recent  histories  dealing  with  the  Orient.  In 
The  Partitions  of  Polawl  Lord  Eversley  wrote  a 
tragic  page  of  modem  history,  and  in  High  Lights 
of  the  French  Revolution  Hilaire  Belloc  provided 
a  series  of  vivid  historical  essays  on  a  subject 
in  which  he  was  perfectly  at  home.  This  year 
witnessed  the  appearance  of  an  English  edition 
of  the  new  Lingard's  History  of  England  in  11 
volumes,  the  last  volume,  by  Mr.  Belloc,  bring- 
ing the  work  down  to  the  European  war.  Its 
standpoint  is  Roman  Catholic.  From  Ronald 
A.  Hall  came  Frederick  the  Great  and  His  Seven 
Years*  War;  from  J.  A.  Williamson  Maritime 
Enterprise,  1485-1588,  a  sound  work  of  sub- 
stantial value;  from  Joseph  McCabe  Crises  in 
the  History  of  the  Papacy;  and  from  G.  F. 
Scott  Elliott  a  history  of  the  pre-historic  en- 
titled Pre-Historic  Man  and  His  Story.  Contri- 
butions to  the  field  of  history  include  also  C.  L. 
Kingsford's  The  Grey  Friars  of  London,  and 
A.  H.  Johnson's  History  of  the  Worshipful  Com- 
pany of  the  Drapers  of  London — searching  and 
competent  studies  both  of  them;  and  P.  H. 
Brown's  Legislative  Union  of  England  and  Scot- 
land. 

Beckles  Willson's  Life  of  Lord  Strathcona  is  a 
book  of  prime  importance — virtually  an  inner  his- 
tory of  Canada  for  many  of  the  years  it  covers, 
with  the  value  attaching  to  a  work  which  is  both 
a  biography  and  a  significant  page  of  history. 
Another  solid  contribution  to  historical-biograph- 
ical literature  is  Algernon  Cecil's  biography  of 
his  distinguished  ancestor,  A  Life  of  Robert 
Cecil,  First  Earl  of  Salisbury;  and  still  another, 
R.  B.  Cunninghame's  Life  of  Bemal  Diaz  dd 
Castillo,  concerned  with  one  of  the  heroes  of  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  A  new  biographical  series 
published  on  both  sides  of  the  sea  is  Makers  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,  which  opens  with  Sir 
E.  T.  Cook's  John  Delane,  Lord  Chamwood's 
Lincoln,  and  Hugh  S.  Elliott's  Herbert  Spencer. 
Mrs.  Russell  Barrington's  Life  of  Walter  Bage- 
hot  is  included  in  the  new  10-voliune  edition  of 
Bagehot's  works  which  appeared  this  year. 
Among  letters,  reminiscences,  and  the  like, 
Emma  Darwin:  A  Century  of  Family  Letters 
will  be  prized  for  what  it  tells  of  the  great 
naturalist  and  his  family  and  familiar  circle. 


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The  spice  of  wit  enlivenB  the  information  about 
men  and  affairs  which  Lord  Alverstone's  Recol- 
lections of  the  Bar  and  Bench  affords.  Lieut.- 
Gen.  Sir  Robert  Baden-Powell  writes  of  his 
sporting  adventures,  soldiering,  and  travels  in 
India  in  his  Memoirs  of  India^  while  interest- 
ing pages  from  the  book  of  quite  another  life, 
comprise  the  Reminiscences  and  Letters  of  Sir 
Robert  Ball,  begun  by  the  astronomer-author 
himself  and  completed,  after  his  death,  by  his 
son.  Sir  Edwin  Pears's  Forty  Years  in  Con- 
stantinople is  not  least  interesting  where  it 
bares  the  hidden  springs  of  many  important  po- 
litical events  in  Turkey.  To  the  limited  list  of 
good  English  biographies  of  French  Revolution- 
ary leaders  was  added  £.  D.  Braby's  Life  of 
Bamave   (2  vols.). 

American.  This  year  a  new  history  of  the 
United  States  appeared,  The  Riverside  History, 
in  four  volumes — Carl  Becker's  Beginnings  of  the 
American  People,  Allen  Johnson's  Union  and 
Democracy,  William  E.  Dodd's  Expansion  and 
Conflict,  and  Frederic  L.  Paxton's  The  New  Na- 
tion, George  Bird  Grinnell  summed  up  the  re- 
sults of  long  labor  in  writing  the  first  full  his- 
tory of  a  typical  Indian  tribe  in  The  Fighting 
Cheyennes.  An  avowed — and  interesting — con- 
tinuation of  Colonel  Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the 
West  was  Prof.  Robert  M.  McElroy's  Winning  of 
the  Far  West.  Prof.  Morris  Jastrow  turned  at- 
tention to  the  East  in  his  important  work,  Civ- 
ilization in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  as  did  David 
Paton  in  Egyptian  Records  of  Travel  in  Western 
Asia.  The  tragic  history  of  The  Jews  in  Russia 
and  Poland  is  related  by  Prof.  Israel  Fried- 
lander,  who  brings  into  relief  in  the  course  of 
his  narrative  the  crushing  disabilities  which 
Christendom  has  laid  upon  the  Jewish  race  in 
one  part  of  Europe.  A  significant  page  of  Amer- 
ican history,  written  with  authority,  is  Major- 
General  Goethals's  The  Building  of  the  Panama 
CawU.  Looking  backward,  Henry  Fairfield  Os- 
borne gleans  facts  and  inferences  concerning  pre- 
historic man  and  his  way  of  life  in  Men  of  the 
Old  Stone  Age.  A  History  of  American  Diplo- 
macy was  written  by  Prof.  Carl  Russell  Smith; 
a  History  of  Travel  in  America,  a  work  of  pa- 
tient industry  and  abundant  documentation,  by 
Seymour  Dunbar;  The  California  Padres  and 
Their  Missions,  by  C.  F.  Saunders  and  J.  S. 
Chase;  and  The  Normans  in  Europe,  a  masterly 
work  of  scholarly  popularization,  by  Prof.  C.  H.  - 
Haskins. 

There  was  a  fine  harvest  in  1915  in  the  field 
of  American  biography  and  kindred  works.  Two 
excellent  biographies  of  contrasting  types  were 
William  Roscoe  Thayer's  Life  atA  Letters  of 
John  Hay,  and  Dean  Hodge's  Life  of  Henry  Cod- 
man  Potter.  In  the  first,  Mr.  Hay  was  per- 
mitted for  the  most  part  to  tell  his  own  story  ex- 
pansively in  letters;  in  the  second,  the  author 
made  his  own  concise  synthesis  of  biographical 
data  and  wrote  a  book  excellent  in  its  kind.  Tar- 
dily came  the  Life  of  Clara  Barton — ^the  first  Life 
— by  her  friend,  Percy  H.  Epler ;  tardily,  also,  W. 
B.  Parker's  Edward  Rowland  SiU;  and,  more  tar- 
dily than  either,  the  two  volumes  of  Letters  of 
Washington  Irving  to  Henry  Brevoort — ^nearly 
half  the  letters  hitherto  unpublished — edited  by 
George  Hellman.  An  autobiographic  volume 
sure  of  a  permanent  place  in  the  literature  of 
the  feminist  movement  in  America  is  Dr.  Anna 
Howard  Shaw's  The  Story  of  a  Pioneer,  the 
record  of  the  extraordinary  career  of  a  woman 


who  was  thrice  a  pioneer — ^in  the  healing  art,  as 
a  preacher,  and  as  a  suffrage  propagandist.  The 
monumental  and  perfervidly  anti-English 
Thomas  Addis  and  Robert  Emmet  (2  vols.)  is, 
so  far  at  least  as  facts  go,  a  definitive  work  of 
unsparing  industry  from  the  hand  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Addis  Emmet. 

The  Adams  prize  of  the  American  Historical 
Association  went  this  year  to  a  woman,  Miss 
Violet  Barbour,  on  the  score  of  her  Henry  Ben- 
net,  Earl  of  Arlington,  notably  interesting  in  its 
study  of  foreign  relations  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  Valuable  side-lights  on  American  history 
were  thrown  from  David  Duncan  Wallace's  Life 
of  Henry  Laurens,  a  well-nigh  forgotten  Revolu- 
tionary worthy.  Reminiscences  from  four  men 
conspicuous  in  different  fields  of  American  en- 
deavor were  William  Dean  Howells's  Years  of 
My  Youth,  covering  the  part  of  Mr.  Howells's 
life  prior  to  his  Venetian  consulate;  George 
Haven  Putnam's  Memories  of  a  Publisher,  inter- 
national recollections  not  confined  to  the  au- 
thor's circle  of  business,  or  professional,  activity, 
and  supplementing  his  earlier  Memories  of  My 
Youth;  Lyman  Abbott's  Reminiscences;  and  Wil- 
liam Winter's  Vagrant  Memories,  rich  in  de- 
lightful reminiscences,  in  solid  criticism  of 
things  dramatic  and  theatrical,  and  in  sage  re- 
fiection. 

Travel  and  Description.  English,  Of  out- 
standing interest  among  books  of  travel  was  The 
Voyage  of  Captain  Scott,  by  Charles  Turley, 
based  upon  the  books  and  diaries  of  the  ill-fated 
Arctic  explorer.  A  notable  work,  too,  was  Alan 
Letherbridge's  The  New  Russia:  From  the  White 
Sea  to  the  Siberian  Steppes,  as  was  also  Oscar 
Brilliant's  Roumania.  Abounding  in  interesting 
pictures  of  Egyptian  life,  especially  at  Alexan- 
dria, and  in  side-lights  on  contemporary  Egyp- 
tian history,  was  Baron  Samuel  Selig  de  Kusel's 
An  Englishman's  Recollections  of  Egypt,  a  book 
from  a  man  who  was  long  in  the  service  of  the 
Egyptian  government,  rising  to  the  post  of  Con- 
troller-General of  Customs,  and  who  knew 
whereof  he  spoke.  Norman  Douglas,  a  ripe 
scholar,  but  no  pedant,  who  has  traversed  all 
parts  of  the  country  of  which  he  writes  in  Old 
Calabria,  offered  a  well-digested  work,  compact 
of  interesting  information,  and  based  upon  a 
familiarity  with  the  range  of  literature  on  his 
subject,  ancient  and  modern.  It  is  through  ways 
of  pleasantness  and  haunts  of  ancient  peace  that 
Ernest  C.  Pulbrook's  The  English  Countryside 
leads  us,  its  author  the  while  discoursing  in  a 
most  agreeable  and  informing  manner.  An  ac- 
complifuied  man  of  letters,  and  withal  sometiiing 
of  an  antiquarian,  humorist,  and  poet,  all  in 
one,  is  Stephen  Gwynn,  who  proved  a  model  ci- 
cerone in  Famous  Cities  of  Ireland,  a  distin- 
guished book  in  its  class.  An  English  journal- 
ist, Henry  C.  Shelley,  whose  pen  was  for  years 
busy  in  this  country  in  the  way  of  his  craft, 
sought  to  give  his  countrymen  some  notion  of 
our  manners,  customs,  history,  and  appearance 
in  his  well-informed  America  of  the  Americans, 
In  England,  as  in  the  United  States,  a  lively  in- 
terest in  South  America  was  manifested  this 
year,  notably,  by  W.  H.  Koebel's  The  South 
Americans,  a  study  of  the  distinctive  traits  of 
the  people  of  the  republics  to  the  south  of  us,  and 
of  their  way  of  life;  by  J.  A.  Hammerton's  The 
Real  Argentina,  a  book  fresh  and  original, 
neither  the  impressionistic  tale  of  a  traveler,  nor 
a  mere  compilation  of  old  material;  and  by  W. 


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A.  Hirst's  useful  and  comprehensive  ready-refer- 
ence Cfuide  to  South  America, 

American,  This  year  added  a  number  of 
books  to  the  rapidly  increasing  store  of  works 
designed  to  open  South  America  to  the  traveler, 
or  to  him  who  would  buy,  sell,  or  invest.  Of 
such  are  Roger  W.  Babson's  The  Future  of 
South  America,  which  considers  its  subject  from 
the  commercial  rather  than  the  picturesque  or 
historic  standpoint;  William  £.  Auginbach's 
Selling  Latin  America,  dealing  specifically  with 
problems  of  salesmanship;  Edward  Ross's  South 
of  Panama,  which  aims  to  interpret  to  Ameri- 
cans the  character  and  life  of  their  South  Amer- 
ican neighbors;  and  Latin- America,  29  lectures 
on  a  wide  range  of  themes,  edited  by  G.  Hub- 
bard Blakeslie.  Here  may  also  be  mentioned 
Robert  Bacon's  For  Better  Relations  vnth  Our 
Lati/n- American  Neighbors,  and — ^a  work  of  a 
different  sort — Bernard  Moses's  The  Spanish  De- 
pendencies of  South  America,  The  difficulties  of 
travel  abroad  have  naturally  led  to  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  books  of  travel  and  description 
concerned  with  America.  Among  such  are:  Cal- 
ifornia, Romantic  and  Beautiful,  by  George 
Wharton  James;  Highways  and  Bytcays  of  New 
England,  by  Clifton  Johnson;  Old  Roads  from 
the  Heart  of  New  York,  by  Sarah  Comstock ;  Old 
Seaport  Towns  of  New  England,  by  Edwin  M. 
Bacon;  The  Rocky  Mountain  Wonderland,  by  E. 
A.  Mills;  We  Discover  New  England,  by  Louise 
Closser  Hale;  E.  Alexander  Powell's  account  of 
his  travels  from  New  Mexico  to'  British  Ck)lum- 
bia  entitled  The  End  of  the  Trail;  and  tlie  late 
John  Muir's  Travels  in  Alaska,  an  absorbing 
book  by  the  famous  naturalist  and  explorer. 
Conspicuously  good  in  its  class  is  H.  G.  Dwight's 
Constantinople,  Old  and  New,  happily  conveying 
to  the  reader  the  picturesque  charm  of  the  I^irk- 
ish  capital,  a  book  vividly  impressionistic  in 
kind,  but  carrying  with  it  a  varied  store  of  ac- 
curate information  and  observation  at  first  hand. 
In  his  France,  Old  and  New:  An  Ideal  Tour, 
Francis  Miltoun  wrote  in  a  way  to  assist  and  in- 
form the  traveler  or  motorist  in  going  over 
ground  with  which  he  himself  was  thoroughly 
familiar. 

Religion  and  Thboloqy.  English  and  Ameri- 
can, A  work  of  intrinsic  value  by  a  distin- 
guished author  is  the  Rt.  Hon.  Arthur  James 
Balfour's  Theism  and  Humanism,  Prof.  Herbert 
Allen  Giles  of  Cambridge  dealt  with  the  princi- 
ples and  practice  hand^  down  by  Confucius,  in 
Confucianism  and  Its  Rivals,  at  once  a  work  of 
scholarship,  and  the  most  interesting  account  of 
its  subject  for  the  general  reader.  From  Lewis 
Spence  came  The  Myths  of  Ancient  Egypt;  from 
J.  N.  Farquhar  Modem  Religious  Movements  in 
India;  from  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay  The  Bearing  of 
Recent  Discoveries  on  the  Trustworthiness  of  the 
New  Testament;  from  Prof.  James  Ten  Broeke  A 
Constructive  Basis  for  Theology,  a  stimulating 
book,  vigorously  Protestant  in  method  and  ideas ; 
from  Dr.  Henry  Sloane  Coffin  Some  Christian 
Convictions;  from  Dr.  Cassius  J.  Kjeyser  The 
New  Infinite  and  the  Old  Theology;  and  from 
Prof.  James  Stalker  Christian  Psychology.  C.  J. 
G.  Montefiore,  great-nephew  of  Sir  Moses  of  that 
name,  in  a  spirit  loyal  to  his  ancestral  faith, 
made  a  genuine  contribution  to  an  understanding 
of  Pauline  religious  ideas  in  Judaism  and  St, 
Paul.  Stephen  Graham's  The  Way  of  Martha 
and  the  Way  of  Mary  is  in  large  measure  a 
study  of  the  religion  of  Russia  in  comparison 


with  the  religion  of  western  Europe.  A  series  of 
reflections  on  the  comparative  study  of  religions 
was  offered  by  Stanley  Arthur  Cook  in  A  Study 
of  Religion.  Among  the  theories  or  doctrines 
discussed  by  Prof.  Douglas  Clyde  in  his  The 
Problem  of  Knowledge  are  dualism,  agnosticism, 
idealism,  and  pragmatism.  A  sweeping  survey 
of  modern  theological  thought,  especially  in 
Great  Britain  and  Gern^any,  was  made  in  Dr. 
William  Henry  Clark's  Liberal  Orthodoxy,  Re- 
ligion attends  to  conduct  and  practical  affairs  in 
Prof.  A.  T.  Robertson's  Practical  and  Social 
Aspects  of  Christianity;  in  Lionel  Spencer 
Thornton's  Conduct  and  the  Supernatural,  a 
plea  for  Christian  ethics;  in  William  F.  Bad4*s 
study  of  the  development  of  the  moral  sense  as 
shown  in  the  Bible,  entitled  The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Light  of  To-day;  and  in  Archdeacon  Cim- 
ningham's  Christianity  and  Politics. 

Feminism.  The  stream  of  books  on  this  im- 
portant subject  increases  in  volume  from  year  to 
year.  Some  notable  1015  books  in  this  group 
are:  Martha  F.  Crowe's  The  American  Country 
Oirl,  which  deals  with  problems  of  the  young 
woman  on  the  farm;  Anne  Morgan's  The  Ameri- 
can Qirl,  treating,  notably,  of  her  education,  her 
recreation,  and  her  future;  Katharine  Susan 
Anthony's  Feminism  in  Germany  and  Scandina- 
via, which  seeks  to  bring  the  woman's  movement 
in  the  countries  named  in  the  title  of  her  book 
into  closer  touch  with  that  movement  in  the 
English-speakinff  countries;  The  Marriage  Re- 
volt, a  study  of  marriage  and  divorce,  by  Wil- 
liam £.  Carson;  a  history  of  trade  unionism  for 
working  women,  The  Trade  Union  Woman,  by 
Alice  Henry;  Ida  M.  Tarbell's  conservative  little 
volimie.  The  Ways  of  Woman;  an  interpretation 
of  the  woman's  movement  by  Beatrice  Forbes- 
Robertson,  entitled  What  Women  Want;  a  work 
by  James  Lichtenberger,  Women  in  Public  Life; 
and  Dr.  Anna  Howard  Shaw's  important  auto- 
biography, The  Story  of  a  Pioneer,  already  men- 
tioned. 

LITTLE,  Geobgk  Thomas.  Amjerican  libra- 
rian, died  Aug.  5,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Au- 
burn, Me.,  in  1857,  and  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1877.  He  taught  Latin  in  several 
schools  until  1883,  when  he  was  appointed  libra- 
rian of  Bowdoin  College.  He  served  in  this 
capacity  until  his  death.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Maine  State  Library  Commission,  and  was 
the  author  of  Descendants  of  George  Little  of 
Newbury,  Mass,  (1882) ;  and  History  Sketch  of 
Bowdoin  College  from  1794-1894  (1894). 

LITTLEFIELDy  Charles  Edoab.  Member 
of  Congress  from  Maine,  died  May  2,  1915.  He 
was  bom  in  Lebanon,  Me.,  in  1851,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools.  After  working  as  a 
carpenter  and  millwright,  he  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  jto  the  bar  in  1876,  beginning  prac- 
tice in  Rodcland.  He  soon  made  a  reputation 
which  brought  him  into  politics.  He  served  in 
the  Legislature  of  1875  and  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  in  1878.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected 
Attorney-General  of  the  State.  On  June  19, 
1899,  he  was  reelected  to  serve  out  the  unex- 
pired term  of  Nelson  Dingley.  He  was  reelected 
to  the  56th,  57th,  58th,  59th,  and  60th  Con- 
gresses. He  was  selected  by  President  Roosevelt 
as  an  aid  in  carrying  out  the  anti-trust  legisla- 
tion. An  anti-trust  bill  which  he  prepared 
passed  in  the  House  in  1903.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, pass  in  the  Senate.  Mr.  Littlefield  op- 
posed President  McKinley's  Porto  Rican  policy. 


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and  was  also  in  opposition  to  President  Roose- 
velt in  regard  to  Cuban  reciprocity.  In  1906  liis 
election  was  opposed  by  Samuel  Gompers,  the 
president  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 
Mr.  Littlefield  was,  however,  elected.  Shortly 
after  he  resigned  and  removed  to  New  York, 
where  he  formed  a  law  partnership  with  his  son. 
He  appeared  as  counsel  m  many  prominent  cases. 

LIVE  STOCK.  See  Stock  Raising  and 
Meat  Pboduction. 

lilVINOy  Cost  op.    See  Food  and  Nutrition. 

LOAN  AND  TBUST  COMPANIES.  See 
State  Banks  ;  Banks  and  Banking. 

LOAN  OP  VICTOBY.  See  Financial  Rb- 
VDSW,  France. 

LOAN  SHARKS.  The  agitation  of  recent 
years  against  the  unscrupulous  lenders  of  money 
on  the  basis  of  salaries  or  chattel  mortgages  on 
household  furniture  has  resulted  in  very  marked 
diminution  of  a  serious  evil.  Extensive  legisla- 
tion in  many  States  has  brought  these  lenders  of 
small  sums  to  the  poor  under  regulation  and 
supervision.  The  tendency  of  such  legislation 
was  to  permit  a  rate  of  interest  of  3  per  cent 
per  month  without  any  fees  whatever;  to  re- 
quire the  licensing  and  bonding  of  loan  agencies 
under  the  supervision  of  the  State;  to  require 
the  lender  to  give  each  borrower  a  complete 
statement  of  the  terms  of  the  loan  together  with 
a  copy  of  the  law  regulating  charges;  and  to  fix 
adequate  fines  and  imprisonment  for  violations. 

National  Fedesation  of  Remedial  Loan  As- 
sociations. This  federation  held  its  seventh 
annual  convention  in  May,  1015.  About  20  con- 
stituent societies  were  represented.  The  annual 
report  of  the  federation  showed  that  it  was  com- 
pcised  of  40  societies  operating  in  35  cities  in  20 
States  and  the  Province  of  Ontario;  and  that 
they  employed  about  $17,000,000  in  making  small 
loans  at  reasonable  rates.  While  in  no  sense  a 
charitable  undertaking,  these  societies  do  not 
admit  to  membership  any  association  which 
does  not  limit  its  dividends  in  accordance  with 
the  investment  standards  of  its  own  community. 
The  federation  actively  assisted  in  securing  legis- 
lation in  1015,  in  Oregon,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Texas, 
Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation  Credit  Unions. 
Partly  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  severity  of  the 
unemployment  situation  in  New  York  in  the  win- 
ter of  1014-15,  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  and 
the  Mayor's  Committee  on  Unemployment  organ- 
ized a  credit  union  with  a  capital  of  $250,000. 
The  plan  was  for  this  parent  union  to  serve  as 
a  nucleus  for  the  formation  of  local  credit  un- 
ions. Such  unions  would  be  cooperative,  with 
joint  liability  of  all  members,  the  bond  of  asso- 
ciation being  the  neighborhood  relationship  or 
membership  in  church,  club,  lodge,  labor  union, 
or  other  organization.  It  was  pointed  out  that 
Massachusetts  in  1000,  and  New  York,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Texas  in  1014,  had  authorized  the  forma- 
tion of  credit  unions;  and  that  Jewish  farmers 
had  a  niunber  of  credit  unions  in  successful  op- 
eration (see  Agricultural  Credit).  Moreover, 
it  was  estimated  that  there  are  more  than  65,000 
credit  unions  throughout  the  world  with  15,000,- 
000  members  and  doing  an  annual  business  of 
$7,000,000,000.  It  was  believed  that  these  un- 
ions would  stimulate  thrift,  develop  a  spirit  of 
cooperation,  and  prevent  worthy  families  from 
sinking  into  destitution  in  times  of  need. 

Morris  Plan  Banks.  Another  important  de- 
velopment in  this  field  has  been  that  of  the  Mor- 


ris Plan  banks,  which  were  called  "the  nemesis 
of  the  loan  shark."  These  are  promoted  by  the 
Industrial  Finance  Corporation  formed  in  1014 
with  $7,000,000  capital,  llie  men  behind  this 
corporation  included  Vincent  Astor,  Oscar  S. 
Straus,  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Clark  Wil- 
liams, Herbert  L.  Satterlee,  Henry  R.  Towne, 
Theodore  B.  Shonts,  Willard  Straight,  and  other 
distinguished  financiers  and  publicists.  These 
banks  are  named  from  Arthur  J.  Morris  of  Nor- 
folk, Va.,  who  in  1001  began  providing  banking 
facilities  on  a  small  scale  for  workingmen  and 
others  of  small  means.  The  plan  provides  for 
loans  of  small  amounts,  either  on  collateral  or  on 
notes  signed  by  the  borrower  and  two  friends. 
When  collateral  is  given  only  the  legal  rate  of 
interest  is  charged;  and  in  the  other  case  an 
additional  charge  of  $1  for  each  $50  loaned  is 
made  to  cover  the  cost  of  investigating  endorsers. 
In  addition,  individuals  may  purchase  install- 
ment certificates  by  weekly  or  monthly  deposits 
which  may  be  exchanged  in  multiples  of  $50  for 
investment  certificates  bearing  5  per  -cent  inter- 
est. By  the  close  of  1015  there  were  20  or  30 
of  these  banks  in  the  United  States.  Up  to  No- 
vember 3rd  they  had  loaned  $11,500,000  to  01,500 
persons.  The  losses  of  these  banks  in  1014  from 
bad  loans  amounted  to  less  than  one-tenth  of 
1  per  cent  of  the  loans;  and  their  net  profits 
were  7.8  per  cent  of  their  capital.  An  injunction 
was  sought  by  the  Universal  Savings  Corporation 
of  Norfolk,  Va.,  against  the  further  development 
of  these  banks  on  the  ground  that  David  Stein, 
president  of  the  Universal,  was  the  real  author 
of  the  Morris  Plan  of  industrial  banking.  This 
suit  was  similar  to  one  brought  by  Mr.  Stein 
against  Mr.  Morris  and  the  Fidelity  Corporation 
of  America  at  Norfolk  in  1014.  That  suit  was 
dismissed,  but  an  appeal  was  taken.  The  Fi- 
delity Corporation  was  merged  with  the  Indus- 
trial Finance  Corporation. 

Free  Synagogue  Loan  Fund.  A  committee 
of  the  Free  Synagogue  in  New  York,  headed  by 
Dr.  Stephen  S.  Wise,  provided  a  fund  of  $5800 
which  was  loaned  to  worthy  families  in  need  of 
aid  on  account  of  unemployment.  From  Janu- 
ary to  April  1st,  362  loans  were  made  to  106  ap- 
plicants. Most  of  the  wage  earners  had  been  out 
of  work  for  from  three  to  six  months;  and  in 
some  cases  every  article  of  value  in  the  homes 
had  been  sold  or  pawned.  Of  the  106  families,  60 
required  only  temporary  help,  their  average  bor- 
rowings being  only  $30.  This  experiment  was 
believed  to  indicate  that  there  were  thousands  in 
the  city  constantly  on  the  verge  of  dependency, 
and  that  the  margin  between  self-support  and 
dependency  could  be  measured  by  such  small 
sums  as  $25  or  $30. 

LOCKE,  W.  J.  See  Literature,  English  and 
American,  Fiction. 

LOCKJAW.    See  Tetanus. 

LOCKS.     See  Canals. 

LOCOMOTIVES.    See  Railways. 

LOEFFLEB,  Friedrigh.  German  scientist, 
died  April  9,  1915.  He  was  born  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder  in  1852.  He  achieved  fame  in  1884 
when  he  gave  a  systematic  description  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Klebs-Loeffler  bacillus,  which 
was  afterward  proved  to  be  the  "causa  causans" 
of  diphtheria.  In  1910  he,  together  with  Pro- 
fessors Koch  and  Gaffky,  conducted  an  investi- 
gation which  formed  the  foundation  of  the  mod- 
ern steam  disinfection  process.  He  also  made 
the    discovery    of    the    "mice    typhoid,"    which 


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proved  to  be  the  most  useful  factor  in  the  re- 
moval of  the  mice  plague.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  important  treatises  on  diphtheria  and 
malaria. 

LONDON.    See  Gbeat  Britain. 

LONDON,  Jack.  See  Litebatube,  English 
AND  American,  Fiction. 

LONDONDEBBY,  Charles  Stewart  Henry 
Vane-Tempest-Stewart,  Marquis  of.  English 
nobleman,  died  Feb.  8,  1015.  He  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1852,  and  educated  at  Eton,  and  Christ 
Church  College,  Oxford.  He  succeedeid  to  the  title 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1884.  Two  years 
later  he  was  made  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  was 
one  of  the  strongest  opponents  of  the  Gladstone 
Home  Rule  Bill  of  that  year.  On  the  passage  of 
the  Home  Rule  Bill  in  1914  Lord  Londonderry 
was  one  of  the  strongest  advocates  for  armed  re- 
sistance, if  the  issue  came  to  that  point.  He  held 
several  offices  and  from  1902  to  1905  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Education.  He  was  lord 
president  of  the  Coimcil  from  1903  to  1905. 
Lord  Londonderry  was  one  of  the  great  landhold- 
ers of  England,  owning  more  than  50,000  acres. 
He  was  always  a  Conservative  in  politics  and 
made  a  reputation  also  at  the  bar.  He  married 
in  1875  the  oldest  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury. 

LONOy  John  Davis.  American  lawyer  and 
public  official,  died  Aug.  28,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Buckfleld,  Me.,  in  1838,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  1857.  For  several  years 
following  he  taught  school.  Afterwards  he 
studied  law  at  the  Harvard  Law  School,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861.  After  practicing 
for  one  year  in  Buckfield  he  moved  to  Boston. 
He  entered  politics  and  in  1871  was  an  independ- 
ent candidate  for  the  State  Legislature,  but  was 
beaten.  Three  years  later  he  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  his  ability  and 
popularity  were  so  marked  that  he  was  reelected 
and  chosen  as  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  held 
this  position  imtil  1878,  when  he  was  elected 
Lieutenant-Governor.  In  the  following  year  he 
defeated  Benjamin  F.  Butler  for  the  governor- 
ship of  the  State  and  was  reelected  in  1880  and 
1881.  In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the  48th  Con- 
gress, and  was  twice  reelected.  In  1888  he  de- 
clined renomination.  He  was  a  candidate  for  the 
United  States  Senate,  but  was  defeated  by  Sena- 
tor Dawes.  He  returned  to  his  law  business,  and 
soon  built  it  up  to  a  renuirkable  degree,  enjoy- 
ing one  of  the  largest  and  most  lucrative  prac- 
tices in  and  around  Boston.  In  1897  he  accepted 
the  invitation  of  President  McKinley  to  become 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  his  cabinet.  He  held 
this  office  imtil  March,  1902,  continuing  for 
some  time  under  President  Roosevelt.  His  in- 
tention was  to  leave  the  latter's  cabinet,  but  he 
remained  because  of  his  desire  to  see  the  Schley 
case  disposed  of  while  he  was  in  office.  As  soon 
as  his  policy  in  that  controversy  was  sustained 
by  President  Roosevelt,  Mr.  Long  retired  to  pri- 
vate life.  In  addition  to  his  ability  in  politics 
he  was  a  scholar  of  considerable  attainments. 
In  1879  he  published  a  translation  of  Vergil's 
Mndd.  During  his  youth  he  wrote  some  poetry. 
He  was  remarkable  for  his  parliamentary  abil- 
ity, his  judgment  as  a  lawyer  and  statesman, 
his  high  moral  character,  and  his  great  geniality 
and  democracy.  He  was  for  many  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  Total  Abstinence  So- 
ciety, was  also  a  leader  of  many  peace  confer- 
ences and  societies,  and  was  a  member  of  several 


learned  societies,  including  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  and  Sciences.  His  published  writ- 
ings include,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
above:  After  Dinner  and  Other  Speeches;  The 
Republican  Part}f — Its  History^  Principles^  and 
Policies,  1899-1902;  and  The  Neto  American 
Navy, 

LORENZELLIy  Benedetto.  Italian  Cardi- 
nal, died  Sept.  16,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Bati, 
Italy,  in  1853.  After  entering  the  priesthood  he 
was  continually  in  the  diplomatic  service  of  the 
Vatican,  until  he  was  created  cardinal  on  April 
15,  1907.  He  was  papal  nuncio  at  Paris,  imme- 
diately preceding  the  breaking  off  of  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  Vatican  and  the  French 
government  over  the  Associations'  law.  Among 
the  other  'Siplonmtic  posts  which  he  occupied 
were  those  at  The  Hague,  and  Munich.  In  1904 
he  was  made  Archbic^op  of  Lucca,  and  prefect 
of  the  Congregation  of  Studies. 

LOUISIANA.  The  estimated  population  of 
the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  1,801,306.  The 
population  in  1910  was  1,656,388. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Aer^aff* 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

Corn    .... 

..1915 

2,200,000 

45,100,000  928.864.000 

1914 

2.000.000 

88,600.000 

28.950.000 

OatB    

..1916 

120.000 

8.000.000 

1,650,000 

1914 

70,000 

1,610,000 

1.014.000 

Bice    .... 

..1915 

401,000 

18,714.000 

12,848.000 

1914 

886,500 

10.802,000 

10,046.000 

Potatoes    . 

..1915 

28.000 

1,428,000 

1,857,000 

Sweet 
Potatoes 

1914 

24,000 

1,680,000 

1,680.000 

.1915 

65,000 

5.980.000 

2,990.000 

1914 

69.000 

5,188.000 

8.285,000 

Hay   

. . 1915 

250.000 

a  488,000 

4.511.000 

1914 

200,000 

880,000 

4,560.000 

Tobacco  .. 

..1915 

800 

h  126,000 

88.000 

1914 

700 

280.000 

98,000 

Ootton    . . 

..1915 

1.090,000 

e  860.000 

19.289.000 

1914 

1.299.000 

449.000 

14,820.000 

a  Tons. 

h  Pounds,     e  Bales. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  193,000  and 
191,000,  valued  at  $15,826,000  and  $15,853,000; 
mules  numbered  132,000  and  132,000,  valued  at 
$15,972,000  and  $16,500,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 271,000  and  268,000,  valued  at  $10,027,000 
and  $9,648,000;  other  cattle  numbered  475,000 
and  448,000,  valued  at  $7,980,000  and  $7,347,- 
000;  sheep  niunbered  185,000  and  180,000,  valued 
at  $426,000  and  $396,000;  swine  numbered  1,- 
553,000  and  1,412,000,  valued  at  $11,337,000  and 
$10,872,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915 
and  1914  was  560,000  and  536,000  pounds,  re- 
spectively. 

In  1914  the  amount  of  sugar  cane  ground  for 
sugar  was  3,199,000  tons,  producing  242,700 
short  tons.  The  amount  of  cane  to  be  ground 
in  1915  was  estimated  at  2,000,000  short 
tons. 

Mineral  Production.  The  output  of  petro- 
leum in  Louisiana  in  1914  amounted  to  14,309,- 
435  barrels,  valued  at  $12,886,897,  exceeding  the 
output  of  1913  by  1,810,607  barrels.  This  estab- 
lished a  new  record  for  oil  petroleiun  in  the 
State.  The  increase  came  entirely  from  the  pro- 
ductive district  in  the  northwestern  portion, 
which  furnished  11,808,469  barrels,  compared 
with  2,500,966  barrels  from  the  coastal  pools. 
The  average  price  per  barrel  for  the  entire  pro- 


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duction  of  the  State  declined  from  98  cents  in 

1913  to  90  cents  in  1914.  In  spite  of  low  prices 
the  total  value  of  tlie  State's  oil  production  in 

1914  was  more  than  $600,000  in  excess  of  the 
value  in  1913.  During  the  year  a  total  of  566 
wells  were  drilled,  of  which  374  yielded  oil. 
The  total  value  of  the  mineral  products  in  1914 
was  '$21,890,025. 

Education.  The  latest  statistics  for  educa- 
tion in  the  State  are  for  1914.  In  that  year 
the  total  school  population  was  526,268.  The 
total  enrollment  was  288,912,  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  199,103.  The  male  teachers 
numbered  1361,  and  female  teachers  5491.  The 
average  monthly  salary  of  males  was  $80.87,  and 
of  females,  $58.70. 

Finance.  The  latest  report  of  the  State 
treasurer  is  for  the  fiscal  year  1913.  The  total 
receipts  of  that  year  were  $8,203,465,  and  the 
disbursements  amounted  to  $7,365,208,  leaving 
a  balance  on  hand  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $1,- 
062,174,  which  included  a  balance  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  of  $850,025. 

Chabities  and  Cobrections.  The  State  in- 
stitutions include:  an  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  at  Baton  Rouge,  Institute  for  the 
Blind  at  Baton  Kouge,  Soldiers'  Home  at  New 
Orleans,  Insane  Asyliun  at  Jackson,  Charity 
Hospital  at  New  Orleans,  Charity  Hospital  at 
Shreveport,  and  a  State  Penitentiary  and  Con- 
victs* Farm. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  mileage  of  sin- 
gle track  line  in  the  State  in  1914  was  5232,  of 
which  3839  was  main  line  single  track.  Kail- 
ways  having  the  longest  mileage  are  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain,  and  Southern,  462;  Texas 
and  Pacific,  339;  Louisiana  Railway  and  Navi- 
gation Line,  303;  New  Orleans,  Texas,  and  Mex- 
ico, 202. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
was  not  in  session  in  1915.  In  a  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  rendered  on  March  23rd,  reading 
of  the  Bible  and  recitation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  the  opening  of  the  public  schools  in  Caddo 
Parish  were  prohibited.  The  case  was  brought 
by  persons  of  the  Catholic  and  Jewish  faiths, 
and  arguments  before  the  court  were  based  on 
religious  views.  During  1915  more  than  $4,500,- 
000  was  expended  in  an  effort  to  make  New 
Orleans  rat  proof,  and  to  prevent  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  bubonic  plague.  Citizens  expended 
approximately  $3,861,000  on  their  property, 
while  Federal,  State,  and  city  governments  spent 
more  than  $600,000. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Luther  E. 
Hall;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Thomas  C.  Barrett; 
Secretary  of  State  and  Insurance  Commissioner, 
Albert  E.  Herbert;  State  Treasurer,  Ledoux  E. 
Smith;  Auditor,  Paul  Capdevielle;  Supervisor 
of  Public  Accounts,  William  N.  McFarland;  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction,  Thomas  H. 
Harris;  Adjutant-General,  Oswald  W.  McNeese; 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  E.  O.  Bruner; 
Commissioner  of  Labor  and  Statistics,  William 
McGilvray. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Joseph  A.  Breaux;  Associate  Justices,  Walter  B. 
Sommerville,  A.  D.  Land,  Frank  A.  Monroe,  O. 
O.  Provosty,  Charles  A.  O'Neil. 

State  Legislature.  Both  houses  are  Demo- 
cratic, except  two  Progressives. 

LOUNSBUBY,  Thomas  Raynsfobd.  Ameri- 
can scholar  and  educator,  died  April  9,  1915. 
He  was  born  in  Ovid,  N.  Y.,  in  1838,  and  grad- 

Y.  B.— 18 


uated  from  Yale  College  in  1859.  From  1860- 
62  he  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  American 
Encyclopcedia.  He  served  in  the  126th  New 
York  volunteers  from  1862-65,  and  in  1870  was 
appointed  instructor  in  English  at  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School,  and  from  1871  until  his  death 
was  professor  of  the  English  language  and  liter- 
ature at  that  school.  From  1873-1906  he  was 
librarian  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School.  Pro- 
fessor Lounsbury  was  one  of  the  best  known 
writers  on  English  language  and  literature.  He 
contributed  for  years  notable  articles  on  proper 
usages  in  English  to  important  magazines.  He 
received  degrees  of  LL.D.  and  L.H.D.  from  La- 
fayette College  and  Princeton  University.  His 
published  writings  include:  The  History  of  the 
English  Language  (1879,  1894);  Studies  in 
Chaucer  ( 1891 ) ;  Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic 
Artist  (1891);  The  Standard  of  Pronunciation 
in  English  (1904);  The  Standard  of  Us<ige  of 
English  ( 1908 ) ;  English  Spelling  and  Spelling 
Reform  (1909);  The  Early  Literary  Career  of 
Robert  Browning  (1910).  He  edited  the  com- 
plete writings  of  Charles  Dudley  Warner  with  a 
biographical  sketch  in  1904. 

LOW  TEMPEBATUBE  BESEABGH.  See 
Chemistbt. 

LTJBLINITE.     See  MinebaijOOY. 

LXTDLOW,  Nicoix.  American  rear  admiral, 
retired,  died  Dec.  9,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Islip, 
L.  I.,  in  1842.  He  entered  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1859.  From  1863-64  he  was  attached  to  the 
sloop  Wachusett,  which  captured  the  Confeder- 
ate cruiser  Florida  in  the  harbor  of  Bahia,  Bra- 
zil, on  Oct.  7,  1864.  In  1895  he  was  made  cap- 
tain. A  year  later  he  became  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy with  the  naval  department,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  refusal  of  President  Cleveland  to 
approve  the  recommendation  of  the  navy  board, 
that  he  be  promoted.  During  the  Spanish- Amer- 
ican' War  he  commanded  the  Terror^  attached  to 
the  Atlantic  fleet.  After  Captain  Hobson  had 
been  captured,  in  consequence  of  his  attempt  to 
bottle  up  the  enemy's  fleet  in  Santiago  harbor, 
Captain  Ludlow  sailed  from  Key  West  for  Hob- 
son,  when  an  exchange  of  prisoners  had  been  ar- 
ranged. After  the  war  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Mckssachusetts  and  had  charge  of 
that  vessel  when  she  grounded  on  Diamond  Reef, 
near  New  York  City.  As  the  consequence  of 
this  accident.  Captain  Ludlow  was  reprimanded 
for  negligence.  He  was  finally  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  rear  admiral,  and  in  1904  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Navy  Home  in  Philsidelphia. 
He  retired  on  July  8,  1899. 

LUETIN.  An  extract  made  from  killed  cul- 
tures of  treponema  pallidum^  the  causative  or- 
ganism of  syphilis.  It  is  widely  employed  for 
the  diagnosis  of  this  disease,  to  reinforce  or  con- 
trol the  Wassermann  diagnostic  test.  When  in- 
jected into  (not  under)  the  skin  of  a  normal 
individual  no  reaction  occurs,  except  a  small  red 
area  aroimd  the  puncture.  In  syphilitic  indi- 
viduals the  reaction  consists  of  a  crop  of  papules 
which  later  may  become  pustules,  and  in  very 
positive  reactions  a  large  reddish  induration  ap- 
pears in  24  to  48  hours,  slowly  increasing  for 
4  or  5  days,  and  then  gradually  disappears,  the 
papule  becoming  dark  bluish  red.  Luetin  is 
most  useful  in  the  diagnosis  of  hereditary,  la- 
tent, and  tertiary  cases;  primary  or  untreated 
secondary  cases  rarely  pve  a  positive  reaction. 
An  important  feature  is  that  luetin  will  give 
a  positive  reaction  in  patients  who  are  imder 


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treatment  by  mercury  or  Balvarsan,  whereas  the 
Wassermann  reaction  is  apt  to  be  negative. 

LUNACT.    See  Insanity. 

LUND,  TBOELS.  Danish  writer,  who  in  1916 
received  a  third  of  the  Nobel  Prize  for  work  in 
literature.  He  was  bom  in  Copenhagen  in  1830, 
and  after  studying  theology  abandoned  it  for 
the  study  of  history.  His  first  work,  which  ap- 
peared in  1871,  was  a  Biography  of  Socrates, 
which  gave  him  a  great  reputation  among  schol- 
ars. He  was  assistant  in  the  Danish  Archive 
Department  from  1870-75,  and  after  this 
was  an  instructor  of  history  in  a  military  school 
in  Ck>penhagen.  In  1888  he  was  made  full  pro- 
fessor of  history,  and  from  that  time  has  writ- 
ten a  number  of  scholarly  voliunes  chiefly  relat- 
ing to  the  subject  of  Scandinavian  history  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

LXJSITANIA.  The  entire  civilized  world  was 
shocked  on  May  7,  1915,  to  learn  that  the 
Cunard  mail  steamship  Luaitania,  on  her  voyage 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  had  been  torpedoed 
by  a  German  submarine  some  miles  south-south- 
west of  the  Old  Head  of  Kinsale.  While  this 
and  similar  acts  were  stated  by  the  Germans  to 
be  in  the  way  of  reprisal  for  the  blockade  policy 
and  the  shutting  out  of  food  and  other  neces- 
sary supplies  from  their  country,  nevertheless  in 
its  heartlessness  and  its  violation  of  all  princi- 
ples of  international  law,  it  occasioned  universal 
horror,  in  which  all  the  world  save  the  Teutonic 
allies  participated,  and  even  by  many  Germans 
it  was  deplored,  though  considered  justifiable  on 
the  score  of  military  necessity,  llie  LiMttania 
left  New  York  on  May  3,  1915,  carrying  290 
first-class  passengers,  599  second-class,  and  351 
third-class,  and  a  crew  of  677,  making  a  total  of 
1917  persons  on  board.  Of  these  765  were  saved, 
so  that  the  casualties  due  to  the  explosion  of 
the  torpedo  and  drowning  numbered  1152.  Be- 
fore the  liner  sailed  from  .America,  advertisements 
emanating  from  the  German  Embassy,  and  an- 
nouncing that  a  state  of  war  existed,  and  warn- 
ing passengers  traveling  on  belligerent  ships, 
were  published  in  a  number  of  important  Ameri- 
can papers,  while  anonymous  communications 
were  received  by  at  least  some  of  the  more  noted 
passengers  who  had  booked  for  the  trip.  An  or- 
dinary cargo  was  taken  aboard,  with  a  certain 
amount  of  munitions  of  war  in  the  form  of  car- 
tridges and  similar  supplies,  but  no  high  ex- 
plosives, guns,  or  loaded  ^ells,  and  no  guns  were 
mounted  on  the  vessel.  The  voyage  was  unevent- 
ful until  the  Irish  coast  was  approached,  when 
Captain  Turner  of  the  Cunard  liner  Aquitania, 
in  c<Hnmand  df  the  Luaitania  on  this  voyage,  re- 
ceived a  wireless  message  from  the  Admiralty 
warning  him  of  the  presence  of  German  sub- 
marines off  the  Irish  coast,  and  of  the  sinking  of 
a  schooner  on  the  previous  day,  giving  cerUiin 
instructions  as  to  proceeding,  which  the  captain 
testified  he  had  followed  out.  Double  lookouts 
kept  special  watch  for  submarines,  but  none  were 
seen,  and  a  zigzag  course  was  not  started  or 
other  precautions  taken.  No  patrol  boats  were 
sent  out  by  the  Admiralty  to  meet  the  Luaitania, 
and  except  for  the  general  feeling  of  apprehen- 
sion and  suspicion  there  were  no  unusual  cir- 
ciunstances  in  connection  with  the  approach  to 
the  coast  at  a  speed  of  about  18  knots.  At  quar- 
ter past  two  in  the  afternoon  the  second  officer 
called  from  the  bridge:  "There  is  a  torpedo!" 
and  the  torpedo  was  seen  by  Captain  Turner 
from    the    lower    bridge.    Almost    immediately 


afterwards  the  torpedo  struck,  and  an  explosion 
took  place,  the  torpedo  prolmbly  striking  No. 
3  or  No.  4  boiler  room,  though  possibly  the  en- 
gine room  also  was  affected.  After  the  main 
explosion  a  second  explosion  occurred,  thought 
to  be  due  to  the  bursting  of  the  main  steam  pipe, 
and  the  turbines  were  immediately  put  out  of 
commission,  but  the  ship,  badly  torn  and 'dam- 
aged, proceeded  under  her  own  momentum  until 
she  sank,  which  was  2:26^  p.m. — noted  as  the 
time  when  the  captain's  watch  stopped — or  leas 
than  15  minutes  from  the  blow.  Inunediately 
after  the  explosion  the  ship's  crew  proceeded  to 
launch  the  lifeboats  with  no  great  excitement, 
and,  as  was  stated,  with  reasonable  promptness, 
but  the  list  to  starboard  and  the  forward  motion 
of  the  ship  acted  to  prevent  promptness,  and 
many,  in  addition  to  those  injured  by  the  ex- 
plosion, were  unable  to  gain  the  lifeboats. 

The  submarine,  according  to  all  testimony, 
gave  absolutely  no  warning  before  discharging 
its  torpedo,  neither  coming  to  the  surface  nor 
hoisting  its  flag.  It  did  not  remain  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  catastrophe,  and  the  work  of  res- 
cuing those  swimming  and  in  boats  was  carried 
on  by  coast  guard  and  fishing  vessels.  The  pas- 
sengers rescued  were  brought  to  Queenstown  and 
an  inquest  was  held  by  the  local  coroner,  at- 
tended by  representatives  of  the  Admiralty  and 
of  the  United  States  Consular  service.  Of  the 
passengers  179  were  Americans,  including  women 
and  children,  and  the  fact  that  the  attock  was 
made  in  violation  of  all  accepted  international 
law,  produced  a  feeling  of  widespread  horror  and 
indignation  in  the  United  States,  and  led  to  rep- 
resentations being  made  to  the  German  govern- 
ment as  discussed  under  United  States,  Foreign 
Policy,  Aside  from  the  serious  questions  of  in- 
ternational relations  thus  produced,  the  opinion 
of  the  world  in  general  condemned  the  ruthless 
slaughter  of  women,  children,  and  babies,  with- 
out any  corresponding  military  or  commercial 
advantage.  In  addition  there  was  widespread 
regret  for  the  loss  of  life,  especially  as  among 
the  114  Americans  perishing  were  included  men 
prominent  in  various  fields  of  art,  letters,  and 
industry — Dr.  F.  S.  Pearson,  the  head  of  the 
Pearson  Engineering  Corporation,  and  a  leader 
in  hydroelectric  development;  Albert  L.  Hopkins, 
president  of  the  Newport  News  Shipbuilding 
Company;  Lindon  Bates,  Jr.,  consulting  engi- 
neer and  author  of  technical  books;  Charles 
Frohman,  theatrical  manager;  Charles  Klein, 
playwright;  Alfred  G.  Vanderbilt,  the  horseman 
and  capitalist;  Elbert  Hubbard,  author  and  lec- 
turer, and  his  wife;  Herbert  S.  Stone,  editor  and 
publisher  of  The  Houae  Beautiful;  and  Justus 
Miles  Forman,  novelist  and  playwright. 

The  Luaitania  was  probably  the  fastest  of  the 
transatlantic  liners,  maintaining  often  a  mean 
speed  of  26  knots.  Her  length  over  all  was  785 
feet;  between  perpendicular,  760  feet;  molded 
breadth,  88  feet;  molded  depth,  60  feet,  4^ 
inches;  gross  tonnage,  about  32,500  tons;  and, 
when  loaded  to  33  feet,  6  inches,  her  displace- 
ment, she  was  about  38,000  tons.  The  hull  was 
divided  into  11  main  water-tight  compartments, 
separated  from  each  other  by  transverse  bulk- 
heads, while  there  were  longitudinal  bulkheads 
on  each  side  of  the  ship,  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  outer  skin,  with  coal  bunkers  in  the  in- 
tervening space.  The  vessel  as  regards  its  fram- 
ing, deck,  beams,  and  plating,  was  of  the 
strongest    construction.    That    the    destruction 


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wrought  by  the  explosion  of  the  torpedo  war 
head  did  as  much  damage  as  it  did  was  a  strik- 
ing tribute  to  the  T.  N.  T.  explosive  with  which 
it  probably  was  filled.  See  Great  Bbitain;  Na- 
val Pbogbess,  Naval  Operatiofu  in  1915;  Sub- 
marines; United  States  and  thi:  War;  and 
War  of  the  Nations. 

LUTHERANS.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  the 
third  largest  Protestant  denomination  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  had,  in  1915,  2,434,184 
communicants,  15,269  churches,  and  9688  min- 
isters. In  Canada  there  were  229,864  communi- 
cants, 133  ministers,  and  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  churches.  Li  Canada  the  Lutheran 
Church  conducts  services  in  13  different  lan- 
guages. The  value  of  Lutheran  church  property 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1915  was 
over  $100,000,000.  No  form  of  church  govern- 
ment is  held  to  be  essential,  and  the  services  and 
organization  are  carried  on  under  Congrega- 
tional, Presbyterian,  and  Episcopal  forms. 
There  are  four  general  church  bodies:  the  Gen- 
eral Council,  founded  1867;  General  Synod, 
founded  1820;  Synodical  Conference,  founded 
1872;  United  Synod  South,  founded  1886; 
United  Norwegian;  besides  a  niunber  of  inde- 
pendent synods. 

General  Council.  The  General  Council  in 
the  United  States  in  1915  had  470,771  communi- 
cants, 2419  churches,  and  1640  ministers. 

General  Synod.  There  were,  in  1915,  356,- 
072  commimicants,  1830  churches,  and  1426  min- 
isters. 

United  Synod  South.  There  were,  in  1916, 
53,705  communicants,  490  churches,  and  271  min- 
isters. 

Synodical  Conference.  There  were,  in  1915, 
821,386  communicants,  3796  churches,  and  3132 
ministers. 

United  Norwegian.  There  were  171,657  com- 
municants in  1916,  1630  churches,  and  674  min- 
ister?. 

Independent  Synods.  These  had  660,593 
communicants  in  1915,  5104  churches,  and  2546 
ministers. 

For  1915  the  Lutherans  report  a  loss  of  nearly 
11,000  members,  much  of  which  may  be  ex- 
plained, perhaps,  by  faulty  returns.  The  for- 
eign missionary  work  of  the  General  Synod  in 
1915  showed  much  progress,  and  the  gifts  fr<Mn 
all  sources  at  home  for  the  biennium  were  $234,- 
505,  being  49  cents  for  each  communicant,  the 
highest  average  yet  reached.  The  work  in  India 
also  showed  remarkable  growth,  preaching  being 
carried  on  in  876  villages.  There  is  a  baptized 
membership  in  India  of  49,604,  and  a  communi- 
cant membership  of  17,209.  The  home  mission 
work  in  1915  was  the  most  successful  in  its  his- 
tory. The  educational  work  was  also  highly 
prosperous.  Six  of  the  larger  colleges  and  semi- 
naries are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  There  was 
an  increase  of  nearly  20  per  cent  in  eross  re- 
ceipts, and  of  10  per  cent  in  receipts  from  ap- 
portionments. 

The  General  Coimcil  during  1916  inaugurated 
a  vigorous  financial  campaign  in  behalf  of  the 
educational  institutions  under  its  control.  The 
war  interfered  greatly  with  the  foreign  mission- 
ary work.  This,  with  the  other  Lutheran  de- 
nominations, is  planning  for  1917  an  elaborate 
celebration  of  the  quadncentennial  of  the  Refor- 
mation. The  Unit^  Synod  South  showed  steady 
progress  in  its  missionary  and  educational  work, 
with  an  increase  of  about  900  in  membership. 


The  United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  cele- 
brated its  25th  anniversary  in  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  on  June  9th-17th.  There  was  a  large  at- 
tendance. Twenty-four  churches  were  dedicated 
during  1915,  and  26  candidates  for  the  ministry 
were  ordained. 

LXJZEMBUBG.  A  European  grand  duchy, 
bounded  by.  Belgium,  France,  and  Germany. 
Area,  2586  square  kilometers  (988  square 
miles) ;  population,  Dec.  1,  1910,  259,891.  Lux- 
emburg, the  capital,  had  20,848  inhabitants. 
Roman  Catholics  numbered  250,543.  The  grand 
duchy  belongs  to  the  German  customs  union. 
There  were  325  miles  of  railway  in  1913;  439 
miles  of  telegraph  line;  post  offices,  133.  Iron 
production  in  1911,  1,728,973  metric  tons;  in 
1912,  2,252,229  tons.  The  area  under  principal 
crops  in  hectares  and  the  yield  in  metric  quin- 
tals for  two  years  are  shown  in  the  table  below. 

Hectare*  Quintals 

1918-14  1914-15      1919-14  191415 

Wheat    10,659  11,700  142,066  140,400 

Rye    10.488  10,840  142,578  ld0,080 

Barley     1.497  1.400  28,527  14,500 

Oats     81,219  80,000  549,266  808,500 

Vines     1.518       48.018        

Potatoes    14,950  15,000  1,489,148  1,875.000 

The  budget  as  voted  April  6,  1912,  estimated 
the  revenue  at  18,696,137  francs;  the  expendi- 
ture at  20,629,710;  1913,  18,101,733  and  20,484,- 
564;  1914,  22,017,337  and  23,440,531.  The 
amount  paid  to  Luxemburg  by  Germany  on  ac- 
count of  the  German  invasion  is  estimated  at 
$256,000.  The  debt*  amounts  to  12,000,000 
francs;  annuities,  493,150.  The  fioating  debt, 
for  public  works  and  railway  construction,  is 
limited  to  19,335,774  francs.  The  reigning  house 
of  Nassau  became  extinct  in  the  male  line  with 
the  death  of  the  grand  duke,  William,  Feb.  25, 
1912.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  Marie- 
Adelaide  (born  June  14,  1894),  who  attained 
her  majority  and  was  formally  enthroned  June 
14,  1912.  Her  sister,  Princess  Charlotte  (born 
Jan.  23,  1896),  is  heiress  presumptive. 

MAABTENS,  Maabten.  A  British-Dutch 
novelist,  whose  real  name  was  Joost  Marius 
Willem  van  der  Poorten-Schwartz.  He  was  born 
at  Amsterdam,  Holland,  on  Aug.  15,  1858,  and 
died  on  Aug.  4,  1915.  He  was  brought  up  in 
England;  attended  the  Konigliche  Gymnasium 
at  Bonn,  Germany;  and  studied  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Utrecht,  where  he  received  the  doc- 
tor's degree  in  1883,  and  where  he  was  docent 
in  law  in  1883-84.  Thereafter  he  spent  most  of 
his  time  on  the  Riviera,  in  Paris,  and  at  his 
residence,  Zonheuvel  Castle,  near  Doom,  Hol- 
land. In  1907  he  visited  the  United  States.  En- 
gaging in  literary  work,  he  wrote  exclusively  in 
English,  and  his  writings  include  the  following: 
The  Black-Box  Murder  (1890) ;  The  Sin  of  Joost 
Avelingh  (1890);  An  Old  Maid's  Love  (1891); 
A  Question  of  Taste  (1891)  ;  Qod's  Fool  (1892) ; 
his  best  known  novel.  The  Greater  Olory  { 1894 ) ; 
My  Lady  Nobody  (1895) ;  Her  Memory  (1898) ; 
Some  Women  I  Have  Knoum  (1899) ;  My  Poor 
Relations  (1903);  Dorothea  (1904);  The  Jail- 
bird, a  one-act  play  (produced  at  Wyndham's 
Theatre,  London,  1904);  The  Healers  (1906); 
The  Woman's  Victory  (1906);  The  New  Reli- 
gion (1907);  Brothers  AU  (1909);  The  Price 
of  Lis  Doris  (1909);  Harmen  Pols,  Peasant 
(1910);  Eve  (1912). 

MACAO.    A  city  om  the  Island  of  Macao,  at 


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the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River,  China.  The  is- 
land, with  the  adjacent  islets.  ColOane  and  Taipa, 
is  a  Portuguese  dependency,  havinjr  an  area  of  4 
square  miles.  The  total  population  at  the  cen- 
sus of  Dec.  31,  1910,  was  74,866,  of  whom  60,057 
were  Chinese;  whites  numbered  3919,  of  whom 
3780  were  Portuguese.  The  trade,  which  is 
mostly  transit,  is  carried  on  principally  by  the 
Chinese.  Estimated  revenue  and  expenditure 
(1913-14),  1,096,305  and  818,275  escudos,  re- 
spectively. 

M'CAIiVAYy  Aaeon  Vanoe.  American  ju- 
rist, died  July  9,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Michi- 
gan in  1847,  and  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1868.  After  admission  to  the  bar 
he  practiced  from  1871  to  1905  at  Manaster, 
Mich.  He  was  non-resident  professor  of  law 
from  1898-1903  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 
From  1878-79  and  from  1901-05  he  was  judge 
of  the  19th  judicial  circuit  of  Michigan.  He  was 
elected  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State 
in  1905,  and  was  reelected  in  1907. 

HcCLAIN,  Elf  LIN.  American  jurist,  died 
May  25,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Salem,  Ohio,  in 
1851,  and  graduated  from  the  State  University 
of  Iowa  in  1872.  He  studied  law,  and  engaged 
in  practice  in  Des  Moines,  where  he  remained 
until  1881.  In  that  year  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa. 
He  was  made  vice-chancellor  of  the  law  depart- 
ment in  1887,  and  chancellor  in  1890.  In  1900 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Iowa,  serving  until  1912.  In  1906  and  again 
in  1912  he  was  chief  justice.  In  1913,  until  his 
death,  he  was  professor  of  law  in  Leland  Stan- 
ford University.  He  was  a  member  of  many  im- 
portant commissions  on  law  revisions  and  legis- 
lations. He  was  the  author  of  McClain*8  Anno- 
tated Statutes  of  Iowa  (1880);  Outlines  of 
Criminal  Law  and  Procedure  (1884)  ;  and  Con- 
stitutional Law  in  the  United  States  (1905). 
He  also  contributed  articles  on  law  subjects  to 
newspapers  and  law  magazines. 

McGOLLOM,  John  Hildbeth.  American  phy- 
sician and  educator,  died  June  14,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Pittston,  Me.,  in  1843,  and  was  educated 
at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover.  He  studied 
medicine  in  the  Harvard  Medical  School  in  1859 
and  from  1871  until  his  death  practiced  in  Bos- 
ton. From  1862-65  he  served  as  hospital  stew- 
ard in  the  30th  regiment  of  Massachusetts  volun- 
teers. He  was  city  physician  of  Boston  from 
1891-95,  and  was  resident  physician  of  the 
South  Department  of  Infectious  Diseases  at  the 
Boston  City  Hospital  from  1895  until  his  death. 
From  1903-08  he  was  assistant  professor  of  con- 
tagious diseases  at  the  Harvard  Medical  School, 
and  in  1908  he  became  full  professor.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  professor  emeritus.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
leading  medical  journals. 

MacCOBD,  Chables  William.  American 
draftsman,  died  April  14,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  northeast  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1836,  and 
graduated  from  Princeton  University  in  1854. 
From  1859-68  he  was  chief  draftsman  to  Capt. 
John  Ericsson.  He  drafted  the  plans  for  the 
original  Monitor  which  fought  against  the  Mer- 
rimac  in  Hampton  Roads.  From  1871-96  he  was 
professor  of  mechanical  drawing  and  designing 
at  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology.  In  the 
latter  year  he  became  professor  emeritus.  He 
was  the  author  of:  Mechanical  Dramng,  Pro- 
gressive Exercises,  and  Practical  Hints  ( 1888 ) ; 


Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry  (1895);  Ve- 
locity Diagrams  (1901).  He  also  published  va- 
rious monographs  on  mechanism  and  applied 
kinematics. 

McCOBMICK,  Alexander  Hugh.  American 
rear  admiral,  retired,  died  Aug.  21,  1915.  He 
was  born  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  1842, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1859.  He  resigned  in  1869,  but  was 
reinstated  in  the  same  year.  He  served  through- 
out the  Civil  War,  and  took  part  in  many  im- 
portant actions.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
commander  and  in  1892  captain.  He  became 
rear  admiral  in  1899.  He  was  commander  on  the 
battleship  Oregon,  under  Captain  Clark,  during 
the  Spanish-American  War. 

McCULLOUOH,  John  Griffith.  Former 
Governor  of  Vermont,  died  May  29,  1916.  He 
was  born  in  Newark,  Del.,  in  1835.  In  1859 
he  graduated  from  the  Law  School  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  went  to  California 
on  account  of  his  health.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  that  State,  and  entered  the  campaign 
to  hold  California  in  the  Union  during  the  Civil 
War.  In  1861  he  was  elected  to  the  State  Legis- 
lature, and  in  the  following  year  to  the  Senate. 
He  served  as  attorney-general  of  California,  and 
on  the  completion  of  his  term  settled  in  San 
Francisco.  In  1873  he  moved  to  North  Benning- 
ton, Vt.,  and  became  interested  in  banking  and 
railroads.  For  eight  years  he  was  vice-presi- 
dent, and  for  six  years  president,  of  the  Panama 
Railrocul  Company.  He  was  appointed  receiver 
for  the  Erie  Railroad  after  the  panic  of 
1893.  He  was  connected  also  with  several  other 
important  railways.  He  was  active  in  the  poli- 
tics of  Vermont,  and  was  elected  Governor  in 
1892.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  National  Con- 
ventions which  nominated  Garfield,  Harrison, 
and  McKinley. 

MACDONALD,  SiB  Claude  Maxwell.  Eng^ 
lish  soldier  and  diplomat,  died  Sept.  10,  1915. 
He  was  bom  in  1852,  and  was  educated  at  Up- 
pingham School,  and  at  the  Royal  Militarv  Col- 
lege in  Sandhurst.  He  became  an  officer  in  the 
Highland  Light  Infantry,  and  saw  active  service 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Egyptian  expedition  of 
1882.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
military  attache  to  the  British  Agency  in  Cairo. 
He  took  part  in  operations  in  the  Eastern  Sudan 
in  1884,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Tamai. 
In  1887  he  was  made  acting-agent  and  consul- 
general  at  Zanzibar,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  commissioner  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa.  Here  with  a  small  staff  he  built  up 
a  remarkably  efficient  system  of  government,  in 
a  territory  which,  when  he  assumed  control,  w^as 
almost  an  unknown  land.  When  he  left  in  1895 
he  had  established  the  foundation  of  a  perma- 
nent civilization.  The  great  administrative 
ability  which  he  had  sho^vn  won  for  him  the 
ambassadorship  to  China,  which  became  vacant 
in  1895.  His  administration  of  this  office  was  re- 
markably efficient.  Among  his  accomplishments 
were  the  opening  of  the  West  River  to  foreign 
trade,  the  settlement  of  the  likin  question  at 
Canton,  the  lease  of  Wei-hai-wei,  and  various 
railway  and  mining  concessions.  During  the 
Boxer  rising  in  1900  it  was  due  largely  to  his 
forethought  that  when  the  foreign  legations 
were  besieged  the  British  were  able  to  shelter 
so  large  a  number  of  refugees,  and  to  offer  such 
heroic  resistance.  In  1900  he  was  transferred 
to  Tokyo  as  minister,  and  five  years  later  became 


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MADAGASGAB 


the  first  British  ambassador  to  Japan.  After 
serving  in  that  country  for  12  years  he  retired 
in  Dumber,  1912.  During  his  term  of  office 
there  was  concluded  the  An^lo-Japanese  agree- 
ment in  August,  1905,  by  which  the  interesU  of 
the  two  powers  in  the  Far  East  are  regulated. 

McOILL  UNIVEBSITY.  An  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  in  1829  in  Montreal, 
Canada.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  autumn  of 
1916  was  1540.  The  faculty  numbered  235. 
Several  members  of  the  faculty  resigned  to  join 
the  troops  sent  to  the  war  in  Europe.  Sir  Wil- 
liam C.  MacDonald  gave  for  the  support  of  the 
work  of  MacDonald's  College  $43,922.  There 
was  received  from  the  estate  of  Lord  Strathoona 
for  the  Royal  Victoria  College  $42,000.  Other 
bequests  amounted  to  about  $8000.  The  produc- 
tive funds  in  1915  were  about  $8,250,000,  and  the 
income  was  about  $800,000.  The  library  con- 
tained about  150,000  volumes. 

MACHINE  OT7NS.    See  Militabt  Progress. 

MACKAYEy  Perct.  See  Literature,  Eng- 
lish AND  American,  Poetry, 

McKELWAY,  St.  Clair.  American  editor, 
died  July  16,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Columbia, 
Mo.,  in  1845.  His  family  removed  to  New  Jer- 
sey in  1853.  He  was  educated  by  private  tutors. 
After  studying  law  he  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar  in  1866,  but  never  practiced.  He  was 
attracted  by  newspaper  work,  and  for  a  time  was 
a  correspondent  for  the  New  York  Tribune,  For 
several  years  he  wrote  for  this  and  other  papers. 
After  admission  to  the  bar  he  joined  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  World  and  for  four  years 
was  Washington  correspondent  and  associate 
editor  of  this  paper.  In  1883  he  became  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  Brooklyn  Eagle,  and  after 
several  years  of  service  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Albany  Arg%k8,  of  which  he  was  the  editor  until 
1885.  In  the  latter  year  he  returned  to  Brook- 
lyn as  editor  of  the  Eagle.  Previous  to  this 
time  he  made  his  mark  throughout  the  State  as 
a  writer  and  lecturer,  and  received  the  degree  of 
M.A.  from  Colgate  University  in  1883.  After 
his  editorship  of  the  Eagle,  he  became  known 
as  a  speaker  and  writer  on  educational,  histor- 
ical, and  civic  subjects,  and  proofs  of  his  editor- 
ials were  sent  broadcast  throughout  the  United 
States  and  were  widely  copied.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of 
New  York,  and  became  vice-chancellor  in  1900; 
on  the  death  of  Whitelaw  Reid  he  was  appointed 
chancellor.  Mr.  McKelway  was  a  warm  friend 
and  supporter  of  President  Cleveland.  He  was 
a  director  of  the  American  Social  Science  Asso- 
ciation and  a  member  of  the  National  Institute 
of  Arts  and  Letters.  He  received  degrees  from 
Syracuse  University,  Union  College,  St.  Lawrence 
University,  and  the  University  of  Missouri. 

MACKENSEN,  August  von  (1849—).  A 
German  field  marshal,  born  in  Hausleipnitz, 
Saxony.  He  entered  the  army  in  1869  and  be- 
came lieutenant  of  the  reserve  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  (1870-71).  In  1873  he  became 
a  lieutenant  in  the  regular  army;  in  1876,  adju- 
tant of  the  first  cavalry  brigade;  and  in  1878  a 
lieutenant-colonel.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  to 
the  general  staff  without  having  attended  the 
military  academy.  .In  1894  he  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  commander  of  the  Life  Hussars  Regi- 
ment, and  in  1895  was  made  aide-de-camp  to  the 
Kaiser.  In  1901  he  became  commander  of  the 
newly  organized  Life  Hussars  Brigade.  From 
1903-08  he  was  commander  of  the  36th  division, 


and  after  the  latter  year  was  commander  of  the 
17th  army  corps.  During  the  great  war  which 
began  in  1914,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  staff 
under  General  von  Hindenburg  (q.v.)  in  the 
Russian  campaign,  and  in  1915  he  was  given  the 
chief  command  of  the  great  Teutonic  drive  into 
the  Balkan  Peninsula.  He  was  also  appointed  to 
the  rank  of  field  marshal.  (See  War  of  the 
Nations.)  His  writings  include  Schicarze  Hu- 
saren,  Qeschichte  dea  Leibhusarenregiments,  and 
Leibhusarenregimenta  Kaiserin  Nr,  2  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1892). 

MACKENZIE,  Mobbis  Robinson  Slidell. 
American  rear  admiral,  retired,  died  Jan.  16, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  New  York  City,  and  grad- 
uated from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1866.  In  1870  he  became  lieutenant,  and  in 
1884  lieutenant-commander.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  captain  in  1890,  and  in  1906  on  his  retire- 
ment became  rear  admiral.  He  served  on  vari- 
ous stations,  and  for  two  years  commanded  the 
Prairie.  He  also  commanded  the  battleship  New 
York,  and  was  for  a  time  in  charge  of  the  Ports- 
mouth Navy  Yard.  Prior  to  his  retirement  he 
was  inspector  in  charge  of  the  third  lighthouse 
district. 

McMillan  expedition,  see  POLAB 
Reseabch. 

McFHEBSON,  Smith.  An  American  jurist, 
died  Jan.  18,  1915.  He  was  born  near  Moores- 
ville,  Morgan  Co.,  Ind.,  in  1846,  and  received 
his  education  in  public  schools.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1870.  From 
1874-80  he  was  district  attorney  of  the  third 
judicial  district  of  Iowa,  and  was  attorney-gen- 
eral of  the  State  from  1881-85.  In  1899  he  was 
elected  to  the  56th  Congress.  He  resigned  his 
seat  in  1900  to  become  judge  of  the  Southern 
District  of  Iowa.  His  decisions  in  several  rail- 
road rate  cases  brought  him  to  public  attention. 
In  1905  he  restrained  officers  of  the  State  of  Mis- 
souri from  enforcing  the  maximum  freight  rate 
law,  and  in  1909  granted  a  permanent  injunc- 
tion preventing  the  State  authorities  from  en- 
forcing the  two-cent  passenger  rate  law.  Judge 
McPherson  was  one  of  the  Republican  leaders  of 
the  State  of  Iowa. 

MADAGASGAE.  A  great  island  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean  off  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  com- 
posing, with  its  dependencies,  a  French  colony. 
Antananarivo  (Tananarive)  is  the  capital,  with 
72,000  inhabitants.  The  area  of  Madagascar, 
with  several  small  dependent  islands,  is  stated 
at  585,533  square  kilometers  (226,074  square 
miles).  The  population  as  calculated  Jan.  1, 
1914,  was  3,253,581—14,918  Europeans,  12,905 
Asiatics  and  Africans,  3,225,758  aborigines.  In- 
cluding Mayotte  and  the  Comoro  Islands,  the 
population  was  3,351,481.  Tlie  Hova  inhabit 
that  portion  of  the  central  plateau  now  known 
as  Imerina,  anciently  called  Ankova — the  coun- 
try of  the  Hova.  Fianarantsoa  has  about  7000 
inhabitants;  Tamatave,  7026;  Majunga,  4600. 

PBODUcmoN,  Ck)MM£BCE,  ETC.  Agriculture  and 
cattle-raising  are  the  chief  industries,  and  rice  is 
the  principal  crop.  The  forests  contain  valuable 
timber.  The  mines  yield  gold,  silver,  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  zinc.  Imports  and  exports  for 
three  years  are  shown  in  the  following  table  in 
francs : 


Imports 
Exports 


1911  1912  1918 

.  .    44.763.892     50,034.848     46,747,456 
.  .   47,535,861     59,844,294     56.064,877 


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KADAOABCAB 


890 


KAIHE 


The  export  of  raw  hides  in  1012  was  valued 
at  10,762,572  francs;  raw  gold,  5,989,176;  rub- 
ber, 6,181,431;  vanilla,  3,941,521;  raffia,  3,787,- 
936;  legumes,  2,807,576;  wax,  1,696,760;  cattle, 
1,008,685;  ebony,  425,000,  etc.  There  were  en- 
tered at  the  ports  in  the  1913  trade  233  vessels, 
of  329,750  tons.  Hie  debt  stood,  Jan.  1,  1913, 
at  97,484,118  francs.  Railways  (1914),  369 
kilometers.  A  governor-general  administers  the 
colony. 

MAES,  Camiixus.  American  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  died  May,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Cour- 
trai,  Belgium,  in  1846,  and  in  1864  graduated 
from  the  College  of  Courtrai.  He  studied  at 
the  American  College  at  Louvain,  graduatinjf  in 
1864,  and  in  the  same  year  was  ordained  a  priest. 
In  1869  he  removed  to  the  United  States.  From 
that  year  until  1880  he  was  pastor  in  Mary- 
land. He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Detroit  in  1880,  holding  that  post  for 
five  years,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  at 
Covington,  Ky.  He  was  a  member  of  the  iKiard 
of  directors  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, and  of  the  Catholic  Extension  Society  of 
America.  He  was  also  prominent  in  the  Eu- 
charistic  Conferences,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
Eucharistic  League.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
Life  of  Father  Nerinak    (1880). 

MAETEBLINCK'S  Interior,  Pebfobmance 
OF  IN  English.  See  Drama,  American  and 
English. 

MAGNETISM,  Terrestrial.  See  Explora- 
tion, Oceanic. 

MAIL.    See  United  States,  Po9t  Office. 

MAINE.  Population.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  767,- 
638.    The  population  in  1910  was  742,371. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Yaiue 

Corn    

.1915 

16.000 

656,000 

$658,000 

1014 

16.000 

786,000 

648.000 

Wheat 

.1915 

4.000 

112.000 

125.000 

1914 

3,000 

81,000 

88.000 

Oats    

.1915 

162,000 

6,080,000 

8,786.000 

1914 

141.000 

5,781,000 

8,296.000 

Barley 

.1915 

5.000 

182,000 

99,000 

1914 

5,000 

150,000 

122,000 

Potatoes    .. 

.1915 

142,000 

22,010,000 

15.407.000 

1914 

130.000 

88,800,000 

11.154,000 

Hay 

.1916 

1,215,000 

a  1.897,000 

20.816.000 

1914 

1,230,000 

1,414.000 

18.528.000 

Buckwheat 

.1915 

13,000 

888.000 

287.000 

1914 

12.000 

848,000 

209,000 

a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  112,000  and 
113,000,  valued  at  $15,904,000  and  $16,498,000; 
milch  cows  numbered  159,000  and  157,000,  valued 
at  $7,950,000  and  $8,478,000;  other  cattle  num- 
bered 104,000  and  101,000,  valued  at  $2,558,000 
and  $2,636,000;  sheep  numbered  162,000  and 
165,000,  valued  at  $778,000  and  $742,000;  swine 
numbered  102,000  and  95,000,  valued  at  $1»224,- 
000  and  $1,492,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1916  and  1914  was  906,000  and  932,000  pounds 
respectively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  stone  production, 
which  consists  almost  entirely  of  granite,  was 
valued  at  $1,723,032  in  1914.  Clay  products, 
exclusive  of  pottery,  ranked  second  in  value, 
which  amounted  to  $914,808.    The  total  value 


of  all  mineral  products  in  1914  was  $3,975,890, 
compared  with  $4,429,584  in  1913. 

Transportation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  in  1914  was  2300.  There  was  no 
increase  of  this  during  1915.  Railways  having 
the  longest  mileage  are  the  Maine  Central,  995; 
Bangor  and  Aroostook,  630;  Canadian  Pacific, 
177;  and  Boston  and  Maine,  139. 

Education.  The  average  enrollment  in  the 
elementary  schools  in  1914  was  133,006.  The 
average  daily  attendance  in  these  schools  was 
101,996.  The  Legislature  of  1915  enacted  sev- 
eral important  measures  relating  to  education. 
The  number  of  weeks  that  towns  are  required  to 
maintain  schools  annually  was  raised  from  26 
to  30.  Provision  was  also  made  for  traveling 
libraries  in  high  schools  where  towns  have  no 
libraries. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1914,  showed 
the  total  receipts  were  $6,353,307,  and  a  balance 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $649,303.  The 
total  expenditures  amounted  to  $6,224,625,  leav- 
ing a  balance  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $777,986. 
The  bonded  debt  of  the  State  is  about  $560,000. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
institutions  of  the  State  are  the  State  Hospitals 
at  Augusta  and  Bangor,  the  Maine  School  for 
Feeble-minded,  and  the  Bath  Military  and  Naval 
Asylum  at  Bath.  The  correctional  institutions 
include  the  Maine  Industrial  School  for  Girls  at 
Hallowell,  the  State  School  for  Boys  at  South 
Portland,  and  the  Maine  State  Prison  at  Thomas- 
ton.  The  total  expenditure  for  the  support  of 
these  institutions  is  about  $1,000,000  annually. 

Politics  and  Government.  Tlie  Legislature 
was  in  session  in  1915.  It  passed  a  law  provid- 
ing a  64-hour  week  for  both  women  and  boys 
under  16  working  in  mills,  factories,  and  laun- 
dries. The  workmen's  compensation  law  was 
amended  by  a  provision  that  the  employer  should 
not  pay  more  than  $10  a  week  in  case  of  total 
disability,  with  a  maximum  of  $3000.  Heirs  in 
case  of  death  received  the  same  amount,  and  the 
scale  of  payments  for  partly  disabled  ranged 
from  $4  to  $10  a  week.  A  woman  suffrage  meas- 
ure failed  to  pass  the  House  on  March  23rd  by 
a  very  close  margin. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Oakley  C. 
Curtis;  Secretary  of  State,  John  E.  Bunker; 
State  Auditor,  J.  Edward  Sullivan;  State  Treas- 
urer, Elmer  E.  Newbert;  Adjutant-General, 
George  McL.  Presson;  Attorney-General,  Wil- 
liam R.  Pattangall;  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Payson  Smith;  Insurance  Commissioner,  Erastus 
J.  Carter;  Bank  Commissioner,  Irving  £.  Ver- 
non; State  Librarian,  Henry  E.  Dunnack;  Com- 
missioner of  Labor,  Roscoe  A.  Eddy;  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture,  William  T.  Guptill. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Albert  R.  Savage;  Associate  Justices,  Albert  M. 
Spear,  Leslie  C.  Cornish,  Arno  W.  King,  George 
£.  Bird,  George  F.  Haley,  George  M.  Hanson, 
Warren  C.  Philbrook. 

State  Lbqislature: 


Senate 

Houee 

Joint  BdOot 

Democrats 

Reimblieani    

ProgressiTM    . 

14 

, 17 

78 
69 

4 

02 

86 

4 

Majority    

8E 

6D 

•• 

MAINE,  UmvERsmr  of.    A  State  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  at  OroDO^  Me^  in 


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KAINE 


391 


MAKCHUBIA 


1865.  It  includes  colleges  of  agriculture,  law, 
technology,  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  affricul- 
tural  experiment  station.  The  total  enrollment 
in  all  these  departments  in  the  autimin  of  1015 
was  1265.  The  faculty  numbered  154.  No  nota- 
ble changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
were  made  during  the  year,  and  no  noteworthy 
benefactions  were  received.  The  income  for  1915 
amounted  to  $291,166.  The  institution  is  sup- 
ported almost  entirely  by  legislative  appropria- 
tions. The  library  in  1915  contained  56,000 
volumes. 

MALACCA.  One  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
(q.v.). 

MATiAKTA.  The  most  notable  c<n&tributions 
of  the  year  to  this  subject  were  made  by  Bass 
and  Barlow.  The  former,  in  treating  violent 
types  of  malarial  infection,  discovered  that  small 
doses  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  well  diluted  and 
given  by  intravenous  injection,  had  a  curative 
effect  far  superior  to  that  of  quinine,  which  in 
these  cases  appeared  to  be  impotent.  Barlow 
cites  the  case  of  a  native  who  had  suffered  nine 
days  from  a  violent  tertian  infection,  with  but 
one  brood  of  plasmodia.  An  intravenous  injec- 
tion of  less  than  one-fourth  grain  of  mercuric 
chloride  controlled  the  paroxysm  immediately 
and  the  temperature  subsided.  This  drug  ap- 
parently has  the  effect  of  arresting  and  destroy- 
ing the  Plasmodia  in  the  blood;  for  six  weeks 
later  a  series  of  blood  specimens  taken  from  the 
patient  showed  no  parasites  and  there  was  no 
further  return  of  symptoms.  The  effect  of  mer- 
cury on  the  organism  was  to  inhibit  ameboid 
motion,  whereas  after  a  dose  of  quinine  in  a 
similar  case  the  ameboid  motion  was  more  active. 
Other  phenomena  noted  were  that  under  mercury 
growth  was  checked,  only  a  few  schizonte  pro- 
ceeded to  full  development,  and  penetration  of 
the  red  cells  had  stopped;  whereas  quinine  has 
a  precisely  opposite  effect. 

The  transmission  of  malaria  is  at  the  present 
day  believed  to  be  carried  on  by  a  single  variety 
of  the  Anophelinse,  but  over  100  species  of  these 
mosquitoes  have  been  identified,  and  of  these 
less  than  a  third  have  been  proved  to  transmit 
malaria.  The  remaining  species  have  not  been 
studied  or  have  not  shown  evidence  of  the  ability 
to  carry  the  Plasmodium.  Carter  gives  a  con- 
crete illustration  of  the  economic  importence  of 
knowing  the  potency  of  each  species  of  Anophe- 
linse to  transmit  malaria  by  showing  that,  in 
the  Canal  Zone,  between  $100,000  and  $250,000 
was  saved  by  the  knowledge  that  the  Anopheles 
malefactor,  which  breeds  in  collections  of  water 
in  hollow  stumps,  was  not  a  carrier.  Walker 
and  Barker,  of  the  Bureau  of  Science,  in  the 
Philippines,  assert  that  of  the  17  recognized 
species  of  Anophelinse  on  the  islands,  only  6  are 
at  present  known  to  be  transmitters  of  malaria. 
They  studied  five  species,  and  dissected  1287 
specimens  to  see  if  oikyste  were  present.  Four 
of  the  five  species  proved  to  be  capable  of 
infection.  Anopheles  fehrifer  was  the  most  sus- 
ceptible to  infection,  and  is  probably  the  most 
important  mosquito  concerned  in  the  carrying  of 
malaria  in  the  Philippines.  Anopheles  barbiros- 
tris,  A,  rosU,  and  A,  maculatus  were  less  sus- 
ceptible. The  factors  which  determine  the  im- 
portance of  a  particular  species  of  mosquito  as 
a  carrier  of  malaria  in  any  country  are  its  sus- 
ceptibility to  malarial  infection,  its  geographic 
distribution,  ite  avidity  for  human  blood,  its 
domesticity,  and  ite  prevalence.    Saniterians  are 


most  concerned  in  ite  susceptibility,  but  ite 
blood-sucking  propensities  and  ite  domesticity 
are  qualities  of  no  slight  moment.  See  Insects, 
Pbopagation  of  Disease  by. 

MALAY  STATES.  See  Fedebated  Malay 
States;    Johobb;    Eedah;    Kelantan;    Nbgbi 

SeKBILAN;  PahANO;  PeBAK;  SeLANOOB;  TbENO- 
OANTJ. 

MALONE,  Walteb.  American  jurist,  and 
author,  died  May  18,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  De 
Soto  Co.,  Mo.,  in  1866,  and  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1887.  He  studied 
law  and  after  his  admission  to  the  bar  practiced 
law  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  from  1891-07.  For  the 
three  years  following  the  latter  date  he  was  en- 
gaged in  literary  work  in  New  York  City.  Then 
he  resmned  law  practice  in  Memphis.  In  1905 
he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  second  circuit 
court  of  Tennessee.  He  was  the  author  of: 
Claribel  and  Other  Poems  (1882) ;  The  Outcast 
and  Other  Poems  (1885);  The  Songs  of  Dusk 
and  Dawn  (1894);  The  Coming  of  the  King, 
short  stories  (1897);  The  Bongs  of  North  and 
South  (1900);  Poems  (1904);  and  Songs  of 
East  and  West  (1906). 

MAIiTA.  An  island  (91 14  square  miles)  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which,  with  the  islands 
of  Gozo  (25%  square  miles),  Comino  (1  square 
mile),  and  Filfla  and  Cominotto  (mere  islets), 
forms  a  British  crown  colony.  Totel  civil  pop- 
ulation, 1911  census,  213,395;  estimate  March 
31,  1914,  219,311.  Vallette,  the  capitel,  had, 
April  2,  1911,  44,143  inhabitente,  including  sub- 
urbs (Floriana,  Sliema,  and  St.  Julien's) ;  the 
Three  Cities  (Senglea,  Cospicua,  and  Vittoriosa), 
26,551;  Citta  Vecchia  (the  old  capitel),  8896; 
Victoria  (formerlv  Rabat),  5655.  The  natives 
are  of  Punic  origin,  and  their  speech  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  Carthaginian  and  Arabic 
languages ;  about  70  per  cent  of  ite  vocabulary  is 
Semitic,  but  ite  grammatical  structure  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin.  Vallette  is  a  coaling  ste- 
tion  and  the  centre  of  a  large  transit  trade. 
There  are  7%  miles  of  railway.  Importe  and 
exporte  (1913-14),  £2,510,934  and  £1,053,854, 
respectively.  Totel  weight  of  goods  transhipped 
(1913-14),  12,839  tons.  Revenue  (1913-14), 
£423,108;  expenditure,  £402,521.  Tonnage  en- 
tered and  cleared,  11,097,612  (British,  5,691,- 
394). 

MAMMALS.    See  Zo(5looy. 

MANCHTTKIA.  A  dependency  of  China.  It 
lies  east  of  Mongolia  and  the  Province  of  Chihli 
and  between  Korea  and  the  Amur  River,  which 
separates  it  on  the  north  from  Siberia.  The 
country  consiste  of  three  provinces — ^Heilung- 
kiang,  in  the  north,  Kir  in,  and  Shengking,  in 
the  south;  their  total  estimated  area  is  362,483 
square  miles,  or  slightly  larger  than  the  com- 
bined area  of  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas, 
which  is  361,267  square  miles.  Population  esti- 
mates vary  widely.  The  figure  derived  from  the 
1910  enumeration  of  households  is  12,742,360, 
but  this  does  not  include  children  under  six  years 
of  age;  including  such  children,  the  estimate  is 
13,104,000.  Estimated  population  of  Heilung- 
kiang  (with  an  area  of  202,703  square  miles), 
1,607,000;  Kirin  (105,019  square  miles),  5,501,- 
000;  Shengking  (54,761  square  miles),  5,996,- 
000.  The  Manchu  population  has  practically 
disappeared,  and  the  country  has  been  colonized 
from  China  proper.  A  considerable  Chinese  im- 
migration continues,  attracted  by  the  excep- 
tionally fertile  soil  and  the  very  profiteble  soya 

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MABTIN    , 


bean  culture.  Among  the  principal  towns  are: 
Mukden,  the  administrative  headquarters  and 
also  the  capital  of  Shengking,  with  an  estimated 
population  of  158,000;  Kirin,  capital  of  Kirin 
province,  whose  population  has  been  estimated 
as  high  as  100,000;  Tsitsihar,  capital  of  Heilung- 
kiang,  with  perhaps  60,000  inhabitants;  Antung, 
160,000;  Kwangchengtze  (Changchun),  about 
80,000;  Harbin,  68,000;  Newchwang  (Yingtze), 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Liao  River,  about  75,000; 
Newchwang  City,  30  miles  up  the  Liao,  about 
50,000;  Liaoyand,  40,000;  Tiehling,  28,500; 
Fenghwangcheng,  25,000;  Sinminfu,  20,000; 
Fakumen,  19,500. 

Important  products  are  the  soya  bean,  millet, 
corn,  Kafir  corn,  wheat,  and  tobacco.  There  are 
valuable  mineral  deposits,  and  coal  and  iron  are 
worked.  Imports  and  exports  through  the  three 
chief  ports  of  Dairen,  Newchwang,  and  Antung 
were  valued  at  £5,947,337  and  £6,477,460,  respec- 
tively, in  1912;  in  1913,  £6,477,460  and  £6,752,- 
049.  Both  Russian  and  Japanese  influence  is 
exerted  to  develop  the  industrial  and  commer- 
cial interests  of  the  country. 

The  total  length  of  railway  at  the  beginning 
of  1912  has  been  reported  at  2182  miles.  In  the 
southern  part  of  Shengking  is  the  Japanese 
leasehold  of  Kwantung  (q.v.),  containing  Ryojun 
(Port  Arthur)  and  Dalny.  From  Kwantung  the 
Japanese  sphere  of  influence  extends  northward 
to  Kwangchengtze;  southward  to  this  point  the 
Russian  sphere  of  influence  extends,  and  at 
Kwangchengtze  the  Russian  railway  running 
south  from  Harbin  connects  with  the  Japanese 
railway  running  north  from  Ryojun,  Dairen, 
and  Mukden.  Mukden  is  connected  with  China 
proper  by  a  branch  of  the  Chinese  Imperial  Rail- 
ways, and  with  Antung  by  a  Japanese  line,  which 
connects  with  the  Korean  railways.  The  Rus- 
sian line  to  Vladivostok  traverses  Heilunsrkiang 
and  Kirin  provinces,  passing  through  Harbin. 

MAKATT,  James  Irving.  American  scholar 
and  educator,  died  Feb.  14,  1916.  He  was  born 
in  Millersburg,  Ohio,  in  1845.  He  served  as  a 
private  in  the  Civil  War,  and  in  1869  graduated 
from  Grinnell  College.  From  1874-76  he  was 
professor  of  Greek  at  Denison  University.  After 
taking  postgraduate  studies  in  Germany  he  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nebraska 
in  1884,  holding  this  post  until  1899,  when  he 
was  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Athens. 
From  1893  until  his  death  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  literature  and  history  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity. He  was  a  member  of  many  learned  socie- 
ties, and  was  the  author  of  The  Mycencean  Age 
(with  Dr.  Tsountas,  1897)  and  JEgean  Days 
(1913).  He  also  edited  several  Greek  texts,  and 
contributed  to  reviews  and  magazines. 

MANITOBA.  One  of  the  Northwest  Prov- 
inces of  Canada.  Area,  251,832  square  miles; 
population  (1911),  461,630.  This  area  includes 
that  portion  of  the  Northwest  Territories  an- 
nexed to  Manitoba  in  1912.  Previously  the  area 
of  the  Province  was  73,732  square  miles,  with  a 
population  (1911)  of  455,614.  The  Indian  pop- 
ulation in  1915  was  about  10,800,  or  somewhat 
more  than  one-tenth  that  of  the  Dominion.  The 
capital  is  Winnipeg,  with  (1911)  136,035  in- 
habitants. The  Province  is  administered  by  a 
Lieutenant-Governor,  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dominion,  and  acting  through  a 
responsible  council.  The  legislative  assembly 
consists  of  one  house  of  41  members  elected  for 
four   years.     The   Lieutenant-Governor    in    1915 


was  Sir  Douglas  Colin  Cameron,  appointed  Aug. 
1,  1911.  The  Premier  in  1915  was  T.  C.  Norris, 
who  was  also  commissioner  of  railways  and 
commissioner  of  provincial  lands.  See  also 
Canada. 

Manitoba  Cobbuption  Case.  Premier  Sir  R. 
P.  Roblin  and  other  Conservative  officials  of  the 
Manitoba  Provincial  government  resigned  on 
May  12th  after  charges  of  corruption  had  been 
brought  against  them.  T.  C.  Norris,  leader  of 
the  Liberal  Opposition,  immediately  began  the 
work  of  organizing  a  new  government.  Late  in 
June  in  the  investigation  proceedings  on  the 
charge  of  corruption  in  office,  the  names  of  Rob- 
ert Rogers,  Canadian  minister  of  public  works, 
and  Sir  William  Mackenzie,  head  of  the  Cana- 
dian Northern  Railway,  were  implicated  in  the 
case.  It  was  charged  that  the  Roblin  govern- 
ment had  been  aware  of  overpayments  to  the 
contractors  engaged  in  constructing  the  new  Par- 
liament buildings  in  Winnipeg.  In  the  elections 
in  August  the  Conservative  Party,  which  had 
been  in  power  for  15  years,  was  defeated  de- 
cisively, and  the  Liberals  under  T.  C.  Norris 
were  returned  victorious.  The  Royal  Commis- 
sion, composed  of  three  Canadian  judges,  sat  in 
August  to  determine  the  guilt  or  innocence  of 
the  Roblin  government.  At  the  close  of  the  pre- 
liminary hearing  on  October  8th,  Sir  Rodman 
Roblin  and  three  other  cabinet  ministers  were 
committed  for  trial  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy 
to  defraud  the  government  in  connection  with 
the  erection  of  the  new  Parliament  buildings  at 
Winnipeg. 

MANNEY,  Henbt  Neuman.  American  rear 
admiral  retired,  died  Oct.  25,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  La  Porte,  Ind.,  in  1844,  and  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1866.  He 
had  previously  served  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
made  master  in  1869,  lieutenant-commander  in 
1886,  commander  in  1895,  captain  in  1901,  and 
rear  admiral  in  1906.  In  the  latter  year  he 
retired.  He  commanded  many  ships  and  served 
in  many  important  capacities.  He  was  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  best  navigators  in  the  coun- 
try. One  of  the  best  known  of  his  performances 
was  the  taking  of  the  battleship  Massachusetts 
through  Hell  Gate  in  the  East  River,  New  York. 
In  piloting  the  warship  through  this  dangerous 
passage,  he  proved  its  capacity  for  the  passage 
of  the  largest  battleships.  Admiral  Manney 
introduced  wireless  telegraphy  into  the  navy. 
When  he  retired  in  1909  he  was  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Equipment.  In  1906  he  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  International  Conference  on  Wire- 
less Telegraphy  in  Berlin. 

MANtTFACTITBES.  See  United  States  and 
other  countries,  under  section  entitled  Manufac- 
tures. 

MABIKE  DISASTERS.  See  Safety  at 
Sea  ;  Shipbuilding  ;  Shipping  ;  and  Wab  of  the 
Nations. 

MABITIME  PBOVTKCES.  The  Canadian 
provinces  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island.  See  the  articles  under 
these  titles;  see  also  Canada. 

MABKETS.    See  Horticultube. 

MABKET  SYSTEMS.  See  Agricultural 
Legislation. 

MABS.    See  Astronomy. 

MABTIK,  James  Loren.  American  jurist, 
died  Jan.  14,  1916.  He  was  born  at  Landgrove, 
Vt.,  in  1846,  and  graduated  from  Marlow  Acad- 
emy in   1867.    He  studied  law  at  the  Albany 


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MABTIN 


393 


MABYLAND 


Law  School,  taking  his  degree  in  1869;  in  the 
same  year  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  began 
practice  at  Londonderry,  and  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Brattleboro.  He  was  State  attorney 
from  1874-76  and  from  1874-82  was  a  member 
of  the  State  House  of  Representatives.  From 
1878--82  he  was  speaker  of  the  House.  He  was 
commissioner  of  State  taxes  at  various  times 
from  1888  to  1894,  and  in  1898.  In  1906  he  was 
appointed  United  States  attorney  for  Vermont, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  United 
States  district  judRe  for  the  district  of  Vermont. 

MABTINIQ UE.  A  French  colony ;  an  island 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Area,  987  square  kilo- 
meters (381  square  miles)  ;  population  (1911), 
185,385.  Fort-de- France,  the  capital,  has  about 
27,000  inhabitants.  Imports  in  1912  were  valued 
at  21,520,000  francs  (from  France,  11,510,000) ; 
exports,  30,523,000   (to  France,  28,574,000). 

MABYIiAND.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
1,351,941.  The  population  in  1910  was  1,295,- 
346. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Aer§ag4 

Corn 1915  710,000 

1914  668.000 

Wbe»t    1915  688,000 

1914  612,000 

Oats    1915  45,000 

1914  48,000 

Bye     1915  24,000 

1914  25,000 

Barley    1915  5,000 

1914  5.000 

Potatoes     1915  44,000 

1914  44,000 

Hay    1915  890,000 

1914  890.000 

Tobacco     1915  22,000  b 

1914  22,000 
Sweet 

Potetoes     ..1915  8.000 

1914  8,000 

a  Tons,     b  Pounds. 


Prod,  Bu. 

24,860.000 

24,581,000 

10,272.000 

18,158,000 

1,580,000 

1,161.000 

896,000 

425.000 

170,000 

165,000 

4.268,000 

8,482,000 

a  468.000 

448.000 

16,280,000 

17,600,000 

1.040,000 
1.000,000 


ToZttS 

116,158,000 

16,681,000 

10,786,000 

18,947.000 

760,000 

604,000 

848,000 

866,000 

119,000 

109,000 

2,646,000 

2.069.000 

7.682,000 

6,864,000 

1,884,000 

1,408,000 

728.000 
700,000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  169,000  and 
167,000  valued  at  $17,745,000  and  $18,871,000, 
mules  numbered  25,000  and  25,000  valued  at  $3,- 
025,000  and  $3,450,000,  milch  cows  numbered 
181,000  and  177,000  valued  at  $9,412,000  and 
$9,558,000,  other  cattle  numbered  125,000  and 
121,000  valued  at  $3,600,000  and  $3,570,000, 
sheep  numbered  223,000  and  223,000  valued  at 
$1,204,000  and  $1^60,000,  swine  numbered  359,- 
000  and  349,000  valued  at  $3,052,000  and  $3,- 
385,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  755,000  and  749,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  coal  mines  of  the 
State  in  1914  produced  4,133,547  short  tons, 
valued  at  $5,234,796,  as  compared  with  4,779,839, 
valued  at  $5,927,046  in  1913.  The  annual  pro- 
duction of  coal  in  the  State  has  been  very  con- 
stant for  the  last  19  years.  There  were,  during 
the  year,  18  fatal  accidents.  The  chromite  pro- 
duced amounted  to  29,755  short  tons,  from  which 
were  derived  products  valued  at  $1,846,500.  The 
total  value  of  mineral  products  in  1914  was 
$10,587,564,  as  compared  with  $11,292,723  for 
1913. 

Transportation.    The  total  railway  mileage 


in  the  State  on  June  30,  1914,  was  1401  miles  of 
single  track.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  336 
miles,  has  the  longest  mileage  in  the  State;  the 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Washington  had 
329;  the  Western  Maryland,  272;  and  the  Balti- 
more, Chesapeake,  and  Atlantic,  88. 

Education.  The  latest  statistics  available 
for  education  in  the  State  are  for  1913.  On 
July  1st,  of  that  year,  there  were  2469  schools, 
of  which  2358  were  in  counties,  and  111  in  Bal- 
timore. The  total  number  of  pupils  was  237,- 
835.  The  average  number  in  daily  attendance 
was  155,007.  The  number  of  teachers  was  5805. 
llie  total  expenditures  for  the  public  schools  in 
the  State  during  the  year  was  $5,326,876.  Of 
this,  $3,095,095  was  expended  for  teachers'  sala- 
ries. The  total  value  of  the  school  property 
was  $10,672,069. 

Finance.  The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year 
1914,  the  latest  figures  available,  were  $12,006,- 
566.  The  disbursements  aggregated  $12,999,561. 
There  was  a  balance  in  the  treasury  on  Sept.  30, 
1914,  of  $1,840,256.  The  bonded  debt  of  the 
State  on  Sept.  30,  1914,  amounted  to  $19,685,- 
880. 

Charities  ANb  Corrections.  The  charities 
and  corrections  of  the  State  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Board  of  State  Aid  and  Charities. 
State  aid  is  given  to  a  large  number  of  reforma- 
tories, homes  and  asylums  for  children  and 
adults,  and  hospitals.  The  correctional  insti- 
tutions include:  St.  Mary's  Industrial  School 
at  Baltimore,  the  Industrial  School  for  Qirls  at 
Melvale,  House  of  Good  Shepherd,  colored,  at 
Baltimore,  Industrial  School  for  Girls  at  Loch- 
raven,  House  of  Reform  for  Colored  Boys  at 
Cheltenham,  and  Maryland  Industrial  School 
for  Girls  at  Baltimore.  There  are  in  the  State 
23  general  hospitals,  7  hospitals  for  the  insane, 
and  9  special  hospitals.  Convicts  of  the  State 
are  generally  employed  under  contract,  the  ma- 
jority being  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  boots 
and  shoes. 

Politics  and  Government.  On  November 
2nd,  Emerson  C.  Harrington,  former  State  con- 
troller, was  elected  to  succeed  Governor  Golds- 
borough.  He  defeated  O.  E.  Weller,  the  Re- 
publican candidate  by  about  3500  votes.  The 
election  changed  the  representation  of  the  Leg- 
islature to  17  Democrats  and  10  Republicans 
in  the  Senate,  and  55  Democrats  and  47  Re- 
publicans in  the  House  of  Delegates.  Four 
amendments  to  the  constitution  were  ratified. 
They  provided  for  the  referendum,  reclassifica- 
tion of  property  for  taxation  purposes,  home 
rule  for  Baltimore  City  and  the  counties  in 
matters  of  purely  local  legislation,  and  parole 
in  criminal  cases.  On  May  4th,  Mayor  James 
H.  Preston,  Democrat,  was  elected  mayor  of 
Baltimore  by  a  large  majority,  defeating  Charles 
Heintzeman. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Emerson  C. 
Harrington,  Dem.;  Secretary  of  State,  R.  P. 
Graham,  Rep.;  Auditor,  J.  Enos  Ray,  Dem.; 
Comptroller,  Hugh  A.  McMullen,  Dem.;  Treas- 
urer, Murray  Vandiver,  Dem.;  Adjutant-General, 
C.  F.  Macklin,  Rep.j  Attorney-General,  Albert  C. 
Ritchie,  Dem.;  Superintendent  of  Education,  M. 
B.  Stephens,  Dem.;  Commissioner  of  Insurance, 
W.  Mason  Shehan,  Dem. 

Judiciary.  Court  of  Appeals:  Chief  Judge, 
Andrew  H.  Boyd;  Associate  Judges,  N.  Charles 
Burke,  William  H.  Thomas,  John  R.  Pattison, 
Hammond  Urner,  John  P.  Briscoe,  Henry  Stock- 


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KABYLANB  304 

bridge,  and  Albert  Constable;    Clerk,  Caleb  C. 
Magruder. 

State  Legislatubb: 


KASSAGHUSSTTS 


Democrats     . . 
RepabUoanc    . 

.     17 
.      10 

66 
47 

Joint  BaUot 
79 
67 

DemoeraUe 

majority. 

7 

8 

16 

KABYIiAND,  Univkbsitt  or.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  education  at  Annapolis  and 
Baltimore,  founded  in  1784.  There  were  en- 
rolled in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of 
1916,  1300  students.  The  instructors  num- 
bered 211.  There  were  no  noteworthy  changes 
in  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  notable 
benefactions  were  receiyed.  The  university  is 
maintained  chiefly  by  legisUtiye  appropriations. 
The  productive  funds  amount  to  about  $160,- 
000,  and  the  annual  income  to  about  $250,000. 
In  the  library  are  about  25,000  volumes.  The 
president  is  Thomas  Fell,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

M  ASaA  CJBC  USBTTS.  Population.  Accord- 
ing to  the  1915  State  census,  the  population  was 
3,693,310.  The  population  in  1910  was  3,366,- 
416. 

AoBicuLTUBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 

Aersmgs  Prod.  Bu,          Ydlue 

Com    1916  48,000  3.804,000  f  1.848.000 

1914  48.000  3,256.000       1,918.000 

Oats     1916  0,000  824.000          106.000 

1914  9,000  888,000           186.000 

Bye 1916  8.000  80,000            61,000 

1914  8.000  67.000             68,000 

Potatoes    ....1916  26.000  8,120,000       2,988,000 

1914  27.000  4,186.000       2.971,000 

Hay     1916  470.000  a  706,000  16,610.000 

1914  480.000  684,000  18,681,000 

Tobaeeo     ...1915  7,800  6  8.080,000       1,164.000 

1914  6,600  11,660,000       2,044,000 
a  Tons,     b  Pounds. 

LiVB  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  63,000  and 
64,000  valued  at  $9,198,000  and  $9,020,000,  milch 
cows  numbered  155,000  and  157,000  valued  at 
$10,540,000  and  $10,362,000,  other  cattle  num- 
bered 85,000  and  83,000  valued  at  $2,159,000 
and  $2,083,000,  sheep  numbered  28,000  and  30,- 
000,  valued  at  $154,000  and  $168,000,  swine 
numbered  112,000  and  108,000  valued  at  $1,478,- 
000  and  $1,674,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  131,000  and  128,000  pounds 
respectively. 

MINERAL  Production.  As  in  most  of  the  New 
England  States,  stone  is  the  leading  mineral 
product.  The  value  of  this  in  1914  was  $3,438,- 
556,  more  than  half  of  which  was  attributed  to 
granite.  The  value  of  clay  products  in  that 
year  was  $1,681,557.  In  that  year  the  total 
value  of  all  mineral  products  amounted  to  $6,- 
292,833,  as  compared  with  $7,044,529  in  1913. 

Transportation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  in  1914  was  4937,  of  which  2125  was 
main  track  line.  The  principal  roads  and  their 
mileage  are:  the  Boston  and  Albany,  961;  Bos- 
ton and  Maine,  1967;  and  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford,  1833.  For  the  history  of 
the  litigation  in  connection  with  this  road  dur- 
ing 1915,  see  Railways.  There  was  practically 
no  railway  construction  in  1915. 


Eduoation.  The  latest  statistics  available  for 
educaticm  in  the  State  are  for  Sept.  1,  1913. 
The  total  number  of  children  in  the  State  on 
that  date  between  the  ages  of  5  and  15  was 
602,591.  The  average  daily  attendance  in  all 
schools  was  486,869.  The  teachers  numbered  15,- 
604  women  and  1863  men.  The  L^islature  of 
1915  passed  a  number  of  laws  relating  to  educa- 
tion. Among  these  was  established  &e  Depart- 
ment of  University  Extension,  and  provision  was 
made  for  correspondence  courses  of  education. 

FINAJVCE.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
treasurer  and  receiver-general  for  the  year 
ending  Dec.  1,  1914,  the  net  receipts  for  the  year 
amounted  to  $18,063,298,  and  net  payments  to 
$18,414,505,  leaving  an  excess  of  payments  over 
receipts  of  $351,207.  There  was  a  balance  on 
Dec.  1,  1914,  of  $2,862,884.  The  toUl  bonded 
indebtedness  on  Dec.  1,  1914,  less  sinking  funds, 
was  $84,701,602. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include:  the  State 
Infirmary  at  Tewksbury,  the  State  Farm  at 
Bridgewater,  the  Norfolk  State  Hospital,  the 
Lyman  School  for  Boys  at  Westborough,  the 
Industrial  School  for  B^s  at  Shirley,  the  State 
Industrial  School  for  Girls  at  Lancaster,  the 
Massachusetts  Hospital  School  at  Canton,  the 
North  Reading  State  Sanatorium,  the  Rutland 
State  Sanatorium,  the  Lakeville  State  Sana- 
torium, and  the  Westfield  State  Sanatorium. 
The  inmates  receiving  care  nimiber  about  20,000 
each  year,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  about 
$1,500,000.  The  prisons,  which  include  the 
State  Prison  in  Boston,  the  Massachusetts  Re- 
formatory at  Concord,  Reformatory  for  Women 
at  Sherbom,  Prison  Camp  and  Hospital  at  Rut- 
land, State  Farm  at  Bridgewater,  are  under  the 
control  of  a  Board  of  Prison  Commissioners. 

Politics  and  Government.  David  I.  Walsh, 
Democrat,  was  inaugurated  as  Governor  for  a 
second  term  on  January  7th.  In  his  inaugural 
address  he  laid  special  stress  on  the  problem  of 
employment,  and  urged  a  $50,000  appropriation 
for  land  reformation  for  the  unemployed.  He 
also  investigated  the  telegraph  and  telephone 
service,  and  urged  an  amendment  for  the  woman 
suffrage,  initiative  and  referendum. 

On  February  4th,  a  hearing  was  held  before 
the  committee  on  legal  affairs  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, at  which  graduates  and  professors  of  Har- 
vard University  and  the  representative  of  the 
Socialist  Party  advocated  the  amendment  of  the 
so-called  Red  Flag  Act,  makins  it  possible  for 
any  religious,  educational,  or  charitable  organi- 
zation to  carry  its  red  flag  in  a  parade.  The  bill 
prohibiting  the  carrying  of  such  flags  was  orig- 
inally  passed  to  prevent  any  repetition  of  the 
strike  scenes  in  Lawrence. 

A  measure  providinff  for  the  submission  of  a 
woman  suffrage  amen£nent  to  the  Constitution 
passed  both  houses  of  the  Legislature  in  Feb- 
ruary. It  had  already  been  passed  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  1914. 

On  November  2nd,  Samuel  W.  McCall,  Repub- 
lican, was  elected  Governor  by  a  plurality  of 
6376.  With  one  exception  the  vote  was  the 
largest  ever  polled  *bv  a  candidate  for  Governor 
in  the  State.  He  defeated  Governor  David  I. 
Walsh,  Democrat,  and  Nelson  B.  Clark,  Progres- 
sive. Calvin  Coolidge,  Republican,  was  elected 
Lieutenant-Governor.  At  the  same  election,  40 
Senators  and  200  members  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives were  also  elected.    The  Prohibition 


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395 


MEDICAL  PROGBESS 


party  in  this  election  polled  more  than  3  per 
cent  of  the  total  vote  for  €U>yernor,  and  thus 
became  a  recognized  political  organization  in  the 
State.  The  Progressives  failed  to  poll  3  per 
cent  of  the  total  vote,  and  thus  are  placed  in 
the  unofficial  list  with  the  Socialist  and  Socialist- 
Labor  parties.  The  woman  suffrage  amendment, 
voted  on  at  this  election,  was  defeated  by  133,- 
087  votes.  The  total  vote  was— -against,  236,- 
702;  for,  102,615.  In  addition  to  the  suffrage 
amendment,  a  vote  was  taken  upon  the  proposi- 
tion to  give  the  Legislature  authority  to  impose 
a  tax  on  incomes  and  to  take  over  land  in  coun- 
try districts  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
homesteads  for  those  who  may  wish  to  escape 
from  the  more  congested  quarters  of  the  city. 
The  two  latter  amendments  were  carried  by  votes 
of  nearly  3  to  1. 

By  a  decree  issued  on  July  14th,  by  the  State 
Minimum  Wage  Commission,  women  employees 
of  laundries  must  be  paid  not  less  than  $8  a 
week  after  Sept.  1,  1915.  A  minimum  weekly 
wage  of  $8.50  to  women  over  18  years  of  age  in 
department  and  other  retail  stores  was  recom- 
mended in  a  rep<Nrt  of  the  special  board.  See 
Minimum   Wage. 

State  Oitigkbb.  The  State  officers  elected  in 
1915  are:  Governor,  Samuel  W.  McGall,  Re- 
publican; Lieutenant-Qovernor,  Calvin  Coolidge, 
Republican;  Secretary  of  State,  Albert  P.  Lang- 
try,  Republican;  Treasurer,  Charles  L.  Bunrill, 
Republican;  Auditor,  Alomso  B.  Cook,  Republi- 
can; Adjutant-General,  Charles  H.  Cole,  Demo- 
crat; Attorney-General,  Henry  C.  Atwill,  Re- 
publican; Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
Wilfrid  Wheeler,  Democrat;  Commissioner  of 
Insurance,  Frank  H.  Hardison,  Democrat;  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  David  Sneddon,  Demo- 
crat. 

JUDiciABT.  Chief  Justice,  A.  P.  Ruffg.  Jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court  were:  William  K. 
Liptry,  Henry  Keen  Brady,  Charles  Ambrose  De 
Ck>urcy,  John  Crawford  Crosby,  Edward  Peter 
Pierce,  John  Bernard  Carroll. 

State  Legislatube: 

Senate       How    Joint  BdUot* 
Republicans    84  166  199 


DemoeratB 
SooiaUsU 


Republican  majority     28 
'  One  vacancy. 


78 

1 


91 


79 

1 


119 


MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF 
TECHNOLOQY.  An  institution  for  scientific 
education,  founded  in  Boston  in  1861.  The 
total  enrollment  in  all  departments  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1915  was  1900.  The  faculty  numbered 
125,  and  in  addition  there  were  137  instructors 
and  assistants.  Noteworthy  benefactions  re- 
ceived during  the  year  1915  include  $600,000 
from  an  anonymous  giver;  $100,000  from  the 
estate  of  E.  S.  Draper;  and  $76,000  from  the 
alumni.  Construction  of  new  buildings  for  the 
institute  at  Cambridge  progressed  during  the 
year.  The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  amounted  to  $3,332,098,  and  the  toUl 
income  to  $721,703.  The  library  contained 
about  100,000  volimies. 

MASTEBS,  Edgab  Lee.  See  Litebatubb, 
English  and  Amebican,  Poetry, 

MAUBITANIA.  A  French  West  African 
civil  territory,  governed  from  Saint-Louis  (Sene- 


gal) by  a  commission  under  the  direction  of  the 
Governor-General  of  French  West  Africa.  The 
chief  towns  are  Port-Etienne,  Boutilimit,  Aleg, 
Moudjeria,  Kaedi,  Atar,  Selibaby,  Tidjikdja,  etc. 
Excepting  a  few  groups  rendered  semi-sedentary 
by  the  necessity  of  tending  the  palm  plantations, 
the  Moors,  who  constitute  the  larger  part  of  the 
population,  are  nomads.  They  live  m  encamp- 
ments, driving  their  flocks  from  pasture  to 
pasture  as  the  water  supply  fails.  Transporta- 
tion is  by  caravan.  The  negroes  cultivate  mil- 
let, barley,  etc.,  gather  gums  for  export,  and 
catch  and  dry  fish.  The  nomads  raise  camels, 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  Salt  exists  in 
great  abundance.    See  French  West  Africa. 

MAX7SITIUB.  An  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  550  miles  east  of  Madagascar;  a  British 
crown  colony.  Area  720  square  miles.  At  the 
1911  census,  the  total  population  was  368,510; 
population  inclusive  of  military,  370,393  (222,- 
361  Indo-Mauritians,  35,526  other  Indians,  3662 
Chinese,  108,844  persons  of  European,  African, 
or  mixed  blood).  The  natives  of  European  race 
are  in  large  part  French  Creoles.  Port  Louis, 
the  capital,  had  (1911)  with  suburbs,  50,060 
inhabitants;  Curepipe,  17,173;  Mah^bourg,  4068. 
The  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  is  the  staple  in- 
dustry. Export  of  sugar  (1913)  187,771,850 
kilos;  estimated  value,  30,700,697  rupees;  mm, 
22,330  rupees;  vanilla,  35,330  rupees;  aloe  fibre, 
863,568  rupees;  coconut  oil,  63,474  rupees;  mo- 
lasses, 61,300  rupees.  Total  imports  and  ex- 
ports (1913),  including  shipping  charges  on 
home  products,  37,003,209  rupees  and  33,616,206 
rupees  respectively.  Revenue  1912-13,  11,036,- 
641  rupees;  expenditure,  10,235,605  rupees;  cus- 
toms revenue^  4,024,766  rupees.  Tonnage  en- 
tered and  cleared  (1913),  833,027.  External 
debt,  June  30,  1913,  £1,285,390. 

MATO  FOUNDATION  FOB  MEDICAL 
EDUCATION  AND  KBSBABCH.    See  Hob- 

PITALB. 

MAYOTTE  AND  THE  OOMOBO  ISLANDS. 
A  group  of  islands  belonging  to  France,  ad- 
ministered under  the  Government  of  Madagas- 
car. Area,  2168  square  kilometers  (837  square 
miles) ;  population,  as  estimated  Jan.  1,  1914, 
97,900,  of  whom  indif^nes  96,619,  Asiatics  and 
Africans  754,  and  whites  527.  Imports  and  ex- 
ports 1912,  1,956,657  and  5,108,510  francs  respec- 
tively (1,133,429  and  2,700,652  francs  in  1909). 

MEAT  PBODUCTION.  See  Stock  Raising 
AND  Meat  Production. 

MEDICAL  PBOOBESS.  The  trend  of 
medical  progress  is  toward  prevention  of  dis- 
ease and  securing  longevity.  The  control  of 
epidemics  becomes  of  great  importance,  with  the 
rapidly  increasing  economic  value  of  life  and 
time  (see  Bactebioloot;  Diphtheria;  Hook- 
worm Disease;  Occupational  Diseases;  Pel- 
lagra; Typhoid  Fever;  Typhus  Fever;  Small- 
pox; Serum  Therapy;  Vaccine  Therapy). 
Equatorial  countries  furnish  us  with  diseases 
which  often  are  carried  into  the  temperate  zones, 
and  must  be  controlled  (see  Beriberi;  Cholera; 
Insects,  Propagation  or  Disease  by;  Leprosy; 
Malaria;  Oroya  Fever ;  Plague;  Sleeping 
Sickness;  Tropical  Medicine).  Cancer,  the 
scourge  which  grows  in  fatality,  and  Tubercu- 
losis, which  is  diminishing  in  its  power  to 
cause  deaths,  had  attenticm  in  1915  (see  Can- 
cer; BoBNTOBN  Rays;  Tubbboulosis;  Trudeau, 
Edward  Livinoston).  Among  the  more  un- 
usual diseases  observed  or  specially  studied  are 


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3Dfi 


MBTALLimaY 


FOFBTH    OF    Jl'LY    I XJ  TRIES     (TETAXTS),    KoCKY 

Mountain  Spotted  Fe\'Eb,  and  Rabies.  Some 
new    remedies    were    the    subject    of    research 

(CFPHAfiLINE;      COAOULEN;      HISTAMINE;      LABO- 

SAN;  Leucocyte  Extract;  Luetin;  Thorium; 
Theocin;  Salvarsan  and  Neosalvarsan).  The 
special  anesthesia  in  childbirth,  so  vaunted  by 
the  laity,  is  discussed  under  Twilight  Sleep. 
The  questionable  Autolysin  is  discussed  also 
under  Cancer.  The  dangers  of  Alcohol  are 
again  set  forth.  Other  medical  items  and  annual 
statistics  are  found  under  their  proper  captions. 

MEDICAL  SCHOOLS.  See  Universities 
and  Colleges. 

MEBCIEBy  Cardinal.  See  Belqium,  HiM- 
tory,  The  Treatment  of  Cardinal  Mercier. 

MEBCT7BY.     See  Quicksilver. 

MEBCUBT  BICHLOBIDE.    See  Malaria. 

MEBBILL,  Stuart.  American  poet,  died 
Dec.  3,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1863  at  Hemp- 
stead, L.  I.  At  an  early  age  he  went  to  France, 
where  he  studied  at  the  Lyc^  Michelet  and  the 
Lvc4e  Condorcet.  He  obtained  such  a  mastery 
of  French  that  he  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
writer  of  books  in  that  language.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  studied  law  at  Colum- 
bia University  from  1886-89,  but  afterwards 
returned  to  France,  which  was  his  home  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  He  became  one  of  the 
most  successful  poets  of  the  Symbolist  School. 
The  volume  which  made  him  conspicuous  as  a 
writer  was  Let  gammes  (1887).  Then  came 
Lea  faates  (1895)  and  Les  qitatre  aaiaons 
(1900).  His  PasteU  en  pro8e  appeared  in  1895. 
He  contributed  to  various  periodicals,  including: 
VErmitage,  La  plumes  and  Le  meroure  de 
France.   

MESOTHOBIUM.  See  Chemistry,  Indus- 
trial, Mesothorium, 

mBTALLUBGY.  Progress  in  metallurgy 
during  1915,  as  in  other  fields  of  scientific  and 
technical  activity,  was  influenced  by  war  condi- 
tions. Naturally  there  was  great  demand  for 
gold,  which  led  to  increased  efforts  to  mine  and 
refine  this  rare  metal.  There  was  also  evident 
need  of  copper,  zinc,  and  lead  by  the  belligerent 
countries,  shared  of  course  by  the  countries  sup- 
plying them  with  munitions,  and  this  naturally 
stimulated  the  production  and  refining  of  these 
metals  also.  In  the  manufacture  of  various 
metals  and  alloys  the  closing  down  of  sources 
of  supply  led  to  attempts  to  produce  metals 
from  ores  that  previously  had  not  been  worked, 
or  had  not  been  considered  profitable,  and 
this  was  especially  true  of  metals  used  for 
alloys.  In  iron  and  steel  there  was  a  marked 
increase  in  the  use  of  the  electric  furnace,  and 
in  refining  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc,  the 
increased  use  of  the  flotation  process  was  one  of 
the  most  important  features  of  the  year.  The  fol- 
lowing paragraphs,  based  largely  on  the  author- 
itative reviews  in  the  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,  Iron  Age,  and  Metallurgical  and  Chem- 
ical Engineering,  indicate  the  general  trend  of 
metallurgical  advances  during  the  year. 

Gold  and  Silver.  The  development  of  the 
flotation  process  as  a  means  of  concentrating 
gold-bearing  ores,  as  well  as  for  lead,  zinc,  and 
copper,  was  an  interesting  feature  of  the  year. 
It  was  uncertain  how  far  this  new  process  would 
encroach  upon  amalgamation  and  cyanidation, 
but  mining  engineers  were  busily  engaged  in 
further  experiments  in  mill  and  laboratory. 
This  method  consiata  eaaentially  of  pulverizing 


the  ore  and  mixing  it  with  a  fat  or  oil  together 
with  an  acid  or  a  soluble  neutral  or  acid  salt, 
BO  that  the  free  metal  or  metallic  portion  of  the 
ore  unites  with  the  oil  and  the  metal  may  be 
aeparated  from  the  quartz  or  other  rock  by 
washing.  This  flotation  process  was  patented 
as  long  ago  as  1886  by  Mrs.  Carrie  J.  Everaon, 
of  Denver,  Colo. 

The  flotation  process  made  use  of  pine  oil, 
which  had  become  a  source  of  embarrassment  to 
wood  distillers,  as  there  was  little  market  for 
it.  This  new  development  employed  also  rosin, 
rosin  oil,  pine  tar,  pine  tar  oil,  wood  creosote, 
and  even  crude  pyroligneous  acid,  so  that  in- 
dustries supplying  these  materials  were  corre- 
spondingly beneflted,  so  much  ao  in  fact  that 
Cheaper  oils,  notably  those  obtained  from  coal 
tar  and  fractions  from  the  distillation  of  coal, 
were  being  used.  For  this  new  process  a  method 
was  developed,  also,  by  which  oil  was  used  and 
air  bubbles  employed  to  lift  the  minute  particles 
of  the  ore. 

Some  metallurgists  reported  that  it  was  pos- 
sible to  float  certain  gold  and  silver  ores  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  displace  or  supplement  cyanida- 
tion, and  the  concentrates  thus  obtained  in  many 
cases  could  be  sent  direct  to  the  smelters.  Un- 
fortimately  it  was  not  considered  possible  to  float 
gold  and  silver  ores  in  the  cyaniaation  solution, 
|i>ut  it  was  believed  that  it  would  be  possible  to 
concentrate  ores  containing  an  excess  of  cyanide, 
especially  if  this  treatment  were  carried  on  at 
an  isolated  place,  so  as  to  obtain  an  enriched 
product  and  diminished  freight  charges.  Flota- 
tion was  extensively  used  in  the  mines  where 
silver  was  produced  in  the  form  of  a  sulphide, 
particularly  when  the  ores  were  rather  low  grade, 
and  in  this  connection  it  was  thought  that  a 
process  of  flotation  concentration  was  dieaper 
and  more  easily  applied  than  the  cyanide  proc- 
ess, although  of  course  fine  grinding  was  a  neces- 
sity ;  but  in  many  other  processes  grinding  prob- 
lems had  to  be  considered  and  were  essentially 
solved. 

In  gold  milling  the  familiar  stamp  mill  was 
being  challenged  by  the  rolls  aa  used  in  copper 
milling  and  by  the  ball  mill,  both  of  these  being 
said  to  be  more  economical  aa  rmrda  firat  cost 
and  operation.  In  cyanidation  there  waa  little 
new  development  of  the  proceaa.  The  continuoua 
counter  decantation  was  further  developed  and 
it  was  believed  that  precipitation  methods  were 
perhaps  the  most  promising  in  this  field.  One 
of  the  processes  that  was  making  headway  dur- 
ing the  year  for  treating  gold  was  that  of 
aluminum  precipitation  from  cyanide  solutions. 
IXAD.  In  23  American  plants,  smelting  silver 
lead  ores,  with  124  blast  furnaces,  there  waa 
but  little  change  in  practice  and  few  metallurgi- 
cal developments.  One  of  the  features  of  the 
year  was  the  use  of  mechanical  rabbling  instead 
of  the  hard,  unsanitary  hand  labor  in  the  open 
hearth  furnaces  in  the  lead  industry  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  This  method  was  devised  by 
W.  E.  Newman.  By  it  an  8-foot  hearth — an  in- 
crease over  the  ordinary  ore  hearth  of  4  to  5 
feet  in  length — ^tended  by  six  men  in  24  hours, 
and  treating  about  7000  poiuids  of  galena  con- 
centrates, could  do  two  and  one-half  times  as 
much  work  as  waa  done  by  the  old  method. 
While  the  aanie  number  of  men  were  required, 
the  effort  was  much  lighter  and  the  rate  of 
production  the  same  in  winter  as  in  summer. 
Copper.    Metallurgical  advances  in  the  treat- 


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ment  of  copper  during  1915  were  restricted  in 
the  main  to  the  few  great  companies  whose  en- 
gineering and  metallurgical  staffs  were  so  tlior- 
oughly  organized  that  they  were  able  to  develop 
policies  independent  of  commercial  conditions. 
On  all  sides  the  plants  were  working  so  as  to 
secure  a  maximum  production,  and  metallurgists 
were  concerned  rather  with  routine  work  for 
this  end  than  with  experimentation.  Where 
flotation  was  used  many  developments  were  being 
reported  during  the  year.  It  was  found  possible 
in  many  cases  to  avoid  the  use  of  acid  and  to 
substitute  .  cheap  oils  for  expensive  chemicals 
as  froth-forming  mediums.  It  was  even  pro- 
posed to  treat  tailings  running  as  low  as  1  per 
cent  copper,  and  25  per  cent  concentrates  were 
being  made  from  2  per  cent  ore.  The  important 
advances  were  made  only  with  the  sulphite 
minerals  where  fine  grinding  roust  be  done,  but 
plans  were  being  proposed  and  tried  for  treat- 
mg  oxidized  minerals  so  that  flotation  methods 
could  be  applied  to  them. 

A  furnace  for  the  use  of  coal  dust  firing  and 
side  charging  was  constructed  at  Anaconda  and 
operated  with  increased  efficiency,  and  a  num- 
ber of  furnaces  were  being  arranged  for  oil  fuel, 
the  use  of  the  latter  of  course  depending  on  rela- 
tive costs.  In  reverberatory  furnaces  marked 
developments  were  being  experienced,  while  at 
Anaconda  a  converter  was  being  used  for  re- 
treating converted  slag  so  as  to  save  a  certain 
amount  of  ore  that  otherwise  would  be  wasted. 
At  several  refineries  important  methods  in  cop- 
per refining  were  in  use.  The  slimes  at  one  large 
plant  were  treated  with  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
to  convert  the  copper  into  sulphate,  and  the 
resulting  mud  was  then  heated  to  a  temperature 
below  the  point  of  fusion  or  of  decomposition 
of  copper  sulphite,  so  that  on  leaching  with  hot 
water,  the  copper  could  be  extracted  as  a  nearly 
pure  sulphite.  Improvements  in  the  electro- 
lytic purification  cycle  were  also  worked  out, 
and  by-products  were  obtained  and  impurities 
eliminated  from  the  liquors  in  an  active. elec- 
trolytic tank. 

Zinc.  The  production  of  spelter  by  any  avail- 
able process  occupied  the  attention  of  all  inter- 
ested in  the  zinc  industry  in  the  United  States 
during  1915,  rather  than  the  development  of 
new  methods  or  even  the  making  of  improve- 
ments. So  great  was  the  denuind  for  the  metal 
that  even  important  plants  were  worked  with 
comparatively  low  efficiency  to  secure  advantage 
of  the  high  prices.  The  improvements  of  the 
year  were  concerned  merely  with  details  so  as  to 
enable  a  better  extraction  of  zinc  from  low 
grade  ore  to  be  secured  and  to  ascertain  how 
such  ores  could  be  handled  in  the  furnaces. 
Some  plants  installed  mechanical  gas  producers 
and  coal-dust  firing  was  being  tried  experimen- 
tally at  one  large  works.  In  some  furnaces  in 
the  Kansas-Oklahoma  region,  for  blend-roasting 
the  arch  of  the  Zellweger  furnace  was  being 
lowered,  and  in  other  cases  the  furnace  was 
being  doubled,  the  rabble  being  carried  on  the 
same  shaft  for  the  two  furnaces  in  order  to  save 
fuel  and  reduce  the  admission  of  unnecessary 
air.  Commercially  the  most  important  feature 
of  the  year  was  the  construction  of  the  smeltery 
at  Donora,  Pa.,  by  the  Edgar  Zinc  Company,  a 
subsidiary  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion. This  plant  was  designed  for  the  smelting 
of  100,000  tons  of  zinc  ore  annually,  and  the 
production  of  about  40,000  tons  of  spelter,  some 


9000  retorts  forming  the  distilling  equipment. 
The  new  plant  was  begun  in  June,  and  spelter 
was  first  made  on  October  20th,  4  months  and 
10  days  from  the  banning  of  construction. 
The  new  plant  comprises  6  Hegeler  roasting- 
furnaces  and  10  Hegeler  distilling-furnaces,  eadi 
of  912  retorts. 

One  of  the  metallurgical  tendencies  of  the 
year  was  the  refining  of  common  spelter  by  re- 
distillation, and  a  large  tonnage  of  the  refined 
metal  was  being  produced  in  that  way.  In  the 
United  States  the  ordinary  ore  furnace  was  used, 
whereas  in  the  Scandinavian  countries  the  elec- 
tric furnaces  were  employed. 

The  successful  electrolytic  production  of  zinc 
direct  from  ore  on  a  large  scale  was  the  most  im- 
portant event  in  the  metallurgy  of  zinc  in  1915. 
This  was  done  at  Anaconda,  Mont.,  where  the 
production  of  electric  spelter  at  the  rate  of  about 
five  tons  per  day  was  begun,  and  the  results  were 
so  favorable  that  the  erection  of  a  plant  able 
to  produce  35,000  tons  was  begun  at  Great  Falls, 
Mont.  This  process  consisted  in  concentrating 
the  zinc  ore,  preferably  by  fiotation,  and  then 
roasting  the  concentrates  to  produce  a  calcine 
containmg  from  2  to  3  per  cent  sulphur,  with- 
out allowing  the  temperature  to  exceed  1350** 
F.,  under  which  condition  the  formation  of  zinc 
ferrite  is  not  pronounced.  This  calcine  is  then 
treated  with  a  solution  containing  sulphuric 
acid  to  dissolve  the  zinc  and  the  iron.  After 
further  chemical  treatment  the  solution  goes  to 
the  electrolytic  cells  where  the  zinc  is  deposited 
on  aluminum  plates  from  which  the  deposit  is 
stripped  every  48  hours  and  sent  to  the  melting 
furnace.  Electrolytic  spelter  had  been  produced 
at  Winnington,  England,  and  during  1915  was 
also  produced  on  a  commercial  scale  by  the 
Weedon  Mining  Company,  of  Welland,  Ontario, 
while  experiments  at  Keokuk,  Iowa,  were  in  prog- 
ress by  R.  G.  Hall. 

Iron  and  Steel.  The  iron  and  steel  industry 
during  1915  followed  the  improvement  in  trade 
conditions  and  the  demand  for  material  inci- 
dental to  the  war.  (See  Iron  and  Steel.)  As 
regards  metallurgy  and  technical  developments 
there  was  but  slight  progress  to  be  recorded  for 
the  year.  The  depression  of  the  first  half  of  the 
year  did  not  inspire  research  and  experimental 
developments,  while  in  the  second  half  most 
of  the  large  American  works  were  so  actively 
engaged  that  their  metallurgists  and  technical 
men  were  not  available  for  work  not  concerned 
with  actual  production.  In  Europe  conditions 
were  obviously  affected  by  war.  Some  attention 
was  paid  in  the  United  States  to  the  design  and 
operation  of  hot  blast  stoves  so  as  to  obtain  a 
greater  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  surface 
per  stove,  and  corrugated  checker  bricks  were 
used,  the  general  tendency  being  to  reduce  the 
size  of  the  checkers  and  the  thickness  of  the 
bricks.  Various  insulating  materials  were  used 
to  cut  down  the  heat  loss  from  the  stove  to  the 
bustle  pipe,  and  more  attention  was  paid  to  the 
insulation  of  the  exterior  linings  of  the  stoves, 
the  hot  blast  mains,  and  the  bustle  pipes  them- 
selves. Forced  circulation  of  the  gas  in  the 
stoves  was  also  tried,  and  further  experiments 
with  this  system  were  expected.  For  blowing 
engines,  both  gas  and  steam  were  employed  in 
the  new  plants.  The  largest  furnace  plant  build- 
ing during  the  year  was  being  provided  with  a 
steam  blowing  engine  using  high  pressure  and 
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handling  slag  during  the  year  was  developed  to 
a  point  of  industrial  importance.  By  this  proc- 
ess, the  slag,  after  being  poured  on  a  bed,  is 
torn  into  small  pieces  by  the  ripping  of  under- 
lying chains.  These  pieces  can  be  removed  by 
grab  buckets  and  loaded  into  cars,  or  otherwise 
disposed  of,  and  the  slag  so  produced  was  ex- 
cellent for  concrete  purposes. 

Gradually  new  methods  of  steel  production 
were  replacing  older  ones,  and  especially  the  in- 
troduction of  duplexing  or  the  combination  of 
the  two  fundamental  methods,  namely  the  Bes- 
semer converter  and  the  open  hearth  furnace, 
where  the  silicon  and  most  of  the  carbon  is 
blown  out  in  the  converter  and  then  the  material 
is  transferred  to  the  open  hearth  furnace  for 
dephosphorization.  It  was  claimed  for  this  proc- 
ess that  the  rapidity  of  working  in  the  open 
hearth  furnace  was  increased,  and  a  greater 
output  secured,  so  that  the  steel  could  be  pro- 
duced more  profitably  than  in  the  straight  open 
hearth  plant,  and  with  a  reduction  of  capital 
charges. 

The  casting  of  steel  ingots  which  had  been 
under  discussion  for  a  number  of  years,  espe- 
cially in  the  production  of  railway  rails,  was 
still  receiving  attention,  and  several  processes 
designed  to  secure  an  ingot  of  better  quality 
were  being  used  at  large  plants.  One  of  these 
was  the  Gathman  process  where  the  top  of  the 
mold  was  made  thin  so  as  to  reduce  the  chilling 
action  in  the  upper  part  of  the  ingot,  and  keep 
it  hot  to  feed  the  pipe;  while  in  the  Kenney, 
the  top  of  the  ingot  mold  was  lined  with  a  dry 
sand  sleeve  set  in  the  recess  around  the  top  of 
the  mold,  with  the  result  that  the  metal  was 
thinned  down  and  insulation  provided  between 
the  steel  and  the  mold.  It  was  realized  that  by 
casting  the  ingots  with  the  big  end  up  more  uni- 
form material  could  be  secured,  but  various  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  stripping  the  ingots  pre- 
vented successful  efforts  on  a  commercial  scale 
in  this  direction. 

Cast  Ibon.  During  the  year  the  Stoughton 
process  for  melting  iron  in  cupolas  where  the 
greater  portion  oi  uie  coke  was  replaced  with  oil, 
was  introduced  commercially,  with  success.  The 
aim  was  to  secure  a  reduction  in  fuel  cost, 
especially  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  oil  was 
cheap  and  coke  high,  but  a  second  and  import- 
ant effect  was  to  secure  a  very  small  increase  in 
sulphur,  in  fact  only  about  one-fifth  of  what  was 
experienced  with  coke,  in  good  practice.  An- 
other feature  of  the  year  was  the  large  use  of 
so-called  Johnson  iron,  a  coke  iron  which  is  a 
substitute  for  and  improvement  upon  charcoal 
iron,  produced  by  the  introduction  of  oxygen. 
Experiments  were  under  way,  and  in  this  me&od 
castings  may  be  produced  directly  from  the 
blast  furnace  without  remelting,  which  are  of 
superior  quality,  both  on  account  of  the  intro- 
duction of  oxygen  and  the  absence  of  sulphur. 

Electbo-Mctallttbgt.  Electro-metallurgy  of 
both  iron  and  steel,  and  particularly  the  de- 
velopment of  the  electric  furnace,  showed  prog- 
ress in  1916.  Important  applications  were  not 
only  to  the  production  of  steel  castings  of  ordi- 
nary analysis  but  to  the  production  of  those  more 
solid  and  free  from  blow-holes  than  those  pro- 
duced by  the  baby  Bessemer  or  the  open  hearth. 
In  the  seoond  place,  there  was  an  important 
tendency  toward  the  production  of  special  alloy 
steels  of  high  grade  to  be  used  in  motor  cars, 
a^oplanes,  tools,  and  for  other  purposes  where 


certain  physical  properties  and  quality  are  es- 
sential. In  this  process  the  electric  furnace 
stood  out  on  accoimt  of  the  absolute  control  of 
temperature,  as  any  oxidized  gases  could  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  bath,  and  a  material  even  better 
than  crucible  steel  was  being  made.  In  fact 
some  authorities  seemed  to  believe  that  the  elec- 
tric furnace  would  soon  make  an  end  of  crucible 
steel. 

In  the  manufacture  of  electric  steel  the  United 
States  led  the  world  in  1915,  outstripping  Ger- 
many, which  a  year  before  had  first  rank.  There 
was  reported  an  increase  during  1915  for  the 
United  States  and  Canada  of  some  88  per  cent, 
or  from  41  furnaces  Jan.  1,  1915,  to  73  on  Decem- 
ber 31st  of  the  same  year.  At.  the  beginning  of 
the  year  there  were  only  19  Heroult  furnaces 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  on  De- 
cember 31st  there  were  43,  which  were  being 
used  not  only  for  steel  casting  but  for  tool  steel 
and  the  special  steel  industry  which  was  in- 
creasing bv  leaps  and  bounds  in  the  United 
States. 

In  Europe  the  demand  for  special  castings 
and  shell  steel  gave  a  decided  impetus  to  elec- 
tric furnace  activity,  and  in  England  there  was 
an  increase  to  46  furnaces  from  16  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year,  the  Heroult  furnace  being  the 
one  in  most  use.  Of  the  28  new  furnaces  in- 
stalled in  England,  15  were  Heroult,  10  GrOn- 
wall,  and  three  Snyder.  One  of  these  was  induc- 
tion, and  one  Rennerfelt.  In  France,  three 
Heroult  furnaces  were  built  in  1915,  and  one 
Rennerfelt,  while  in  Russia  two  Rennerfelt  fur- 
naces were  reported  as  installed.  In  Sweden  five 
additional  Rennerfelt  furnaces  were  built,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  23,  and  in  Norway  there  was  an 
increase  from  2  to  6.  In  G^many  the  produc- 
tion of  electric  steel  was  reported  as  having  in- 
creased materially  with  the  stimulation  of  the 
producing  power  of  existing  plants,  due  to  war 
needs,  and  there  were  seven  new  installations, 
bringing  the  total  up  to  53,  while  the  number  of 
electric  plants  in  Austria  remained  unchanged. 

The  electric  furnaces  in  use  during  1915  had 
a  furnace  capacity  of  over  1,000,000  horse  power, 
and  an  estimate  was  made  of  100,000  tons  per 
annum  of  electric  steel  produced  in  the  United 
States. 

Allot  Matebials.  During  the  year  much 
progress  was  noted  in  American  refineries  con- 
cerned with  the  manufacture  of  alloys  and  re- 
fining from  the  ores  of  those  metals  that  enter 
into  their  composition.  Ferrosilicon,  ferroman- 
ganese,  ferrochrome,  tungsten,  ferrotitanium,  co* 
bait,  and  ferrovanadium  were  all  in  active  de- 
mand, and  the  supplies  of  the  raw  materials 
were  in  many  cases  cut  off  from  Europe,  while 
in  other  cases  American  ores  were  being  worked 
so  as  to  obtain  material  for  export.  The  cut- 
ting off  of  materials  led  to  the  exploitation  of 
American  ore  deposits,  and  the  development  of 
plants  for  their  treatment,  which  from  a  some- 
what confused  basis  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
gradually  settled  down  so  that  economical  and 
scientific  methods  of  working  were  introduced. 
Thus,  for  the  manufacture  of  ferromanganese 
the  electric  furnace  was  employed.  Before  the 
war  little  of  this  material  was  made  in  the 
United  States.  Supplies  from  abroad  were  cheap 
and  abundant,  but  in  1915  it  was  being  produced 
in  blast  furnaces  and,  as  stated,  in  the  electric 
furnace.  Ferrochrome  was  being  produced  dec* 
trolytically,  and  by  the  thermit  process  in  the 


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United  States,  while  deposits  of  tungsten  were 
being  worked  up,  although  the  annual  product 
of  the  United  States  was  less  than  2000  tons  of 
tun^ten  ore.  In  short,  a  number  of  metallurgi- 
cal industries  were  being  developed  as  a  result  of 
the  war  conditions,  and  American  metallurgists 
were  meeting  the  demands  put  upon  them  as 
effectively  as  possible. 

Blbliogprapny.  Amon^  the  more  important 
books  on  metallurgy  published  during  1915  were 
the  following:  O.  Bauer  and  £.  Deiss,  The 
Sampling  and  ChenUedl  Analytic  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  translated  from  the  German  by  William 
T.  Hall  and  Robert  S.  Williams;  I.  E.  Clennell, 
The  Cyanide  Handbook,  second  edition;  George 
Lunge  (editor).  Technical  Methods  of  Chemioal 
AnMyai%,  vol.  iii;  H.  W.  MacFarren,  Practical 
Stamp  Milling  and  Amalgamation,  third  edi- 
tion; James  Park,  A  Temt  Book  of  Practical 
Assaying;  Walter  Rosenhain,  An  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  Physical  Metallurgy;  Francis  An- 
drew Thomson,  Stamp  Milling  and  Cyaniding; 
Charles  H.  White,  Methods  of  Metallurgical 
Analysis;  Edward  S.  Wiard,  The  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Ore  Dressing. 

METAPHYSICS.    See  Philosopht. 

METEOBOLOGY.  The  question  of  the  influ- 
ence of  volcanic  outbursts  upon  the  weather  con- 
tinued to  engage  the  attention  of  meteorologists 
in  1915.  A  few  years  previously,  Humphreys 
examined  the  records  of  the  exceptionally  cold 
years  which  have  occurred  since  1750,  and  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  volcanic  dust  projected 
into  the  upper  atmosphere  during  such  outbursts 
must  have  been  a  factor  in  the  production  of 
past  climatic  changes.  In  support  of  his  con- 
clusions he  instanced  the  cold  periods  which 
followed  man^  of  the  notable  eruptions  of  recent 
times,  including  those  of  Krakatoa  in  1883,  the 
West  Indian  volcanoes,  La  Pel^e  and  La  Sou- 
fri^re,  in  1902,  and  Katmai  in  1912.  Similar 
conclusions  were  reached  by  Abbot  and  Fowle. 
Arctowski  recently  reexamined  the  temperature- 
lowering  effect  of  these  three  eruptions  in  the 
light  of  temperature  data  from  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  found  that,  while  the  Krakatoa  erup- 
tion affected  the  yearly  mean  temperature 
greatly,  lowering  it  to  the  extent  of  3.4' F.,  the 
influence  of  the  eruptions  of  1902  and  1912  was 
very  slight,  or  none  at  all. 

Rainfall  of  the  United  States.  In  three 
studies  on  the  rainfall  of  the  Northeastern,  the 
Eastern,  and  the  Western  United  States,  re- 
spectively, published  in  the  Monthly  Weather 
Review,  B.  C.  Wallis  presented  a  series  of  charts 
showing  rainfall  conditions  by  means  of  what 
he  terms  "equipluves"  instead  of  the  customary 
isohyets.  An  c^quipluve  is  a  curve  showing  the 
percentage  departure  of  the  rainfall  from  the 
monthly  norm,  the  latter  being  calculated  on 
the  assumption  that  the  total  amount  of  rain 
precipitated  in  any  locality  is  evenly  distrib- 
uted through  the  year.  The  cquipluve  for  the 
norm  is  numbered  100,  and  an  equipluve  num- 
bered 100  -\-  n  indicates  that  the  rainfall  at  the 
places  through  which  it  passes  is  n  per  cent 
above  the  norm.  His  conclusions  for  the  North- 
eastern States  show  that  in  this  region  a  wave 
of  dryness  moves  southeastward  during  the  pe- 
riod when  the  temperature  is  falling,  from  Sep- 
tember to  the  end  of  January,  and  a  wave  of 
wetness  moves  in  the  same  direction  during  the 
period  of  rising  temperature,  i.e.  from  Mav  to 
August.    For  Uie  Eastern  States  as  a  whole, 


he  finds  that  there  are  three  rainfall  belts  sepa- 
rated by  lines  which  run  in  a  southwesterly  di- 
rection from  Toledo,  Ohio,  to  San  Antonio, 
Texas,  and  from  Hartford,  Conn.,  to  Mobile, 
Ala.,  respectively.  The  belt  to  the  northwest 
of  the  first  line  is  characterized  by  summer 
rains  and  winter  dryness;  the  intermediate  belt, 
by  rains  at  all  seasons;  and  the  most  easterly 
belt,  by  heavy  total  precipitation  due  to  the 
proximity  of  the  ocean,  with  the  summer  rains 
predominating.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  date  of  maximum  rainfall  tends  to  be- 
come later  as  the  coast  is  approached  from  the 
northwest.  In  the  Western  States,  three  re- 
gions are  distinguished:  (1)  the  Far  West, 
including  the  coast  lands,  with  heavy  winter 
rains;  (2)  the  Mountains,  never  very  wet, 
never  very  dry;  (3)  the  Eastern  Slopes,  with 
great  rainfall  intensity  in  the  North  from  April 
to  June,  and  in  the  South  from  July  to  Sep- 
tember. 

Summing  up  his  conclusions  for  the  whole 
country,  he  found  that  the  rainfall  of  the 
United  States  is  determined  by  (1)  continental 
influences  which  are  exerted  over  a  broad  tri- 
angle of  country,  with  the  vertex  to  the  south 
and  with  the  edge  of  the  Rockv  Mountains  as 
the  eastern  limb  of  the  triangle;  (2)  oceanic 
influences  exerted  upon  the  coastal  lowlands, 
(a)  on  the  west  from  the  Paciflc  and  (b)  on 
the  east  from  the  Atlantic;  (3)  intermediate 
regions,  (a)  the  Rockies  in  the  west  and  (b) 
the  west^  Appalachians  in  the  east;  and  (4) 
direct  solar  influences  which  are  manifest  with 
some  elements  of  variety  along  the  southern 
boundary  as  far  west  as  Yuma,  Ariz. 

GlIMATIO  PBOVINCKS  OP  THE  WESTERN  UNITED 

States.  In  an  interesting  paper  in  the  Bulle- 
tin of  the  American  Geographical  Society  for 
January,  1915,  W.  G.  Reed  formulated  a  new 
dassiflcation  of  the  climatic  provinces  of  the 
Western  United  States.  After  a  discussion  of 
the  applicability  to  this  region  of  the  classi- 
fications proposed  by  Supan,  Koppen,  Herbert- 
son,  and  Dryer,  he  points  out  that  no  satisfac- 
tory grouping  of  localities  on  a  climatic  basis 
can  be  obtained  unless  both  temperature  and 
rainfall  conditions  are  taken  into  account.  In 
the  Western  States  the  controlling  factors  are 
the  proximity  of  the  great  body  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  with  its  equable  temperature,  and  the 
Sierra-Cascade  range  running  north  and  south, 
which  serves  as  a  climatic  divide.  The  great 
contrast  between  the  conditions  east  and  west 
of  this  divide  serves  as  the  primary  basis  of 
classification.  The  climate  of  the  region  to  the 
west  of  the  mountains  is  distinguished  by  mild 
temperatures,  marked  subtropical  winter  maxi- 
mum of  rainfall,  and  summers  dry  or  with  light 
cyclonic  rains,  except  in  the  mountains  where 
summer  thunder  showers  may  occur.  Between 
the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  this  re- 
gion, which  is  termed  the  Pacific  Province,  cer- 
tain differences  are  evident,  the  northern,  or 
Oregonian,  District  being  characterized  by  some- 
what lower  temperatures,  the  common  occur- 
rence of  snow  at  low  altitudes  in  winter  and  of 
light  cyclonic  rains  in  summer,  which  are  not 
found  in  the  southern,  or  Califomian,  District. 
Differences  of  annual  rainfall  serve  to  subdi- 
vide the  Or^onian  District  into  five,  and  the 
Califomian  District  into  three,  regions.  East 
of  the  dividing  range  the  rainfall  is  markedly 
less  than  in  the  same  latitudes  in  the  Pacific 

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METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHTTBCH 


Province,  and  consequently  this  region  is  called 
the  Rain  Shadow  Area.  Its  climate  is  charac- 
terized by  large  diurnal  and  annual  ranges  of 
temperature,  and  generally  deficient  precipita- 
tion, arid  in  the  south,  and  semi-arid  in  the 
north.  Here,  too,  two  districts  can  be  distin- 
guished, the  northern,  or  Snake  River,  District, 
with  an  annual  rainfall  of  from  10  to  20  inches, 
and  the  southern,  or  Great  Basin,  District,  in 
which  the  annual  rainfall  is  generally  less  than 
10  inches;  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that  local  in- 
fluences, such  as  altitude,  are  more  potent  in 
affecting  the  amount  of  rainfall  than  in  the  Pa- 
cific Province,  this  division  is  less  satisfactory. 

Popular  Misconceptions  Ck)NCEBNiNG  the 
Wbatheb.  In  an  article  in  the  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly  for  February,  1915,  A.  H.  Palmer, 
of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  enumer- 
ated and  discussed  briefly  25  of  the  more  com- 
mon misconceptions  concerning  the  weather. 
Among  them  may  be  mention^  the  supposed 
influence  of  the  moon  and  other  heavenly  bod- 
ies, also  of  forests,  on  the  weather;  the  deep- 
seated  belief  that  the  climate  is  changing;  the 
connection  between  the  weather  of  a  particular 
day,  e.g.  February  2nd,  and  St.  Swithin's  Day, 
and  that  of  subsequent  weeks  or  seasons;  the 
belief  that  storms  originate  at  Medicine  Hat; 
the  tradition  that  lightning  never  strikes  twice 
in  the  same  place;  the  production  of  rain  at- 
tending the  old-fashioned  celebration  of  Inde- 
pendence Day,  or  during  great  battles;  the  ex- 
aggerated belief  in  the  difl'erence  between  the 
climate  of  cities  and  that  of  the  country;  and 
the  popular  superstition  of  the  Indian  summer. 
Emphasis  was  laid  on  the  fact  that  in  none  of 
the  cases  enumerated  is  the  superstition  sup- 
ported by  evidence  derived  from  exact  observa- 
tion, and  that,  while  a  systematic  science  of  the 
weather  is  only  in  the  making,  still  it  has  ad- 
vanced far  enough  to  dispose  of  many  time-hon- 
ored misconceptions.  The  continued  belief  in 
these  misconceptions  is  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  the  sciences  of  meteorology  and  climatol- 
ogy are  of  recent  growth,  and  to  the  failure  of 
the  general  public  to  keep  pace  with  their  prog- 
ress. 

Height  of  the  Attboba  Borealis.  Prof.  Carl 
StOrmer,  to  whose  researches  on  the  aurora  bore- 
alis reference  was  made  in  the  Year  Books  for 
1911  and  1913,  published  a  preliminary  report  on 
the  results  obtained  during  his  expedition  to  Bos-, 
sekop,  in  Northern  Norway,  in  1913.  About  one- 
sixth  of  the  material  secured  has  been  worked 
up,  and  has  yielded  some  interesting  results. 
Photographs  of  the  aurora  were  taken  simul- 
taneously by  Stormer  and  his  assistant  Birke- 
land,  the  former  stationed  at  Bossekop,  the  lat- 
ter at  Store  Korsnes,  about  17  miles  south  of 
Bossekop.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  measure- 
ments were  made  during  a  period  of  minimmn 
solar  activity,  it  was  expected  that  the  electric 
corpuscles  proceeding  from  the  sun  would  have 
comparatively  slight  penetrating  power  and 
would  be  arrested  in  the  higher  re^ons  of  the 
atmosphere,  giving  rise  to  auroral  displays  at  a 
greater  altitude  than  those  observed  on  the  oc- 
casion of  StQrmer's  earlier  expedition  of  1911. 
This  expectation  was  fully  realized.  From 
nearly  600  measurements,  the  mean  height  of 
the  aurora  above  the  earth's  surface  was  foimd 
to  be  about  75  miles.  Few  of  the  measurements 
made  .gave  less  than  55  miles,  and  one  as  high 
as  144  miles  was  obtained. 


METHODIST  BBOTHEBHOOD.  An  or- 
ganization of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
authorized  and  empowered  by  the  General  Con- 
ference in  1908,  and  formed  by  the  affiliation  of 
two  general  brotherhoods — the  Wesley  Brother- 
hood, and  the  Brotherhood  of  Saint  Paul.  The 
aim  of  the  brotherhood  is  to  utilize  and  develop 
the  features  and  activities  of  the  church  re- 
lating to  men,  to  reach  and  win  the  unchurched 
men  and  boys,  and  to  provide  them  with  a  task 
commensurate  with  their  powers  and  with  the 
importance  of  the  gospel  ideal.  Additional  legis- 
lation passed  by  the  General  Conference  in  1912 
improved  the  usefulness  of  the  brotherhood.  A 
considerable  literature  has  been  created,  con- 
sisting largely  of  4,  6,  and  8-page  folders,  each 
dealing  with  some  aspect  of  men's  work,  and 
written  for  the  express  purpose  of  inciting  other 
men  elsewhere  to  similar  efforts.  On  Nov.  11, 
1914,  a  coalition  was  formed  between  the  Meth- 
odist Brotherhood  and  the  Adult  Bible  Class 
Movement.  The  officers  of  the  Methodist  Broth- 
erhood in  1916  were:  President,  Wilford  M.  Wil- 
son; (ireneral  secretarv,  William  S.  Bovard. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHDKGH.  The 
total  number  in  full  membership  in  this  denomi- 
nation in  1916  was  3,619,920,  with  413,203  pro- 
bationers, 30,654  churches,  and  20,524  ministers. 
This  represents  a  gain  of  54,329  in  membership 
over  that  of  1914,  a  gain  of  201  in  churches,  and 
of  152  in  ministers.  The  total  membership,  in- 
cluding probationers,  in  1915,  was  4,033,123; 
the  total  net  increase  over  1914  was  104,089. 
The  total  number  of  Sunday  schools  in  1915  was 
36,250,  as  compared  with  35,830  in  1914 ;  of  Sun- 
day school  officers  and  teachers,  405,429,  as  com- 
pared with  392,968  in  1914;  of  Sunday  school 
scholars,  4,497,464,  as  compared  with  4,183,570 
in  1914.  The  total  membership  of  the  Epworth 
League  in  1915  was  849,830.  The  estimated 
value  of  church  property  in  1915  was  $212,325,- 
468,  and  of  parsonages,  $35,210,617.  The  total 
corporate  wealth  of  the  denomination  in  1915  is 
estimated  at  $327,346,017. 

The  denomination  has  mission  conferences  in 
Austria-Hungary,  Denmark,  Germany,  Finland, 
Bulgaria,  Burma,  East  Central  Africa,  North 
Africa,  North  China,  Norway,  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land, Porto  Rico,  France,  New  Mexico,  Spain, 
West  China,  etc.  Extensive  missions  are  main- 
tained on  four  continents  as  follows:  Asia: 
India,  Burma,  Malaysia,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Java,  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  China,  Japan,  and 
Korea.  Africa:  Liberia,  Angola,  Madeira  Is- 
lands, Southern  Congo,  Portuguese  East  Africa, 
Rhodesia,  Algeria,  and  Tunis.  South  America: 
Argentina,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Bolivia,  Chile, 
Peru,  and  Panama.  Europe:  Italy,  France, 
Bulgaria,  and  Russia.  Thus  in  all  34  different 
countries  are  reached,  and  the  gospel  is  preached 
in  probably  double  that  number  of  langua^. 
There  were  in  1915,  1426  missionaries  in  foreign 
fields,  assisted  by  11,300  native  workers,  and  an 
enrolled  membership  of  402,258,  besides  baptized 
children  and  unbaptized  adherents,  bringing  the 
total  to  63^,395,  a  net  gain  for  the  year  of 
55,523.  The  total  receipts  in  1915  for  mission- 
ary purposes  were  $1,188,243;  disbursements, 
$1,171,786.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
has  been  represented  on  both  sides  of  the  war 
in  all  the  countries  involved,  except  Serbia, 
by  its  own  sons  and  daughters. 

Under  the  general  charge  of  the  board  of  edu- 
cation are  maintained  in  the  United  States  and 


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METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHTTBCH 


401 


METHODISTS 


abroad  356  educational  institutions,  including  43 
colleges  and  universities.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  De  Pauw  University,  Indiana; 
Northwestern  University,  Illinois;  University  of 
Southern  California;  Ohio  Wesleyan  University; 
Boston  University;  and  Wesleyan  University. 
There  are  10  theological  schools  for  white  stu- 
dents, and  5  for  colored. 

Besides  the  missionary  and  Sunday  school  or- 
ganizations and  the  board  of  education,  there 
are:  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  through  which 
the  publications  of  the  denomination  are  issued; 
the  Epworth  League,  which  is  the  association  for 
the  young  people  of  the  church;  the  Methodist 
Federation  for  Social  Service;  the  Freedman*s 
Aid  Society;  the  Deaconess  Work;  and  the  Tem- 
perance Society.  The  32nd  general  conference 
will  open  at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.,  on  May  1, 
1916. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHTTKGH, 
South.  This  body,  which  includes  the  greater 
number  of  Methodists  in  the  Southern  States, 
had  in  1915,  according  to  official  statistics,  2,- 
035,236  members,  including  local  preachers,  a 
gain  of  38,359  over  1914.  Traveling  preachers, 
not  including  supplies,  numbered  7227,  a  gain 
of  24  over  1914;  Sunday  school  officers  and 
teachers,  140,137,  a  gain  of  5207  over  1914;  Sun- 
day school  scholars,  1,581,889,  a  gain  of  101,912 
over  1914;  and  the  Epworth  League  members, 
123,663,  a  decrease  of  9717,  as  compared  with 
1914.  There  were  17,068  churches,  a  gain  of 
62  over  1914;  church  property  was  worth  $67,- 
677,908,  as  compared  with  $53,683,491  in  1914; 
the  number  of  parsonages  was  5368,  and  their 
value,  $11,127,545. 

In  the  territory  in  which  the  activities  of  the 
denomination  are  found,  there  are  330  districts. 
Ilie  total  salaries  for  the  preachers  in  charge 
amounted  in  1915  to  $4,795,841,  the  average 
ministerial  salary  being  $772.  The  total  amount 
expended  for  purposes  of  benevolence,  not  includ- 
ing gifts  for  endowments  and  buildings  for  col- 
leges, was  $1,449,710  in  1915,  or  70.3  cents  per 
capita. 

There  were  12  active  and  2  superannuated 
bishops  in  1915.  The  official  headquarters  of  the 
denomination  are  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  the 
publishing  house  is  located.  A  committee  of  the 
Women's  Missionary  Council  is  in  charge  of  and 
maintains  20  Wesley  houses,  which  are  social 
settlements  for  the  whites,  and  3  Bethlehem 
houses  for  the  negroes.  About  50  deaconesses 
give  their  entire  time  to  social  service. 
The  next  general  conference  will  be  held  in  May, 
1918. 

METHODISTS,  British.  The  following  sta- 
tistics of  British  Methodism  for  1915  are  from 
the  Methodist  Publishing  House  of  London. 
They  include  not  only  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, but  Methodist  churches  and  missions  in 
foreign  fields.  The  returns  for  Canadian  Metho- 
dism will  be  found  in  a  separate  article.  Brit- 
ish Methodists  at  home  and  abroad  had,  in  1915, 
a  total  of  1,810,044  church  members  and  pro- 
bationers; 10,678  churches;  64,562  lay  preach- 
ers; 26,078  Sunday  schools;  314,295  Sunday 
school  officers  and  teachers;  and  2,579,145  Sun- 
day school  scholars. 

Wesleyan  Methodists.  This  is  the  largest 
branch  of  the  denomination  in  Britain.  It 
has  of  church  members  and  probationers,  922,- 
796;  churches,  17,671;  ministers,  3861;  lay 
preachers,  30,221;  Sunday  schools,  10,794;  Sun- 


day school  officers  and  teachers,  143,182; 
scholars,  1,121,682.  Of  this  total  the  Wes- 
leyan Methodists  of  Great  Britain  had:  Church 
members  and  probationers,  502,809;  churches, 
8493;  ministers,  2576;  lay  preachers,  19,418; 
Sunday  Schools,  7531;  Sunday  school  offi- 
cers and  teachers,  129,249;  scholars,  922,- 
773.  In  Ireland  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  had: 
Church  members  and  probationers,  28,020; 
churches,  548;  ministers,  244;  lay  preach- 
ers, 646;  Sunday  schools,  337;  Sunday 
school  officers  and  teachers,  2347;  scholars,  24,- 
121.  In  foreign  missions  there  were  174,808 
Wesleyan  Methodist  church  members  and  pro- 
bationers; 4458  churches;  729  ministers;  5740 
lay  preachers;  2068  Sunday  schools;  8517  Sun- 
day school  officers  and  teachers;  and  132,188 
scholars.  In  the  French  Conference  of  Wes- 
leyan Methodists  there  were  1733  church  mem- 
bers and  probationers;  131  churches;  35  minis- 
ters; 84  lay  preachers;  36  Sunday  schools;  163 
Sunday  school  officers  and  teachers;  2251  schol- 
ars. In  the  South  African  Conference  there 
were  135,426  church  members  and  probation- 
ers; 4041  churches;  277  ministers;  4333  lay 
preachers;  822  Sunday  schools;  2906  Sunday 
school  officers  and  teachers;   40,349  scholars. 

Primitive  Methodists.  Church  members, 
206,812;  churches,  4903;  ministers,  1149;  lay 
preachers,  15,537;  Simday  schools,  4204;  offi- 
cers and  teachers,  57,233;  Sunday  school  schol- 
ars, 447,050. 

United  Methodist  Church.  Church  mem- 
bers, 185,769;  churches,  3013;  ministers,  848; 
lay  preachers,  6156;  Sunday  schools,  2286; 
Sunday  school  officers  and  teachers,  40,744; 
scholars,  294,039. 

Wesleyan  Refobic  Union.  Church  members 
and  probationers,  8526;  churches,  206;  minis- 
ters, 25;  lay  preachers,  500;  Sunday  schools, 
196;  officers  and  teachers,  3000;  scholars,  23,- 
172. 

Independent  Methodist  Churches.  Mem- 
bers and  probationers,  9215;  churches,  163; 
ministers,  411;  Sunday  schools,  160;  Sunday 
school  officers  and  teachers,  3106;  scholars,  26,- 
677. 

Australasian  Methodist  Church.  Mem- 
bers and  probationers,  149,878;  churches,  5147; 
ministers,  985;  lay  preachers,  8634;  Sunday 
schools,  3849;  Sunday  school  officers  and  teach- 
ers, 21,964;   scholars,  203,365. 

New  Zealand  Methodist  Church.  Members 
and  probationers,  24,218;  churches,  469;  min- 
isters, 198;  lay  preachers,  928;  Sunday  schools, 
411;  Sunday  school  officers  and  teachers,  3020; 
scholars,  29,917. 

Japan  Methodist  Church.  Members  and 
probationers,  13,838;  churches,  245;  ministers, 
232;  Sunday  schools,  340;  Sunday  school  offi- 
cers and  teachers,  1148;  scholars,  23,605. 

METHODISTS,  Canadian.  The  Methodist 
Church  in  Canada  was  formed  in  1883  by  the 
union  of  the  Canadian  branches  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church,  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  the  Primitive  Methodist  Church,  the 
Methodist  New  Connexion  Church,  and  the  Bible 
Christian  Church.  The  territory  covered  by  the 
operations  of  the  Church  includes  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  and  mission 
fields  in  China  and  Japan.  For  administrative 
purposes  there  are  12  conferences:  Toronto, 
London,  Hamilton,  Bay  of  Quinte,  Montreal, 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward 


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Island,  Newfoundland,  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan, 
Alberta,  and  British  Columbia. 

In  1916  there  was  a  total  membership  of  376,- 
761;  ministers,  2871.  Under  the  educational 
control  of  the  Church  there  are  17  colleges  and 
universities.  The  leading  institutions  are :  Vic- 
toria University,  Toronto;  Mount  Allison  Uni- 
versity, Sackville,  N.  B.;  Weslevan  Theological 
College,  Montreal;  Wesley  College,  Winnipeg. 
The  total  value  of  all  the  buildings  and  endow- 
ments is  $7,200,391. 

There  are  3824  Sunday  schools,  with  420,210 
scholars,  and  41,929  officers  and  teachers.  The 
amount  raised  in  1916  for  ministerial  support 
was  $1,794,650;  total  missionary  income,  $651,- 
460. 

The  principal  officers  of  the  Church  in  1916 
were  as  follows:  Samuel  Dwight  Chown,  gen- 
eral superintendent;  Albert  Carman,  general  su- 
perintendent emeritus;  T.  Albert  Moore,  secre- 
tary of  the  General  Conference  and  of  the  depart- 
ment of  social  reform  and  evangelism;  William 
BriggB,  book  steward;  W.  B.  (S-eighton,  editor 
of  the  Christian  Guardian^'  A.  C.  Crews,  editor 
of  Sunday  school  publications;  D.  W.  Johnson, 
editor  of  the  Wesleyan, 

METHODISTS,  Colobed.  The  colored 
branches  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in- 
clude the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
which  in  1916  had  293,410  full  members,  41,261 
probationers,  and  17,281  non-resident  members; 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church, 
with  568,608  members,  3180  churches,  and  3552 
ministers;  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  with  620,000  members,  6000  churches, 
and  5000  ministers;  the  Union  American  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  (Colored),  with  19,000 
members,  212  churches,  and  170  ministers;  the 
African  Union  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
(Colored),  with  4000  members,  126  churches,  and 
200  ministers;  the  Reformed  Zion  Union  Apos- 
tolic Church  (Colored),  with  3069  members,  ac- 
cording to  the  1906  census,  46  churches,  and  33 
ministers;  the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal,  with 
240,798  members,  3196  churches,  and  3072  minis- 
ters; and  the  Reformed  Methodist  Union  Epis- 
copal CHiurch  (Colored),  with  4397  members,  58 
churches,  and  72  ministers. 

METRIC  SYSTEM.  See  Weiohts  and 
Measures. 

METEOPOLITAN  OPEEA  OOMPANY, 
New  York.  See  Music,  The  United  States, 
Operat  and  passim, 

MEXICO.  A  federal  republic  situated  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Central  America. 
The  country  is  officially  called  both  Estados 
Unidos  Mewicanos  and  RepUhlica  Mewicana. 
The  capital  city  is  Mexico,  in  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict. On  account  of  the  continual  civil  war 
and  the  resulting  chaotic  conditions  in  all  in- 
dustry, business,  and  administration,  Mexican 
statistical  publications  were  suspended  during 
1915. 

Area  and  Popuiation.  The  area  by  states 
and  the  population  in  1900  and  in  1910  (census 
of  October  27th)  are  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


Sq.km. 

ApiascslientM    ....  7,692 

Baja    California*..  151,109 

Campeche    46.866 

Coahnila    165.219 

Colima 6,887 

Ghiapaa 71.802 


Pop.  1900 

Pop.  1910 

102,416 

120,511 

47.624 

52,272 

86.542 

86.661 

296,988 

869.092 

66.116 

77,704 

860,799 

488.848 

Sq.  km. 

Chihuahua    288.214 

Diatrito  Fadoral  t  . .  1.499 

Duranffo   109,495 

Guanajuato 28,868 

Guerrero   65,480 

Hidalgo 22.878 

Jalisco 86.752 

M6xieo     28.909 

Michoacin     58.594 

Morelos     4,911 

NueTo  Lie6n 64,888 

Oaxnea    92,448 

PuebU     88.658 

Quer6taro    11.688 

Quintano  Roo  *    . . .  49,914 

San  Luis  Potoef  . . .  62.177 

Sinalva    71.880 

Sonora     198.496 

Tabasco     26,871 

Tamaulipas 79.861 

Tepic*    28,871 

TIaxeala    8.974 

Vera  Cms    72,216 

YucatAn    41,287 

Zaeatecas    68,886 

Islands    4,042 


Pop. 
827, 
641, 
870, 

1,061 
479, 
606, 

1,158 
984, 
985, 
160, 
827, 
948 

1.021 
282, 


1900 

784 
516 
294 
,724 
205 
051 
,891 
468 
,808 
116 
987 
688 
188 
889 


575.482 
296,701 
221.682 
159,884 
218,948 
150.098 
172,815 
981,080 
809.652 
462,190 


Pop.  1910 
405.707 
720.758 
488.175 

1.081.651 
594.278 
646.551 

1.208,855 
989,510 
991.880 
179.594 
865.150 

1,040.898 

1,101.600 
244  668 
9.109 
627.800 
828  642 
265.888 
187.574 
249.641 
171.178 
184,171 

1,182,859 
839,618 
477.656 


Total  l,987,201t  13,607.259  15.160,869 

•  Territory. 

t  Federal  District. 

X  767.258  square  miles. 


In  1900  pure  whites,  and  nearly  pure,  con- 
stituted about  19  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion; persons  of  mixed  Indian  and  white  blood, 
about  43  per  cent;  Indians,  about  38  per  cent. 
In  1910  Spanish-speaking  persons  numbered  13,- 
143,372.  Most  of  the  remaining  inhabitants 
spoke  Indian  languages.  Roman  Catholics  num- 
bered 16,033,176  in  1910;  Protestents,  68,839. 
Population  of  the  larger  cities  in  1910,  with 
percentage  of  increase  over  1900:  Mexico,  471,- 
066  (36.65);  Guadalajara,  119,468  (18.04); 
Puebla,  96,121  (2.78);  Monterrey,  78,528 
(26.12);  San  Luis  Potosf,.  68,022  (11.48); 
M^rida,  62,447  (43.13)  ;  Aguascalientes.  45,198 
(29.20);  Morelia,  40,042  (7.41);  Chihuahua, 
39,706  (30.69);  Pachuca,  39,009  (4.06);  Oax- 
aca,  38,011  (8.45);  Guanajuato,  35,682  (13.99); 
Saltillo,  35,414   (47.68). 

Production  aitd  Commerce.  Mexico  is  ex- 
ceptionally rich  in  minerals,  especially  silver 
and  gold;  there  are  mines  of  copper,  lead,  anti- 
mony, zinc,  etc.,  and  great  petroleum  wells. 
The  country  is  capable  of  extensive  agricultural 
development,  but,  in  general,  farming  methodd 
have  remained  primitive.  Before  the  civil  wars 
of  recent  years,  the  grazing  industry  had  at- 
tained a  very  considerable  development.  But  all 
industries  are  now  prostrated,  and  at  the  end 
of  1915,  according  to  reports,  large  numbers  of 
the  people  were  in  dire  need  of  food.  Under 
conditions  of  peace,  there  are  large  crops  of 
com,  beans,  sugar  cane,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  (in 
the  south),  sisal  hemp.  In  1910-11  the  gold 
output  amounted  to  1,196,343  troy  ounces,  and 
in  1911-12  1,173,957  ounces;  silver,  74,140,890 
and  80,205,670.  Petroleum  output  in  1911,  12,- 
^29,319  barrels;  in  1912,  15,689,268;  estimate 
for  1913,  26,000,000  barrels.  At  the  end  of 
1912,  there  were  about  89  companies  organized 
for  petroleum  production;  of  these,  55  were 
American,  with  an  approximate  investment  of 
£19,500,000;  13  British,  £15,000,000;  and  21 
Mexican,  £500,000.  The  total  value  of  Mexico's 
mineral  output  in  1911-12  was  over  209,700,000 
pesos.  In  the  35  years  from  1877-78  to  1911- 
12,  the  gold  output  totaled  395,904.7  kilograms, 
valued  at  527,871,760  pesos;  the  silver  output. 


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49,600,726.6  kilograms,  valued  at  1,973,394,124 
pesos;  total  value  of  gold  and  silver,  2,501,265,- 
884  pesos. 

GoMMiEBCE.  Commercial  statistics  are  not 
available  later  than  those  given  in  the  New 
Intebnational  Year  Book  for  1914.  For  the 
nine  months  ended  March  31,  1914,  imports 
were  valued  at  121,462,149  pesos,  as  compared 
with  148,370,758  pesos  in  the  corresponding 
months  of  the  previous  year,  the  decline  being 
18.14  per  cent.  Exports  during  the  nine  months 
ended  March  31,  1914,  amounted  to  185,666,105 
pesos,  as  compared  with  230,736,754  pesos,  the 
decline  being  19.53  per  cent.  A  r6sum4  of  the 
commerce  for  fiscal  years  ended  June  30  is  given 
below.  Classified  imports  were  valued  as  fol- 
lows, in  thousands  of  dollars  American: 

1910-1911  1911-18  1918-18 

Mineral  snbstancM 26.015  28.856  28.728 

Vegetable  snbatances 19,800  15,648  15.785 

Machinery  and  apparatus. .  12,906  11.692  12,240 

Textiles  and  mfrs 12.280  10.641  12.048 

Animal  snbetanoes    8,717  8,288  0,026 

Chemicals  and  drugs 6.495  6,087  6,809 

Cars,  vebieles,  ete 4,548  2,800  2,558 

Wines,    spirits,   etc 8,407  8,872  8,426 

Paper  and  mfrs 2,804  2,560  2,644 

Arms    and    explosives    1,606  2,604  8,869 

Miscenaneons     4,819  4,802  5,869 

TVrtal .102,987       91,881       97.886 

Classified  exports,  in  thousands  of  dollar? 
American : 


1910-11   1911-18  1918-18 

Mineral  products    90,008       98,108  94,824 

VesreUble  products 45,684       41.798  42.971 

Animal  products 8,401          9.981  9.919 

Manufactured  products  ....      1,805  .      8,802  1,678 

Miscellaneous 1.084            865  815 

Total     146,877     148,995  160.203 

Trade  by  countries,   in  thousands  of  dollars 
American : 


ImporU  Bxportt 

1911-18  1918-18  1911-18  1918-18 

United  States 49.218  48,644  112,780  116.018 

United  Kingdom    ..10,758  12,950  20.099  16.574 

Germany 11.928  12.610  5,168  8,219 

France     7,809  9.169  4.165  8.676 

Spain     2.950  5.265  1,180  1.091 

Belgium     1,640  1.402  8,177  2.576 

Italy    975  942  79  47 

Austria-Hungary    . .    1.045  951  104  4 

Total,  including 

other     91,881     97.886     148,996     150.208 

OoMMUTViCATiONS.  The  length  of  railway  in 
operation  Sept.  30,  1913,  was  25,398  kilometers 
(15,782  miles),  as  compared  with  25,287  kilo- 
meters (15,713  miles),  on  Sept.  30,  1912.  Fed- 
eral teleeraph  offices  in  1913  numbered  492,  with 
85,047  Kilometers  of  line;  other  telegraph 
lines,  8387  kilometers.  There  were  24  radio- 
telegraph stations.  Post  offices  (1913),  2911; 
the  postal  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  1913  were 
11,797,627  pesos,  and  postal  expenditure  14,- 
244,150  pesos. 

Four  years  of  revolution  and  warfare  nat- 
urally produced  very  serious  damage  to  the 
railway  system  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  great 
lines  there  was  much  chaos  and  destruction. 
During  1915  a  total  of  but  36.50  miles  of  new 
first  track  was  built,  of  which  4.50  miles  was  on 
the  San  Diego  and  Arizona,  extending  into  Lower 


California,  from  2.6  miles  east  of  Tecate  to  the 
Mexican-United  States  boundary,  and  32  miles 
in  the  Tampico  and  Panuco  Valley  in  Vera  Cruz 
between  Tampico  and  Panuco.  The  Mexican 
Railway,  with  the  exception  of  about  25  miles 
out  of  the  capital  which  was  operated  intermit- 
tently by  the  company  for  a  short  time,  had 
passed  out  of  its  control  after  Nov.  18,  1914. 
Miles  of  track  were  torn  up,  equipment  was  re 
moved  from  this  line  and  distributed  over  other 
railways,  and  a  vast  amount  of  destruction  pro* 
duced.  In  August,  1914,  General  Carranza  took 
possession  of  the  Inter-Ciceanic  Railway,  cutting 
it  off  from  the  Mexican  Southern,  of  which  the 
latter  is  a  leased  line.  The  Mexican  Southern, 
however,  has  not  experienced  so  much  damage 
to  its  property.  The  Vera  Cruz  Railway,  a  Brit- 
ish undertaking,  and  the  Mexican  Northwestern 
were  practicallv  a  wreck  from  end  to  end. 

The  National  Railway  system  was  in  a  most 
deplorable  condition  as  regards  its  rolling  stock, 
and  the  Director  General  of  the  Constitutional- 
ists, Alberto  J.  Pani,  was  authority  for  the  state- 
ment that  more  than  70  per  cent  of  the  standard 
gauge  cars  had  been  destroyed,  and  that  less  than 
16  per  cent  were  available  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. Thus,  on  June  30,  1914,  there  were  in 
service  15,700  broad  gauge  cars,  while  by  the 
first  of  December,  1915,  4676  remained.  The 
railway  facilities  were  merely  sufficient  to  trans- 
port the  necessities  of  life  and  prevent  starva- 
tion, and  carry  those  whose  interests  compelled 
them  to  travel,  as  commercial  freight  was  not 
moving  and  passenger  travel  was  only  under- 
taken where  absolutely  necessary.  Had  railway 
conditions  in  Mexico  been  normal  during  the 
year,  much  of  the  transcontinental  business  re- 
sulting from  the  closing  of  the  Panama  Canal 
could  have  been  handled  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec.  In  Vera  Cruz  the  warehouses 
were  filled  to  overflowing,  and  after  the  recog- 
nition of  the  government  increased  cargoes  were 
being  transported  from  the  United  States.  The 
destruction  of  most  of  the  railway  property 
along  this  system  occurred  in  the  years  1914  and 
1915.  Hardly  a  station  remained  between  Mon- 
terey and  Mexico  City  that  had  not  been  burned. 
This  curtailment  of  railway  transportation  and 
facilities  naturally  left  cities  isolated,  and  had 
a  disastrous  effect  on  mines,  mills,  and  factories, 
as  well  as  agriculture,  because  it  was  impossible 
to  ship  supplies  in  or  bring  produce  out.  The 
plan  of  the  Carranza  government  for  the  restora- 
tion of  railway  service  was  to  purchase  enough 
passenger  cars  to  re^tablish  the  former  service 
between  Laredo  and  Mexico  City,  and  also  to 
purchase  freight  cars,  rails,  and  other  material. 
The  shops  were  being  opened  up  as  fast  as  the 
Constitutionalist  government  could  get  control 
of  them.  The  law  which  gave  the  government 
the  right  to  take  over  the  railroads  in  war-time 
required  that  they  be  returned  to  the  company 
in  operating  condition,  and  that  an  indemnity 
be  paid  depending  on  the  earnings  of  the  pre- 
vious five  years,  with  10  per  cent  additional. 
With  the  destruction  of  the  railways,  their  roll- 
ing stock  and  buildings,  it  will  be  seen  how 
serious  a  matter  it  will  be  for  the  government  to 
turn  back  these  railways  to  their  owners  in  op- 
erating condition. 

Reports  at  the  end  of  the  year  1915  indicated 
that,  notwithstanding  the  revolution,  the  dam- 
age to  track,  buildings,  and  equipment  (on  the 
line  connecting  the  City  of  Mexico  with  the  At- 


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lantic  port  of  Vera  Cruz)  was  not  such  as  to 
keep  the  railways  out  of  service  for  lon^  con- 
tinued periods.  Naturally,  track  was  destroyed, 
buildings  were  burned,  as  well  as  decks  of  unim- 
portant bridges,  while  engines  and  cars  were 
wrecked  by  running  them  wild  down  mountain 
grades,  etc.  This  naturally  involved  heavy  out- 
lay for  repairs,  but  more  important  bridges  were 
saved,  and  the  Soledad  Bridge,  27  miles  from 
Vera  Cruz,  which  carries  both  the  railway  and 
the  highway  across  the  Jamapa  River,  remained 
intact,  although  it  undoubtedly  would  have  been 
destroyed  had  the  American  forces  advanced 
from  Vera  Cruz  at  the  time  of  the  occupation  in 
1914. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  peso, 
with  a  par  value  of  49.846  cents.  With  the 
disappearance  of  a  generally  recognized  govern- 
ment in  Mexico,  metallic  currency  was  prac- 
tically withdrawn  from  circulation;  enormous 
quantities  of  paper  money  were  issued.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1915,  the  paper  peso  fluctuated  in  value 
between  6  and  8  cents  in  Mexico  City,  while  in 
other  places  it  sank  as  low  as  2  cents.  It  is 
impossible  to  set  forth  the  state  of  Federal 
finances  in  1915.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year 
1915  placed  the  revenue  at  145,957,000  pesos 
silver,  and  the  expenditure  at  152,204,898  pesos 
silver.  In  the  fiscal  year  1912,  .the  revenue  was 
105,203,087  pesos,  and  the  ordinary  expenditure 
96,985,953  pesos.  The  principal  estimated  re- 
ceipts, according  to  the  1914-15  budget  were: 
customs,  57,875,000  pesos;  taxes  on  real  prop- 
erty, 57,761,000;  special  taxes,  14,432,000;  posts 
and  telegraphs,  7,400,000;  lottery,  1,200,000. 
The  larger  estimated  disbursements  were,  by 
departments:  war  and  marine,  55,165,428  pesos; 
finance  (including  interest  on  the  public  debt), 
41,178,776;  interior,  19,688,958;  communica- 
tions, 14,758,024. 

The  outstanding  foreign  debt,  as  reported  for 
Dec.  31,  1914,  was  £36,877,398  (including  the 
Mexico  City  loan). 

Government.  Under  the  constitution,  Mex- 
ico is  a  federation  of  states  autonomous  in  local 
affairs.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
congress  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  senators,  56  in  num- 
ber, are  elected,  two  from  each  state,  by  popular 
vote  for  four  years.  The  deputies,  numbering 
233,  are  elected  by  popular  vote  for  two  years. 
A  constitutional  president  and  vice-president 
are  chosen  by  indirect  vote  for  six  years.  The 
states  have  their  own  elective  governors,  legis- 
latures, and  judicial  officers.  In  1915  anarchy 
rather  than  government  prevailed  in  Mexico.  In 
October,  1915,  the  American  government  recog- 
nized Gkn.  Venustiano  Carranza  as  chief  execu- 
tive of  the  de  facto  Mexican  government. 

History 

The  Rival  Factions.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1915  the  pacification  of  Mexico  seemed  to 
have  been  indefinitely  postponed.  Victorian© 
Huerta,  to  be  sure,  had  been  eliminated  from  the 
situation,  and  the  Constitutionalists,  the  pro- 
fessed advocates  of  democratic  government  and 
land  reform,  had  triumphantly  taken  possession 
of  the  capital  (see  1914  Year  Book,  Mexico, 
History);  but  the  Constitutionalist  leaders. 
Villa  and  Carranza,  had  no  sooner  defeated  the 
dictator  than  they  fell  to  quarreling  among 
themselves  and  inaugurated   a  new  civil   war. 


Each  claimed  to  be  the  true  champion  of  the  op- 
pressed peons,  each  denounced  the  other  as  a 
traitor  to  the  people.  "First  Chief"  Carranza, 
supported  by  his  loyal  generals,  Obregon,  Her- 
rara,  Dieguez,  Villareal,  and  Alvaredo,  had  es- 
tablished himself  at  Vera  Cruz.  The  rival  fac- 
tion, the  "Conventionists,"  had  set  up  Gen.  Eu- 
lalio  Gutierrez  as  provisional  president  in  Mex- 
ico City;  Francisco  Villa,  the  chief  military 
leader  of  the  Conventionists,  with  the  assistance 
of  G^ierals  Angelas  and  Maytorena,  and  the  no- 
torious guerrilla  chieftain,  "General"  Zapata,  was 
strenuously  endeavoring  to  maintain  the  domi- 
nant position  of  his  party  in  Mexico  City  and  in 
the  northern  states  against  the  determined  at- 
tacks of  Carranza's  armies.  Meanwhile  the  ci- 
vilian population,  especially  in  the  regions  trav- 
ersed by  the  lawless  soldiers  of  either  faction, 
suffered  severely  from  the  paralysis  of  industry 
and  the  lack  of  legal  protection.  With  increas- 
ing frequency  complaints  were  received  from  the 
foreign  residents  of  Mexico  City  regarding  the 
scarcity  of  food  and  the  prevalence  of  disorder. 
From  the  provinces  came  reports  of  churches 
desecrated,  of  violence  done  to  priests  and  nuns, 
of  towns  plundered,  and  estates  despoiled.  The 
distressing  condition  of  the  country  was  revealed 
in  the  appeal  which  the  American  consul-general 
at  Monterey  sent  out  through  the  Red  Cross, 
urging  the  contribution  of  food  supplies  for  the 
starving  civilians.  Thousands  of  Mexicans, 
homeless  and  helpless,  fled  from  their  unhappy 
coimtry  and  sought  refuge  in  the  United  States. 
Thanks  to  the  activity  of  the  Red  Cross  Society, 
much  was  done  to  relieve  this  misery,  but  in 
man^  districts  the  Constitutionalist  and  Con- 
ventionist  "generals,"  suspicious  of  foreign  in- 
terference, hindered  or  prevented  the  work  of 
relief.  The  lamentable  situation  of  the  com- 
mon people  may  well  be  held  in  mind  as  the  so- 
cial background  for  the  tragic  conflict  between 
the  rival  factions  in  Mexico. 

The  Gutierrez  Government.  The  Villa  and 
Zapata  delegates  to  the  Aguascalientes  confer- 
ence met  in  Mexico  City  on  January  Ist  to  ap- 
point a  provisional  administration.  After  nam- 
ing Jos4  Ortiz  Rodriguez  as  secretary  of  govern- 
ment, Rodriguez  Gomez  as  minister  of  justice, 
and  Manuel  Palafox  as  minister  of  agriculture, 
the  convention  called  for  a  recess  until  the  12th 
of  the  month.  On  the  second  meeting  the  Con- 
vention immediately  named  Gen.  Eulalio  Gutier- 
rez provisional  president  to  serve  until  April, 
1916.  Gutierrez  perfected  and  announced  his 
plans  for  the  pacification  of  Mexico.  His  plans, 
however,  never  came  to  fruition,  for  the  Conven- 
tion, notwithstanding  its  former  action,  unseated 
him  on  the  17th  of  January  and  appointed  Gen. 
Roque  Garza  provisional  president.  This  case 
illustrates  vividly  the  uncertainty  of  affairs  in 
the  southern  republic.  An  individual  might  be 
president  one  day  and  a  fugitive  the  next  day. 
Gutierrez  added  to  the  complications  of  the  situ- 
ation by  organizing  a  third  national  party. 
With  5000  troops  he  established  his  headquarters 
at  Pachuca.  He  bitterly  denounced  Villa  and 
Zapata  and  even  appealed  to  Carranza  for  aid. 

Fighting  in  Northern  Mexico.  Fighting  in 
Northern  Mexico,  which  began  early  in  the  year, 
lasted  throughout  the  entire  twelve  months,  and 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  a  majority  of  the 
Villa  strongholds  and  a  weakening  of  the  influ- 
ence of  the  bandit  chieftain.  So  fierce  were  the 
conflicts  and  so  lawless  was  the  soldiery,  that 


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the  country  was  left  in  a  pitiable  condition.  Tn 
the  cities  the  merchants  were  robbed  of  their 
wares  or  were  taxed  to  the  full  amount  of  their 
profits.  Enormous  simis  of  cash  were  taken  by 
force  or  levy  from  the  non-combatants  and  all 
provisions  were  confiscated.  In  the  country  dis- 
tricts ranches  were  stripped  of  provisions,  imple- 
ments, and  cattle,  leaving  the  farmers  in  a  desti- 
tute condition.  In  the  middle  of  January  the 
Conventionists  under  General  Angelas  captured 
Monterey,  ending  in  some  measure  the  terrific 
fighting  which  had  been  going  on  around  the 
city  for  more  than  two  weeks.  Border  towns  in 
the  United  States  suffered  greatly  from  the  ef- 
fects of  the  fighting  across  the  line.  Shots, 
aimed  at  the  opposing  force,  but  going  wild, 
were  constantly  falling  in  some  of  these  border 
villages.  The  United  States  forces,  stationed  on 
the  American  side,  were  powerless  to  prevent  this 
kind  of  fighting,  llie  only  possible  course  of 
action  was  to  obtain  the  neutralization  of  the 
border  line.  This,  General  Scott,  in  command 
of  the  American  forces,  attempted  to  do.  Both 
Carranza  and  Villa  were  willing  to  neutralize 
the  border,  but  General  Maytorena,  the  leader 
of  the  Villista  force  in  Northern  Mexico,  re- 
fused to  agree  to  such  action.  Villa  thereupon 
attempted  to  replace  Maytorena  with  Gen.  Juan 
Cabral,  but  the  latter  disappeared  shortly  after 
he  was  sent  to  the  border  line.  It  was  not  until 
February  that  Cabral  was  located  in  Arizona, 
having  escaped  from  captivity  in  which  he  had 
been  held  by  Maytorena.  The  neutralization 
pact  was  signed  by  the  Constitutionalists  and 
the  Conventionists  on  January  10th,  but  on 
February  20th  a  coalition  force  of  the  troops  of 
Cabral  and  Ma^'iorena  occupied  Naco,  contrary 
to  the  terms  of  the  agreement.  Again  in  June 
the  pact  was  violated  when  General  Calles,  lead- 
ing the  Carranza  forces,  captured  the  same  city. 
Later  he  advanced  on  Nogales,  but  abandoned 
the  attack  when  the  American  government  en- 
tered a  strong  protest  with  Carranza. 

The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Villa's  Poweb.  De- 
feats at  Amazoc  and  Puebla,  southeast  of  Mex- 
ico City,  and  at  San  Lorenzo,  northeast  of  the 
capital,  made  it  necessary  for  Villa  to  evacuate 
Mexico  City  hurriedly,  and  on  the  26th  of  Janu- 
ary the  Conventionist  forces  retreated  north- 
ward from  the  capital.  The  bandit  chieftain 
was  not  beaten,  however,  by  any  means.  Early 
in  February  he  encountered  the  forces  of  Gutier- 
rez and  Carranza  in  separate  battles  at  San  Luis 
Potosf  and  won  decisive  victories.  At  the  same 
time  he  proclaimed  himself  "at  the  head  of  the 
presidency."  In  the  vicinity  of  Monterey,  one 
of  the  strongholds  of  the  Conventionists,  Villa 
again  encountered  Carranza,  forcing  him  to  fiee 
southward.  General  Gonzales  announced  that  he 
expected  to  make  an  attack  on  Monterey,  and, 
though  the  attack  actually  was  begun  shortly 
afterwards,  the  city  was  not  captured  until  near 
the  end  of  May.  Villa  next  moved  to  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  country,  where  on  February  13th 
he  captured  Guadalajara,  the  second  most  im- 
portant city  of  Mexico,  forcing  General  Dieguez 
with  10,000  Constitutionalists  to  flee.  Early  in 
March  the  Conventionists  recaptured  Mexico 
City  from  Obregon.  Villa  was  now  at  the  height 
of  his  power  in  Mexico.  He  held  Monterey,  Tor- 
reon,  Guadalajara,  and  Mexico  City,  and  North- 
ern Mexico  was  almost  unanimously  sympathetic 
with  the  cause  of  the  Conventionists.  On  March 
24th  Villa  renounced  all  claims  to  the  presidency 


and  named  Garza  the  provisional  president.  A 
coalition  cabinet,  acceptable  to  Villa,  Zapata, 
and  Garza,  was  formed,  as  follows:  Foreign  re- 
lations, Diaz  Lombardo;  interior,  Francisco  La- 
gos Chazaro;  treasury,  Francisco  Escudero;  jus- 
tice, Manuel  Mendez  Lopez;  communications, 
Luis  Garza  Cardenas;  public  instruction,  Valen- 
tine Gama;  public  works,  Otillo  Montano;  ag- 
riculture, Manuel  Palafox;  war.  Gen.  Francisco 
Pacheco.  During  the  month  of  April  Villa's 
power  declined.  He  made  several  desperate  ef- 
forts to  crush  Carranza  and  Obregon,  but  ac- 
complished little.  Terrific  fighting  was  carried 
on  at  Celaya,  Tampico,  Nuevo  Laredo,  and  in 
the  district  surrounding  Vera  Cruz.  In  three 
disastrous  attempts  to  capture  Celaya  from  Gen- 
eral Obregon,  Villa  lost  in  killed  and  wounded 
more  than  20,000  men.  After  this  setback  he 
retreated  to  Aguascalientes.  The  fighting  at 
Tampico  had  practically  isolated  the  city,  and 
the  people  were  on  the  verge  of  starvation.  For- 
eign merchants  found  it  necessary  to  loan  a 
sum  of  money  to  the  city  in  order  that  provi- 
sions might  be  bought  for  the  starving  inhabi- 
tants. During  May,  Villa  won  victories  at 
Chica,  Quer^taro,  Panuca,  and  Silao,  but  lost 
Monterey  and  battles  at  Paredon  and  Trinidad 
Station.  During  the  summer  months  Villa  re- 
mained inactive  with  the  exception  of  several 
indecisive  battles  which  he  fought  around  Tor- 
reon. 

Mexico  City  and  the  Civil  Wab.  No  other 
city  played  so  significant  a  rOle  in  the  conflict 
between  the  rival  factions  as  the  federal  capi- 
tal, Mexico  City.  The  moral  effect  of  being  in 
possession  of  the  capital  served  as  a  continuous 
incentive  for  the  contending  armies.  During  the 
year  the  Conventionists  and  the  Constitutional- 
ists each  held  the  capital  for  three  periods,  rang- 
ing from  several  days  to  Ave  months  in  length. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  as  above  stated, 
the  capital  was  m  the  possession  of  the  Villista 
forces.  The  victories  of  General  Obregon,  how- 
ever, at  Puebla,  Amazoc,  and  San  Lorenzo,  com- 
pelled the  Conventionists  at  the  end  of  January 
to  withdraw  to  safer  quarters,  leaving  Provi- 
sional President  Garza  to  face  the  enemy  alone 
or  withdraw  as  best  he  could.  Garza  chose  the 
latter  course  and  on  the  28th  of  January  Gen- 
eral Obregon  entered  the  capital  city.  Late  in 
February  Obregon  evoked  a  protest  from  the 
United  States  government  by  levying  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  foreigners  in  Mexico  City.  Notwith- 
standing the  protests  of  Obregon,  Carranza  re- 
moved the  tax  on  Americans.  Obregon  gave  vent 
to  his  wrath,  it  was  reported,  by  inciting  riots 
against  foreigners.  There  were  at  the  time  some 
2000  Spaniards,  250  Americans,  and  a  large 
number  of  British,  French,  and  Italian  subjects 
within  the  capital.  Shops  owned  by  foreign- 
ers, particularly  the  Spanish,  were  pillaged 
and  no  redress  could  be  obtained.  Spain  and 
Great  Britain,  through  the  United  States,  both 
protested  against  these  indignities.  Obregon 
thereupon  threatened  to  evacuate  the  city  and 
leave  the  foreigners  at  the  mercy  of  the  rioters. 
Food  was  running  scarce  and  communication 
with  the  outside  world  was  almost  impossible. 
Finally,  early  in  March,  Obregon  was  compelled 
to  evacuate  the  city,  and  General  Zapata 
marched  in  with  the  Conventionist  forces.  The 
latter,  however,  also  were  incensed  against  for- 
eigners, and  in  the  course  of  some  rioting  mur- 
dered an  American  citizen,  J.  B.  McManus,  who 


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was  residing  in  the  capital.  An  especially  strong 
protest  from  the  United  States,  through  the  Bra- 
zilian ambassador,  Sefior  Cardoso,  elicited  an 
apology  for  the  outrage,  as  well  as  the  payment 
of  $20,000  to  the  widow  of  McManus.  This  was 
the  first  time  during  the  progress  of  the  revo- 
lution that  any  foreign  government  had  been 
able  to  secure  reparation  for  insults  or  injuries 
to  its  subjects.  The  occupation  of  the  capital 
by  the  Conventionists  by  no  means  caused  a 
cessation  of  the  rioting  and  anti-foreign  out- 
breaks which  had  been  in  progress.  The  danger 
to  which  foreigners  were  subjected  still  was  so 
great  that  the  United  States  government  in 
April  endeavored  to  obtain  the  neutralization  of 
the  city.  Carranza  refused  the  offer  on  the 
ground  that  Mexico  City  was  the  objective  point 
of  his  entire  campaign,  and  that  to  neutralize  the 
city  would  be  to  give  the  other  side  a  decided 
advantage.  Early  in  May  fresh  riots  broke  out 
and  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Provi- 
sional President  Garza,  who  had  been  renamed 
president  on  March  24th  by  Villa.  Food  and 
other  provisions  were  becoming  scarce,  and  a 
crisis  appeared  to  be  at  hand.  By  June  the  city 
was  almost  completely  isolated,  foreigners  and 
natives  were  actually  suffering  from  a  lack  of 
food,  and  no  one's  life  was  safe  either  on  the 
streets  or  in  the  homes. 

Foreign  Complications.  The  disregard 
shown  by  the  warring  factions  for  the  lives  and 
property  of  forei^ers  in  Mexico  repeatedly 
threatened  to  precipitate  foreign  intervention. 
In  January,  to  cite  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
instances,  the  Tehuantepec  railway  tunnel  was 
blown  up  and  bridges  destroyed.  As  the  railway 
was  owned  by  the  Cowdray  interests  and  man- 
aged jointly  by  the  British  firm  of  Pearson  & 
Son,  Ltd.,  and  the  Mexican  government,  the  Brit- 
ish ambassador.  Sir  Cecil  Spring-Rice,  was  con- 
strained to  inform  the  United  States  government 
that  Great  Britain  viewed  the  destruction  of 
British  property  in  Mexico  with  grave  concern. 
Only  a  few  days  after  the  destruction  of  the 
railway  tunnel,  an  additional  cause  for  alarm 
was  given  by  the  action  of  General  Carranza  in 
annulling  all  land  grants  authorized  since  1876, 
and  forbidding  the  further  exploitation  of  min- 
eral resources  in  such  lands.  The  Governments 
of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  fearing 
that  the  First  Chief  intended  to  maintain  a 
ruinous  embargo  on  the  exportation  of  oil  from 
Vera  Cruz  and  to  confiscate  the  foreign-owned 
oil-wells,  protested  so  vigorously  that  the  Con- 
stitutionalist leader  consented  to  respect  the  le- 
gitimate interests  of  foreign  capitalists  in  Mexi- 
can oil-wells.  In  February,  Carranza  threatened 
to  incur  the  hostility  of  Spain  by  forcing  Sefior 
Jos6  Cara,  the  Spanish  minister  to  Mexico,  to 
leave  the  country.  At  the  same  time,  Carranza 
invited  all  foreign  diplomats  to  remove  from 
Mexico  City  to  Vera  Cruz.  The  dispute  with 
Spain  was  adjusted  satisfactorily  in  March,  when 
the  Spanish  government  accepted  Carranza's  ex- 
planation of  the  dismissal  of  Sefior  Cara.  A 
fresh  crisis  was  caused  by  the  attempt  of  Car- 
ranza*s  lieutenant.  General  Obregon,  to  exact 
cash  contributions  from  foreigners  domiciled  in 
Mexico  City.  Protests  were  immediately  regis- 
tered at  Washington  by  Sir  Cecil  Spring-Rice, 
British  ambassador,  and  Sefior  Juan  Riano, 
Spanish  ambassador.  Carranza  was  finally  in- 
duced to  overrule  General  Obregon  and  rescind 
the  tax.    Later  the  Constitutionalist  leader  is- 


sued an  order  closing  the  port  of  Progreso  and 
detaining,  two  American  ships.  This  time  the 
United  States,  instead  of  merely  protesting,  sent 
two  warships  to  Progreso,  causing  Carranza  to 
revoke  his  closure  order.  Further  difficulties  re- 
sulted from  the  plundering  of  Spanish  shops  in 
Mexico  City,  and  the  precarious  situation  of  for- 
eigners resident  in  the  capital;  Great  Britain, 
Brazil,  and  Italy,  as  well  as  Spain,  expressed 
to  the  State  Department  at  Washington  their 
anxiety  in  behalf  of  their  citizens.  Even  the 
Turki^  government  was  concerned,  and  de- 
manded an  investigation  of  the  execution  of  two 
Syrians,  Salamon  Nigri  and  Rafael  Tereze,  by 
General  Villa.  Carranza's  troops,  furthermore, 
were  accused  of  killing  several  German  and  Japa- 
nese citizens  during  the  year.  In  consequence 
of  the  chaotic  condition  of  Mexico,  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  fix  responsibility  for  the  indignities 
suffered  by  foreigners,  or  even  to  investigate  the 
outrages  which  guerrilla  chieftains  were  alleged 
to  have  perpetrated. 

President  Wilson's  Attitude.  Taking  cog- 
nizance of  the  disastrous  results  of  the  Consti- 
tutionalist revolution.  President  Wilson,  on  June 
2nd,  issued  a  remarkable  statement  or  declara- 
tion of  policy,  copies  of  which  were  sent  to  Car- 
ranza, Villa,  Zapata,  and  Garza: 

"For  more  than  two  years  revolutionary  con- 
ditions have  existed  in  Mexico.  The  purpose  of 
the  revolution  was  to  rid  Mexico  of  men  who 
ignored  the  constitution  of  the  republic  and  used 
their  power  in  contempt  of  the  right  of  its  peo- 
ple, and  with  these  purposes  the  United  States 
instinctively  and  generously  sympathized.  Bat 
the  leaders  of  the  revolution,  in  the  very  hour  of 
their  success,  have  disagreed  and  turned  their 
arms  against  one  another. 

"All  professing  the  same  objects,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  unable  or  unwilling  to  cooperate.  A 
central  authority  at  Mexico  City  is  no  sooner  set 
up  than  it  is  undermined  and  its  authority  de- 
fied by  those  who  were  expected  to  support  it. 

"Mexico  is  apparently  no  nearer  a  solution  of 
her  tragical  troubles  than  she  was  when  the 
revolution  was  first  kindled.  And  she  has  been 
swept  by  civil  war  as  if  by  fire.  Her  crops  are 
destroyed,  her  fields  lie  unseeded,  her  work  cattle 
are  confiscated  for  the  use  of  the  armed  factions, 
her  people  fiee  to  the  mountains  to  escape  being 
drawn  into  unavailing  bloodshed,  and  no  man 
seems  to  see  or  lead  the  way  to  peace  and  settled 
order. 

"There  is  no  proper  protection,  either  for  her 
citizens  or  for  the  citizens  of  other  nations,  resi- 
dent and  at  work  within  her  territory.  Mexico 
is  starving  and  without  a  government. 

"In  these  circumstances  the  people  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  cannot  stand  in- 
differently by  and  do  nothing  to  save  their  neigh- 
bor. They  want  nothing  for  themselves  in  Mexico. 
Least  of  all  do  they  desire  to  settle  her  affairs 
for  her,  or  claim  any  right  to  do  so.  But  neither 
do  they  wish  to  see  utter  ruin  come  upon  her, 
and  they  deem  it  their  duty  as  friends  and  neigh- 
bors to  lend  any  aid  they  properly  can  to  any 
instrumentality  which  promises  to  be  effective  in 
bringing  about  a  settlement  which  will  embody 
the  real  objects  of  the  revolution — constitu- 
tional government  and  the  rights  of  the  people.'' 

The  Situation  in  June.  The  immediate  ef- 
fect of  President  Wilson's  declaration  was  not  to 
conciliate,  but  rather  to  stimulate  the  rival  Mex- 
ican factions  to  renewed  military  activity,  be- 


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cause  the  President's  concluding  sentence  seemed 
to  imply  that  if  either  party  could  win  a  decisive 
victory,  it  would  receive  aid  from  the  United 
States  in  ''bringinff  about  a  settlement"  in  the  in> 
terests  of  "the  real  objects  of  the  revolution."  At 
the  time  President  Wilson's  declaration  was  is- 
sued, the  contest  between  Villa  and  Zapata  on 
the  one  hand  and  Carranza  and  Obregon  on  the 
other  seemed  to  have  reached  a  deadlock.  Villa, 
it  will  be  recalled,  had  been  defeated  at  Gelaya  in 
April  and  had  withdrawn  to  Aguascalientes.  In 
May  he  had  engaged  in  a  protracted  struggle 
with  Greneral  Obregon,  and  at  last  claimed  a  vic- 
tory (at  Silao),  May  22nd.  Carranza,  however, 
had  consistently  denied  reports  of  Villa's  vic- 
tories, and  had  announced  victories  for  his  own 
forces  at  Monterey,  Paredon,  and  Guanajuato. 
About  June  Ist,  it  was  estimated,  the  forces  at 
the  disposal  of  Carranza,  including  General  Ob- 
regon's  army  of  about  20,000  men  near  Leon, 
G^.  Pablo  Gonzales's  army  of  15,000  at  Puebla, 
and  other  scattered  forces,  aggregated  over  50,000 
men.  General  Villa,  in  the  vicinity  of  Aguas- 
calientes, commanded  almost  40,000  men,  while 
Zapata,  operating  around  Mexico  City,  had  about 
a  fourth  as  many  troops.  In  Sonora  warlike 
bands  of  Yaqui  Indians  were  terrorizing  the 
populace.  Nor  must  the  "army"  of  3000  men  be 
forgotten,  with  which  ex-Provisional  President 
GuUerrez,  in  the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosf,  main- 
tained his  forlorn  hope.  Events  moved  rapidly 
the  first  week  in  June,  following  the  publication 
of  the  Wilson  declaration.  Villa  having  cap- 
tured Silao,  struck  at  General  Obregon's  forces, 
which  had  been  slowly  advancing  northwards. 
The  blow  failed,  and  Obregon's  advance  continued 
irresistibly,  forcing  Villa  to  retreat  northwards 
in  the  direction  of  Zacatecas  and  Torreon. 
Meanwhile  the  situation  of  the  Zapata-Villa 
forces  in  Mexico  City  became  critical.  In  the 
face  of  impending  disaster,  the  Conventionists  in 
Mexico  City  deposed  Provisional  President  Roque 
Gonzales  Garza,  and  elected  as  his  successor  La- 
goz  Chazaro,  one  of  Villa's  followers,  who  had 
been  Governor  of  Vera  Cruz  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Madero.  Botib  Chazaro  and  Villa  re- 
plied to  President  Wilson's  declaration,  Chazaro 
by  threatening  to  resist  foreign  interference. 
Villa  by  denying  the  necessity  for  intervention. 
Carranza  emphatically  refused  to  accept  any 
programme  of  conciliation  involving  compromise 
with  Villa;  the  pacification  of  Mexico,  he  de- 
clared, could  be  achieved  only  by  the  complete 
victorv  of  the  Constitutionalists.  Accordingly, 
he  ordered  Gen.  Pablo  Gonzales  to  push  his  cam- 
paign against  Mexico  City  with  the  utmost  vigor, 
m  order  that  a  military  decision  might  be 
reached.  Four  members  of  Carranza's  cabinet 
refusing  to  support  the  First  Chief  in  his  un- 
yielding attitude,  tendered  their  resignations — 
Rafael  Zubaran,  minister  of  the  interior;  Luis 
Cabrera,  minister  of  finance;  Jesus  Urueta, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs;  and  Escudero  Ver- 
dugo,  minister  of  justice.  Meanwhile  the  law- 
less activities  of  the  Yaqui  Indians  in  the  State 
of  Sonora  had  become  so  intolerable  that  the 
United  States  government  decided  to  send  a 
small  landing  party  to  protect  American  lives 
and  property  on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico. 
The  situation  was  still  further  complicated  by  a 
dispute  between  Villa  and  the  British  govern- 
ment over  the  killing  of  four  British  subjects  at 
Tuxpam;  reparation  was  sternly  demanded  by 
Great  Britain,  and  British  subjects  were  warned 


by  Sir  Edward  Grey,  June  2 Ist,  that  it  was  un- 
safe to  visit .  Mexico.  From  Mexico  City  came 
reports  that  riots  were  frequent,  that  shops  were 
being  plundered,  that  a  hundred  thousand  per- 
sons were  suffering  from  lack  of  food.  To  cap 
the  climax,  Victoriano  Huerta,  the  former  dic- 
tator, appeared  in  New  Mexico,  with  the  inten- 
tion, it  seemed,  of  inaugurating  a  counter-revolu- 
tion (cf.  infra).  It  was  under  these  circum- 
stances that  the  United  States  government,  de- 
spairing of  the  ability  or  intention  of  the  Mexi- 
can revolutionists  to  restore  law  and  order  in 
their  unhappy  country,  on  June  30th  invited  the 
ambassadors  and  ministers  of  Argentina,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Guatemala,  and  Uruguay  to  par- 
ticipate in  a  conference  for  the  discussion  of  the 
Mexican  problem,  llie  results  of  the  meeting  of 
this  conference  in  August  are  discussed  in  a  sub- 
seouent  paragraph. 

The  Contebt  fob  Mexico  City  in  July.  Dur- 
ing the  month  of  July,  in  the  interval  between 
the  invitation  for  the  Pan-American  Conference 
and  the  meeting  of  the  Conference,  interest  cen- 
tred in  the  con&st  for  possession  of  Mexico  City. 
General  Gonzales's  attack  on  the  city  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  June  forced  the  Zapata-Villa  army 
to  evacuate  the  city,  and  General  Gonzales  tri- 
umphantly took  possession  of  the  capital,  July 
lOfli,  in  the  name  of  Carranza.  Zapata,  how- 
ever, speedilv  succeeded  in  cutting  off  the  water 
supply  of  the  city,  while  Villa  dispatched  an 
army  to  capture  Quer^taro  and  Pachuca,  menac- 
ing the  communications  of  the  Constitutionalist 
army.  Gonzales  therefore  prudently  withdrew 
from  Mexico  City,  July  19th,  and  Zapata  again 
became  master  of  the  city.  The  isolation  of  the 
city  from  the  outside  world  caused  intense  mis- 
ery. The  scarcity  of  food  became  alarming. 
Urgently  the  United  States  government  de- 
manded that  the  Constitutionalists  permit  food 
to  be  sent  to  relieve  the  starving  population  of 
Mexico  City.  In  response  to  the  State  Depart- 
ment's protests,  General  "Carranza  ordered  Gon- 
zales to  attack  Mexico  City  once  more.  The  at- 
tack succeeded,  and  General  Gonzales  occupied 
the  city;  but  complaints  regarding  conditions  in 
Mexico  City  continued  to  appear  in  the  press. 

The  Pan-Amebican  Conference.  On  August 
5th  the  representatives  of  Argentina,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Uruguay,  Guatemala,  and  the 
United  States  met  in  consultation  at  Washington 
to  decide  upon  the  course  to  be  pursued  in  rela- 
tion to  the  warring  Mexican  factions.  The  con- 
ference immediately  resolved  to  send  an  appeal, 
August  11th,  to  the  leaders  of  the  rival  parties, 
in  order  to  bring  an  end  to  the  civil  war  and  es- 
tablish a  provisional  government.  The  text  of 
the  appeal  follows: 

"The  undersigned,  the  Secretary  of  State  of 
the  United  States,  and  Ambassadors  Extraordi- 
nary and  Plenipotentiary  of  Brazil,  Chile,  and 
Argentina,  and  the  Envoys  Extraordinary  and 
Ministers  Plenipotentiary  of  Bolivia,  Uruguay, 
and  Guatemala,  accredited  to  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  acting  severally 
and  independently,  unanimously  send  to  you  the 
following  communication : 

"Inspired  by  the  most  sincere  spirit  of  Amer- 
ican fraternity,  and  convinced  that  they  rightly 
interpret  the  earnest  wish  of  the  entire  conti- 
nent, they  have  met  informally  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States 
to  consider  the  Mexican  situation  and  to  ascer- 
tain   whether    their    friendly   and   disinterested 


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help  could  be  successfully  employed  to  relSstab- 
lish  peace  and  constitutional  order  in  our  sister 
republic. 

"In  the  heat  of  the  frightful  struggle  which 
for  so  long  has  steeped  in  blood  the  Mexican  soil, 
doubtless  all  may  well  have  lost  sight  of  the 
dissolving  effects  of  the  strife  upon  the  most  vi- 
tal conditions  of  the  national  existence,  not  only 
upon  the  life  and  liberty  of  the  inhabitants,  but 
on  the  prestige  and  security  of  the  country.  We 
cannot  doubt,  however — ^no  one  can  doubt — that 
in  the  presence  of  a  sympathetic  appeal  from 
their  brothers  of  America,  recalling  to  them 
these  disastrous  effects,  asking  them  to  save  their 
motherland  from  an  abyss — no  one  can  doubt, 
we  repeat — that  the  patriotism  of  men  who  lead 
or  aid  in  any  way  the  bloody  strife  will  not  re- 
main unmoved;  no  one  can  doubt  that  each  and 
every  one  of  them,  measuring  in  his  own  con- 
science his  share  in  the  responsibilities  of  past 
misfortune  and  looking  forward  to  his  share  in 
the  glory  of  the  pacification  and  reconstruction 
of  the  country,  will  respond,  nobly  and  reso- 
lutely, to  this  friendly  appeal  and  give  their  best 
efforts  to  opening  the  way  to  some  saving  ac- 
tion. 

"We,  the  undersigned,  believe  that  if  the  men 
directing  the  armed  movement  in  Mexico — should 
agree  to  meet,  either  in  person  or  by  delegates, 
far  from  the  sound  of  cannon,  and  with  no  other 
inspiration  save  the  thought  of  their  afflicted 
land,  there  to  exchange  ideas  and  to  determine 
the  fate  of  the  country — from  such  action  would 
undoubtedly  result  the  strong  and  unyielding 
agreement  requisite  to  the  creation  of  a  provi- 
sional government,  which  should  adopt  the  first 
steps  necessary  to  the  constitutional  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  country — and  to  issue  the  first  and 
most  essential  of  them  all,  the  immediate  call  to 
general  elections. 

"An  adequate  place  within  the  Mexican  fron- 
tiers, which  for  the  purpose  might  be  neutralized, 
should  serve  as  the  seat  of  the  conference,  and  in 
order  to  bring  about  a  conference  of  this  nature 
the  undersigned,  or  any  of  them,  will  willingly, 
upon  invitation,  act  as  intermediaries  to  arrange 
the  time,  place,  and  other  details  of  such  confer- 
ence, if  this  action  can  in  any  way  aid  the  Mex- 
ican people. 

"The  undersigned  expect  a  reply  to  this  com- 
munication within  a  reasonable  time,  and  con- 
sider that  such  a  time  would  be  10  days  after 
the  communication  is  delivered,  subject  to  proro- 
gation for  cause." 

Villa  readily  accepted  this  offer  of  the  powers 
to  meet  in  a  peace  conference.  Carranza  delayed 
answering  the  report  by  making  inquiry  as  to 
whether  the  signatories  of  the  document  were  the 
accredited  representatives  of  their  respective 
governments.  The  subordinates  of  the  Constitu- 
tionalist leader,  however,  rejected  the  offer  with- 
out further  consideration  and  expressed  resent- 
ment at  the  interference  of  the  Pan-American 
powers.  On  September  3rd  Carranza  was  in- 
formed that  the  signatures  to  the  document  were 
official.  One  week  later  it  was  officially  an- 
nounced from  Constitutionalist  headquarters 
that  the  chieftain  had  rejected  the  offer.  Car- 
ranza, it  was  said,  could  not  consent  "that  the 
interior  affairs  of  the  republic  be  handled  by 
mediation  or  by  tlie  initiative  of  any  foreign 
government."  Instead  he  suggested  a  border 
conference  at  which  the  international  aspect  of 
the  Mexican  situation  could  be  discussed.    The 


Pan-American  Conference,  however,  did  not  favor 
going  to  Mexico  or  Texas  to  meet  the  Mexican 
leaders. 

Recognition  of  Carranza.  The  Conference 
met  in  New  York  City  on  September  18th,  and 
after  deliberation  decided  that  recognition  should 
be  given  to  the  Mexican  faction  which  possessed 
"the  material  and  moral  capacity  necessary  to 
protect  the  lives  and  property  of  natives  and 
foreigners."  Three  weeks  later,  on  October  ftth, 
the  representatives  of  the  seven  nations  met 
again  to  decide  which  faction  should  be  recog- 
nized. The  unanimous  choice  was  for  Carranza 
and  the  Constitutionalists.  Each  of  the  seven 
governments  accepted  the  decision  of  the  Con- 
ference. Before  granting  recognition  to  the  Con- 
stitutionalist leader,  who  had  been  fighting  for 
two  and  a  half  years  against  Huerta  and  Villa, 
the  Conference  secured  certain  promises  from 
him.  These  promises  were  (1)  that  the  lives 
and  property  of  foreigners  and  natives  in  Mex- 
ico should  be  protected ;  ( 2 )  that  members  of  re- 
ligious orders  be  permitted  to  return  and  be  se- 
cure in  life  and  property  on  condition  that  they 
did  not  enter  politics;  (3)  that  general  amnesty 
be  granted  to  Mexicans,  excepting  the  real 
leaders  of  the  opposing  factions;  (4)  that  the 
de  facto  government  take  steps  to  restore  law 
and  order,  to  provide  for  general  elections,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  Constitutionalist  order  in 
Mexico. 

Carranza  expressed  appreciation  of  the  action 
of  the  Conference,  and  agreed  to  send  diplomatic 
agents  to  each  of  the  countries.  Nicaragua  and 
Colombia  joined  with  the  other  seven  nations  on 
October  18th  officially  in  recognizing  Carranza 
as  the  Chief  Executive  of  the  Republic  of  Mex- 
ico. Each  of  the  countries  prepared  to  send  a 
representative  to  Mexico,  while  in  the  United 
States  President  Wilson  ordered  an  embargo  on 
all  shipments  of  arms  from  this  country  to  Mex- 
ico, except  those  consigned  to  the  Carranza  gov- 
ernment. It  was  hoped  that  the  recognition  of 
Carranza  would  end  the  long  conflict  which  had 
been  in  progress  in  Mexico.  It  was  felt  that 
Carranza,  while  not  an  ideal  President,  was, 
nevertheless,  the  most  powerful  man  in  Mexico 
and  should  be  able,  therefore,  to  restore  order 
in  the  turbulent  republic. 

The  Defeat  of  Villa.  In  consequence  of  the 
moral  advantage  of  recognition  as  de  facto  Chief 
of  the  Mexican  government,  and  thanks  also  to 
the  material  advantage  given  him  by  President 
Wilson's  embargo  on  the  export  of  arms  to  other 
Mexican  factions,  Carranza  was  able  to  make 
rapid  progress  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Conven- 
tionists,  who  stubbornly  refused  to  accept  the  de- 
cision of  the  Pan-American  Conference.  On  No- 
vember 8th  200  of  Zapata's  officers  laid  down 
their  arms.  Gutierrez,  the  former  Provisional 
President,  likewise  surrendered.  Chazaro  was 
killed.  Villa,  however,  determined  to  fight  to 
the  end,  and  defied  both  the  United  States  and 
the  Carranza  government.  In  November  Villa 
laid  siege  to  Agua  Prieta,  across  the  border  from 
Douglass,  Arizona.  He  was  forced  to  abandon 
the  siege  in  order  to  protect  himself  against  the 
two  Constitutionalist  armies  w^hich  now  ad- 
vanced against  him,  one  from  the  direction  of 
Hermosillo,  the  other  from  Torreon.  In  Decem- 
ber Villa's  forces  in  Sonora  were  defeated  and 
driven  westward  into  Chihuahua,  where  they 
continued  to  resist  the  Constitutionalists.  Al- 
though it  was  reported,  December  21st,  that  rep- 


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resentatives  of  Villa  and  of  Carranza  had  agreed 
on  peace  terms,  stipulating  for  amnesty  for 
Villa's  adherents,  and  although  certain  of  Villa's 
lieutenants  undoubtedly  accepted  Carranza's 
terms,  the  rebel  leader  himself  still  remained  in 
the  field,  with  a  pitifully  small  and  rapidly 
dwindling  force.  Meanwhile  Carranza  had  re- 
ceived recognition  from  Great  Britain  and  other 
Powers  in  addition  to  the  seven  American  gov- 
ernments which  had  taken  the  initiative  in  the 
matter.  An  interesting  dispatch  at  the  very 
close  of  the  year  indicated  that  the  newly  recog- 
nized Provisional  President  had  annulled  all  con- 
cessions and  contracts  made  by  the  Huerta  and 
Convention ist  regimes. 

Alleged  Religious  Persecution.  Although 
Carranza  had  promised  to  establish  and  maintain 
religious  liberty  in  Mexico,  complaints  were  per- 
sistently made  throughout  the  year  1915  that 
the  Constitutionalists  in  various  localities  were 
conducting  a  bitter  campaign  against  the  Cath- 
olic Church.  Mr.  Joseph  Tumulty,  secretary  to 
President  Wilson,  denied  the  oft-repeated  alle- 
gation that  the  Constitutionalists  had  been 
guilty  of  assaults  upon  nuns.  The  American 
Federation  of  Catholic  Societies,  however,  made 
public  a  declaration  that  affidavits  had  been  sub- 
mitted to  the  United  States  government,  prov- 
ing that  religious  women  in  Mexican  convents 
had  been  outraged  by  the  lawless  Constitution- 
alists. In  regard  to  the  confiscation  of  church 
property  little  doubt  seemed  to  exist.  It  was 
furthermore  alleged  that  in  certain  districts,  in 
Yucatan  and  Morelos  for  example,  decrees  had 
been  issued  by  Constitutionalist  authorities,  pro- 
hibiting or  restricting  the  free  exercise  of  the 
Catholic  religion. 

Death  of  Diaz.  One  chapter  of  Mexican  his- 
tory was  closed  definitely  on  July  2nd,  when 
Porfirio  Diaz,  the  famous  ex-dictator  of  Mexico, 
died  at  Paris. 

iMPBisoNMENT  OF  HuEBTA.  At  the  end  of 
March,  Victoriano  Huerta,  who  had  been  living 
in  retirement  in  Spain,  took  passage  for  New 
York.  In  spite  of  the  protests  of  Villa  and  Za- 
pata, the  United  States  government  allowed  the 
ex-dictator  to  enter  the  country,  on  condition 
that  he  would  renounce  all  intention  of  entering 
Mexico  or  Cuba.  In  June,  however.  General  Hu- 
erta was  discovered  in  New  Mexico,  in  company 
with  General  Orozco.  Both  were  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  violating  American  neutrality  by  con- 
spiring on  American  soil  to  start  a  new  revolt  in 
Mexico.  Bail  was  furnished  for  both  prisoners, 
but  Orozco  shortly  escaped  into  Mexico,  and 
Huerta  was  again  arrested  and  imprisoned.  Or- 
ozco was  later  killed  at  the  head  of  a  raiding 
party. 

See  also  United  States,  History. 

MEZIJiBES,  Alfred  Jean.  French  scholar 
and  writer,  died  Oct.  12,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Rehon  in  1826,  and  was  educated  in  Metz  and 
Paris.  From  1881  to  1900  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  notable  works  on  literature,  and  was 
at  the  time  of  his  death  the  oldest  living  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy.  See  also  Academy, 
Fbench. 

2CIAMI  UNIVEBSITY.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  founded  at  Oxford,  Ohio,  in 
1809.  There  were  enrolled  in  the  autumn  of 
1915,  771  students,  and  there  were  in  the  fac- 
ulty 47  professors,  associate  professors,  and  as- 
sistant professors,  and  8  instructors.    The  uni- 


versity received  during  the  year  a  bequest  of 
about  $425,000  from  Mrs.  Whaling,  of  which 
$250,000  was  for  a  men's  dormitory  and  $175,- 
000  for  endowment.  The  library  contains  about 
45,000  volumes. 

MICHiaAN.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
3,015,442.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,810,- 
173. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

Corn  

..1915 

1,750,000 

56,000,000  $88,080,000 

1914 

1,750,000 

68,000.000 

42,210.000 

Wheat  ... 

..1915 

960,000 

20,448,000 

20,652,000 

1914 

879,000 

17,816,000 

17,885,000 

Oat«  

..1915 

1,530,000 

64,260,000 

22,491,000 

1914 

1,515,000 

50,752.000 

22,888,000 

Rye  .... 

..1915 

890.000 

6,045.000 

5,188.000 

1914 

871,000 

5.936.000 

5,402.000 

Barley  .  . 

..1915 

85.000 

2.508,000 

1.555,000 

1914 

90,000 

2,340.000 

1,621.000 

Potatoes'  . 

..1915 

855,000 

20,945,000 

11,729.000 

1914 

864,000 

44,044,000 

13,213,000 

Hay  .... 

..1915 

2,470,000 

a  8.458,000 

42,188.000 

1914 

2,852,000 

8,011,000 

86.182,000 

a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  680,000  and 
673,000  valued  at  $87,640,000  and  $88,836,000,* 
mules  numbered  4000  and  4000  valued  at  $532,- 
000  and  $524,000,  milch  cows  numbered  847,000 
and  814,000  valued  at  $47,601,000  and  $49,247,- 
000,  other  cattle  numbered  735,000  and  707,000 
valued  at  $20,066,000  and  $21,069,000,  sheep 
numbered  1,931,000  and  2,033,000  valued  at 
$11,007,000  and  $10,165,000,  swine  numbered  1,- 
462,000  and  1,392,000  valued  at  $13,158,000 
and  $15,173,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  8,098,000  and  8,073,000 
pounds  respectively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  production  of  the 
refined  copper  in  the  State  was  158,009,748 
pounds,  compared  with  155,715,286  pounds  in 
1913.  The  reduced  production  resulted,  in  1913, 
from  the  strike  of  miners  which  continued 
throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  year  and  con- 
tinued up  until  April  12,  1914.  Michigan  ranks 
second  in  the  total  production  of  this  mineral. 
At  the  close  of  1914  there  had  been  produced  5,- 
519,442,640  pounds.  The  total  production  of  cop- 
per in  that  year  amounted  to  164,344,058  pounds, 
valued  at  $21,857,759,  as  compared  with  135,- 
853,409  pounds,  valued  at  $21,057,278.  The  coal 
production  in  the  State  in  1914  was  1,283,030 
short  tons,  valued  at  $2,559,786,  compared  with 
1,231,786  tons,  valued  at  $2,455,227  in  1913. 
The  coal  production  has  exceeded  2,000,000  tons 
in  one  year  only,  1907.  It  then  decreased  stead- 
ily until  1912,  since  when  it  has  shown  a  slight 
increase.  Michigan  ranks  second  in  the  produc- 
tion of  iron  ore.  There  were  produced  in  1914, 
8,533,280  tons,  compared  with  a  production  of 
12,668,560  in  1913.  The  marketed  value  of  the 
output  of  1914  was  $18,722,358,  compared  with  a 
value  of  $33,479,954  in  1913.  The  total  value  of 
all  mineral  products  in  1914  was  $57,732,447, 
compared  with  $72,143,211  in  1913. 

Transportation.  The  mileage  of  single  track 
railway  on  June  30,  1914,  was  8898.  iSere  was 
practically  no  railway  construction  in  1915. 

Finance.    The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 


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for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1916,  shows 
a  balance  on  hand  July  1,  1914,  of  $10,171,286. 
The  total  receipts  for  the  year  were  $15,940,966 
and  the  disbursements,  $16,636,166,  leaving  a 
balance,  June  30,  1916,  of  $0,576,076. 

Education.  The  latest  statistics  available  for 
education  in  the  State  are  for  Jan.  30,  1914.  On 
that  date  the  total  school  population  was  826,- 
409,  with  a  total  enrollment  in  the  public  schooU 
of  581,351.  The  total  number  of  teachers  was 
19,734.  The  average  monthly  salary  of  men 
teachers  was  $91.27,  and  of  women  teachers, 
$55.71.  There  were  expended  in  teachers'  wages, 
$10,275,281. 

Chabities  and  CoBBEcnoNS.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  Kalamazoo 
State  Hospital,  Pontiac  State  Hospital,  Traverse 
City  State  Hospital,  Newberry  State  Hospital, 
Ionia  State  Hospital,  the  Michigan  Home  for  the 
Feeble-minded  and  Epileptic  at  Liapeer,  the  State 
prisons  at  Jackson  and  Lansing,  the  Michigan 
Reformatory  at  Ionia,  the  Industrial  School  for 
Boys  at  Lansing,  the  State  Industrial  School  for 
Girls  at  Adrian,  the  State  Public  School  at  Cold- 
water,  the  Michigan  School  for  the  Deaf  at  Flint, 
the  Michigan  School  for  the  Blind  at  Lansing, 
the  Michigan  Employment  Institution  for  the 
Blind  at  Saginaw,  the  Michigan  Soldiers'  Home 
at  Grand  Rapids,  the  State  Sanatorium  at  How- 
ell, an  additional  State  Sanatorium  for  the  care 
and  treatment  of  persons  afflicted  with  tuber- 
culosis, and  a  farm  colony  for  the  care  and  treat- 
ment of  epileptics.  There  are  also  imder  the 
care  of  the  State  board  juvenile  courts,  county 
agents  for  the  care  of  the  poor,  maternity  hos- 
pitals, and  child  caring  and  placing  agencies. 

Politics  and  Govebnment.  Gov.  Woodbridge 
N.  Ferris  was  inaugurated  for  a  second  term  on 
January  7th.  In  hie  message  he  urged  the  adop- 
tion of  a  short  ballot,  and  the  submission  of  a 
constitutional  amendment  making  all  State  of- 
ficers, except  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor, 
appointees  of  the  Governor.  He  also  recom- 
mended the  elimination  of  circuit  court  com- 
missioners and  coroners,  and  suggested  that  the 
work  of  these  officials  be  done  by  justices  of  the 
peace.  On  April  5th  a  local  option  election  was 
held  in  the  counties  of  the  State.  No-license  ad- 
vocates were  successful  in  14  counties,  and  li- 
cense advocates  in  2. 

State  Govebnment.  Governor,  Woodbridge 
N.  Ferris;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Luren  D.  Dick- 
inson; Secretary  of  State,  Coleman  C.  Vaughn; 
State  Treasurer,  John  N.  Harrer;  Auditor-Gen- 
eral, Aramel  B.  Fuller;  Attorney-General,  Grant 
Felbours;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Fred  L.  Keller. 

JUDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
John  W.  Stone;  Justices,  Flavins  L.  Brooke, 
Franz  C.  Kuhn,  Russell  C.  Ostrander,  John  E. 
Bird,  Joseph  B.  Moore,  Joseph  H.  Stecre,  RoUin 
H.  Person;  Clerk,  Charles  C.  Hopkins. 

State  Lbgislatube: 

Senate      Houee      Joint  Buttat 

Republicans    29  95  124 

DemocraU   8  6  8 

Repablican   maiority. .     20  90  110 

lOCHiaAN,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education  founded  at  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich.,  m  1837.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  at  the  end  of  the  year   1015, 


was  5821.  In  addition  there  were  868  regis- 
tered in  the  summer  school  and  350  in  the  ex- 
tension courses,  making  the  total  enrollment  on 
Nov.  1,  1915,  7034.  The  total  number  of  offi- 
cers and  instructors  was  665.  There  were  sev- 
eral important  changes  in  the  faculty  during 
the  year.  There  were  lost  by  death  Professors 
Guthe,  D'Ooge,  and  Walker.  The  university  re- 
ceived during  the  year  gifts  of  two  residence 
halls  for  women,  of  the  total  value  of  about 
$550,000.  There  was  completed  during  the  year 
1015  a  large  and  thoroughly  modem  building 
for  the  natural  sciences,  this  building  costing 
somewhat  more  than  $400,000.  The  legislature 
of  1015  gave  to  the  university  an  appropriation 
of  $30,000  for  a  new  library  building.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  at  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year 
were  $063,103.  Of  this  sum  $546,570  were  pro- 
ceeds of  the  sale  of  federal  land  grants,  which 
are  held  by  the  State,  and  on  whidi  it  pays  in- 
terest of  7  per  cent  per  annum.  The  annual 
income  was  $2,535,260,  including  a  balance  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $106,760.  The  li- 
brary, on  June  30,  1015,  contained  352,718  vol- 
umes.   

MIGBOPHONE.  An  ingenious  use  of  tele- 
phone microphones  was  made  by  the  French  ar- 
mies for  detecting  the  approach  of  hostile  air- 
craft. A  battery  of  four  phonograph  horns  was 
mounted  on  a  stand  so  arranged  as  to  be  capa- 
ble of  turning  in  azimuth,  as  well  as  elevated 
to  any  angle  of  altitude  desired.  The  horns 
connected  with  a  common  microphone  from 
which  conducting  cords  were  connected  with 
telephone  receivers.  It  was  reported  that  vnth 
this  device  an  approaching  airship  could  be 
heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles.  In  the 
United  States,  E.  F.  Chandler  invented  a  method 
of  determining  the  altitude  of  airships  so  as  to 
secure  the  range  for  anti-aircraft  guns.  The 
same  arrangement  of  horn  and  microphone  was 
employed,  but  these  were  placed  at  the  angles 
of  a  symmetrical  area  the  lengths  of  whose  sides 
were  accurately  known.  When  the  sound  of 
an  unseen  aeroplane  was  loudest,  as  determined 
by  inclining  each  receiver  independently,  the 
angle  of  inclination  of  each  microphone  was  read 
and  a  rapid  calculation  by  slide  rule  gave  the 
altitude  desired.  Dr.  Lee  De  Forest  was  ex- 
perimenting with  the  same  object  in  view  with 
similar  apparatus,  but  using  his  audion  (sec 
WiBELESS  Tklegbapht)  for  amplifying  the 
sounds.  The  methods  referred  to  above  were 
also  employed  for  detecting  the  approach  of  sub- 
marine vessels. 

MILITABI8M.    See  Socialism. 

MILITABY  ASBONAUTICS..  See  A£bo- 
NAuncs;  and  Militaby  Pbogbess. 

MILITABY  HYGIENE.  See  Miutaby 
Pbogbess 

MILITABY  PBOGBESS.  Unitbd  States. 
General  Progress  and  Preparedness,  In  the 
United  States,  as  in  its  dependencies,  a  state 
of  peace  existed  during  1015.  This  is  not  to  be 
held  to  mean  that  the  situation  had  not  from 
time  to  time  proved  critical.  Anarchy  pre- 
vailed in  Mexico  throughout  the  year;  at  its 
close  some  improvement  manifested  itself  in 
Carranza's  apparently  growing  strength.  The 
condition  of  that  unhappy  country,  carrying  as 
it  did  its  civil  war  to  within  close  rine-range 
of  United  States  territory,  made  it  necessary  to 
continue  the  patrol  of  the  frontier.  At  the  end 
of  the  year,  741  officers  and  10,444  men  were 


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411 


MILITABY  PBOGBESS 


on  dnty  on  the  border  or  adjacent  thereto,  a 
distance  of  2000  miles.  The  discipline  of  the 
troops  under  the  most  trying  circtimstances  re- 
mained exoellent.  The  submarine  policy  of  the 
central  empires  caused  a  serious  strain  in  our 
relations  with  those  countries;  the  close  of  the 
year  saw  improvement. 

A  direct  result  of  the  European  war,  the  sig- 
nificant military  note  in  the  United  States,  was 
the  awakening  of  the  American  people  to  a 
realization  of  the  country's  unpreparedness. 
Both  sides  of  the  question  were  debated.  Those 
who  argued  against  preparedness  maintained 
that  an^  preparation  as  such  meant  a  plunge 
into  militarism;  on  the  opposite  side  were 
found  advocates  even  of  compulsory  service. 
Between  these  extremes  stood  the  advocates  of 
measures,  which  in  President  Hibben's  happy 
phrase,  would  constitute  preparedness  against 
war.  See  also  Switzkbland,  Army.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  interest  of  the  peo- 
ple in  this  question  was  genuine:  proof  may 
be  found  in  the  declarations  of  the  press, 
of  the  pulpit,  and  of  college  faculties.  If 
further  proof  were  needed,  we  have  but  to  con- 
sider the  so-called  ''business  men's"  camps 
(three  in  nimiber),  held  during  the  autumn  at 
Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  Fort  Sheridan,  111.,  and  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  Of  these,  the  most  conspicuous 
was  the  Plattsburg  gathering,  in  which,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  regular  army,  was  to  be 
found  an  unusual  personnel.  The  purpose  of 
all  these  camps  was  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
seriousness  of  the  military  profession,  and  to 
show  the  necessity  of  preparation  and  effort. 
Four  "students' "  camps  were  held  (see  Yeab 
Book,  1914). 

The  awakening  of  the  country  translated  it- 
self into  the  proposals  of  the  secretary  of  war 
to  remedv  the  situation.  In  brief,  the  plan  of 
the  secretary  called  for  an  increase  of  the  r^^- 
lar  army  to  about  142,000  men  by  adding  10 
regiments  of  infantry,  4  of  field  artillery,  62 
companies  of  coast  artillery,  15  of  engineers,  and  4 
a^ro  squadrons.  It  was  further  proposed  to  sup- 
plement the  regular  army  by  a  force  of  400,000 
men  raised  in  increments  of  a  little  over  133,000 
per  year,  who  should  devote  a  specified  time  to 
training  for  a  period  of  three  years,  and  then 
be  on  furlough  for  another  period  of  three 
years,  without  any  obligation  save  that  of  re- 
turning to  the  colors  in  case  of  war  or  immi- 
nency  thereof.  This  force,  designated  as  the 
continental  army,  was  to  be  recruited  terri- 
torially according  to  population,  to  serve  short 
periods  (two  months  per  year)  of  intensive 
training,  and  to  be  officered  by  men  developed 
by  its  own  efforts  and  by  others  drawn  from 
the  National  Guard,  from  the  army  and  no 
longer  on  its  active  list,  and  finally  by  those 
who  had  in  colleges  or  schools  or  oUierwise  ac- 
quired sufficient  military  information  and  ex- 
perience to  be  available.  During  the  time  of 
actual  service  pay,  etc.,  should  ^  the  same  as 
that  of  the  regular  army.  As  the  great  need 
of  the  United  States  in  case  of  war  would  be 
officers,  it  was  proposed  to  organize  a  certain 
number  of  cadet  companies  to  be  attached  to 
regiments  or  other  units  of  cavalry,  field  ar- 
tillery, infantry,  engineers,  coast  artillery 
corps,  and  signal  corps.  These  cadets  were  to 
be  recruited  from  the  National  Guard  and  from 
the  students  and  graduates  of  schools  and  col- 
leges   giving    military    instruction.     Service    in 


the  companies  was  to  be  for  one  year,  followed 
by  five  years  in  officers'  reserve  corps,  if  quali- 
fied therefor.  As  an  alternative  proposition, 
however,  it  was  not  impossible  that  a  better 
system  of  getting  officers  would  be  found  in  re- 
organizing the  military  departments  of  insti- 
tutions under  the  direction  of  officers  of  the 
army,  so  as  to  make  them  in  effect  officers' 
training  schools.  And  lastly,  it  was  proposed 
to  commission  in  the  reserve,  any  other  quali- 
fied citizens,  not  only  those  coming  from  the 
National  Guard,  graduates  of  military  and 
other  institutions,  but  also  civil  engineers,  rail- 
road men,  those  engaged  in  aviation  and  in 
motor  transportation  in  general,  and  to  give 
increased  support  to  the  National  Guard. 

As  germane  to  this  subject  of  a  supply  of 
officers,  certificates  were  issued,  under  the  act 
of  Jan.  21,  1903,  to  37  persons  found  to  be  spe- 
cially qualified  to  hold  volunteer  commissions. 
In  addition,  the  office  of  the  chief  of  staff  had 
a  list  of  about  1400  students  of  civil  institu- 
tions of  learning  recommended  as  qualified,  and 
of  5000  applications  for  appointments  as  offi- 
cers of  volunteers. 

The  plan  of  the  secretary  of  war  just  briefly 
outlined  was  not  the  only  one  suggested.  We 
have  to  mention  that  of  the  general  staff,  not 
officially  approved  up  to  the  end  of  1915,  and 
differing  in  principle  from  that  of  the  secre- 
tary. This  looked  to  a  standing  army,  present 
with  the  colors,  of  about  281,000,  with  such  pro- 
visions for  a  reserve  of  the  regular  army  as 
would,  in  the  course  of  time,  provide  a  home 
force  of  500,000  more  men,  all  of  whom  would 
have  had  regular  training  under  professional  of- 
ficers. Various  other  measures  were  proposed  in 
Congress  before  the  year  closed. 

The  Act  of  March  4,  1915,  marked  an  ad- 
vance in  military  penology;  the  military  pris- 
ons ceased  to  exist  as  such  and  became  disci- 
plinary barracks.  Prisoners  now  receive  regu- 
lar instruction  instead  of  passing,  as  formerly, 
all  their  time  at  hard  labor.  The  secretary  was 
empowered  to  grant  an  honorable  restoration 
to  duty,  not  oiuy  to  the  inmates  of  the  disci- 
plinary barracks,  but  to  all  other  general  pris- 
oners elsewhere  confined. 

Questions  of  coast  defense,  in  view  of  the  in- 
crease of  the  offensive  and  defensive  qualities 
of  warships,  also  increased  in  importance.  To 
take  under  cognizance  all  such  questions,  a 
board  of  review  was  created  by  War  Depart- 
ment orders,  consisting  of  the  chief  of  staff 
and  assistants,  and  of  the  chiefs  of  coast  artil- 
lery, of  engineers,  and  of  ordnance. 

Material  Progress.  The  demands  made  upon 
American  manufacturers  to  supply  the  Eu- 
ropean belligerents  with  war  materials  have 
greatly  increased  the  manufacturing  capacity  of 
the  country.  Even  if,  after  peace  is  signed,  the 
new  establishments  should  go  out  of  business, 
the  experience  gained  would  nevertheless  be  in- 
valuable in  case  of  necessity. 

Aeronautics.  Congress  appropriated  only 
$300,000  for  the  development  of  army  aeronau- 
tics, an  insignificant  sum.  No  material  prog- 
ress can  therefore  be  reported.  The  Canal,  the 
Philippines,  and  Hawaii,  like  the  United  States, 
were  at  the  end  of  the  year  without  atrial  pro- 
tection. Plans  were  communicated  by  the  War 
Department  to  the  ASro  Club  of  America  for 
the  formation  of  15  aviation  squadrons  in  the 
National    Guard.    The    real    weakness    of    the 


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MILITABY  PBOOBESS 


United  States,  however,  consisted  not  so  much 
in  lack  of  materiel  as  of  personnel.  The  manu- 
facturing plants  were  able  at  the  end  of  the 
year  to  turn  out  work  at  the  rate  of  two  flying 
machines  per  day,  and  the  rate  could  have  been 
increased.  It  was  nevertheless  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  John  Hays  Hammond,  Jr.,  that  it  would 
take  years  for  the  United  States  to  increase  its 
military  organization  to  the  point  where  it 
could  equal  the  standard  of  any  possible  enemy. 
Here  time  counts,  not  money.  But  an  invalu- 
able unit  of  defense  could  be  organized  by  ap- 
plying radio  systems  to  aeroplanes  and  estab- 
lishing aSro  scouting  districts  along  the  sea- 
board. Cooperation  could  be  effect^  between 
the  navy  and  the  land  defenses,  so  that  the 
latter  could  be  handled  to  the  best  advantage. 

Coast  Artillery.  Turrets  for  installation  on 
El  Fraile  Island  in  Manila  Bay  were  under 
test.  Fourteen-inch  wire  wound  guns  weighing 
70  tons  were  to  be  em  placed.  At  a  muzzle  veloc- 
ity of  2360  foot  second,  the  projectile  will  pene- 
trate 12  inches  of  the  best  armor  at  16,000  yards. 
For  the  proposed  forts  at  Cape  Henry,  16- inch 
wire  wound  guns  were  recommended  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Fortification  Board.  This  gun  is 
45  calibres  long,  is  to  be  mounted  on  a  disap- 
pearing carriage,  and  will  throw  a  projectile 
weighing  2200  pounds.  It  will  be  the  main 
tvpe  for  main  batteries  of  new  works.  During 
the  year,  5  additional  14-inch,  40  calibre,  guns 
were  manufactured.  These  guns  were  designed 
for  1660  pound  projectiles,  giving  at  15**  eleva- 
tion with  2250  foot  second  muzzle  velocity,  a 
maximum  range  of  18,000  yards.  By  enlarging 
the  powder  chamber,  however,  the  muzzle  veloc- 
ity was  raised  to  2350  foot  second,  thus  increas- 
ing the  maximum  range  to  19,300  yards  at  15°. 
With  a  1200  pound  projectile,  the  muzzle  veloc- 
ity could  be  increased  to  2775  foot  second,  with 
a  maximum  range  of  21,400  yards. 

It  was  recommended  that  mobile  guns  of 
at  least  12-inch  calibre,  mounted  on  specially 
constructed  railroad  carriages  or  dragged  by 
suitable  motors,  were  needed  to  complete  the 
system  of  coast  defense,  by  protecting  unde- 
fended harbors,  by  preventing  hostile  ships  from 
landing  troops  out  of  range  of  coast  forts,  and 
by  helping  mobile  troops  to  defend  the  ap- 
proaches and  rear  of  those  forts.  The  subma- 
rine mine  materiel  was  still  incomplete  at  the 
end  of  the  year. 

National  Guard  batteries  to  the  number  of 
126  attended  camps  of  instruction,  and  of  these 
81  had  service  practice.  The  number  of  officers 
and  men,  whether  regular  or  militia,  was  still 
short  by  several  thousands,  of  the  total  required 
for  the  coast  defenses  of  the  United  States. 

The  subject  of  aeronautics  in  coast  defense 
attracted  attention,  but  did  not  go  beyond  this 
point  during  the  year. 

Field  Artillery.  The  Ordnance  Department 
continued  its  efforts  to  develop  a  mobile  artil- 
lery materiel  of  greater  range  and  power.  A 
3.8-inch  split  trail  howitzer  gave  good  results 
and  a  number  were  to  be  manufactured.  De- 
signs of  4.7-inch  split  trail  guns  and  howitzers 
were  developed,  as  also  of  9.5-inch  and  11-inch 
howitzers.  Reports  of  the  3-inch  mountain  how- 
itzer showed  that  it  was  not  entirely  satisfac- 
tory. A  7.6-inch  siege  howitzer  and  carriage 
were  under  construction;  the  projectile,  240 
pounds,  at  40°  elevation,  was  to  have  a  range 
of  11,000  yards.    The  9.5-inch  howitzer,  using  a 


480-pound  projectile,  was,  at  the  same  eleva- 
tion, to  have  the  same  range.  An  anti-aircraft 
gun,  projectile  6  pounds,  with  muzzle  velocity 
of  2400  foot  second,  was  developed.  A  proper 
type  of  self-contained  horizontal  base  range- 
finder  having  been  determined  by  service  tests, 
orders  for  manufacture  in  quantity  were  given. 

The  field  artillery  regulations  were  under  re- 
vision by  a  board  of  officers.  Camps  of  instruc- 
tion were  held  at  various  points  for  the  in- 
struction and  training  of  National  Guard  bat- 
teries, 125  of  which  took  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunities offered. 

Miscellaneous.  The  Vickers-Maxim  light  gun 
was,  after  competitive  test,  adopted  as  the  serv- 
ice machine  gun.  The  school  of  musketry  was 
transferred  to  Fort  Sill,  Okla.,  and  opened  on 
August  20th  with  a  capacity  of  60  student  of- 
ficers, and  142  student  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers. 

Much  experience  was  gained  in  the  matter  of 
motor  transport.  This  method  of  carriage  was 
found  trustworthy  even  on  bad  roads.  The  1.6- 
ton  truck  gave  the  best  results  for  field  serv- 
ice. Trailers  were  not  recommended  unless 
roads  were  good;  this  condition  satfsfied,  their 
use  was  economical.  Steady  improvement  was 
announced  from  the  remount  depots  in  type, 
breeding,  and  appearance  of  young  horses  pur- 
chased by  the  War  Department,  as  the  result 
of  the  remount  service.  According  to  reports 
from  a  majority  of  cavalry  officers  received  dur- 
ing the  year,  the  single  rank  formation  is  better 
for  our  service  than  the  double. 

The  first  a^ro  squadron  changed  station  by 
fiight  in  November,  from  Fort  Sill,  Okla.,  to 
Fort  Sam  Houston,  Texas.  The  supply  train 
accompanied  the  fiight  on  auto  trucks. 

The  aviation  section  of  the  signal  corps  made 
four  records  during  the  year: 

Altitude  with  passenger.  Lieutenant  Car- 
berry,  with  Lieutenant  Christie  as  passenger. 
American  record,  11,680  feet,  Jan.  5,  1915; 
duration,  1  hour,  13  minutes. 

Duration.  Lieut.  B.  Q.  Jones,  Jan.  15,  1915. 
In  air  8  hours,  53  minutes.     American  record. 

Duration  with  two  passengers.  Lieut.  B.  Q. 
Jones,  pilot,  with  Corporals  Hale  and  Houser, 
passengers,  on  March  12,  1915.  In  air  7  hours, 
5  minutes.    World's  record. 

American  duration  for  pilot  alone.  Lieut. 
W.  R.  Taliaferro,  Sept.  17,  1915,  9  hours,  48 
minutes. 

The  Heinrich  military  tractor  biplane  was 
developed  to  meet  the  signal  corps'  require- 
ments of  high  speed,  low  landing  speed,  speed 
variation  of  more  than  50  per  cent,  climbing 
power,  good  gliding  angle.  The  controls  are 
duplicate.  A  110-horse-power  motor  develops 
a  speed  of  45-80  miles  per  hour.  The  gasoline 
consimiption  is  10  gallons  per  hour,  and  enough 
for  four  hours  can  be  carried.  The  total  lifting 
area  is  285  square  feet. 

The  Cuban  army  was  reorganized  on  the  basis 
of  compulsory  service. 

European  Wab 

The  interest  shown  by  the  American  people 
in  the  question  of  preparedness  derived  its  sig- 
nificance and  inspiration  from  the  war  raging 
in  Europe.  To  that  war  we  turn  for  illus- 
trations of  all  that  is  novel  in  armed  strife, 
and  also  for  some  return  to  ancient  methods. 


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GERMAN  SOLDIERS  USING  A  MACHINE  GUN 

THE  WAR  IN  EUROPE 


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Our  remarks  and  conclusions  must  be  drawn 
chiefly  from  the  operations  on  the  western  front, 
because  in  the  east  and  the  south  the  strife 
still  retains  what,  for  lack  of  a  better  term,  we 
may  call  its  old-fashioned  character. 

The  year  1914  (see  Year  Book,  1914)  had 
left  the  contestants  on  that  front  virtually  be- 
sieging each  other.  No  change  in  this  regard 
took  place  in  1915.  But  as  the  year  wore  on, 
it  beciame  increasingly  evident  that  the  strug- 
gle was  becoming  one  of  resources.  To  cite  only 
one  item,  the  consumption  of  ammunition  was 
at  a  rate  unforeseen  by  any  of  the  contestants, 
even  by  Germany.  To  continue  the  war  at  all 
imposed  a  demand  for  material  unheard  of  be- 
fore. Hence  what  may  be  denominated  the 
mobilization  of  industries,  a  feature  that  dis- 
tinguishes this  struggle  from  any  other,  and 
that  will  certainly  be  a  factor  of  dominating 
importance  in  any  future  war  between  powerful 
rivals.  So  important  is  this  particular  aspect 
of  the  question  of  supply,  that  the  Russian  de- 
feats of  1915  have  been  very  largely  attributed 
to  the  lack  of  ammunition.  It  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  principle,  therefore,  that  under  the 
modern  conditions  of  a  war  of  masses,  success 
depends  upon  industrial  organization  and  effi- 
ciency. A  country  cut  off  from  the  sea,  as  is 
Germany,  and  not  producing  within  its  own  bor- 
ders certain  essentials,  must  face  defeat  unless 
it  can  in  advance  lay  in  such  a  stock  of  materi- 
als as  to  outlast  any  possible  adversary. 

The  fact  that  this  war  had  become  a  test,  as 
it  were,  of  endurance  developed  (on  the  west- 
ern front)  trench  warfare  to  a  degree  never  be- 
fore conceived.  This  condition  determined  the 
character  of  the  struggle.  Troops  lived,  moved, 
and  had  their  being  in  the  ground  and  under 
the  ground.  The  "line"  became  in  reality  a 
deep  area  of  successive  positions,  strongly  held 
by  enormous  numbers  of  men.  Mining  and 
countermining  became  general.  The  proximity 
of  the  trenches,  sometimes  only  a  few  yards 
apart,  brought  into  play  ways  and  means 
either  unheard  of  before,  or  that  had  been  aban- 
doned because  of  new  conditions,  themselves  not 
reproduced  in  the  actual  struggle.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  hand  grenade  (used 
as  long  ago  as  the  Siege  of  Saloniki,  904), 
knives,  and  even  clubs,  for  close  work.  The 
Germans  early  introduced  their  MinenwerfeVy  a 
trench  howitzer  throwing  a  shell  16  inches  in 
diameter,  and  carrying  a  bursting  charge  of  86 
pounds  of  trotyl.  This  shell  was  fastened  to 
one  end  of  a  rod  slipping  into  the  bore  (2.1 
inches  in  diameter),  and  at  an  angle  of  pro- 
jection of  45  degrees  attained  a  range  of  1244 
feet.  The  startling  novelty  of  the  year,  in  re- 
spect to  trench  attack,  was  the  use  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  asphyxiating  gases,  by  way  of  clearing 
the  field  for  the  assault.  (See  also  Chemistbt, 
Indubtbial,  Asphyxiating  Oases.)  Apparently 
these  gases  were  chiefly  the  fumes  of  chlorine 
and  of  bromine,  but  traces  of  others,  such  as 
sulphurous  anhydride,  nitrous  acid,  etc.,  were 
found.  Various  methods  of  liberating  these 
gases  were  employed:  pipes  from  stationary  gen- 
erators, with  valves  to  be  opened  when  the  wind 
was  favorable;  transportable  cylinders  carry- 
ing the  gases  under  pressure;  hand  grenades 
and  bomlw  to  be  thrown  at  the  right  moments; 
shells  fired  by  the  Minenicerfer;  etc.  The  effects 
of  the  fumes  could  be  felt  at  a  distance  of  half 
a  mile;  to  guard  against  them  smoke  helmets 


and  respirators  were  issued  and  found  to  be  ef- 
ficacious. Inflammable  liquids  also  were  used 
(by  the  Germans),  petrol,  paraffin,  and  tar,  or 
a  mixture  of  these.  Little  was  known  of  their 
use;  they  were  propelled  a  distance  of  150  feet, 
llie  use  of  both  gases  and  liquids  was  a  violation 
of  Article  23,  Hague  Declaration  of  1899. 

Certain-  other  effects  or  results  developed. 
The  presence  of  the  troops  in  trenches  led  to  a 
preponderance  of  head  wounds.  The  French  in- 
troduced a  remedy  by  the  adoption  of  a  steel 
helmet  0.7  millimeter  thidc.  It  unquestionably 
saved  many  lives;  the  British,  at  the  end  of 
the  year  were  beginning  to  use  them.  Other 
forms  of  armor  were  proposed  and  may  have 
been  used.  On  the  French  side  at  least,  wire 
entanglements,  formerly  to  be  placed  about  100 
meters  in  front  of  the  trench,  were  placed  in 
immediate  contact  with  it.  The  use  of  this  ob- 
stacle was  extended  by  the  Turks  in  the  Gal- 
lipoli  peninsula  to  the  shoal  waters  in  front  of 
possible  landing  places.  These  entanglements 
were  so  thick,  so  strongly  set,  and  so  deep  that 
usually  only  artillery  fire  would  open  a  way 
through  them,  though  in  some  cases  it  was 
found  possible  to  throw  hooks  in  among  them, 
and  then  to  uproot  the  system  by  motor  cars. 
Where  possible,  the  system  was  electrified  before 
an  expected  assault.  Periscopes  appeared  on 
the  western  front  for  observation  in  the  trenches. 

The  ''clear  field  of  fire"  in  front  of  a  defensive 
portion,  recommended  by  all  the  textbooks  be- 
fore this  war,  became  a  thing  of  the  past;  it 
was  found  safer  to  conceal  the  trench  and,  inci- 
dentally, to  let  the  enemy  come  up  without  sus- 
pecting its  existence.  We  may  regard  the  disap- 
pearance of  this  ''field  of  fire"  as  one  of  the 
positive  results  in  respect  of  operations. 

The  machine  gun  played  a  tremendous  part 
in  the  struggle.  The  Germans  were  better  pro- 
vided with  this  weapon  than  the  Allies,  and 
had  counted  on  their  use  in  the  open  field,  as 
much  as  they  were  compelled  to  use  them  in 
the  trenches.  Here  they  proved  most  effective^ 
so  much  so,  that  it  was  remarked  "the  French 
hold  their  positions  with  artillery,  the  British 
with  infantry,  the  Germans  with  machine  guns." 
The  British  accordingly  organized  their  ma- 
chine gun  service,  to  be  divided  into  three 
branches:  cavalry  of  the  line,  infantry  of  the 
line,  motor  service.  In  the  cavalry  and  infan- 
try, brigade  machine  gun  squadrons  and  com- 
panies were  to  be  formed,  the  motor  service  was 
to  have  machine  gun  batteries.  It  is  said  that 
the  Germans  entered  the  campaign  with  50,000 
of  these  weapons,  and  probably  increased  the 
number  during  the  year. 

Inasmuch  as  the  "trenches"  on  both  sides 
were  so  strong  in  themselves,  and  so  heavily 
manned  (at  the  rate,  according  to  some  reports, 
of  15  men  per  running  meter),  frontal  assaults, 
about  the  only  kind  possible,  called  for  the  in- 
tensest  artillery  preparation.  And  here,  as  in 
other  cases,  the  existence  of  trenches  worked  a 
sort  of  revolution,  in  that  shrapnel,  the  best 
man-killing  projectile  thus  far  known  against 
troops  in  the  open,  or  against  troops  in  open 
shallow  trenches,  became  practically  useless. 
Hence  resort  was  had  to  high  explosive  shell, 
to  blast  away  the  trenches  before  an  attack 
could  be  made.  It  was  only  by  using  this  sort 
of  shell  that  the  overhead  cover  of  the  trenches 
could  be  destroyed  and  their  occupants  put  out 
of  business.    The  effect  of  these  shells  was  de- 


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scribed  as  something  terrible;  literally  no  liy- 
ing  being,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  could 
maintain  itself  under  them.  Tactically,  where 
possible,  the  artillery  delivered  b,  tir  de  barrage, 
"curtain  fire,"  between  the  assaulting  troops  of 
its  own  side  and  the  counter-assaulting  troops 
of  the  adversary.  Through  this  curtain,  noth- 
ing could  pass  alive. 

The  artillery  in  general  kept  up  its  suprem- 
acy and  efficiency,  with  the  French  76  millimeter 
unquestionably  the  supreme  piece  of  its  calibre. 
As  a  result  of  the  conditions  outlined  above, 
i.e.  that  armies  have  beoome,  as  it  were,  sta- 
tionary, that  combats  are  of  longer  duration, 
and  will  tend  more  and  more  to  resemble  siege 
operations,  heavy  field  artillerv  increased  in  im- 
portance, an  importance  foreshadowed  in  previ- 
ous wars.  Moreover,  long  range  guns  proved  a 
great  success;  indirect  fire  became  the  normal 
case.  Hence  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
heavy  pieces  will  hereafter  be  the  mainstay  of 
field  artillery.  Experience  has  shown  that  with 
motor  transportation  heavy  guns  can  easily  be 
carried  along  with  the  mobile  army.  The  15- 
centimeter  howitzer,  range  10,000  meters,  may 
prove  to  be  a  standard  piece.  But  this  should 
not  be  held  to  exclude  the  light  field  gun,  here- 
tofore the  classic  piece  of  armies  in  the  field. 
According  to  some  authorities,  the  tendency  is 
to  reduce  the  weight  of  this  gun  so  as  to  in- 
crease its  maneuvering  ability  and  improve  its 
co($peration  with  infantry.  Similarly  in  the  in- 
fantry it  was  predicted  that  the  substitution  of 
the  automatic,  or  properly  speaking,  semi-auto- 
matic, shoulder  rifie  for  the  hand-operated  arm, 
was  inevitable.  These  matters  are  mentioned  as 
marking  the  tendencies  of  the  experience  gained 
in  the  war.  Two  pieces,  the  German  28-centi- 
meter howitzer  and  the  Austrian  30.6-centimeter 
automobile  mortar,  were  mentioned  as  having 
wrought  the  greatest  destruction  of  forts.  The 
Austrian  piece  with  its  eauipment  forms  a  com- 
plete traction  set  for  road  transportation;  three 
traction  engines,  each  pulling  four  trailers,  were 
used  for  each  two  mortars.  But  it  should  be 
recollected  that  in  no  other  war  has  it  been 
made  so  plain  that  the  objective  is  the  defeat 
of  the  enemy  army,  not  the  destruction  of  forts 
or  the  capture  of  provinces.  This  piece  was, 
however,  also  used  against  troops,  and  its  ef- 
fects were  said  to  have  been  terrific,  such  as, 
for  example,  the  annihilation  of  an  entire  bat- 
tery of  artillery  and  of  a  large  number  of  in- 
fantrymen by  a  single  shell.  Men  in  the  neigh- 
borhood who  were  not  hit,  nevertheless  were 
killed  by  the  intense  air  pressure  and  suffo- 
cating gases. 

In  general,  calibres  of  from  16  centimeters  to 
21  centimeters  were  used  on  the  battlefield.  A 
direct  result  of  the  new  artillery  will  be,  as  it 
already  has  been,  the  vanishing  value  of  for- 
tresses. Strong  infantry  trenches,  in  successive 
lines,  protected  by  obstacles  will  become,  have 
become,  the  rule.  The  guns  of  these  positions 
will  be  distributed  over  the  lines,  thus  causing 
the  enemy  fire  to  scatter,  and  will  rely  on  their 
own  concealment  for  protection. 

The  Italian  field  artillery  changed  its  organ- 
ization from  6-gun  to  4-gun  batteries,  produc- 
ing 294  batteries  or  1176  guns.  This  change 
resulted  in  greater  efficiency  coming  from  greater 
mobility  and  from  an  increase  in  the  ammuni- 
tion. To  a  part  of  this  artillery,  a  76-milli- 
meter gun  of  the  Deport  pattern  was  issued; 


this  gun  fires  a  16-pound  shell.  The  split  trail 
opens  to  60  degrees  in  the  firing  position,  and 
admits  of  elevation  to  60  d^rr^^*  ^^  French 
developed  a  new  anti-aircraft  gun,  firing  a  36- 
pound  shell  with  a  muzzle  velocity  of  1870  foot 
second.  Its  calibre  is  4-inch,  and  weight,  in- 
cluding armor  and  shields,  about  2^  tons. 

Dirigibles  on  the  whole  proved  to  be  a  dis- 
appointment, if  not  a  failure.  The  lons-her- 
aiaed  raids  against  England  accomplished  ab- 
solutely nothing  of  military  value.  If  dirigi- 
bles may  be  said  to  have  developed  a  special 
function,  it  was  as  sea  scouts,  and  they  may, 
as  is  claimed,  have  been  useful  in  protecting 
the  German  coast.  Th^  were  no  match  for 
aSroplane  attack,  and  hence  were  forced  to  op- 
erate at  night.  It  was,  nevertheless,  reported 
that  the  G^man  government  had  ordered  Zep- 
pelins of  larger  size  .than  ever,  at  a  cost  of 
$600,000  each.  These  were  said  to  be  blunt 
nosed,  and  sharp  tailed,  to  have  much  higher 
speed  than  their  predecessors,  and  to  be  fitted 
with  tanks  for  carrying  poisonous  gas  bombs. 
The  emplacement  of  guns  on  the  upper  surface 
of  these  giants  turnS  out  to  be  a  failure,  be- 
cause of  the  danger  of  ieniting,  by  the  fladi  of 
discharge,  hydrogen  leaking  from  the  hulL  To 
operate  against  these  airships,  the  British  gov- 
ernment ordered,  according  to  the  press,  the  so- 
called  ''Zeppelin  destroyers,"  the  invention  of 
an  American  named  MacMechen.  This  "de- 
stroyer" was  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  its 
prey  as  the  destroyer  of  the  sea  to  the  dread- 
nought, and  is  said  to  be  236  feet  long,  28  feet 
in  diameter,  to  carry  two  motors  of  200  horse 
power,  to  have  a  range  of  300  miles,  and  a 
crew  of  four. 

Aviation  developed  along  the  three  lines  of 
its  usefulness,  as  an  instrument  of  reconnais- 
sance, as  an  invaluable  coadjutor  of  the  artil- 
lery, and  as  an  engine  of  destruction.  In  this 
last  capacity,  its  progress  was  not  so  great  as 
in  the  other  two.  Raids  were  attempted,  how- 
ever, some  of  them  of  great  length  and  in  great 
streng|th,  and  instances  occurred  of  damage 
done  in  these  raids  as  also  in  shorter  flights 
against  special  or  aocideital  objectives  near  at 
hand.  The  aCroplane  as  an  aid  in  artillery 
fire  passed  the  stage  of  experimentati<m,  and  its 
value  in  reconnaissance  became  a  commonplace. 
Experience  showed  that  the  biplane  is  superior 
to  the  monoplane.  Some  "battles"  took  place 
in  the  air,  between  squadrons  of  aeroplanes,  and 
"duels"  were  not  infrequent.  In  fact,  as  ex- 
perience accumulated,  the  belief  grew  that  the 
oest  wav  to  firet  rid  of  a  winged  visitor  was  to 
attack  him  in  and  by  another  aeroplane.  Ex- 
perience further  showed  that  an  aeroplane 
could  stand  a  eood  deal  of  puni^ment  in  the 
way  of  hits,  before  being  forced  to  come  down, 
as  little  structural  harm  is  done  by  bullets. 
However,  they  may  set  the  petrol  tanks  on 
fire,  which  suggested  the  use  of  fibre  tanks. 
In  general  it  may  be  asserted  that  during  the 
year  the  art  or  scioice  of  flying  was  so  ad- 
vanced that  work  was  possible  under  almost 
any  conditions  of  weather.  A&ro  squadrons 
were  formed  by  the  French  for  the  purpose  of 
operating  against  the  enemy's  communications 
just  before  or  during  battle.  The  squadrons 
employed  three  different  types  of  machine,  the 
bomb  plane,  the  gun  plane,  and  the  chaser, 
whose  functions  are  sufficiently  well  indicated 
by    their    respective    names.    These    squadrons 


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made  numerous  raids  on  railway  centres  in  the 
area  of  operations.  In  respect  of  type,  the 
French  adopted  armoring  of  aeroplanes;  this 
cuts  down  speed  and  carrying  ability,  but  per- 
mits reconnaissance  at  a  lower  altitude  than 
is  possible  for  unarmored  machines.  A  special  ex- 
ample was  the  Bl^riot  two-seated  tractor,  with 
the  gunner,  pilot,  tank,  controls,  engine,  and  100 
horse  power  (Gnome)  motor  completely  en- 
closed by  a  casing  of  3  millimeter  chrome  steel. 
Still  another  is  the  Cl^ment-Ba^ard  mono- 
plane for  cavalry  and  artillery,  with  armor  1 
millimeter  thick.  The  Nieuport  armored  aero- 
plane carries  armor  3.5  millimeter  thick.  From 
Germany  was  reported  a  biplane  of  42.5  meters 
spread,  with  3  propellers  and  300  horse  power 
motors,  crew  of  8  men  to  carry  12  22-pound 
bombs,  6  machine  guns,  and  8  hours'  supply 
of  fuel.  The  latest  example  of  German  in- 
genuity was  a  "battleaeroplane,"  spread  80  or 
100  feet,  engines  2  Mercedes,  100-160  horse 
power,  to  carry  a  pilot,  2  gunners,  and  2  ma- 
chine guns,  so  mounted  as  to  fire  in  any  direc- 
tion. Each  engine  had  its  own  special  fusel- 
age, the  crew  lining  in  a  ear  between  the  engine 
"rooms."  These  machines  were  expected  to 
stay  up  six  hours  on  patrol  duty,  and  were 
said  to  be  more  powerful  than  any  in  the  hands 
of  the  Allies.  The  French,  howeyer,  turned  out 
toward  the  end  of  the  year,  a  new  bombing  tri- 
plane,  70  feet  spread,  height  of  wings  20  feet, 
crew  2  pilots,  2  observers,  2  gunners  (but  12 
may  be  carried),  4  3.7-millimeter  guns,  speed 
over  80  miles  per  hour,  and  engines  of  at  least 
300  horse  power.  Paris  was,  after  March,  1015, 
free  from  aeronautic  attacks,  thanks  to  the 
measures  taken  to  beat  them  off.  These  con- 
sisted of  an  elaborate  system  of  observation 
posts  connected  by  telephone  with  Paris,  anti- 
aircraft batteries,  and  aeroplane  stations  at  a 
dozen  different  points  each  ready  to  send  up 
its  squadron  on  five  minutes'  notice.  Listen- 
ing megaphones  were  also  installed  to  catch 
the  whir  of  approaching  planes.  Anti-aircraft 
artillery  in  general  improved  to  such  an  extent 
that  aviators  were  not  safe  at  10,000  feet.  Ex- 
perience obtained  showed  that  the  anti-aircraft 
gun  must  have  a  high  muzzle  velocity,  be  a 
quick  firer,  a  rapid  loader  at  high  angles  of 
elevation,  must  have  all  around  fire,  and  use  a 
projectile  permitting  of  observation  of  fire. 
Some  (German)  shells,  for  example,  opened 
out  a  parachute,  to  enable  the  gunner  to  correct 
subsequent  shots.     See  also  A^bonautics. 

The  experience  of  railroad  and  motor  trans- 
port simply  confirmed  what  was  said  in  the 
Yeab  Book  of  1014.  But  the  armored  automo- 
bile prot^ted  by  a  3-millimeter  shield  of  chrome 
nickel  or  tempered  steel,  exceeded  expectations: 
by  a  special  extension  frame,  both  front  and 
roar,  ditches  equal  in  width  to  the  wheel  base 
could  be  crossed. 

Data  in  respect  of  losses  are  so  inaccurate  as 
to  be  untrustworthy.  The  total  of  killed, 
wounded,  missing,  and  prisoners  on  Aug.  1, 
1016,  was  reported  at  8,030,000.  The  cost  of 
the  war,  it  was  estimated  in  October,  would  be 
$20,000,000,000,  in  1010.  We  are  better  off,  how- 
ever, in  respect  of  sanitation.  In  the  British 
army  typhoid  was  reported  as  practically  con- 
quered in  this  war,  thanks  to  tiie  use  of  anti- 
t3rphoid  inoculation.  Cholera  and  typhus  were 
announced  from  time  to  time  as  having  broken 
out,  but  were  promptly  checked.    Serbia,  how- 


ever, suffered  severely  from  typhus.  Russia 
furnished  three  so-called  "bath  trains"  each  of 
twenty  coaches  for  her  troops.  While  bathing, 
each  man  had  his  linen  disinfected,  etc.,  and  was 
furnished  on  coming  out  with  his  disinfected 
outfit  and  with  a  bag  of  clean  linen.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  England  directed  the  great 
railway  companies  to  provide  a  number  of  spe- 
cial trains  for  the  carriage  of  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers.  Each  train  had  an  operating  coach. 
Bavaria  equipped  14  hospital  trains.  The  15th 
train,  a  gift  to  the  government,  called  the 
"train  de  luxe,"  was  designed  to  carry  200 
wounded,  and  consisted  of  20  coaches,  14  of  14 
beds  eadi,  1  for  wounded  officers,  1  operating 
and  X-ray,  1  disinfecting,  1  for  lighting  plant, 
2  for  surgeons,  nurses,  and  clergy,  2  for  sanitary 
personnel,  1  office,  1  kitchen,  1  provision,  1  store- 
room, 3  baggage.  The  operating  car  had  electric 
lights. 

The  difficulty  of  guarding  against  infection 
of  wounds  was  very  great.  Powerful  magnets 
came  into  use  to  find  bullets  and  fragments  of 
shrapnel  and  shell;  in  the  location  of  bullets,  or 
fragments,  two  X-ray  photograi^s  under  differ- 
ent angles,  would  be  taken  to  fix  their  position. 
The  sharp  pointed  bullet  made  remarkably  severe 
wounds  on  account  of  its  crater-like  exit  from 
the  body.  Many  of  the  wounds  reported  on  all 
fronts  were  slight,  permitting  ready  return  to 
duty.  The  casualties,  therefore,  sound  more 
terrible  than  they  are  in  reality. 

Thus  the  French  government  issued  some  re- 
markable figures  showing  the  percentage  of  men 
that  recovered  or  were  recovering,  and  therefore 
would  be  fit  for  service  again.  "Hie  figures  taken 
are  up  to  Dec  1,  1014: 

Wounded,  but  fit  for  ahnott  immediate  re- 
turn to  the  front 64.60  per  eent 

Wounded,  on  leave   24.50  "  " 

Wounded  and  still  in  hospiUI 17.40  "  " 

Permanently    disabled,    unfit   for    future 

service    1.46  "  " 

Wounded  and  died  from  wounds 8.48  "  " 

A  traveling  motor  X-ray  apparatus  was  de- 
vised to  supply  the  needs  of  the  smaller  hos- 
pitals. In  the  treatment  of  facial  wounds,  the 
dental  surgeon  was  said  to  have  done  wonders, 
greatly  assisted  by  X-ray  apparatus.  A  feature 
of  the  year  was  the  effort  of  the  governments 
interested  to  find  occupation  for  the  employ- 
ment of  war  cripples. 

In  respect  of  the  observance  of  the  laws  of 
humanity,  of  the  Hague  Conventions,  and  of  the 
prescriptions  of  International  Law,  there  was  a 
retrogression. 

lOLITABY  TEBBITOBY  OF  THB 
NIGEB.  A  territory  of  the  government-general 
of  French  West  Africa.  The  capital  is  Zinder. 
The  country  is  well  adapted  to  agriculture  and 
grasing.  llie  Touaregs  devote  themselves  to  the 
raising  of  camels,  and  the  Peuhls  to  the  raising 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  There  are  no  railways. 
Transport  is  by  pack  aninuils.  A  commandant 
administers  the  territory  under  the  control  of 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  colony  of  Upper 
Senegal  and  Niger.    See  French  West  Africa. 

MiLITIA.  The  aggregated  strength  of  the 
organized  militia  in  1915  was  8705  commis- 
sioned officers,  and  120,693  enlisted  men — a  de- 
crease over  1914  of  87  officers,  and  an  increase 
of  1442  men.  Definite  progress  was  made  dur- 
ing the  year   toward   the  development   of   the 


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militia  into  an  official  field  force.  Correspond- 
ence courses  for  officers  were  carried  on  in  a 
majority  of  the  States.  The  demand  for  regu- 
lar officers  of  State  camps  of  instruction  greatly 
exceeded  the  supply. 

There  were  on  Oct.  1,  1915,  1557  companies 
of  infantry  organized  in  124  regiments;  27  bat- 
talions ;  and  26  separate  companies.  The  cavalry 
in  the  or^nized  militia  was  equivalent  to  about 
eight  regiments.  There  were  in  all  12  divisions 
of  field  artillery.  In  the  coast  artillery,  the 
total  number  of  companies  was  126.  In  the 
engineer  corps  there  were,  in  1915,  68  commis- 
sioned officers  and  1193  enlisted  men. 

During  the  summer  of  1915  camps  of  instruc- 
tion were  held  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
These  included  camps  for  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers  of  the  sanitary  troops.  Offi- 
cers from  many  States  attended  the  field  artillery 
schools  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  and  com- 
pleted the  course  there.  The  strength  of  the 
organized  militia  in  each  of  the  States  in  1914- 
15,  as  reported  by  inspecting  officers  (in  1915, 
less  the  strength  of  organizations  not  recognized 
by  the  War  Departmeit),  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


1914  1916 

State  territory  EfiiiHed  ErUUted 

orDUtrict  Oficerg    men  Ogietre     men 

Alabama 168  2,609  164  2.616 

Arixona    45  645  58  742 

Arkansas    109  1.402  105  1,547 

California     252  8,604  249  8,440 

Colorado     122  1,988  119  1.687 

Connecticut    177  2,611  196  2,772 

Delaware     41  465  40  450 

District    of    Columbia..  124  1,721  129  1,847 

Florida 78  1.075  95  1,320 

Georgia     225  2.490  229  2,714 

Hawaii   66  858  61  905 

Idaho    68  839  58  946 

Illinois     508  5.447  522  5,550 

Indiana    169  2,109  132  2,077 

Iowa     217  3,014  211  8.092 

Kansas    182  1,720  128  1.812 

Kentucky 164  2,210  168  2.829 

Louisiana    65  1,009  68  1.044 

Maine 108  1,404  101  1.288 

Maryland     157  1,986  156  1,917 

Massachusetta 424  5,869  426  5.658 

Michigan    189  2,478  188  2,778 

Minnesota    220  8,248  227  3,280 

Mississippi     94  990  78  1,127 

Missouri 244  8,840  227  8,872 

MonUna     40  636  45  668 

Nebraska    132  1,884  119  1,474 

Nevada  *    ....  ...  .... 

New  Hampshire 90  1.280  91  1.828 

New  Jersey 804  4,014  296  4,176 

New  Mexico 57  910  60  851 

New  York    974  15,591  1,002  15.607 

North  CaroUna    209  2,867  211  2,809 

North  Dakota    60  679  56  676 

Ohio     490  5,637  487  5,809 

Oklahoma     77  1.880  69  1,025 

Oregon     100  1,401  104  1,622 

Pennsylvania     745  10,190  762  10.266 

Bboda  Island    96  1,308  90  1,816 

South  Carolina   156  1,794  136  1.589 

South  DakoU    68  873  67  975 

Tennessee     117  1,798  107  1,689 

Texas     192  2,781  145  2,091 

Utah     29  419  82  666 

Vermont    75  817  73  730 

Virginia    206  2,606  200  2,708 

Washington    88  1,312  82  1,284 

West  Virginia 104  1,517  117  1.607 

Wisconsin    198  2,931  196  3,095 

Wyoming    54  760  84  598 

Total     8,792  119,251  8,705  120,698 

*  No  Organized  Militia  (mustered  out  May  20,  1906). 


MILK.     See     Agricultxjbe  ; 
Legislation;  and  Daibtino. 


Agricultural 


MINEBALOOY.  New  Treatises.  Among 
recent  publications  of  general  interest  may  be 
named  The  Turquoise,  by  J.  E.  Pogue,  one  of  the 
series  of  memoirs  issued  by  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  and  Catalogue  of  the  Meteorites 
of  North  America  by  O.  C.  Farrington,  with  the 
same  imprint.  Each  is  a  comprehensive  and 
authoritative  work  in  its  special  field,  not  too 
technical  in  treatment  for  the  average  reader. 
In  the  same  category  may  be  included  the  Guide 
issued  by  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology  in 
London  for  its  collections  of  kaolin  and  china- 
clay;  this  is  designed,  of  course,  as  a  popular 
treatise,  but  contains  much  that  will  interest 
the  expert,  for  example,  the  chapters  on  the 
origin  of  kaolin  and  the  chemical  and  physical 
properties  of  china-clays  from  different  parts 
of  the  world. 

Silicates.  The  silicate  minerals  which  par- 
ticipate in  the  composition  of  the  igneous  rocks 
afford  many  problems  that  are  interrelated  with 
both  geology  and  mineralogy,  notably  the  prob- 
lems connected  with  the  formation  and  condi- 
tions of  stability  of  silicate  mixtures.  Their 
study,  hitherto,  has  been  limited  mostly  to  com- 
parative methods,  such  as  could  be  applied  to 
products  of  the  furnace  without  any  close  con- 
trol of  the  physical  conditions.  Recently  the 
Carnegie  Geophysical  Laboratory  has  undertaken 
their  investigation,  with  refinements  of  mechani- 
cal equipment  and  scientific  skill  which  that 
institution  is  able  to  command.  A  paper  by 
Rankin  s^ves  the  results  of  experiment  with 
compounds  of  the  system  lime-alumina-silica. 
From  this  system  he  obtained  a  variety  of  arti- 
ficial minerals,  including  quartz,  tridymite, 
cristobalite,  corundum,  wollastonite,  sillimanite, 
and  anorthite,  besides  several  calcium  silicates 
not  known  to  occur  in  nature,  but  present  in  cer- 
tain artificial  products.  The  results  throw  light 
upon  the  character  of  the  compounds  formed  in 
the  hardening  of  Portland  cement  which  long 
has  engaged  attention.  He  finds,  also,  that 
eutectics  are  produced  from  silicate  mixtures  of 
the  kind  under  investigation  that  differ  little 
from  other  mixtures  in  regard  to  structure,  ex- 
cept that  they  are  of  finer  grain.  Andersen  dis- 
cusses the  system  anorthite-forsterite-silica  and 
shows  that  forsterite  like  the  related  mineral 
olivine,  an  important  constituent  of  certain  ig- 
neous rocks,  undergoes  resorption  by  the  magma 
and  apparently  without  any  change  of  physical 
environment.  Spinel  may  be  formed  as  a  pri- 
mary phase  of  such  a  mixture.  Bowen's  ex- 
periments with  silicate  melts  seem  to  afford  a 
partial  elucidation  of  the  process  bv  which  ig- 
neous magmas  in  cooling  and  consolidating  be- 
come separated  into  bodies  of  different  mineral 
composition.  He  observed  that  the  crystals  as 
they  separate  out  from  the  magma  have  a  tend- 
ency to  sink  to  the  bottom,  which  inevitably 
leads  to  a  vertical  distribution  of  the  compo- 
nents, the  several  layers  representing  the  prod- 
ucts of  successive  periods  of  crystallization.  It 
has  been  surmised  from  study  of  the  igneous 
rocks  that  such  an  explanation  might  hold  good. 

Diamonds.  Among  the  important  diamond 
fields  the  Brazilian  deposits  appear  somewhat 
anomalous  in  that  the  stones  are  not  associated 
with  igneous  rocks,  as  in  South  Africa  where 
the  mines  are  located  upon  the  outcroppings  of 
volcanic  necks,  but  are  distributed  through  beds 
of  gravel.  According  to  Harder  and  Chamber- 
lin,  who  have  investigated  the  diamondiferous 


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MIKERALOGY 


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MIirEBAL  PKOBUCTION 


area  of  Minas  Geraes,  the  deposits  are  found  on 
the  tablelands  or  ''chapadas"  which  for  the  most 
part  are  made  up  of  quartzite  in  flat-lying  beds. 
Over  this  quartzite  here  and  there  occur  rem- 
nants of  once  extensive  sheets  of  gravel,  sand, 
and  clay.  The  gravel  consists  mainly  of  quartz 
pebbles,  which  ^r  evidence  of  having  been  de- 
rived from  the  quartzite,  with  scattered  pebbles 
of  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks  and  diamonds. 
They  think  it  not  unlikely  that  all  the  pebbles 
come  directly  from  the  quartzite,  in  which  case 
the  origin  of  the  diamonds  is  to  be  sought  in 
the  same  material;  an  alternative  hypothesis  is 
that  some  of  the  pebbles  were  brought  into  their 
present  place  by  streams  draining  from  distant 
sections  where  igneous  rocks  outcrop,  so  that 
the  original  home  of  the  diamonds  may  still  have 
been  in  that  environment.  The  conglomerate  of 
the  uplands  has  been  worked  over  by  streams  in 
the  interval  since  its  formation  and  secondary 
diamond  deposits  have  come  into  existence,  some 
of  which  are  found  along  the  present  streams. 
The  Brazilian  stones  are  noted  for  their  purity 
of  color  and  brilliancy,  and  some  of  the  most 
noted  gems  are  from  that  country,  but  they  are 
not  so  actively  mined  as  formerly. 

New  AfiNERALS.  The  following  list  of  new 
minerals  supplements  the  lists  contained  in  pre- 
ceding volumes  of  the  Yeab  Book.  Ussingite  is 
a  sodium-aluminum  silicate,  of  violet-red  color 
and  triclinic  habit.  It  comes  from  Klangerluar- 
suk,  Greenland.  FafXkteihite,  a  hydrated  ferric 
silicate,  is  from  Faratsiho,  Madagascar.  It  oc- 
curs as  hexagonal  scales  of  yellow  color  and  is 
r^arded  as  a  kaolinite  in  which  part  of  the 
aluminum  is  replaced  by  iron.  Bpeziwite  is  a 
green  fibrous  amphibole,  found  in  pyroxenite  at 
Riondello,  Traversella.  Luhlinite,  supposedly  a 
monoclinic  form  of  calcium  carbonate,  is  possibly 
only  a  soft  earthy  variety  of  calcite,  pseudo- 
morphic  after  organic  remains.  Uvanite  is  a 
combination  of  uranic  and  vanadic  oxides,  simi- 
lar to  carnotite  except  for  its  yellowish  color. 
The  type  locality  is  Temple  Rock,  Utah.  Pvtiior 
doite  derives  its  name  from  Gaf&on  Pintado, 
Utah,  where  it  forms  a  green  efflorescence  on  the 
sandstone  clifTs.  It  is  a  hydrous  calcium  vana- 
date. Heweiiite  and  metdhewettite  have  the 
same  composition,  calcium  vanadate  with  water; 
the  former  comes  from  Minosragra,  Peru,  and 
the  latter  from  the  Paradox  Valley,  Montrose 
Gounty,  Golo.  Paecoite,  also  a  calcium  vana- 
date, from  Minosragra,  Peru,  is  distinguished 
by  a  deep  orange  color;  it  builds  crystal  clusters 
of  possibly  monoclinic  form.    Footeite,  the  hy- 


drous copper  chloride,  possesses  the  same  chemi- 
cal composition  as  connellite  and  is  otherwise 
identical  with  it,  and  cannot  rank,  therefore,  as 
an  independent  species. 

KINEBAL  PBODITCTION  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES.  A  summary  of  the  mineral 
productions  of  the  United  States  in  1914  is 
given  below;  the  productions  of  the  leading 
minerals  and  metals  is  given  separately. 

€iOLD:  The  total  production  of  gold  in  the 
United  States  in  1914  was  $94,500,000.  The 
total  production  in  the  world  is  about  $460,000,- 
000,  of  which  the  United  States  produces  20 
per  cent. 

Silver  :  The  production  of  silver  has  gradu- 
ally increased,  until,  in  1914,  the  largest  re- 
corded was  72,400,000  ounces.  The  pr^Luction 
of  the  world  is  about  226,000,000  ounces  per 
year,  of  which  the  United  States  produces  one- 
third.  Three-fourths  of  the  world's  silver  pro- 
duction is  derived  from  North  America. 

Iron  Gbe  and  Pio  Iron:  The  production  of 
iron  ore  in  1913  was  about  60,000,000  tons.  The 
pig  iron  produced  was  moi'e  than  30,000,000 
tons,  valued  at  $458,000,000.  The  United  States 
produces  about  40  per  cent  of  the  world's  iron. 

Goffer  :  The  world's  production  of  copper 
is  about  2,211,000,000  pounds  per  year,  of  which 
the  United  States  produces  60  per  cent. 

Lead:  The  production  of  lead  in  1914  was 
542,000  tons,  about  34  per  cent  of  the  world*s 
production.  There  were  produced  in  1915  about 
^00,000  short  tons. 

Aluminum:  The  production  of  aluminum  in 
the  United  States  in  1914  was  the  largest  in 
the  world — 79,129,000  pounds. 

Goal  and  Goke:  The  production  of  coal  in 
1914  was  513,525,477  short  tons,  valued  at  $681,- 
490,643.  The  production  of  coke  was  34,555,914 
short  tons,  valued  at  $88,334,217. 

Petroleum  :  The  world's  production  of  petro- 
leum in  1914  is  estimated  at  400,500,000  barrels, 
of  which  the  United  States  furnished  66  per  cent. 
The  production  of  petroleum  in  the  United 
States  in  1915  was  267,400,000  barrels. 

Natural  Gas:  The  quantity  of  natural  gas 
in  the  United  States  in  1914  is  estimated  to  have 
amounted  to  592,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  valued 
at  $94,000,000. 

Gement:  The  production  of  cement  in  1914 
in  the  United  States  was  88,230,170  barrels, 
valued  at  $92,557,617. 

See  also  Muttallurgt. 

The  following  table  is  issued  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey: 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


OALIKDAR  TIABS  1918  AND  1914 
1918 

Product  QwmtUy 
Mbtallio 

Alvminam    (consumption)    ponndi.  72,879,000 

Antimonial  lead short  torn  (2000  ponndi) .  16,665 

Antimony    do . . .  2,508 

Bauxite    long  tons   (2240  pounds) .  210,241 

Chromic  iron  ore do. . .  265 

Copper,  value  at  New  York  City pounds.  1,224,484,008 

Ferroalloys    long  tons.  206,207 

Gold    troy   ounces.  4,290,784 

T«^«      J  Ore   long  tons.  69,648,098 

iron. .  (pig do. . .  80,888,985 

Lead  (refined),  value  at  New  York  City short  tons.  411,878 

Manganese  ore   long  tons.  4,048 

Manganiferous   ore    do. . .  69,408 

Nickel,  value  at  New  York  Citv   pounds.  481,565 

Platinum  and  allied  metals,  value  at  New  York 

City   troy  ounces.  1,084 

Y.  B.— 14 


1914 


Valu4 


QuarUUv 


Valu4 


$18,845,000 

70.129,000 

$14,522,700 

1,591.854 

16,667 

1,572,167 

429,868 

2,705 

676,601 

997,698 

219,818 

1,069,194 

2,864 

691 

8,715 

189,795,085  1,160,187,192 

152,968.246 

18,016,862 

256,624 

9.850.246 

88,884,400 

4,672,976 

94,581.800 

180,906,568 

89,714,280 

71,905,079 

468.842,846 

22,268,263 

298.777.429 

86,246,264 

612.794 

89.997,932 

40,480 

2.685 

27,877 

26,124 

98,265 

218,497 

79,898 

845,884 

818.000 

46,580 

6,824 

280.885 

Digitized  by 

GooqIc 

MINBSAL  PBODUCnON  418  MINEKAL  PBODXTCTION 

I9ia  1914 

Product                                                Quantity  Valv  QuantUy  Value 

QuicksilTer,  value  at  San  Francisco 

flasks  (75  pounds  net) .               20,218  818,171  16,548  811,680 

Silver    troy   ounces.       66.801,600  40,848,100  72,456,100  40,067,700 

Tin    (metallic   equivalent)     pounds 46.699  208,000  66,560 

Titanium  ore  (rutile)   short  tons.                    805  49,000  94  11,280 

Tungsten   ore    (60   per   cent  concentrates   since 

1906)     ... short   tons.                 1,537  672,118  990  485.000 

Uranium  and  vanadium  minerals do. . .           (h)  b  609,861  (b)  b  941.800 

Zinc,  value  at  St.  Louis do. . .             887,252  87,772,224  848,418  85,028.686 

ToUl  value  of  metallic  products 888,222,012      691,000,848 

NONMBTAIiUO 

Arsenious  oxide    short  tons.                 2,518  159,286  4.670  818.147 

Asbestos    do...                 1,100  11,000  1.247  18.965 

Asphalt    do...             529.190  5,282,870  488.271  8,647,592 

Barytes    (crude)    do...               45.298  156,275  51,547  158.715 

Borax  (crude)    do...               58,051  1.491.580  62.400  1,464.400 

Bromine    pounds.             572,400  115,486  576.991  208,094 

Calcium  chloride short  tons.               19,611  180.030  19,408  121,766 

Cement barrels  (880  pounds  net) .       89,541,848  89.550,527  87,257.552  80.588,208 

r.i.„      i  Products    181,289,132      164,986.988 

^lay .  .  <  jf^^    ,)^QPf  ^Q,           2.647.989  4,180,459  2,209,860  8.756.568 

r.^.1      j  Bituminous    do...     478,435.297  565,284.952  422,708,970  498,809,244 

coal. .  j  Pennsylvania  anthracite long  tons.       81,718,680  195.181,127  81.090.681  188.181.899 

Cobalt  oxide   pounds 

Coke    short    tons.       46,299.580  128,922.278  84,555.914  88.884,217 

Diatomaceous    (infusorial)    earth  and  tripoli do 285,821      252.827 

Emery  (also  corundum  in  1905  and  1906) do. . .                    957  4,785  485  2.425 

Feldspar    do...             120.955  776,551  185,419  629,878 

Fluorspar    do...            115.580  786,286  95.116  570.041 

FuUer^  earth   do...               88,594  869.750  40.981  403,646 

Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes do. . .                 5,808  188,422  4,281  145.510 

Oems  and  precious  stones 819.454      124,651 

n*.,vku.       S  smorphous    short  tons.                 2,248  89,428  1,725  88,750 

urapmte. .    { crvstalline     pounds.         5,064,727  254.828  5,220,589  285.868 

Grindstones  and  pulpstones 855.627      689,844 

Oypsum    short  tons.          2.599,508  6,774.822  2,476,465  6.895.989 

Lime    do...          8,595,890  14,648,862  8,880,928  18,247,676 

Lithium   minerals    do...           (a)  (a)  (a)  (a) 

Magnesite  (crude)    do. . .                 9,682  77,056  11,298  124,228 

Marls     do...           (a)  (a)  (o)  (a) 

Tktfi«.       iscrap     do...                 5,822  82,548  8,780  51,416 

Mica. .  (gheet    pounds.         1,700,677  858,517  556.988  278,540 

Millstones    56,168      48.316 

iiri.^.1  .^.i.«.        (natural  pigments short  tons.               70,595  512,410  66,766  478,086 

Mineral  paints..   }»inciead  pigments do...              97,578  9,020,896  106,791  9.978.710 

Mineral  waters gallons  sold.       57,867,899  6,681,891  54.858,466  4.892,828 

Natural    gas     87,846,677      94,115,624 

Oilstones,  etc 207,852      167,948 

Peat     197.200      809,692 

PetroleuB. barrels  (42  gaUons) .     248,446.280  287,121.888  265,762,585  214,125,215 

Phosphate  rock   long  tons.         8,111.221  11,796,281  2.734.048  9,608,041 

Pumice short  tons.               24.563  55,408  27,591  59,172 

Pyrite     long  tons.             841.838  1,286,084  886,662  1.288.846 

Salt    barrels    (280  pounds,   net) .       84.899,298  10,123,189  84,804.683  10,271,858 

a.«4       JfflM* Bl^ort  tons.          1,791,800  1.895.991  1,619.649  1.568,080 

Esana. .  {molding,  building,  etc..  and  gravel do. . .       77,764.049  22.821,517  77.662.086  22.278.969 

Sand-lime    brick    1,238,325      1.058.512 

Silica  (quarts)   shorttons.               97,902  201.488  158,401  860.502 

Slate    6,175.476     5,706.787 

Stone     83.782.995      77,412.292 

Sulphur     long  tons.             311,590  5.479,849  827.684  5,954,286 

Sulphuric  acid  (60*  Baum5)  from  copper  and  sine 

smelters     short  tons.            632,237  4,846.272  760.638  5.190.298 

Talc  and  soapstone  (exclusive  of  fibrous  Ulc) do. . .               94,128  1.119,597  86.221  1,048.801 

Talc,    fibrous    do...               81.705  788,500  86.075  821.286 

Tkorium  minerals    (monasite),   and  sireon . . .  .pounds 

ToUl  value  of  nonmeUllic  producto 1.555,517.716      1.428,395.681 

Total  value  of  meUllic  producto 888,222,012      691.000.848 

Unspboitod 

Metallic  and  nonmeUllic  (estimate)    420,000     550.000 

Grand  total    2,439.159,728      2,114.946,024 

a  Value  included  under  "Unspecified.** 

b  1918:  consisto  of  2269  tons  of  uranium  ore  (carnotite) ;    10.5  grams   In   radium,   not  isolated:    and  482 

tons  of  vanadium  in  roscoelite  and  carnotlte  ores  with  an  arbitrarily  assigned  value.  1914:  4294  tons  of  uranium 

ore  (carnotite),  valued  at  $441,300  including  the  value  of  22.8  grams  of  radium,  not  isolated;  and  452  tons  of 
vanadium  in  roscoelite  and  carnotite  ores  with  an  arbitrarily  assigned  value  of  f500,000. 

TOTAL  VALUE  OP  THE  MINERAL  PBODUCJTS  IN        The  accompanying  statisticB  of  the  production 


1918  AND  1914 


of  the  more  important  minerals  and  metals  in 


[Ik  DoLLAMl  ^ijg   United   States   represent   the   authoritative 

allic    888,222.*012  69l!'l00%48  ««V"?*^.!  "*'  *^*  Engineering  and  Mining  Jour- 

metollic    1,555,517,716  1,428.895,681  nal  m  its  annual  review  for    1915.    Naturally 

(pecifled    420,000  550.000  these  figures  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the 

Total    2.489,159.728  2.114.946.024  Geo^^gical^  Survey,  but  they  are  of  interest  as 


showing  the  comparative  production  of  metals 
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and  minerals  and  chemical  substances  in  1915 
and  in  previous  years. 


jurious  to  the  health  of  the  employees.    The 
Arkansas  statute  is  unique  in  that  it  provides 


PRODUCTION  OF  METALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  New  York. 

Metal                                                            Unit  1918  1014  1915 

Aluminum     Poundis  49,601,500  {h)  45,000.000  {h)  80,000,000 

Copper  (a)      Pounds  1,225,785,884  1,158,581,876  1.424,640,565 

Ferromanganeae     Long  tons  229,884  185.118  282,210 

Gold  (6)      DoUara  88.884.400  94,581,800  98,891,100 

Iron     Long   tona  80,786,477  28,147,226  29,788.981 

Lead  (e)     Short  tona  488,476  538.735  565,856 

Nickel  (e)     Pounds  47,124,880  80,067,064  88,966,188 

QuickaiWer     Flaaka  (fc)  20,000  16.800  (/)  20,681 

Silver  (6 )      Troy  ouncea  66,801,500  72,455,100  67,485.600 

Zinc  (d)      Short  tona  858,262  862,861  492,495 

(a)  Production  from  ore  originating  in  the  United  Statea.  (b)  The  atatiatics  for  1918  and  1914  are  the 
final  and  those  for  1915  are  the  preliminary  atatiatica  reported  jointly  by  the  directora  of  the  Mint  and  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  (c)  Production  of  refined  lead  from  ore  and  scrap  originating  in  the  United  States:  anti- 
monial  lead  Is  included,  (d)  Total  production  of  smelters,  except  those  treating  dross  and  junk  excluaively; 
includea  spelter  derived  from  imported  ore.  (e)  Imports;  for  1916,  first  9  months  only.  This  nickel  is  refined 
in  the  United  Statea  for  the  production  of  metal,  oxide,  and  aalta.  (/)  Aa  reported  bv  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey,    (p)  Aa  reported  by  the  MetaUgesellachaft,  Frankfort  on  the  Main.     (A)  Eatimated. 

PRODUCTION  OP   MINERAL  AND   CHEMICAL   SUBSTANCES 

9tt&«tan0i                                                      Vvit  1918  1914  1916 

Coal,   anth.  (a)    Short  tons  91.626,825     (b)  90,821,507  89.000,000 

Coal,    bitu.  (a)     Short  tons  478,688.867   (b)  422.708,970  428.871.921 

Coke  (a)      Short  tons  45,958.808      (6)  84.555.914  40.462.027 

Copper   sulphate    Pounds  54,880.000             81.776,670  41.082,000 

Iron    ore    Long   tons  61,847.116             42,911,897  58.848.804 

Petroleum     Barrels  (6)  248,446,280    (b)  265,762.535  (6)267,400.000 

(a  The  coal  and  coke  atatistica  are  the  estimates  of  Coal  Age.  (b)  As  reported  by  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey. 


MIKEBAL  SPBINOS.  See.  Sabatoga 
Spbinos. 

MINER'S  ANiEMIA.  See  Hookwobm  Dis- 
ease. 

MIKES,  BuBEAu  OF.  See  United  States, 
Bureau  of  Mines. 

MIKES,  Submarine.    See  Naval  Pbogbess. 

MIKIMITM  WAGE.  Following  the  enact- 
ment of  the  preliminary  wage  law  in  Massachu- 
setts  in  1912  laws  were  enacted  during  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  California,  Colorado,  Minnesota, 
Nebraska,  Oregon,  Utah,  Washington,  and  Wis- 
consin. In  1914  the  Massachusetts  law  was 
amplified,  a  law  passed  in  Maine  was  declared 
unconstitutional,  and  commissions  of  investiga- 
tion were  appointed  in  Indiana,  Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, New  York,  and  Ohiio.  In  1915  the  only 
new  laws  enacted  were  those  in  Arkansas  and 
Kansas.  The  State  of  Nebraska  made  an  appro- 
priation of  $500  for  the  commission  created  in 
1912  but  previously  without  financial  means. 
In  Massachusetts  the  commission  was  author- 
ized to  require  employers  to  post  such  informa- 
tion as  the  commission  might  indicate. 

Abkansas.  The  Arkansas  law  which  went 
into  immediate  effect  applied  to  females  work- 
ing in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  or  mercan- 
tile establishments,  laundries,  or  transportation 
companies.  The  hours  of  such  were  restricted  to 
9  per  day  and  54  per  week,  unless  it  can  be 
shown  '"beyond  question  of  doubt"  that  such  lim- 
itation would  work  "irreparable  injury"  in  such 
industries  as  canning  and  candy  making ;  in  such 
a  case  the  minimum  wage  commission  may  allow 
a  longer  working  day  for  not  more  than  90  days 
in  any  year  at  overtime  wages  of  one  and  one-half 
times  the  regular  rate.  The  statute  fixes  a  mimi- 
mum  daily  wage  of  $1.25  for  all  female  workers 
of  six  months'  experience  and  $1  for  inexperienced 
workers.  Piece  work  of  any  form  must  secure 
the  minimum  wage.  Moreover,  the  commission 
may  abolish  the  piece  work  system  and  substi- 
tute a  daily  wage  wherever  such  system  is  in- 


a  statutory  minimum  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
vides for  a  minimum  to  be  determffled  by  the 
conmiission.  Thus  if  the  commission  finds  the 
rate  fixed  by  the  act  greater  or  less  than  is 
necessary  it  may  fix  a  rate  deemed  reasonable. 
The  commission  is  to  consist  of  a  commissioner 
of  labor  and  statistics  and  two  competent  women. 
Decrees  of  the  commission  are  to  be  reached 
through  public  hearings.  The  law  does  not  ap- 
ply to  cotton  factories,  fruit  and  vegetable  gath- 
ering or  preserving  nor  to  establishments  hav- 
ing three  or  less  employees  "in  the  same  build- 
ing at  the  same  time  doing  the  same  class  of 
work." 

Kansas.  The  second  law  was  that  of  Kansas 
which  created  an  Industrial  Welfare  Commis- 
sion with  extensive  powers  in  the  establishment 
of  standards  of  wages,  hours,  and  conditions  of 
labor  for  women,  learners,  and  apprentices.  This 
commission  consists  of  the  commissioner  of 
labor  and  two  persons  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, one  of  them  a  woman.  Upon  petition  of 
25  persons  in  any  occupation  or  upon  its  own 
initiative,  the  commission  may  act.  It  has  au- 
thority to  examine  pay  rolls  and  witnesses. 
After  investigation  it  may  establish  a  board 
consisting  of  not  less  than  three  employers,  three 
employees,  and  one  or  more  impartial  persons. 
This  board  may  recommend  a  reasonable  mini- 
mum wage  and  fix  hours  and  sanitary  rules. 
Its  findings  are  subject  to  review  by  the  com- 
mission. Special  licenses  may  be  issued  to  de- 
fective persons  or  to  learners,  apprentices,  and 
minors. 

Califobnia.  The  California  Industrial  Wel- 
fare Commission  which  administers  the  minimum 
wage  law  published  the  results  of  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  wages  of  22,972  women  18  years  of 
age  and  over  and  2289  girls  under  18  employed 
in  five  principal  cities.  It  was  found  that  of 
the  women  35  per  cent  received  less  than  $9  per 
week,  49  per  cent  less  than  $10  per  week,  and  28.5 
per  cent  $12  and  over.    Of  the  girls  42  per  cent 


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received  less  than  $6  per  week;  and  one-half  of 
them  received  between  $5  and  $6.99  per  week. 
The  report  also  gave  data  regarding  tlie  ex- 
penditures of  self-supporting  women  in  San 
Francisco  and  Los  Angeles.  It  was  found  that 
factory  women  in  San  Francisco  receiving  less 
than  $\2  per  week  reported  average  weekly  ex- 
penditures of  $8.27;  while  women  in  stores  and 
offices  receivlnff  less  than  $12  per  week  reported 
average  weekly  expenditures  of  $9.21  per 
week. 

Connecticut.  The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statis- 
tics of  Connecticut  published  the  results  of  an 
investigation  of  the  wages,  age,  nationality,  cost 
of  board,  and  length  of  employment  of  women 
and  girls  in  various  employments  in  the  State. 
Of  4508  employed  in  department  and  other 
stores  it  was  found  that  nearly  19  per  cent  re- 
ceived from  $2.55  to  $5  per  week;  over  42  per 
cent  received  from  $5  to  $8  per  week;  while  13 
per  cent  received  more  than  $12  per  week.  It 
was  found  that  of  these  women  33  per  cent  were 
native  Americans  and  36.4  per  cent  were  Irish- 
Americans.  The  remainder  were  scattered 
among  15  other  nationalities,  thus  showing  that 
the  proportion  of  foreign  born  was  relatively 
small.  It  was  found  that  91  per  cent  of  these 
women  and  girls  were  living  at  home.  Of  those 
employed  in  5  and  10  cent  stores  seven-eighths 
earned  $6  or  less  per  week,  while  two-thirds 
earned  $5  or  less.  The  report  urged  that  laws 
be  enacted  requiring  adequate  toilet,  rest,  and 
emergency  facilities,  sanitary  paper  towels,  indi- 
vidual soap  and  drinking  cups,  immediate  pro- 
vision of  fire  escapes  and  fire  extinguishers,  and 
a  uniform  lunch  period  of  one  hour  and  one- 
quarter. 

Massachusetts.  On  September  16th,  the 
Massachusetts  Minimum  Wage  Commission  is- 
sued a  decree  fixing  the  minimum  wages  for 
female  employees  in  retail  stores  after  Jan.  1, 
1916.  This  was  based  on  the  findings  of  the 
retail  store  wage  board  consisting  of  six  em- 
ployers, six  employees,  and  three  representatives 
of  the  public.  The  decree  fixed  the  minimum 
for  women  of  18  years  of  age  and  at  least  one 
year's  experience  in  a  retail  store  at  $8.50  per 
week;  for  inexperienced  workers  of  18  or  more 
at  $7  per  wedc;  for  minors  between  17  and 
18  at  $6  per  week;  and  for  minors  under  17 
years  at  $5  per  week. 

Michigan.  A  Commission  of  Inquiry  ap- 
pointed in  October,  1913,  by  the  Michigan  Legis- 
lature reported  in  January,  1915.  They  found 
that  of  nearly  60,000  women  investigated  about 
55  per  cent  received  less  than  $8  per  week.  Of 
those  employed  in  seven  establishments  whose 
pay  rolls  for  an  entire  year  were  studied,  88.4 
per  cent  received  less  than  $8  per  week,  while 
96.3  per  cent  received  less  than  $10  per  week. 
Of  8358  women  individually  questioned  onlv  5.3 
per  cent  lost  no  time  during  the  year  while  88 
per  cent  of  them  lost  as  much  as  three  months. 
It  was  found  that  many  of  these  women  con- 
stantly shift  employment,  this  being  responsible 
for  much  of  their  inefficiency.  Of  2569  women 
on  the  pay  rolls  investigated  for  an  entire  year 
it  was  foimd  that  1577  or  61.4  per  cent  work  . 
less  than  four  weeks.  The  average  weekly  earn- 
ings of  this  particular  group  ranged  from  $5.07 
in  the  paper  box  industry  to  $8.54  in  the  manu- 
facture of  petticoats.  The  commission  con- 
cluded that  a  large  proportion  of  women  wage 
earners  of  the  State  were  receiving  less  than  a 


living  wage;  that  any  industry  paying  too  low 
wages  was  a  social  burden  rather  than  an  asset; 
that  minimum  wage  legislation  will  tend  to 
eliminate  inefficiency  of  both  employers  and  em- 
ployees, suppress  parasitic  industries,  and  in- 
duce better  industrial  relations.  It  recom- 
mended the  enactment  of  a  minimum  wage  law 
and  extensive  provision  for  vocational  training 
in  the  public  schools. 

Reports  similar  to  the  foregoing  were  issued 
in  Minnesota,  Missouri,  and  Pennsylvania. 

New  Yobk  Cmr.  As  a  basis  for  the  fixing 
of  salaries  for  sweepers  in  the  Street  Cleaning 
Department  the  Bureau  of  Standards  made  an 
inquiry  into  the  cost  of  living  in  New  York 
City  and  the  prevailing  wages  for  unskilled 
labor  there  and  in  other  cities.  On  the  basis 
of  the  results  the  Bureau  recommended  to  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  that  the 
salaries  of  street  sweepers  range  from  $720  to 
$840  per  ^ear.  It  concluded  that  an  unskilled 
laborer  with  wife  and  three  children  under  14 
could  not  maintain  an  American  standard  of 
living  on  less  than  $840  a  year.  The  minimum 
of  $720  assumed  that  in  his  earlier  years  the 
sweeper  would  have  less  family  responsibiliiy. 
The  data  were  gathered  not  only  from  other 
studies  on  the  standard  of  living,  but  from  the 
detailed  budgets  of  20  members  of  the  Street 
Cleaning  Department.  The  apportionment  of 
the  $840  was  as  follows:  housing,  $168;  car 
fare,  $30.30;  food,  $380;  clothing,  $104;  fuel 
and  light,  $42;  health,  $20;  insurance,  $22.88; 
sundries,  $73.  The  report  included  the  esti- 
mate also  of  Prof.  Howard  B.  Woolston  of  the 
State  Factory  Investigating  Commission  that 
a  single  man  requires  at  least  $1  per  day;  upon 
marriage  this  minimum  must  be  increased  by 
$200  per  year;  and  for  each  child  bom  $100 
should  be  added. 

Okexson.  The  first  extensive  investigation  of 
the  operation  of  minimum  wage  law  was  made 
through  the  cooperation  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  and  the  United  States 
Commission  on  Industrial  Relations  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics,  No.  176,  July,  1915.  The  Oregon  law 
passed  in  1913  provided  for  an  Industrial  Wel- 
fare Commission  consisting  of  three  members 
representing  employers,  employees,  and  the  pub- 
lic. This  commission  in  turn  appoints  wage 
boards  of  nine  members  representing  the  same 
three  parties  which  make  inquiries  into  various 
special  industries.  For  various  reasons  the  in- 
vestigation was  limited  to  the  city  of  Portland 
where  there  had  been  a  fixed  minimum  wage  of 
$6  per  week  for  girls  imder  18  and  of  $9.25 
per  week  for  adult  experienced  women  in  mer- 
cantile establishments  and  offices.  The  inquiry 
covered  40  department,  dry-goods,  5  and  10  cent, 
specialty,  and  neighborhood  stores  for  the  months 
of  March  and  April,  1913  and  1914.  The  first 
point  of  inquiry  was  whether  the  minimum-wage 
ruling  had  thrown  w^omen  out  of  employment 
and  had  supplanted  women  by  men.  It  was 
found  that  there  had  been  little  displacement  of 
women  by  men  in  the  large  stores  and  what  little 
had  occurred  was  not  chargeable  to  the  mini- 
mum-wage requirements.  A  second  point  was 
the  effect  on  the  average  weekly  earnings  of 
women.  Girls  under  18  had  clearly  benefited,  but 
adult  inexperienced  women  were  slightly  worst* 
off,  while  the  number  of  adult  experienced 
women  receiving  $9.26  per  week  had  increased 


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130  per  cent.  The  average  wedcly  earnings  of 
all  women  in  the  department,  dry-gooda,  and 
5  and  10  oent  stores  had  increased  10  per  cent 
or  from  $7.89  to  $8.68  per  wedc.  The  signifi- 
cance of  these  findings  was  believed  to  be  in- 
creased by  the  fact  that  the  rulings  had  also 
cnt  the  daily  hours  of  labor  from  10  to  8^,  and 
prohibited  the  employment  of  women  in  stores 
after  6  p.  if.  Moreover,  the  general  business  de- 
pression of  the  country  had  resulted  in  a  de- 
crease in  business  in  Portland  stores  amounting 
to  12  per  oent;  this  would  ordinarily  have 
caused  a  decline  in  wages.  Another  feature  of 
the  inquiry  was  whether  there  was  any  tendency 
for  the  legal  minimum  to  become  the  maximum 
wage.  The  report,  on  the  contrary,  diowed  that 
a  larger  percentage  of  women  workers  received 
more  than  $12  a  week  after  than  before  the 
ruling  went  into  effect.  Moreover,  those  receiv- 
ing between  $9.26  to  $12  per  week  likewise  con- 
stituted a  larger  proportion.  There  was  thus 
no  leveling  of  wages  down  toward  the  minimum. 
It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  a  similar  result 
was  found  by  the  Industrial  Welfare  Commis- 
sion of  Washinf^n  in  the  operation  of  the  mini- 
mum-wage rulmgs  of  that  State.  As  to  the 
effect  of  the  ruling  on  the  cost  of  commodities 
the  Or^on  investigation  found  that  this  increase 
amounted  to  but  3  mills  per  dollar  of  sales,  an 
amount  so  small  that  no  business  was  disturbed 
by  it. 

Fbance.  By  an  enactment  of  July  10,  France 
made  provision  for  special  wage  boards  for 
women  employed  in  home  work  in  various 
branches  of  the  clothing  industry.  The  law  ap- 
plies especially  to  home  work  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  clothing,  hats,  boots  and  shoes,  white 
goods,  embroidery,  laoe,  feathers,  and  artificial 
flowers.  By  special  ministerial  decrees  the  law 
may  be  extended,  with  the  approval  of  the  su- 
perior labor  council,  to  other  trades.  Special 
wa^  boards  are  to  be  established  in  the  princi- 
pal towns  of  each  department.  These  boards 
shall  first  determine  the  prevailing  rates  of 
wages  for  women  of  average  capacity  working 
10  hours  per  day;  they  i£all  then  determine 
the  minimum  time  required  to  perform  all  the 
processes  necessary  to  complete  an  article;  and 
then  by  multiplymg  the  hourly  rate  thus  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  hours  thus  deter- 
mined shall  fix  the  minimum  piece  wages.  The 
rates  thus  established  shall  become  final  if  not 
protested  within  three  months  after  their  publi- 
cation. In  case  of  protest  final  decision  shall 
be  rendered  by  a  special  committee  at  the  Minis- 
try of  Labor.  All  rates  are  to  be  revised  every 
three  years.  Any  infractions  of  the  law  are 
punishable  by  fine.  Civil  suits  for  the  recovery 
of  wages  less  than  the  legal  minimum  may  be 
instituted.  Male  home  workers  in  the  same  in- 
dustries may  sue  for  wages  equal  to  the  mini- 
mum. 

MININO.  See  section  so  entitled  under  vari- 
ous countries. 

MINING  INDITSTBY.  See  Mineral  Pro- 
duction OF  THE  United  States. 

MINNESOTA.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915  was 
2,246,761.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,076,- 
708. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn    1915 

1914 
Wheat    1915 

1914 
Ooti    1915 

1914 
Rye 1915 

1914 
Barley     1915 

1914 
Potatoes    ...1915 

1914 
Hay 1915 

1914 
a  Tons. 


Aertage 

2,700.000 

2,600.000 

4,810,000 

4.050,000 

8,125,000 

8.040,000 

800,000 

279,000 

1,850,000 

1,878,000 

285,000 

270,000 

1,680,000 

1,748,000 


Prod,  Bu, 
62,100,000 
91,000,000 
78,420,000 
42,975,000 
184,875.000 
85,120.000 

5,850.000 

5,245,000 
41,175,000 
81,694.000 
80,210,000 
80,780,000 
a  8,209,000 

8,294,000 


$88,502,000 

47,820,000 

66,078.000 

48.884,000 

48.000,000 

84,048,000 

4,788.000 

4,668,000 

20.176.000 

16.798.000 

11,782,000 

9,850.000 

20.588.000 

20,093.000 


LiVB  Stook.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  872,000  and 
872,000  valued  at  $95,048,000  and  $101,152,000, 
mules  numbered  6000  and  6000  valued  at  $696,- 
000  and  $744,000,  milch  cows  numbered  1,210,- 
000  and  1,186,000  valued  at  $61,710,000  and  $63,- 
451,000,  other  cattle  numbered  1,232,000  and  1,- 
208,000  valued  at  $27,597,000  and  $29,838,000, 
sheep  numbered  536,000  and  564,000  valued  at 
$2,573,000  and  $2,594,000,  swine  numbered  1,- 
716,000  and  1,716,000  valued  at  $16,302,000  and 
$21,450,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915 
and  1914  was  3,124,000  and  2,940,000  pounds  re- 
spectively. 

MnrvRAL  Production.  Minnesota  ranks  first 
among  the  States  in  the  production  of  iron  ore. 
There  were  mined  in  1914  23,298,541  long  tons, 
a  considerable  decrease  from  the  production  of 
1913,  which  was  36,603,331  tons.  The  marketed 
value  of  the  production  of  1914  was  $40,628,771, 
compared  with  a  value  of  $80,789,025  in  1913. 
Tlie  total  mineral  production  in  1914  was  valued 
at  $45,680,865  compared  with  $85,814,533  in 
1913. 

TktANSTORTATiON.  The  total  mileage  of  main 
track  in  1914  was  9002.  The  most  important 
lines  and  their  total  mileages  are  the  Great 
Northern  2100;  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul  1230;  the  Northern  Pacific  1039;  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern'  650. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
the  State  in  1914  was  457,041.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools  in  1914  was  457,- 
041.  The  total  number  of  teachers  was  16,920 
of  whom  8954  were  in  rural  counties,  and  7966 
in  hi^  and  graded  schools.  The  total  disburse- 
ments for  educational  purposes  was  $24,574,003. 
The  average  monthly  salary  of  men  teachers  in 
rural  districts  was  $68,  and  of  womok  teachers 
$49;  in  graded  districts,  men  $113  and  women 
$61. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  year  ended  July  31,  1915,  shows  the  total 
receipts  for  the  period  of  ^2,481,933.  The 
balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  $3,- 
807,830,  and  the  disbursements  amounted  to 
$22,957,757,  leaving  cash  balance  in  the  treasury 
on  July  31,  1915,  of  $3,332,006. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  in- 
clude Anoka  State  Asylum,  Hastings  State 
Asylum,  Fergus  Falls  State  Hospital,  Rochester 
State  Hospital,  St.  Peter  State  Hospital,  School 
for  the  Blind  at  Faribault,  Faribault  School  for 
the  Deaf,  Faribault  School  for  the  Feeble-minded, 
Owatonna  State  Public  School,  Red  Wing  State 
Training  School,  Sauk  Center  Home  School  for 
Girls,  St.  Cloud  State  Reformatory,  Stillwater 


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MINNESOTA 


422 


MISSISSIPPI 


State  Prison,  State  Sanatorium  for  Consump- 
tives, Phalen  Park  Hospital  for  Crippled  Chil- 
dren, and  Willmar  Hospital  for  Inebriates.  The 
total  number  of  inmates  in  these  institutions  is 
10,070.  The  per  capita  cost  for  maintenance  was 
$213.52.  The  Legislature  of  1915  passed  several 
measures  relating  to  admission  to  these  in- 
stitutions. Among  these  was  an  act  providing 
for  the  establishment  of  county  sanatoriums  for 
consumptives.  Another  measure  required  the 
State  boards  of  all  these  institutions  to  make 
biennial  reports. 

Pt>Lmcs  AND  Government.  The  Legislature 
of  1915  passed  a  local  option  bill.  Under  the 
provisions  of  this  measure  wet  and  dry  elec- 
tions were  held  in  the  majority  of  the  counties 
during  the  year.  State-wide  prohibition  by 
constitutional  amendment  was  defeated  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  on  March  25th,  when 
an  attempt  to  obtain  the  adoption  of  the  minority 
report  of  the  temperance  committee  recommend- 
ing the  submission  of  the  issue  to  the  people  at 
the  next  general  election  was  defeated  by  a  vote 
of  54  to  60.  The  Senate  on  March  4th  defeated 
a  bill  providing  for  the  submission  to  the  voters 
of  a  constitutional  amendment  granting  full  suf- 
frage to  women.  For  the  bill  34  votes  were  cast, 
and  against  it  33.  The  county  local  option  elec- 
tions were  held  on  June  7th.  Nine  counties 
voted  no-license,  and  two  license. 

State  Governmext.  Governor,  Winfield  S. 
Hammond;  Secretary  of  State,  Julius  Schmahl; 
State  Auditor,  J.  O.  Purrey;  State  Treasurer, 
Walter  Smith;  Adjutant-General,  Fred  B. 
Wood. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Calvin  L.  Brown;  Associate  Justices,  Andrew 
Holt,  George  Bunn,  and  Oscar  Hallen. 

State  Lbgislatube.  Legislature  non-parti- 
san. 

MINNESOTA,  Universitt  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  learning,  founded  in  Min- 
neapolis in  1869.  The  enrollment  was  8972  and 
there  were  496  instructors.  Resignations  from 
the  faculty  during  the  year  included  the  follow- 
ing: T.  B.  Hutch eson,  associate  professor  in  the 
department  of  agriculture;  E.  W.  Major,  asso- 
ciate professor  of  animal  nutrition ;  H.  R.  Smith, 
professor  of  animal  husbandry;  John  Zeleny, 
professor  of  physics;  George  T.  James,  professor 
of  education;  E.  R.  Robertson,  professor  of  eco- 
nomics; Samuel  Quigley,  assistant  professor  of 
education;  F.  C.  Frary,  assistant  professor  of 
chemistry.  New  members  included  Lotus  D.  Coff- 
man,  dean  of  education;  Dr.  R.  O.  Beard,  assist- 
ant dean  and  secretary  of  the  medical  school; 
E.  E.  Nicholas,  assistant  dean  of  science,  litera- 
ture, and  arts;  M.  E.  Haggerty,  professor  of  phil- 
osophy and  psychology;  Maurice  Parmelee,  pro- 
fessor of  sociology ;  Joseph  E.  Peterson,  professor 
of  philosophy  and  psychology:  Elmer  E.  Stoll, 
professor  of  English;  and  Arthur  J.  Todd,  pro- 
fessor of  sociology.  The  total  income  of  the  uni- 
versitjr  in  1914-15  was  $2,269,912.  The  library 
contained  185,000  volumes.  The  president  in 
1915  was  George  E.  Vincent,  LL.D. 

MISSISSIPPI.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
1,926,778.  The  population  in  1910  was  1,797,- 
114. 

AowcuLTUBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


A.er€ag€ 

Prod.  Btt. 

V0lU€ 

Corn    

..1915 

8.650,000 

69.850.000  $45,078,000 

1914 

8.150,000 

68,275,000 

42.541.000 

Wheat    ... 

..1915 

5,000 

100.000 

105.000 

1914 

1,000 

18.000 

16,000 

Oati 

..1915 

250.000 

5.875.000 

8.326.000 

1914 

160,000 

8,680.000 

2.892.000 

Rice     

. .1915 

1.800 

45.000 

40.000 

1914 

1.100 

80,000 

26.000 

Potatoet    . 

..1915 

18.000 

1,170.000 

988.000 

Sweet 
Potatoes 

1914 

12.000 

960,000 

912,000 

.1916 

70,000 

7,700.000 

4,285.000 

1914 

50.000 

4,500.000 

2.835.000 

Hay     .... 

..1915 

250,000 

a  350,000 

8.850.000 

1914 

210.000 

804,000 

8.648.000 

Ootton     . . 

..1915 

2,650,000 

940.000 

51.758.000 

1914 

8,054.000 

h  1,246.000 

40,526,000 

a  Tons. 

6  Bales. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916. 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  243,000  and 
241,000,  valued  at  $21,384,000  and  $20,725,000; 
mules  numbered  292,000  and  292,000,  valued  at 
$32,120,000  and  $31,536,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 447,000  and  434,000,  valued  at  $14,974,000 
and  $15,190,000;  other  cattle  numbered  535,000 
and  514,000,  valued  at  $7,544,000  and  $7,350,000; 
sheep  numbered  208,000  and  208,000,  valued  at 
$520,000  and  $458,000;  swine  numbered  1,617,- 
000  and  1,540,000,  valued  at  $10,025,000  and  $11,- 
088,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  533,000  and  527,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

Tbansfobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  June  30,  1915,  was  4441. 

Education.  The  latest  enumeration  of  school 
population  was  in  1912.  The  total  number  of 
children  of  school  age  was  740,856;  of  these  311,- 
389  were  white,  and  429,467  colored.  In  addi- 
tion there  were  407  Indian  children  of  school 
age.  There  is  no  compulsory  school  law  in  the 
State. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 
amounted  to  $3,873,264,  and  the  disbursements 
for  the  same  period  to  $4,248,109.  There  was  a 
balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $636,708, 
and  at  the  end  of  $261,362.  The  bonded  debt 
of  the  State  amounted  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  to  $2,337,899. 

Ghasities  and  CoBREcnoNS.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control  of 
the  State  Board  include  the  State  Prison,  Blind 
Institute,  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute,  and  Charity 
Hospital,  all  at  Jackson;  charitable  hospitals 
at  Vicksburg  and  Natchez. 

Politics  and  Govesniient.  The  United 
States  Supreme  Court  on  June  1st  declared  that 
Greek  letter  fraternity  men  cannot  attend  any 
of  the  State  schools  in  Mississippi.  This  decision 
upheld  the  State  law  barring  fraternity  members 
from  the  schools  in  the  State. 

At  an  election  held  on  August  5th,  Theodore 
G.  Bilbo,  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  was  elected 
Governor  of  the  State  over  five  opponents  by 
about  5000  votes.  With  him  was  elected  the 
entire  democratic  official  family  nominated  with 
him.  Mr.  Bilbo  had  the  support  of  Senator  Var- 
daman. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Tlieodore  G. 
Bilbo;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Lee  M.  Russell; 
Secretary  of  State,  Joseph  W.  Powe;  Attorney- 
General,  Ross  A.  Collins;  Treasurer,  Dr.  J.  P. 
Taylor ;  Auditor,  Robert  E.  Wilson ;  Superintend- 
ent of  Education,  W.  H.  Smith. 

JuDiciABT.    Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice,  S. 


Digitized  by 


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MI8SISSIPFI 


423 


MISSOUBI 


6mith;  Associate  Justices,  S.  G.  Cook  and  J. 
Morgan  Stevens;  Clerk,  George  C.  Myers. 

State  Legislatxtse.  The  State  Legislature  is 
wholly  Democratic. 

MISSISSIFPIy  Uniyebsity  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  education,  founded  at  Ox- 
ford in  1844.  There  were  enrolled  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1015  608  students. 
The  faculty  numbered  33.  There  were  no  note- 
worthy changes  in  the  faculty  during  the  year, 
and  no  notable  benefactions  were  received.  The 
university  is  supported  chiefly  by  legislative 
appropriations,  and  by  federal  aid.  The  library 
contains  about  25,000  volumes.  The  president 
is  Joseph  M.  Powers,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

JOSbOUBI.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1015,  was 
3,301,789.  The  population  in  1010  was  3,203,- 
335. 

Aobicultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  iJie 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1014-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn 
Wheat     . 
Oats    . . . 

Rye 

Barley     . 
Potatoes 
Hay     ... 
Tobacco 
Cotton    . 


AerMkg§ 

Prod.  Bu. 

Tohu 

1915 

7,100,000  209.460.000  $119,886,000 

1914 

7,200,000 

158,400.000 

107.712.000 

1915 

2,778.000 

84,108,000 

88,426,000 

1914 

2,549,000 

48,888,000 

42.466.000 

1915 

1.225.000 

81.850.000 

12,108.000 

1914 

1,200.000 

25.800,000 

11,852,000 

1915 

25,000 

888,000 

291.000 

1914 

17,000 

288,000 

207,000 

1915 

5,000 

125,000 

79.000 

1914 

5,000 

120,000 

78,000 

1915 

90,000 

8.820.000 

6,292.000 

1914 

87,000 

8,915,000 

2,858,000 

1915 

8,050,000 

a  4,686,000 

89.406.000 

1914 

2,600.000 

1,820.000 

24.752.000 

1915 

8,500 

h  8,150,000 

878,000 

1914 

4,100 

4,920.000 

640,000 

.1915 

102,000 

e  52,000 

2,740.000 

1914 

145.000 

82.000 

2.545.000 

a  Tons,     h  Pounds,     e  Bales. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  1,084,000  and 
1,005,000,  valued  at  $07,560,000  and  $06,360,000; 
mules  numbered  329,000  and  320,000,  valued  at 
$32,571,000  and  $32,242,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 837,000  and  707,000,  valued  at  $45,633,- 
000  and  $43,436,000;  other  cattle  numbered 
1,555,000  and  1,414,000,  valued  at  $60,400,000 
and  $53,501,000;  sheep  numbered  1,416,000  and 
1,400,000,  valued  at  $8,213,000  and  $7,450,000; 
swine  numbered  4,505,000  and  4,250,000,  valued 
at  $31,086,000  and  $34,425,000.  The  production 
of  wool  in  1015  and  1014  was  7,170,000  and 
7,036,000  pounds  respectively. 

MiiTERAL  PBODUcnoN.  In  1014  Missouri  led 
in  the  value  of  its  production  of  lead.  This 
amounted  to  102,612  short  tons,  which  were 
valued  at  $15,023,736,  compared  with  176,116 
tons,  valued  at  $15,408,208,  in  1013.  It  also  led 
in  the  production  of  zinc,  which  amounted  to 
105,004  short  tons,  valued  at  $10,811,388,  com- 
pared with  124,063  tons  valued  at  $13,905,856 
in  1013.  The  coal  mined  in  the  State  in  1014 
was  3,035,080  short  tons,  valued  at  $6,802,325, 
compared  with  4,318,125  tons  valued  at  $7,468,- 
308.  The  decreased  production  in  1014  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  uniformly  mild  winter,  and  to  the 
lessened  demands  of  railways.  There  were  em- 
ployed during  the  year  0544  men.  The  total 
value  of  the  State's  mineral  production  in  1014 
was  $48,507,503  compared  with  $54,001,008  in 
1013. 


Transportation.  The  railway  mileage  in  the 
State  was  in  1014  8153. 

EDT7CATI0N.  The  latest  statistics  available 
for  education  in  the  State  are  for  1013.  In 
that  year  the  total  school  population  was  054,- 
600.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  public  schools 
was  600,484,  and  the  average  daily  attendance 
was  404,300.  The  female  teachers  numbered  14,- 
148,  and  the  males  14,706.  The  average  yearly 
salary  of  males  was  $400.60,  and  of  females 
$484.44.  On  Jan.  1,  1014,  there  were  365  ap- 
proved high  schools  in  the  State. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  auditor 
for  the  biennial  period  1013-14  shows  a  balance 
on  hand  on  Jan.  1,  1013,  of  $537,820.  The  total 
receipts  amounted  to  $10,850,310.  The  net  dis- 
bursements were  $10,862,104,  leaving  a  balance 
on  hand  on  Jan.  1,  1015,  of  $534,044. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  State  Board  of  C^iarities  and  Cor- 
rections and  include  hospitals  at  Fulton,  St. 
Joseph,  Nevada,  and  Framington;  the  Indus- 
trial School  for  Boys  at  Boonville;  Colony  for 
Feeble-minded  and  Epileptic  at  Marshall;  Mis- 
souri School  for  the  Deaf  at  Fulton;  Missouri 
School  for  the  Blind  at  St.  Louis;  Federal  Sol- 
diers' Home  at  St.  James;  Confederate  Soldiers' 
Home  at  Higginsville;  State  Sanatorium  at 
Mount  Vernon;  and  the  State  Penitentiary  at 
Jefferson  City. 

Politics  and  Government.  Governor  Major 
in  his  message  to  the  Legislature  delivered  on 
January  7th,  urged  the  gradual  abolition  of  the 
present  system  of  contract  prison  labor,  and 
recommended  the  purchase  of  a  convict  farm  of 
1000  acres.  The  Legislature  enacted  a  measure 
designed  to  prevent  dishonest  advertising.  It 
applies  to  every  form  of  business,  and  prohibits 
misstatements  of  fact  in  any  form  of  advertis- 
ing, including  posters,  circulars,  and  letters. 
Fines  and  jail  penalties  are  provided  for  viola- 
tions of  the  law. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Elliott  W. 
Major;  Lieutenant-Governor,  W.  R.  Painter; 
Secretary  of  State,  Cornelius  Roach;  Auditor, 
John  P.  Gordon;  Treasurer,  E.  P.  Deal;  Attor- 
ney-General, John  T.  Barker;  Adjutant-General, 
John  B.  0*Meara;  Superintendent  of  Education, 
Howard  A.  Gass — all  Democrats. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Archelaus  M.  Woodson;  Associate  Justices,  Wal- 
ter W.  Graves,  Charles  G.  Revelle,  Henry  W. 
Bond,  Robert  F.  Walker,  Charles  B.  Farris, 
James  T.  Blair;  Clerk,  Jacob  D.  Allen. 

State  Legislatttrb: 


Stnaio  Hous€  Joint  Ballot 

Demoerats     26  76                102 

Republicans    8  66                  78 

ProgressiTs   0  1                    1 

Democratic  majority. .      18  10  28 

HISSOTTBI,  University  op.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  at  Columbia, 
Mo.,  in  1839.  There  were  enrolled  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1916  2906  students. 
This  did  not  include  the  enrollment  in  the  School 
of  Mines  and  Metallurgy,  at  Rola,  Mo.  The 
faculty  numbered  276.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  productive  funds  of  the  university 
amounted  in  1916  to  $1,296,339,  and  the  income 

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to  $109,873.    The  library  contained  175,000  toI- 
umes. 

MITCHELL,  James  Ttndale.  American  jur- 
ist and  author,  died  July  4,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  Belleville,  III.,  in  1834,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1856.  He  took  a  law  course  in  the 
li'niversity  of  Pennsylvania,  receiving  the  degree 
of  LL.B.  in  1868.  He  began  practice  in  Phila- 
delphia and  in  1860  was  appointed  assistant  city 
solicitor.  He  was  judge  of  the  District  Court 
from  1871-76,  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  from  1875-88,  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
from  1899-1903,  and  Chief  Justice  from  1903-09. 
From  1865-87  he  was  editor-in-chief  of  the 
American  Law  Register,  He  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  appointed  to  report  on  the  acts 
(not  printed)  of  the  Colonial  Assembly  and  to 
edit  the  statutes  at  large  (1681-1800).  He  was 
the  author  of  The  History  of  the  District  Court 
(1876) ;  Mitchell  on  Motions  and  Rules  (1879) ; 
History  of  the  Law  Association  of  Philadelphia 
(1902);  and  Hints  on  Practice  in  Appeals 
(1004). 

MIZNEBy  Henbt  Rutgebas.  An  American 
soldier,  died  Jan.  4,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1827.  When  a  young  man  he 
removed  to  Michigan  and  in  1861  was  appointed 
captain  of  the  18th  infantry,  United  States 
army.  In  the  following  year  he  became  colonel 
of  the  14th  Michigan  infantry,  and  was  later 
transferred  to  the  36th  infantry.  He  served 
with  other  regiments  throughout  the  Civil  War 
and  was  honorably  mustered  out  of  volunteer 
service  in  1865.  In  1888  he  was  promoted  to 
be  colonel.  He  retired  by  operation  of  law  in 
1891,  and  by  the  act  of  1904  was  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  retired. 
He  received  brevets  for  gallantry  in  three  ac- 
tions.   

MODEL  CITY  CHARTER.  See  section  so 
entitled  under  Municipal  Government. 

MONACO.    A  hereditary  constitutional  mon- 
archy   (constitution  of  Jan.  8,   1911),  covering 
1.5  square  kilometers  and  having  a  population 
in     1913     of     22,956.     Population     of     Monaco 
(town),    2247;    of    La    Condamine,    11,082;    of 
Monte  Carlo,  9627.     Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
only    creed    tolerated.    The    revenue,    derived 
chiefly  from  the  gambling  concession  at  Monte 
Carlo,  is  spent  largely  for  improvements.    Reign- 
ing Prince,  Albert   (born  Nov.  13,  1848)  ;  heir- 
apparent.  Prince  Louis  (bom  July  12,  1870). 
MONEY.    See  Coins;  Financial  Review. 
MONGOLIA.    See  China. 
MONOPLANES.    See  AfiBONAuncs. 
MONTANA.     Population.     The     estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
446,054.     The    population    in     1910    was    376,- 
053. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Value 

$1,852,000 

1.064.000 

26.884.000 

16,704,000 

9.984,000 

7,284.000 

146,000 

147.000 

1,806.000 

1.182,000 

8.218,000 

8,072.000 


PotatoM    . 

Hay     .... 

a  Tons. 

..1015 
1914 

..1915 
1914 

Aoreoffe 

89,000 

87,000 

775,000 

700,000 

Prod^Bu. 
6.045.000 
5.180,000 
a  1.550.000 
1,750,000 

Vatue 

8.022,000 

8.815.000 

11.625.000 

15.225,000 

Corn    

Wheat     . . 

Oat«    

Rye   

,.1915 
1914 

..1915 
1914 

..1915 
1914 

..1915 

Acreage 

70,000 

50,000 

1,275.000 

910.000 

600.000 

530.000 

10.000 

10,000 

80,000 

70.000 

180.000 

320.000 

Prod.Bu. 

1.960,000 

1,400,000 

88,825,000 

18,856.000 

81,200,000 

18.550,000 

225,000 

Barley     . . 
Flaxseed 

1914 

..1915 

1914 

...1915 

1914 

210,000 
2.720.000 
2.185,000 
1.890.000 
2,560.000 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  430,000  and 
301,000,  valued  at  $36,980,000  and  $33,626,000; 
mules  numbered  4000  and  4000,  valued  at  $392,- 
000  and  $392,000;  milch  cows  numbered  120,000 
and  114,000,  valued  at  $9,998,000  and  $8,550,- 
000;  other  cattle  numbered  894,000  and  791,000, 
valued  at  $45,058,000  and  $38,759,000;  sheep 
numbered  4,338,000  and  4,427,000,  valued  at 
$24,293,000  and  $20,807,000;  swine  numbered 
298,000  and  276,000,  valued  at  $2,682,000  and 
$2,981,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  30,177,000  and  28,682,000  pounds  re- 
spectively. 

AfiNEBAL  PsoDUonoN.  The  output  of  copper 
in  1914  was  233,229,640  pounds  valued  at  $31,- 
019,642,  compared  with  287,828,699  pounds 
valued  at  $44,613,448  in  1913.  The  State  ranks 
second  in  the  production  of  1914,  and  first  in 
the  total  output.  At  the  close  of  1914  there  had 
been  produced  429,550,473  pounds,  or  32.14  per 
cent  of  the  total  output  of  the  country.  The 
silver  produced  amounted  to  12,016,460  fine 
ounces  valued  at  $6,645,102  as  compared  with 
13,819,201  fine  ounces  valued  at  $8,346,797  in 
1913.  The  zinc  output  amounted  to  55,790  diort 
tons  valued  at  $5,690,608,  compared  with  44,337 
tons  valued  at  $4,965,693.  Montana  ranked 
third  among  the  States  in  the  value  of  the  pro- 
duction of  both  silver  and  zinc  The  coal  pro- 
duction of  the  State  in  1914  was  2,805,173  short 
tons,  valued  at  $4,913,191,  compared  with  3,240,- 
973  tons  valued  at  $5,653,639  in  1913.  The 
value  of  the  total  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $54,244,889,  compared  with  $69,307,056. 
The  number  of  men  employed  in  coal  mines  in 
1914  was  3250.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral 
production  in  1914  was  $54,244,889,  compared 
with  $69,307,056  in  1913. 

Transportation.  On  Nov.  30,  1914,  the  steam 
railways  of  the  State  had  a  total  mileage  of 
4783.  The  only  construction  in  1915  was  a  line 
built  from  Beech,  North  Dakota,  which  enters 
Montana  just  south  of  the  Dakota-Montana 
line. 

Education.  The  total  number  of  school  chil- 
dren in  the  State  in  1913  was  114,032.  The  total 
number  enrolled  on  Aug.  31,  1914,  was  85,782. 
The  average  daily  attendance  was  63,686.  The 
total  numbnr  of  teachers  was  3778.  The  average 
salary  of  male  teachers  per  month  was  $93.29, 
and  of  female  teachers  $75.55.  The  total  dis- 
bursements for  school  purposes  was  $6,951,- 
903. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  shows 
receipts  for  the  year  of  $5,550,909.  The  dis- 
bursements were  $5,207,011.  The  cash  balance 
at  the  banning  of  the  year  was  $1,039,749,  and 
at  the  end  $1,383,646. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  include 
the  State  Prison  at  Deer  Lodge,  the  State  In- 
dustrial School  at  Miles  City,  a  home  for  or- 
phans, foundlings,  and  destitute  children  at  Twin 
Bridges,  a  Soldiers'  Home  at  Columbia  Falls, 
the   State   Hospital   for   the   Insane  at   Warm 


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Springs,  and  the  State  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Blind  and  Feeble-minded  at  Boulder. 

Politics  and  Goyernhent.  The  lower  House 
of  the  State  Assembly  on  February  1st  adopted 
a  committee  report  proposing  the  submission  of 
the  question  of  pronibition.  to  referendum,  in- 
stead of  submitting  a  constitutional  amendment 
as  provided  by  a  bill  which  had  previously 
passed  the  Senate.  The  bill  passed  by  the  House 
permits  the  importation  of  wine  for  sacramental 
purposes,  and  alcohol  for  the  arts  and  mechanics. 
All  these  were  prohibited  by  the  Senate  bill. 
The  measure  otherwise  provides  for  absolute 
prohibition  in  the  State.  The  bill  provides  for 
a  referendum  vote  in  1916.  It  was  amended  in 
the  Senate  to  become  effective  Dec.  1,  1918,  in- 
stead of  Dec.  1,  1919. 

State  Govebnkent.  Governor,  Sam.  V.  Stew- 
art; Lieutenant-Governor,  W.  W.  McDowell; 
Secretary  of  State,  A.  M.  Alderson;  Attorney- 
General,  J.  D.  Poindezter;  Adjutant-GeneraL, 
Phil.  Greenan;  Treasurer,  W.  C.  Rae;  Auditor, 
W.  Keating;  Superintendent  Public  Instruction, 
H.  A.  Davee — all  Democrats. 

JuDioiABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Theo.  Brantly;  Justices,  Sydney  Sanner,  Wm.  L. 
HoUoway;  Clerk,  J.  T.  Carroll. 

State  Lbqislatube: 

Stnat§  Hou»§  /oitd  BMot 

Democrats 16  64                  70 

Republicans    18  86                 64 

ProgreSBives    4  4 

Socialists     2                    2 

Independents    1  1                   2 

Majority    TT  15  D  8D 

MONTANA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  in  1893  at 
Missoula,  Mont.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  525. 
The  faculty  numbered  60.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  university  is  supported  almost 
entirely  by  legislative  and  federal  appropria- 
tions. The  library  contains  about  30,000  vol- 
umes.   The  chancellor  is  £.  C.  Elliott,  Ph.D. 

HONTENEGBO.  A  European  monarchy, 
hereditary  and  constitutional;  a  Balkan  state. 
Area,  9080  square  kilometers  (3506  square 
miles) ;  population,  285,000  (31  per  square  kilo- 
meter). Tliese  figures  relate  to  area  and  popu- 
lation previous  to  the  Balkan  Ware;  by  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  Nov.  12,  1913,  defining  the 
Serbo-Montenegrin  frontier,  Montenegro  came 
into  possession  of  new  area  estimated  at  2130 
square  miles,  carrying  a  population  of  about  150,- 
000.  Hie  majority  of  the  original  population 
belonff  to  the  Orthodox  Church.  Cettinje  (5300 
inhabitants)  is  the  capital;  Podgoritza  has 
10,053,  Dulcigno  5081,  Antivari  2317.  Monte- 
negro is  a  mountainous,  wooded  country,  with 
cultivable  tracts  where  agriculture  is  carried  on. 
The  chief  exports  are  skins,  valued  at  380,000 
kronen  in  1911  (422,537  kronen  in  1900),  wool, 
259,000  (364,246),  horses,  275,000  (315,387), 
cattle,  211,000  (235,478),  olive  oil,  333,000  (230,- 
967),  sheep,  108,000  (63,113),  etc.;  total  ex- 
ports for  the  year  1911,  2,392,000  kronen  (2,- 
435,5^0  kronen  in  1909).  Total  imoorts,  8,- 
167,000  kronen  (6,181,369  kronen  in  1900),  dis- 
tributed principally  among  Austria-Hungary, 
Italy,    Turkey,    France,    Germany,    the    United 


Kingdom,  in  the  order  named.  Vessels  entered 
(1911),  22,  of  5030  tons.  A  railway  runs  from 
Antivari  to  Lake  Scutari.  The  budget  for  1912 
estimates  the  revenue  at  3,609,000  kronen  and 
the  expenditure  at  4,187,126.  Reigning  sover- 
eign, Nicholas  I  (born  1841),  father  of  the  Queen 
of  Italy.  Heir-apparent,  Ptince  Danilo  (bom 
1871).    See  War  op  the  Nations. 

MONTESSOBI  SCHOOLS.  See  Education 
IN  thb  Unitbd  States,  section  so  entitled. 

MONTSEBBAT.  A  presidency  of  the  Lee- 
ward Islands  colony.  Plymouth,  the  chief  town, 
has  about  1500  inhabitants.  The  cultivation  of 
sugar  declined  in  1915,  and  that  of  limes  and 
cotton  was  extended.  Other  fruits,  cacao,  and 
cotton  are  grown.  Montserrat  is  consider^  the 
most  healthful  of  the  Antilles. 


1907-08  1908-10  1910-11   1918-14 

Imports     £88,766  £81,848  £88.106  £36,762 

ExporU     86,108     81,669     84,898     87,409 

Revenue    10,288     10.612     12,262     12,881 

Expenditure    8,616       7,807     11,866     11,679 

Shipping  *     808,916  862,168  260,226  208,227 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

See  Leewabd  Islands. 

KOOBE,  Edwabd  Bbuce.  American  public 
official,  died  Sept.  0,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Anson,  Me.,  in  1851,  and  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools,  and  by  tutors.  He  studied  law 
m  1881  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  be- 
came assistant  examiner  in  the  United  States 
patent  office  in  1893,  a  law  clerk  in  1898,  and 
principal  examiner  in  1899.  From  1901  to  1907 
he  was  assistant  commissioner  of  patents,  and 
commissioner  from  1907  to  1913.  in  the  latter 
year  he  became  a  member  of  the  pat^it  law 
firm  of  Moore  and  Clark,  and  in  1908  he  suc- 
cessfully n^^otiated  with  the  German  govern- 
ment for  the  existing  treaty  relating  to  the 
nonworking  of  patents  in  Germany  by  American 
inventors  and  manufacturers.  He  was  special 
representative  to  yearly  conventions  relating  to 
patents  of  many  European  countries,  and 
served  as  special  commissioner  also  to  South 
American  countries.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Taft  chairman  of  the  American  dele- 
^tion  to  the  Conference  of  International  Union 
for  the  protection  of  industrial  property.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  patriotic  societies. 

MOBAVIA.     See  Austria-Hungabt. 

MORAVIAN  GHU&CH.    See  Mobavians. 

HO&AVTANS,  also  called  Mobavian  Bodies, 
United  Bbcthben  (Unitat  Frairium),  and  the 
Moravian  Cuubcu.  lliere  are  two  bodies  of 
this  denomination  in  the  United  States,  but  only 
one  which  is  important  numerically.  The 
smaller  body  is  called  the  Union  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  Church.  It  had  in  1915,  1000  com- 
municants, 21  churches,  and  4  ministers.  The 
main  body,  the  Moravians,  had  in  1915,  20,146 
communicants,  126  churches,  and  145  ministers. 
Missions  are  maintained  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  the  educational  institutions  un- 
der the  control  of  the  Moravians  have  a  high 
reputation  for  efficiency.  The  latter  include  the 
Moravian  College  and  Theological  Seminary,  the 
Moravian  School  for  Boys  and  Girls,  and  the 
Moravian  Seminary  for  Girls  at  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
Linden  Hall  Seminary  for  Girls  at  Lititz,  Naz- 
areth Hall  for  Boys  at  Nazareth,  Pa.,  and  an 
academy  for  girls  at  Salem,  N.  C.  The  Morav- 
ians are  strongest  in  Pennsylvania. 


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MORE,  Paul  Elmeh.  See  Lttebatcbb,  Eng- 
usH  AND  Amebigan,  Essayt. 

MOBOGGO.  An  African  sultanate  chiefly  un- 
der French  protection  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of 
March  30,  1912.  Area,  exclusive  of  the  Tuat 
and  the  desert,  439,240  square  kilometers  ( 169,- 
691  square  miles).  The  area  of  the  French 
protectorate  is  given  at  416,800  square  kilo- 
meters, with  an  estimated  population  of  3,000,- 
000.  The  Spanish  concessions  cover  about  21,- 
800  square  kilometers,  with  about  404,000  in- 
habitants; Tangier,  which  is  to  be  internation- 
alized, has  600  square  kilometers,  and  60,000 
inhabitants.  Fez  is  the  capital,  with  101,820 
inhabitants;  Morocco  (Marakesh),  60,034;  Ra- 
bat, 47,144;  Tangier,  46,270.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  Berbers,  Bedouins,  and  Mued  Arabs 
and  Tuaregs,  and  belong  to  the  Malekite  sect  of 
the  Sunnite  Mohammedans. 

The  mineral  resources  are  undeveloped,  the 
majority  of  the  people  being  engaged  in  graz- 
ing and  agriculture  of  a  primitive  kind.  'Diere 
is  a  limited  manufacture  of  carpets  and  slip- 
pers. There  are  no  authoritative  financial  sta- 
tistics; customs  duties  bring  about  10,000,000 
francs  annually,  and  the  sultan's  budget  is 
placed  at  about  7,000,000.  Imports  and  exports 
by  countries  follow,  values  in  thousands  of 
francs : 


JmportM 
1911        1918 


United    Kingdom 20,384 

France    45,860 

Germany    7,861 

Spain     2,871 

Belgium    2,245 

United    Statee    718 

Italy    521 

Other     6,170 


50.725 

49,958 

18,209 

6,845 

4,078 

782 

1,094 

9,208 


Bxportt 

1911  1918 
19,644  15.617 
81.878  15.640 
17,429  17.889 

9,180  8,796 
782  442 
758        411 

2.518     5,260 

1,971     2,160 


Total     94,279  152,497  88,600  75,047 

Principal  exports  in  1911  and  1912  respec- 
tively: barley,  11,627  and  19,332  thousand 
francs;  hides  and  skins,  7151  and  4764;  cattle, 
6454  and  2327;  eggs,  5740  and  6126;  almonds, 
5668  and  4127;  wool,  5263  and  1580;  wheat, 
5203  and  6579;  flax,  4548  and  5005;  vegetables, 
4278  and  7113;  canary  seeds,  1814  and  1224; 
slippers,  1420  and  1078;  corn,  1201  and  1201; 
wax,  1123  and  872. 

Vessels  entered  in  the  1912  trade,  3679,  of 
2,921,000  tons.  Vessels  entered  1910,  3194,  of 
2,662,549  tons.  There  are  no  railways.  Reign- 
ing Sultan,  Mulai  Yussuf,  son  of  Mulai  Hassan; 
proclaimed  at  Fez  Aug.  17,  1912,  in  place  of 
his  brother,  Mulai  Abd-el-Hafid.  There  is  a 
French  resident  commissioner-general;  a  Span- 
ish high-commissioner  resides  at  Tetuan. 

MO&BIS  PLAN  BANKS.  See  Loan 
Shabks. 

MORTALITY  STATISTICS.  See  Vital 
Statistics. 

MOSQITITO.     See  Malaria. 

HOTHEBS'  PENSIONS.  See  Pensions  fob 
Mothers. 

MOTOB-BOATINQ.    See  Yachting. 

MOTOR  FIBE  APPABATITS.  See  Fire 
Protection. 

MOUNT  HOLYOKE  COLLEGE.  An  insti- 
tution for  higher  education  of  women  founded 
in  1836  at  South  Hadley,  Mass.  The  total  en- 
rollment of  undergraduate  students  in  1915  was 
783.  There  were  in  addition  eight  graduate 
students.     The  faculty  numbered  93,  and  in  ad- 


dition there  were  28  assistants,  readers,  and 
secreteries.  Dr.  Colin  A.  Scott,  formerly  the 
head  of  the  department  of  education  at  the  Bos- 
ten  Normal  School,  was  appointed  professor  of 
education.  Noteworthy  benefactions  included 
$25,000  from  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Norman  Wait  Harris, 
of  Chicago,  te  complete  an  endowment  of  $50,- 
000  for  the  department  of  zoOlogy.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  of  the  college  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  1915  amounted  te  $1,594,763,  and 
the  income  te  $373,910.  The  library  contained 
58,200  volumes. 

MOVING  PICTXTBES.     See  Photoplays. 

MXTLBY,  Joseph.  American  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest  and  educator,  died  1915.  Appointed  in 
1915  president  of  Fordham  University.  He  was 
born  in  1872  and  at  the  age  of  15  entered  the 
Jesuit  Order.  In  1905  he  was  ordained  a  priest. 
For  several  years  he  taught  classics  in  Greorge- 
tewn  College,  and  was  for  one  year  vice-president 
of  Loyola  College  in  Baltimore.  He  was  later 
prefect  of  discipline  and  athletic  directer  at 
Georgetewn  University.  He  then  became  presi- 
dent of  St.  Peter's  College  at  Jersey  City,  and 
held  this  position  until  the  time  of  his  appoint- 
ment as  president  of  Fordham.  He  was  well 
known  as  one  of  the  most  eloquent  oraters  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  America,  and  as  an  effi- 
cient educater. 

MX7NICIPAL  BUILDINGS.  See  Abchi- 
tectube.  

MUNICIPAL  FBANCHISES.  See  Munici- 
pal Govebnment,  Model  City  Charter. 

MUNICIPAL  GOVEBNMENT.  The  past 
year,  like  1914,  was  characterized  by  slackening 
in  the  adoption  of  the  commission  plan  and  rapid 
gain  in  the  city  manager  plan.  There  was  also 
some  further  gain  in  municipal  home  rule,  but 
much  disappointment  among  home  rulers  in  New 
York  State  over  the  defeat  of  the  proposed  home 
rule  amendments  proposed  by  the  Constitutional 
Convention  and  buried  by  a  half  million  adverse 
votes  in  November.  Preferential  voting  made 
considerable  gain.  Proportional  representa- 
tion ( see  section  below ) ,  a  novelty  in  the  United 
Stetes,  was  established  at  Ashtabula,  Ohio. 
Model  forms  for  home  rule  constitutional 
amendments  and  a  city  charter  of  the  commis- 
mission-manager  type  were  brought  te  a  finish 
by  a  committee  of  the  National  Municipal 
League.  These  and  a  few  other  salient  features 
of  municipal  government  activities  in  1915  will 
be  reviewed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Commission  Plan.  Nearly  500  cities  have 
adopted  commission  government.  Owing  te  a 
lack  of  uniformitv  in  classification  and  the  in- 
completeness of  the  reports  for  the  last  month 
or  two  of  the  year  it  was  impossible  to  give  ex- 
act figures  of  the  growth  and  present  status  of 
the  movement.  The  best  figures  available,  un- 
der a  liberal  definition  of  conmiission  govern- 
ment, show  the  number  of  cities  so  governed  in 
various  years: 


1901  

1  1911  

96 

1905  

1  1912  

67 

1906 

0  1918  

112 

1907 

, 7  1914 

45 

1908 

, 5  1915  

89 

1909 

........  28  Unknown  

7 

1910  , 

66 

Total 

469 

The  1915  accessions  (see  Year  Books  for 
1913  and  1914  for  earlier  records),  so  far  as 
reported,  are  shown  by  the  accompanying  teble. 


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LIST   OF   CITIES   REPORTED   AS  HAVING 

ADOPTED  THE  G010CI3SION  PLAN 

IN    1915* 

(From  Records  of  the  National  Municipal  League.) 

PojndaHon,  V.  8. 
Name  of  City  Cennu  of  1910 

Bridgeport,    Conn.f    102,054 

MechanicsTille.   N.   Y 6.634 

Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y 12,698 

Bayonne,  M.  J 55.646 

Bradley  Beach.  N.  J 1,807 

Cape  May,  N.  J 2,471 

Hoboken.  N.  J 70.824 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J 23.888 

CoatesviUe,    Pa 11,084 

Aeheville,    N.    C 18,762 

Lincolnton,  N.  C 2,418 

Rome,    Oa 12,099 

Apalachicola,  Fla 8.065 

Orange  Park,  Fla 872 

Coal  City.  lU 2,667 

Joliet,  ril.    84,670 

Lincoln.    111.    10.892 

Paris,   111 7,664 

Princeton,  111 4,181 

Rockford,   IlL    45,401 

Sterling,   lU 7,467 

Grand  feapids,  Mich 112,571 

MunUing,   Mich 2,952 

Aurora,   Mo 4,148 

Sprinjfteld,    Mo 85,201 

Two  Harbors,  Minn 4.990 

Marmarth,  N.  D 790 

Jackson,  Tenn 15,779 

Lawrenoehurs,  Tenn 1,687 

Cynthiana,  Kj 3,608 

Harrodsburg,  Ky 8,147 

HopkinsTille.  Ky 9,419 

Klnsville,  Ky 

Middlesboro,  Ky 7,805 

Brownsville,    Texas    10,517 

Calvert,     Texas     2,579 

Yoaknm,  Texas 4,657 

Helena,  Mont.   12,515 

Nspa.    Cal 5,791 

Santa  Monica,   Cal 7,847 

*  The  following  cities  should  be  added  to  the  list  for 
1914,  as  reported  in  the  1914  Year  Book:  Madison, 
N.  J.,  4,658;  Springfield,  B.  D.,  675;  Cleburne,  Texas, 
10.364;   Long  Beach,  Cal.,   17,089. 

t  Voted  in  favor  of  the  proposition. 

The  largest  city  operating  under  the  commlB- 
Bion  plan  in  1915  was  New  Orleans,  which  had 
a  population  of  339,075  in  1910,  but  on  Jan.  1, 
1916,  the  plan  was  to  go  into  effect  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.  (population  in  1910,  423,715).  At  least 
16  cities  of  more  than  100,000  population  have 
adopted  commission  government.  Salem,  Mass., 
voted  to  change  from  the  commission  plan, 
adopted  in  1912,  to  the  federal  plan — ^known  as 
Plan  B,  under  the  optional  act  of  1915.  At  the 
same  time,  Lynn,  Mass.,  voted  to  make  the  op- 
posite change.  A  strong  effort  to  abandon  the 
commission  plan  was  defeated  at  Mollne,  111. 
At  Spokane,  Wash.,  an  attempt  to  weaken  the 
plan  by  making  the  corporation  counsel  and 
comptroller  elective  was  defeated,  but  the  sal- 
aries of  the  commissioners  were  decreased  from 
$5000  to  $3600  a  year.  Interesting  complica- 
tions under  commission  government  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  including  litigation  over  the  re- 
moval of  the  members  of  the  commission  and 
the  appointment  of  a  receiver  by  a  lower  court, 
and  the  nullification  of  the  appointment  by  a 
higher  court  are  outlined  in  The  National  Mu- 
nicipal Review  for  October,  1015.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  an  expert  accountant  and  en- 
gineers from  New  York  City  were  making  an 
investigation  of  the  affairs  of  the  city.  A  part 
of  the  complications  of  Nashville  were  due  to 
misgovernment  before  the  commission  plan  went 
into  effect,  and  a  part  to  over-confidence  in  the 
virtues  of  the  mere  change  in  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment. 


City  Manager  Plan.    In  the  United  States 
74  cities  had  adopted  and  two  had  abandoned 
some  form  of  city  manager  plan  up  to  Novem- 
ber, 1915.    Two  had  also  adopted  it  in  Canada. 
As  shown  by  the  accompanying  table,  two-thirds 
of  the  cities  in  the  list  had  populations  of  less 
than    10,000    in    1910.    The   two   largest   cities 
were  Springfield,  Ohio,  and  Dayton,  Ohio,  with 
populations  of  46,921  and  116,577.    The  salaries 
paid  in  some  of  the  cities  are  large — for  city 
officials.    Dayton   pays  its  manager   $12,500   a 
year.     A  half  dozen  places  pav  $5000  or  $6000. 
The  widespread  interest  manifested  in  the  plan 
indicates  that  it  will  be  adopted  in  many  more 
places   in   the   next   few  years.    Already    four 
States — ^Massachusetts,  New  York,  Virginia,  and 
Ohio — ^have  passed  general  laws  permitting  all 
or  certain  classes  of  cities  to  adopt  the  com- 
mission manager  plan,  and  most  of  the  cities 
in  the  entire  list  have  this  combination.    Some 
observers  go  so  far  as  to  declare  that  neither 
commission  nor  manager  can  be  successful  ex- 
cept in  combination — ^and  there  are  strong  argu- 
ments in  support  of  this  view.    The  commission 
plan  by  itself  is  weak  because  it  attempts  to 
select  by  popular  vote  men  who,  besides  serving 
as  representatives  of  and  legislators  for  the  peo- 
ple,  are  als6  chiefs  of  executive  departments. 
Adding  a  city  manager  provides  a  single  ex- 
ecutive in  place  of  five  more  or  less  independent 
but  yet  interdependent  executives,  and  still  en- 
ables the  comnussion  to  make  sure  that  its  pol- 
icies are  carried  into  effect.    Moreover,  the  best 
trained  men  in  the  whole  field  may  be  secured 
as  city  managers.    Many  of  the  city  managers 
have  been  chosen  from  the  engineering  profes- 
sion.   This  practice  will  doubtless  be  continued 
until  facilities  for  special  training  for  the  posi- 
tion   have  been   provided.    Meanwhile,   in   fact 
always,  city  managers  will  often  begin  with  the 
smaller  cities  in  a  managerial  or  other  capacity, 
and  go  on  and  up  from  one  city  to  another,  as 
is  true  of  some  of  the  more  important  executive 
municipal  positions  abroad. 

MUNIOIPALITIES  HAVING  0IT7  MANAGERS 
(As  reported  to  Ossian  E.  Carr,  Secretary  City  Mana- 
gers' Association,  np  to  November,  1915) 
Population, 

NatM  of  Place  V.S.Oentut    Date  in      Annual 

of  1910  Effect         Salary 

Norwood.  Mass 8.014  1914     $8,000 

Nevburgrh,  N.  Y 27,805  Jan.  1916       6.000 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  T 80,445  Jan.  1916       5,000 

Watertown,  N.  Y 26,780      Jan.  1918         

Groye  City,  Pa 8,674  1914       2,000 

Titusville,   Pa 8,688      Dec.  1018         

Charlottesville,   Va 6.766  1913         

Fredericksburg,   Va 5,874  

Luray,  Va 1,218  

Portomoutb.   Va 88,190     Sept.  1916         

Staunton,  Va 10,604  Apr.  1008       2,500 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 41,641      Jan.  1917         

Durham,   N.  C 18,241  

Elizabeth  City,  N.  C 8,412      Apr.  1915         

Hickory.  N.  C. 8.716  May  1918       2.000 

Morgantown,  N.  C 2.712  May  1918       1,200 

Thomasville,  N.  C 8,877  1916         

Beaufort,   S.  C 2,486  1915         

Rock  Hill,  6.  C 7,216  1915       2.400 

Sumter.  S.  C 8,109  Jan.   1912       8.800 

Lakeland,  Fla 8,719  1914       2,100 

Largo,  Fla 291  1918           600 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 5,494  1916       8,600 

Johnson  City,  Tenn 8,502  

Ashtabula,  Ohio 18,266      Jan.  1916         

Dayton,  Ohio   116,577  Jan.  1914     12,500 

Sandusky,  Ohio 19,989      Jan.   1916         

Springfield.   Ohio   46,921  Jan.   1918       6,000 

Westerville,  Ohio 1.908  1915         

Alpena.   Mich 12,706      Apr.  1916         

Benton  Harbor.  Mich.   .. .     9,185  1916         

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Popuiation, 
V.  S.  OenniM     Date  in 
BIfeei 


Name  of  Place 

of  1910 

Big  Rapids,  Mich 4,518  1914 

Cadillac,  Mich 8.876  Mar.  1914 

Grand  HaTen,  Mich 6,866  1914 

Jackaon,  Mich 81,483  Jan.  1915 

Manistee.  Mich 12,881  Apr.  1918 

Ol«ncoe,  in 1,899  1914 

River  Forest,  III 2,466  1914 

Winnetka,  HI 8,168  Jan.  1916 

Horicon,   Wis 1,881  

Bloomfleld,  Iowa   2,028  1912 

Chariton.  Iowa 8,794  

Clarinda.  Iowa 8.882  1918 

Iowa   Falls,    Iowa    2,797  1914 

Webster  City,  Iowa 5,208  1916 

Morris,  Minn 1,686  1918 

Clark,  S.  D 1,220  1912 

Abilene,  Kan 4,118  1918 

Mulberry,  Kan 997  1914 

Amarino,  Texas   9.967  Jan.  1914 

Denton,  Texas   4,782  1914 

San  Angelo,  Texas 10.821  Apr.  1916 

Sherman,  Texas 12.412  1916 

Taylor,  Texas 6,814  1914 

Terrell.  Texas 7.060  1918 

Tyler,    Texas    10.400  Apr.    1915 

Montrose,  Colo 8,252  1914 

CollinsTiUe.  Okla 1,824  1918 

Korman.  Okla 8,724  

La  Grande,  Ore 4,848  Jan.  1914 

Snohomish,  Wash 8,244  1916 

RoBwell.  N.  M. 6.172  1914 

Alhambra,  Cal 6,021  July  1915 

Bakersfleld,  Oal 12,727  May  1915 

Glendale,  Cal 2,746  

Holtville,  Cal 729  

Inglewood.  Cal 1,686  1914 

San  Dim,  Cal   89,578  May  1915 

San  JosI,  Cal 28,946  July  1916 

San  Rafael,  Cal 5,984  

Santa  Barbara,  Cal 11.659  Jan.   1917 

Fhainix,  Arix 11,184  Jan.  1918 

Tempo,  Aris 1,478  1915 

Tucson,  Arix 18,198  1916 

MaissonneuTe.  P.  Q .... 

Port  Arthur.  Ont. .... 


*ud    ^^P^  members  of  the  school  committee,  without 

sSSSy    confirmation  by  the  council;   Plan  B,  a  mayor 

lv600    *"^   council,   the  council   to   be   elected   partly 

8,000    by  wards  and  in  part  at  large,  and  the  mayor 

5  000    ^   appoint   and    remove   all   heads   of   depart- 

2000    "*^^  ^^^  boards,  subject  to  the  approval  of 

2,'400    the  council;  Plan  G,  the  commission  form;  Plan 

••••    D,  the  commission-manager  form,  the  oommis- 

llooo    ^^^^  ^^  council  to  consist  of  five  members,  and 

'680    the   member    receiving  the   highest   number    of 

•  ••  •    votes  to  be  mayor  but  with  no  extra  powers  ex- 

1  800    ^P^  ^^^^  ^^  presiding  over  the  council  and  being 

\    .    the  "official  head"  of  the  city. 

PftEFKRENTiAL  VoTiNG.    This  system,  permit- 
ting each   voter   to  express   first,   second,  etc., 
choice  among  the  various  candidates  for  a  given 
2,400    office,  and  to  have  his  other  choices  counted  in 

case  his  first  choice  candidate  is  not  elected, 

.;.*;    has  been  adopted  by  at  least  48  cities  of  the 

United  States,  having  a  combined  population  of 

; ; ;  -  slightly  over  2,500,000  in  1910.  These  cities  are 
I'.soo  given  in  the  accompanying  table,  made  up  from 
2.000  The  National  Municipal  Review  for  July,  1015, 
and  January,  1016: 


1,600 

960 

1.200 


2.400 
I'.SOO 
8.666 


PopuUMon, 
Date  City  1910 

1909  Grand  Junction,  Colo 7,754 

1910  Spokane,  Wash 104.402 

1911  Pueblo,  Colo 44.896 

6.000     1912  New  Iberia,  La 7,499 

1918  Dulttth,  Minn 78,466 

....      1918  Houston,  Texas 78.800 

1918  Denver,  Colo 218,881 

5,000     1918  Colorado  Springs,  Colo 29,078 

1918  Portland,    Oreg 207,214 

....      1918  Nashua,  N.  H 26,005 

1918  aeveland,  Ohio 660,668 

1918  La  Grande,   Ores 4,848 

1918  Port  Collins.  Colo 8.210 

1918  St.  Petersburg,  Pla 4.127 

1918  Cadillac,  Mich 8,875 

1914  Columbus,  Ohio 181,548 

1914  Jersey  City,  N.  J 267.779 

1914  Trenton,  N.  J 96,815 

1914  28  other  places  in  New  Jersey 

1915  Peterson,  N.  J 126.600 

1915  Five  other  places  in  New  Jersey 

1915  Toledo.  Ohio   168.497 

1915  Portland,  Me. —  Water  District 66.042 


Meatmount,  P.  Q.,  not  included  by  Mr.  Carr,  has  pre- 
viously been  listed  as  a  city-manager  city. 

Municipal  Home  Rule.  The  essence  of  mu- 
nicipal home  rule,  as  thus  far  enjoved,  is  free- 
dom on  the  part  of  each  city  to  draw,  adopt, 
and  amend  its  own  charter,  without  State  legis- 
lative  let   or    hindrance.    To   the   considerable 

number  of  States,  mostly  west  of  the  Missis-     ■ 

sippi  River,  that  have  panted  this  power  to  All  31  of  the  New  Jersey  cities  were  brought 

some   or   all   of   their   cities,    Connecticut   and  under  preferential  voting  hj  an  amendment  to 

Florida   were   added   in    1915.    In    Connecticut  the  general  statute  permitting  cities  to  adopt 

any  municipality,  including  towns  governed  un-  the  commission  plan  of  government.    A  number 

der  special  acts,  was  given  authority  to  enact  of  the  other  cities  in  the  list  also  have  com- 

or  amend  a  charter  subject  to  conditions  pre-  mission  government.    In  nearly  all  of  the  cities 

sented  in  the  act.    In  Florida  provision  is  made  listed  preferential  voting  has  supplanted  primar- 

for   charter-revision   commissions  whose  recom-  ies.    The  New  Jersey  act  of  1914  was  upheld 

mendations  may  be  approved  or  rejected  by  pop-  by  the  State  Supreme  Court  on  April  21,  1915. 

ular  vote.    A  constitutional  amendment  adopted  Seattle,  Wash.,  rejected  preferential  voting  in 

in  Maryland  gave  considerable  home  rule  au-  March,  but  the  council  at  once  voted  to  resub- 

thority  to  the  counties  of  that  State  and  to  the  mit  it  to  popular  vote  in  March,  1916. 

city   of   Baltimore.    See   below,   section   Model  Peopobtional   Representation.    Election   by 

City  Charter.  a  plurality  of  votes  often  leaves  a  large  per- 

Optional  Chabtebs  in  Massachusetts.  Fol-  centage  of  the  voters  unrepresented,  and  some- 
lowing  in  spirit  the  example  set  by  New  times  results  in  the  election  of  one  or  more 
York,  Ohio,  and  Virginia,  the  Massachusetts  candidates  by  a  small  minority  of  the  voters. 
Legislature  passed  an  act  (Chapter  267  of  1915),  To  secure  representation  of  all  classes  of  voters 
enabling  cities  to  choose  between  four  types  of  or  shades  of  opinion,  within  reasonable  limits, 
charters.  This  action  was  all  the  more  notable  proportional  representation  has  for  some  time 
because  before  that  time  the  Legislature  of  ihaX  been  practiced  abroad  and  long  been  urged  in 
State  had  usually  compelled  every  city  wish-  the  United  States.  On  August  10th,  Aahta- 
ing  a  new  charter  to  secure  a  special  act  for  bula,  Ohio,  adopted  the  Hare  system  of  propor- 
that  purpose.  Hereafter  Massachusetts  cities  tional  representation  by  an  amendment  to  its 
may  cnoose  between:  Plan  A,  which  provides  home  rule  charter.  By  this  vote  Ashtabula 
for  a  mayor  and  a  council  elected  at  large,  the  took  the  lead  in  this  particular,  so  far  as  the 
mayor  to  appoint  and  to  have  power  to  remove  United  States  and  Canada  are  concerned.  The 
all  department  heads  and  municipal  boards  ex-  system  was  first  tried  in  Ashtabula  at  the  No- 


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Tember  election,  and  is  said  to  have  worked  sat- 
isfactorily. Under  it  the  seven  members  of  the 
council  or  commission  are  voted  for  somewhat 
as  explained  above  under  Preferential  Voting, 
but  the  votes  are  so  counted  that  each  group 
consisting  of  one-seventh  of  all  the  voters,  se- 
cures a  representative.  The  history  and  theory 
of  proportional  representation  and  some  details 
of  the  Ashtabula  plan  are  given  in  The  Natumal 
Municipal  Review  for  October,  1915.  Full  de- 
tails of  the  plan  adopted  at  Ashtabula  and  of 
the  votes  under  it,  and  how  they  were  distrib- 
uted, are  given  in  a  pamphlet  published  by  the 
Ashtabula  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Model  Cnr  Chabteb.  Constitutional  pro- 
visions for  municipal  home  rule  and  a  model 
city  charter  of  the  commission-manager  t3rpe, 
were  completed  in  rough  draft  form  just  at  the 
close  of  1915  by  the  Municipal  Programme  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Municipal  League  (q.v.). 
It  was  expected  that  the  exact  phrasing  of  the 
draft  would  be  finished  early  in  1916,  and  that 
the  draft  would  then  be  mailed  to  the  members 
of  the  league  for  adoption  by  letter  ballot.  A 
municipal  programme,  consisting  likewise  of 
constitutional  amendments  and  a  model  charter, 
was  adopted  by  the  league  in  1899.  The  pro- 
gramme was  a  notable  constructive  contribu- 
tion to  American  municipal  government. 
Wherever  adopted  it  gave  cities  the  right  to 
frame  their  own  charters  (this  feature,  only, 
was  limited  to  cities  of  25,000  population  and 
upwards) ;  separated  city  from  State  and  uni- 
form elections;  authorized  direct  legisUtiou, 
and  minority  or  proportional  representation; 
provided  for  uniform  municipal  accounting 
throughout  the  State;  established  the  so-called 
federal  plan  of  city  government,  with  a  mayor 
as  sole  executive  officer,  having  exclusive  powers 
of  appointing  all  department  heads  except  the 
finance  department;  provided  the  merit  system; 
and  limited  election  by  popular  vote  to  the 
mayor  and  members  of  the  council — as  does  the 
"short  ballot"  of  later  years.  Until  the  com- 
mission plan  came  into  prominence  in  1907,  the 
model  charter  of  1899  profoundly  affected  char- 
ter drafting  in  the  United  States,  and  many 
of  the  principles  of  the  model  charter  continued 
to  gain  in  popularity,  and  were  adopted  in  va- 
rious places.  The  commission  plan  is  in  sharp 
contrast  with  the  municipal  programme  of  1900, 
in  that  it  combines  all  legislative  and  execu- 
tive functions  in  a  small  commission,  whereas 
the  programme  had  most  carefully  separated 
those  functions,  as  already  stated.  The  advent 
of  the  city  manager  plan  and  its  combination 
with  the  commission  plan,  on  the  heels  of  which 
it  followed,  was  in  a  large  degree  a  return  to 
the  separation  of  executive  and  legislative 
functions,  but  with  a  difference  which  the  pur- 
ists consider  of  the  utmost  importance,  namely, 
that  in  the  place  of  the  independent  executive 
or  mayor  of  the  federal  plan  or  municipal  pro- 
gramme, there  is  put  the  controlled  executive, 
or  city  manager,  to  whom  is  entrusted  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  policies  determined  by  the 
council  or  commission. 

Under  the  new  municipal  programme  a  State 
which  had  not  already  done  so,  would  adopt 
constitutional  amendments  giving  all  cities  and 
villages  the  choice  between  incorporation  under 
general  State  laws  and  framing  their  own  char- 
ters, the  latter  to  be  done  by  means  of  a  com- 
mission elected  by  popuUr  vote  and  reporting 


a  charter — also  subject  to  popular  approval. 
Besides  authoritv  to  frame  their  own  charters, 
the  new  municipal  programme  grants  cities 
full  power  to  regulate  all  their  own  affairs  ex- 
cept in  matters  of  State-wide  concern.  Full 
powers  of  municipal  ownership  are  also  granted. 
The  principle  of  State  administrative  control  is 
recognized  to  some  extent.  The  new  model 
charter  provides  for  the  usual  small  council  or 
commission;  a  city  manager  in  complete  charge 
of  the  executive  work  of  the  city;  nomination 
by  petition;  preferential  voting  for  members  of 
council,  elected  at  large,  or,  as  an  alternative 
to  preferential  voting,  proportional  representa- 
tion; the  recall  of  elective  officers;  the  initia- 
tive and  referendum;  and  civil  service.  Under 
the  city  manager  there  would  be  six  adminis- 
trative departments  for  the  larger  cities,  with 
consolidation  into  fewer  for  the  smaller  ones. 
Each  of  these  six  heads  must  be  chosen  for 
"general  executive  and  administrative  experi- 
ence and  ability,"  and  "education,  training,  and 
experience  in  the  class  of  work  which  he  is  to 
administer."  The  six  department  heads  are 
named  and  defined  as  follows:  "The  director 
of  the  department  of  law  shall  be  a  lawyer;  of 
public  health  a  sanitary  engineer  or  member  of 
the  medical  profession;  of  public  works  and 
utilities  an  engineer;  of  education  a  teacher 
by  profession;  of  public  safety  and  welfare  a 
man  who  has  haa  administrative  experience; 
and  of  public  finance  a  man  who  has  had  ex- 
perience in  bankin|^,  accounting,  or  other  finan- 
cial matters;  or  m  each  case  the  man  must 
have  rendered  active  service  in  the  same  depart- 
ment in  this  or  some  other  city." 

A  city  planning  board  to  pass  upon  every- 
thing affecting  the  plan  of  the  city  is  provided 
for.  This  board  would  consist  of  the  director 
of  public  works  and  utilities,  the  director  of 
public  health,  and  three  citizens  chosen  for  their 
knowledge  in  dty  planning.  In  the  smaller  cit- 
ies, having  no  director  of  health,  one  citizen 
member  would  be  omitted,  leaving  a  board  of 
three  members.  The  board  would  make  studies 
and  recommendations  for  improvements  to  the 
city  plan,  as  well  as  pass  upon  all  proposed 
changes  in  the  city  plan.  One  of  its  other 
duties  would  be  to  submit  yearly  a  programme 
of  city  improvements  for  at  least  three  years 
to  come,  with  proposals  for  meeting  the  cost. 
It  would  employ  a  man  with  a  knowledge  of 
city  planning  as  secretary,  have  power  to  en- 
gage city  planning  experts,  and  would  be  served 
by  the  city  engineer,  as  needed,  for  all  ordinary 
purposes.  In  order  to  harmonize  with  the  gen- 
eral scheme  of  the  charter,  all  recommendations 
of  the  city  planning  board  would  be  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  council  or  commis- 
sion. 

The  franchise  provisions  of  the  new  model 
city  charter  are  based  on  the  following  prin- 
ciples: The  securing  of  the  best  utility  service 
practicable;  the  fullest  possible  municipal  con- 
trol of  the  streets;  the  removal  of  obstacles  to 
municipal  ownership;  as  low  rates  as  are  con- 
sistent with  the  three  foregoing  principles.  In 
accordance  with  these  principles  the  character 
of  each  utility  should  be  recognized;  every 
franchise  should  be  revocable  on  pajrment  of 
just  compensation;  the  control  of  utilities 
should  be  reserved  to  the  city,  subject  to  rea- 
sonable review  by  the  courts  or  by  a  State  util- 
ity commission;  and  private  investments  in  pub- 
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lie  utilities  should  be  considered  as  aids  to  pub- 
lic credit  and  subject  to  public  control. 

Bibliography.  Munro,  Bibliography  of  Muni- 
cipal Oovemmeni  in  the  United  States  (Cam- 
bridge, Mass.) ;  James,  A  Handbook  of  Civic 
Improvement  (Austin,  Texas)  ;  Ryan,  Munici- 
pal Freedom  (New  York)  ;  Mary  R.  Beard, 
Women's  Work  for  the  City  (New  York); 
Howe,  The  Modem  City  and  Its  Problems  (New 
York) ;  Howe,  Socialized  Germany  (New  York)  ; 
Fosdick,  European  Police  Systems  (New  York). 

See  also  City  Planning;  Garbage  and  Rep- 
use  Disposal;  Municipal  Ownership;  Roads 
AND  Pavements;  Sewage  Purification;  Sew- 
erage; Smoke  Abatement;  Street  Cleaning; 
Water-Works. 

MUNICIPAL  HOMB  BTJLE.  See  Munici- 
pal Government. 

MUNICIPAL  LEAQUB,  National.  An  or- 
ganization formed  in  1894  for  study  of  munici- 
pal problems.  Its  membership  on  Oct.  31,  1915, 
was  2606.  The  21st  annual  meeting  was  held 
at  Dayton,  Ohio,  on  Nov.  17-19,  1916.  At  the 
first  session  President  Foulke  delivered  an  ad- 
dress on  "Coming  of  Age:  Municipal  Progress 
in  Twenty-one  Years."  A  preliminary  report 
was  made  by  the  Committee  on  New  Sources  of 
Revenue  (chairman,  Robert  M.  Haig),  in  which 
it  was  declared  that  it  would  be  a  misdirection 
of  energy  to  try  merely  to  improve  the  old  sys- 
tem of  taxation  by  more  strict  administration, 
llie  Committee  on  Municipal  Reference  Libra- 
ries and  Archives  (chairman,  Charles  C.  Wil- 
liamson) recommended  that  efforts  be  made  to 
have  Congress  make  an  appropriation  for  es- 
tablishing a  municipal  reference  division  of  the 
Library  of  Congress.  There  were  also  reports 
by  the  committees  on  franchises,  on  municipal 
courts,  on  civic  secretaries,  on  bibliography,  on 
the  relation  of  the  city  to  its  food  supply,  on 
immigration,  and  on  municipal  programmes. 
There  were  papers  read:  "Progress  of  Home 
Rule  in  Ohio,"  by  Mayo  Feslerj  "The  Ashta- 
bula Plan— The  Latest  Step  in  Municipal  Or- 
ganization," by  Prof.  A.  R.  Hatton;  and  "Pro- 
fessional Standards  for  the  New  Profession  of 
City  Manager,"  by  Richard  S.  Childs.  The  offi- 
cers elected  at  the  meeting  were  as  follows: 
President,  Lawson  Purdy;  secretary,  Clinton 
Rogers  Woodruff;  treasurer,  George  Bumham, 
Jr.;  vice-presidents,  Jane  Addams,  John  Stew- 
art Bryan,  Richard  S.  Childs,  Charles  W.  Dab- 
ney,  Walter  L.  Fisher,  Frank  J.  Goodnow,  A. 
Lawrence  Lowell,  George  McAneny,  J.  Horace 
McFarland,  Robert  Tl-eat  Paine,  Leo  S.  Rowe, 
Charles  Richardson,  Chester  H.  Rowell,  and 
Dudley  Tibbetts;  and  39  members  of  the  coun- 
cil. 

The  essay  prizes  awarded  in  1916  included: 
the  Baldwin  prize,  for  the  essay,  "A  Critical 
Study  of  the  Sources  of  Municipal  Revenue  in 
Any  City  Exceeding  60,000,"  to  Miss  Bemice 
Brown  of  Radcliffe  College;  the  high  school 
prize  for  "Fire  Prevention,"  to  Miss  Margaret 
Reick,  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  the  Cincinnati  prize, 
for  "The  Transportation  Problem  in  Cincin- 
nati," to  Miss  Cella  Taylor  of  the  University 
of  Cincinnati;  and  the  Portland-National  Mu- 
nicipal League  prize  to  David  Kingsley  Brace 
of  Reed  College,  Portland,  his  subject  beingi 
"The  Family  and  Socialized  Play." 

Eight  volumes  have  been  published  in  the 
National  Municipal  League  series.  Those  ap- 
pearing in  1915  were:  Woman's  Work  in  Muni- 


cipalities, by  Mary  Ritter  Beard;  The  City 
Manager,  by  Harry  A.  Toulmin,  Jr.;  Loirer  Liv- 
ing Costs  in  Cities,  by  Clyde  L.  King;  Satellite 
Cities,  by  Graham  R.  Taylor.  Two  others  were 
announced  as  nearly  ready  for  publication,  one 
on  city  planning  by  John  Nolen,  and  one  on 
experts  in  municipal  life  by  H.  S.  Gilbertson. 
The  league's  official  organ,  the  National  Muni- 
cipal Review,  continued  under  the  same  aus- 
pices— Clinton  Rogers  Woodruff,  editor,  and 
John  A.  Fairlee,  Adelaide  R.  Hasse,  Herman 
G.  James,  and  Howard  L.  McBain,  associate  ed- 
itors. 

MUNICIPAL  OWNEBSHTP.  The  munici- 
pal street  railway  of  San  Francisco,  which  com- 
prised 48  miles  of  single  track  early  in  1916, 
reported  profits  for  its  first  year  of  operation. 
Further  extensions  were  under  consideration  at 
the  close  of  the  year.  At  Detroit  the  purchase 
of  the  privately  owned  Detroit  United  Railway 
was  defeated  by  a  popular  vote  of  32,514  for, 
to  36,676  against,  on  November  2nd.  The  de- 
feat was  in  a  sense  greater  than  the  figures  in- 
dicate, since  a  three-fifths  majority  was  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  proposition.  On  the  same 
day  a  charter  amendment  which  would  have 
been  required  to  put  a  favorable  vote  into  ef- 
fect, was  carried  by  121  votes,  a  bare  majority 
being  sufficient  in  this  case.  In  April,  1913,  a 
charter  amendment  authorizing  municipal  own- 
ership of  street  railways  at  Detroit,  was  adopted 
by  the  large  majority  of  40,631  to  9642.  In 
1911  and  in  1906  "settlement-franchise"  propo- 
sitions which  would  have  given  the  street  rail- 
way company  a  new  lease  of  line  and  settled 
long-standing  disputes  between  city  and  com- 
pany were  badly  defeated.  The  purchase  propo- 
sition voted  down  in  1916  provided  for  turning 
the  street  railway  system  over  to  the  city,  the 
purchase  price  to  be  determined  by  the  six 
judges  of  the  local  county  court.  This  proposi- 
tion was  opposed  as  being  of  the  "blank  check," 
or  "pig-in-the-poke"  order.  It  should  be  added 
that  the  conunission  created  to  carry  out  the 
Detroit  United  Railway  purchase  mandate  of 
1913  first  proceeded  to  have  an  expert  valua- 
tion of  the  property  made,  but  no  agreement 
could  be  reached  between  the  commission  and 
the  company.  At  San  Francisco  the  people 
voted  down  a  plan  for  settling  the  long  con- 
troversy between  the  city  and  the  Spring  Val- 
ley Water  Company  by  city  purchase  at  an 
agreed  price  of  $34,500,000,  after  which  the  ap- 
praisal of  the  property  for  taking  by  condemna- 
tion was  resumed.  However,  some  progress 
was  made  by  San  Francisco  during  the  year  on 
the  city's  great  Hetch  Hetchy  project  for 
bringing  in  a  water  supply  from  the  Tuolumne 
River.  Preliminary  work  was  done  and  steps 
were  taken  to  build  a  municipal  railway  for 
construction  purposes.  At  St.  Louis  work  was 
under  way  to  provide  approaches  to  the  munici- 
pal bridge  across  the  Mississippi  River,  the 
bridge  itself  already  having  been  built  by  the 
city.  St.  Louis  has  for  some  years  owned  and 
operated  a  railway  line  from  the  city  up  the 
river  to  its  water  works  pumping  station. 
Waterfront  railway  ownership  was  extended  in 
1916,  and  two  municipal  docks  were  projected. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  Mississippi  River 
waterfront  is  owned  by  the  city.  St.  Louis  is 
by  no  means  alone  in  providing  municipal 
docks.  The  same  thing  is  being  done  by  cities 
large  and  small  on  navigable  streams,  and  on 


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MUKICIPAL  0WNEB8HIP 


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MUNICIPAL  0WKEB8HIP 


the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf,  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
the  Pacific  coast.  Canada,  as  well  as  the 
United  States,  is  planning  this  sort  of  enter- 
prise. Foreign  cities  have  been  engaged  in  it 
lor  years. 

Water-works  ownership  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
table,  which  has  been  rearranged  from  TJ^t 
McOraw  Watertoorks  Directory,  1915.  A  consid- 
erable number  of  the  smaller  works  were  prob- 
ably not  included  in  the  original  table,  owing 
to  failure  of  their  owners  to  make  returns.  Of 
a  total  of  4400  works  in  the  United  States, 
3045,  or  nearly  70  per  cent,  were  municipally 
owned.  In  a  number  of  States  nearly  all  the 
works  are  under  municipal  ownership  and  in 
a  few  private  ownership  is  almost  complete.  In 
Canada  about  84  per  cent  of  the  works  are 
owned  by  the  cities  they  supply. 

OWNERSHIP  OF  WATER-WORKS  IK  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  OANAD/V,  1915 

i 

^■« 

Maine    108 

New  Hampuhire 48 

Vermont     58 

Massachusetts 209 

Rhode  Island 14 

Connecticut    127 

New  England 549       244 

New  York    278  167 

New  Jersey 261          71 

PennsyWania    418  92 

Delaware    11            7 

Maryland    48  28 

District  of  Columbia 1            1          

Middle  Atlantic    1,012       861       868     16     268 

Virginia    45  25 

West  Virginia 45  21 

North  Carolina 66  67 

South   Carolina    82  22 

Georgia     116  110 

Florida    48  81 

South    Atlantic    852       266 


220       8       77 


78 

90 

176 

4 
25 


7  26 
6       95 

8  147 


Alabama 
Mississippi 
Louisiana    . 
Tennessee    . 
Kentucky    . 


71 
66 
86 
49 
58 


47 
59 
29 
85 
22 


14 

22 

8 

9 

6 

16 

~75 

16 

7 

6 

14 

81 


6 
2 
1 
1 

*'i 

11 

7 


South   Central    274  192  74 

Ohio    196  156  84 

Indiana     146  90  64 

Michigan     118  95  19 

Illinois     812  247  58 

Wisconsin 101  88  17 


6 
2 

4 
11 


North    Central     878       671        177       2       28 


Iowa     248  228 

MinnesoU 182  175 

Kansas    170  164 

Nebraska     98  95 

North  DakoU 27  24 

South   Dakota    48  45 

Wyoming     21  19 

Montana     88  18 

Northwestern    827  758 


Missouri    82 

Arkansas     61 

Texas     147 


Oklahoma 
Colorado    . . . 
New  Mexico 


94 
90 
15 


65 
27 
75 
87 
74 
6 


20 
7 

16 
1 
8 
8 
1 

14 

64 

27 
81 
67 

6 
18 

8 


Southwestern 


489       824       162 


8 
5 

1 
8 

1 

18 


i  .&  .&  .&  2S 

^•«  Is  ^S  5  l! 

'^^  -SS  ^^  •2«   ft 

*»5  2o  Co  ;2<=>   r»^ 

^  ai  ft.  ai      60 

Washington    48  46  8 

Oregon     56  85  19  .  .          1 

California     250  81  186  11        22 

Arisona 26  7  16  ..          8 

Nevada    29  11  14  ..          4 

Utah    21  18  8      

Idaho      49  28  25  ..          1 

Alaska     7  ..  7  .. 

Far   Western    486  220  228  11       81 

Hawaii    1  1  

Philippine  Islands 8  1  2      

Porto  Rico 7  7  

Possessions 11  9  2      

Newfoundland    1  1  

Prince  Edward  Island. .         2  2 

New    Brunswick    17  15  1  . .          1 

NoTa  Scotia    81  27  »  ••          J 

Quebec    62  88  19  2         8 

Sntario     129  114  18  2      ... 

Manitoba     JJ  ^J  2      

Saskatchewan     16  16  .  .      

AlberU    18  16  2      

British  Columbia ^  _1»  ^  __      _^ 

Total  Canada   818  256  48  4         5 

New   Bnriand    649  244  220  8       77 

Middle    Itlantic     1.012  861  868  15     268 

South    Atlantic     852  266  75  .  .        11 

South   Central    274  192  74  1         7 

North   Central    878  671  177  2       28 

Northwestern    827  758  64  ..          6 

Southwestern    489  824  152  ..        18 

Par  Western    485  220  228  11       81 

Possessions 11     *     ^  J_l    .111 

Total   United   SUtes. .  4jm  8.046  1,856  87     485 


The  status  of  water-works  ownership  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  is  summarized  in  a  British  blue 
hook  published  in  1915  {Return  as  to  Water 
Undertakings  in  England  and  Wales;  Local 
Government  Board,  London).  The  Return  was 
ordered  in  1910;  most  of  the  schedules  were 
filed  in  1911,  but  some  not  until  1913.  At  the 
end  of  1913  proofs  were  sent  out  for  revision, 
so  most  of  the  data  in  the  Return  were  revised 
to  January,  1914.  Of  1130  boroughs  and  other 
urban  districts  outside  London  (where  public 
ownership  prevails),  all  but  29  had  a  piped 
water  supply  for  at  least  some  part  of  their 
areas.  Of  the  1101  urban  districts  with  piped 
supplies,  822  were  supplied  municipally,  and 
394  privately— the  excess  of  115  being  due  to 
overlapping.  Of  97  towns  having  populations 
of  50,000  or  more,  26  were  supplied  wholly  or 
in  part  by  private  companies,  but  some  of  th^e 
are  partly  supplied  by  municipal  works.  In  the 
absence  of  exact  figures  the  Return  says  it 
seems  likely  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  total 
population  of  the  country  [England  and  Wales] 
IS  now  supplied  with  water  by  municipal  bod- 
ies" A  report  made  70  years  earlier  showed 
that  in  1846  most  of  the  "large  towns"  having 
water  works  (only  26  or  60  liad  any  part  of 
their  areas  supplied  by  authorized  undertak- 
ings) were  dependent  on  private  companies. 
The  foregoing  figures  relate  to  the  number  of 
places  supplied.  As  to  the  number  of  works 
and  their  ownership,  the  Return  states :  ^partic- 
ulars are  given  of  the  undertakings  of  786  locaJ 
authorities,  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board  and  34 
other  joint  authorities,  200  companies  with  statu- 


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MUNICIPAL  OWNEBSHIP 


432 


KTTSIC 


tory  powers,  84  private  companies,  and  1055  pri- 
vate proprietors."  The  latter  seem  mostly  small 
supplies  to  a  few  houses  in  rural  parishes. 

MlTBBATy  Sib  James  Augustus  Henbt. 
English  philologist  and  editor,  died  July  26, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  Harwick  in  1837,  and 
was  educated  at  home,  in  Edinburgh,  and  at 
London  University.  When  he  was  17  years  of 
age  he  became  assistant  in  the  grammar  school 
of  Harwick,  and  three  years  later  was  ap- 
pointed head  master  of  a  small  school  in  the 
same  town.  After  several  years  he  resigned 
this  position,  and  accepted  a  position  in  the 
Charter  Bank  of  India,  with  which  his  brother 
was  connected.  He  remained  there  until  1870, 
when  he  became  head  master  of  the  Mill  Hill 
School.  He  had  already  attained  some  distinc- 
tion as  a  student  of  the  English  language,  and 
when  it  was  decided  by  an  English  publisher  to 
publish  a  dictionary  he  was  selected  as  the  ed- 
itor of  the  work.  The  undertaking  hegeai  about 
1878.  Dr.  Murray  was  fitted  for  his  work  not 
so  much  by  special  capacity  as  by  general 
genius,  with  great  natural  variety  of  bent  and 
powers.  He  had  both  in  his  education  and  ex- 
perience cultivated  his  talents  on  many  lines. 
In  addition  to  his  research  into  languages  he 
was  also  an  excellent  mathematician  and  a 
thorough  botanist.  He  was  also  well  informed 
in  zodlogy  and  geology.  The  first  three  years 
of  his  work  were  spent  in  collecting  materials 
and  in  elaborating  the  methods  upon  which  the 
dictionary  was  to  be  constructed.  He  read  for 
the  purposes  of  his  work  over  100,000  books, 
and  extracted  more  than  5,000,000  quotations. 
Several  weeks  before  his  death  he  completed  an 
installment  of  the  10th  and  last  volume  of  the 
New  English  Dictionary.  He  was  made  a 
knight  in  1908.  He  received  honorary  degrees 
from  Oxford,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Durham,  and 
other  universities.  He  wrote  papers  on  the 
history  and  language  of  the  Border  Counties, 
and  many  papers  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Brit- 
ish Philological  Society.  He  edited  several  edi- 
tions of  the  old  English  and  Scotch  writers. 

MT7SIC.  Following  an  establi^ed  custom^  a 
brief  summary  of  the  principal  events  of  the 
last  five  years  precedes  the  account  of  the  mus- 
ical happenings  of  1915.  The  great  operatic 
war  waged  in  New  York  between  the  Metropol- 
itan Opera  House,  under  Gatti-Casazza,  and  the 
Manhattan  Opera  House,  under  Hammerstein, 
had  forced  salaries  and  general  expenses  to  such 
fabulous  heights  that  Hammerstein  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  from  the  operatic  field,  and 
to  sell  all  his  interests  to  his  rival.  The  greater 
part  of  the  Manhattan  company  was  formed 
into  a  new  organization,  the  Chicago  Opera 
Company,  under  the  direction  of  Andreas  Dip- 
pel.  In  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  con- 
ditions leading  to  financial  ruin,  the  three  great 
opera  companies  of  New  York,  Boston,  and  Chi- 
cago apportioned  the  territory  among  them- 
selves, and  adopted  a  plan  for  the  mutual  ex- 
change of  their  principal  artists  (1910).  The 
strict  observance  of  this  agreement  resulted  not 
only  in  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  expense, 
but  created  also  a  spirit  of  unity  which  en- 
abled the  American  managers  to  unite  their 
strength  and  defeat  a  common,  dangerous  en- 
emy, the  Opera  Trust,  an  organization  of  Ital- 
ian managers  and  publishers  controlled  by  Ri- 
cordi  of  Milan.  Taking  advantage  of  the  riv- 
alry between  tiie  Metropolitan  and  Manhattan 


companies,  the  trust,  which  monopolized  almost 
the  entire  operatic  output  of  Italy,  had  become 
more  and  more  exorbitant  in  its  demands  for 
royalties.  At  last  matters  had  come  to  such  a 
pass  that  the  poli(^  of  American  managers  was 
practically  determmed  by  Milan.  The  failure 
of  Puccini's  Oirl  of  the  Golden  West  became 
the  signal  for  revolt.  Chicago  immediately 
eliminated  all  works  by  Puccini;  New  York  and 
Boston  considerably  curtailed  the  number  of 
both  works  ajid  performances  (1911).  This 
concerted  action  resulted  in  an  adjustment  of 
the  differences  between  the  American  managers 
and  Ricordi.  Operas  by  American  composers 
were  produced,  and  a  movement  for  the  pro- 
duction of  opera  in  the  vernacular  was  rapidly 
gaining  ground.  In  Europe  the  production  of 
a  new  opera  by  Richard  Strauss,  Der  Rosen- 
kavalier,  was  regarded  as  an  event  of  special 
significance,  inasmuch  as  the  style  of  the  new 
work  indicated  a  decided  return  to  acknowl- 
edged standards  of  art.  The  year  also  was 
notable  for  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  manu- 
script scores  of  Bach,  Beethoven,  Schumann, 
and  Liszt  (1912).  The  movement  in  favor  of 
opera  in  the  vernacular  took  definite  shape  in 
the  efforts  of  the  City  Club,  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  the  Century  Opera  Company  in 
New  York.  In  the  concert  world  a  reaction 
manifested  itself  against  the  excessive  produc- 
tion of  novelties  of  little  value  usurping  the 
place  of  works  of  acknowledged  worth. 
Throughout  the  world  the  year  was  marked  by 
elaborate  celebrations  in  honor  of  the  centen- 
nials of  Wagner  and  Verdi.  The  application 
of  the  heirs  of  Wagner  for  an  extension  of  the 
copyright  of  Parsifal  was  refused  by  the  Reich- 
stag (1913).  Immediately  upon  the  expiration 
of  the  copyright  of  Parsifal  all  the  important 
opera  houses  throughout  the  world  gave  elab- 
orate productions  of  the  work,  which  created  a 
profound  impression  everywhere.  The  sudden 
outbreak  of  the  great  war  completely  paralyzed 
all  musical  activity  in  France,  and  consider- 
ably affected  the  musical  life  in  England;  while 
its  effect  upon  the  musical  doings  of  Germany 
was  slight.  In  the  United  States  the  first 
shock  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  Boston  and 
the  Chicago  opera  companies.  But  the  concert 
season  was  an  unusually  strenuous  one,  owing 
to  the  large  infiux  of  artists  driven  from  Eu- 
rope. An  event  that  seems  likely  to  exert  con- 
siderable influence  in  the  future  was  the  in- 
corporation of  the  "American  Society  of  Com- 
posers, Authors,  and  Publishers,"  the  object  of 
which  is  the  collection  of  royalties  on  all  pub- 
lic performances  of  works  by  members  (1914). 
Genebal  News.  Strange  to  say,  the  second 
year  of  the  great  war,  instead  of  curtailing 
still  further  uie  musical  activities  in  the  bel- 
ligerent countries,  seemed  to  produce  the  op* 
posite  effect  of  stimulating  interest  in  musical 
affairs.  Many  of  the  artists  not  actively  en- 
gaged at  the  front  placed  their  talent  at  the 
service  of  their  country  by  donating  a  large 
proportion  of  the  proceeds  of  their  concerts  to 
the  various  war  funds  or  charities.  Mme. 
Melba  alone  raised  $160,000  through  concerts 
given  in  Australia,  and  many  others  contributed 
substantial  sums  in  proportion  to  their  draw- 
ing power.  While  in  the  first  heat  of  excite- 
ment most  nations  declared  a  general  boycott 
against  all  music  written  by  composers  belong- 
ing  to   a   hostile  nation,   the   folly   of   confus- 


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ing  questiom  of  art  and  nationality  soon  was 
generally  recognized;  Consequently,  during  the 
past  year,  this  boycott  was  modified  so  as  to 
apply  only  to  works  by  living  composers,  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  payment  of  royal- 
ties to  an  enemy  country.  Beyond  the  fact  that 
the  number  of  visiting  artists  was  in  excess  of 
that  in  normal  years,  musical  life  in  the  United 
States  was  not  affected  by  the  European  strug- 
gle. An  event  of  considerable  significance  was 
the  appointment  of  Dr.  Otto  Kinkeldey  as  chief 
of  the  music  division  of  the  New  York  Public 
Library.  For  years  past  it  had  been  a  matter 
of  comment  that  the  most  comprehensive  musical 
library  of  the  country,  that  of  the  Library  of 
Congress,  should  be  located  in  the  least  musical 
of  the  larger  cities;  whereas  New  York,  the 
centre  of  the  nation's  musical  life,  afforded  very 
inadequate  facilities  for  the  needs  of  the  music 
student  and  scholar.  In  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  niunerous  prizes  were  offered  to  stimulate 
and  encourage  the  American  composer,  which 
brought  forth  innumerable  manuscripts.  The 
prize  of  $200  offered  by  Qeorge  Hamlin  for  the 
best  tenor  aria  with  orchestra  was  awarded  to 
Carlo  Minetti  of  Pittsburgh ;  while  the  $500  prize 
of  the  Tri-City  Music  Festival  (Newark,  Pater- 
son,  Jersey  City)  for  mixed  chorus  and  orches- 
tra, writtoi  by  an  American  citizen  on  an  Ameri- 
can subject,  went  to  Franz  Bomschein  of  Balti- 
more. 

The  United  States 

Artibtb.  InatrumentalUts.  Paderewski  ap- 
peared in  numerous  recitals,  drawing  capacify 
houses  everywhere,  and  maintaining  his  unique 
position  among  the  world's  supreme  masters  of 
the  piano.  Besides,  he  also  disclosed  exceptional 
gifts  as  an  orator  in  the  delivery  of  his  lecture, 
Poland,  Past  and  Present,  which  he  gave  in  many 
of  the  larger  cities  for  the  benefit  of  the  Poli^ 
Relief  Fund.  Among  the  new  artists  Percy 
Grainger,  an  Australian  composer  and  pianist, 
attracted  most  attention.  Possessed  of  ample 
technical  skill,  he  charmed  by  the  clarity  and 
refinement  of  his  playing,  as  well  as  by  his  truly 
poetic  interpretations.  The  Hungarian  pianist 
Desider  Vecsei  impressed  by  his  fiery  tempera- 
ment, beauty  of  tone,  and  rhythmical  incisive- 
ness,  even  if  his  teehnic  was  not  quite  flawless 
in  some  passages  demanding  the  highest  me- 
chanical equipment.  Paolo  Martucci,  a  son  of 
the  illustrious  composer,  proved  himself  an  ex- 
cellent artist  of  solid  attainments;  while  Guio- 
mar  Novaes,  a  Brazilian  woman  pianist  and  prize 
winner  of  the  Paris  Conservatory,  exhibited  the 
marvelously  clear  teehnic  and  beautiful  singing 
tone  characteristic  of  the  French  school.  I^me 
years  ago  Leo  Omstein,  then  a  mere  boy,  gave 
evidence  of  qualities  that  promised  well  for  his 
future  development.  After  several  years  of  so- 
journ in  Europe  he  now  returns  with  a  splendid 
teehnic  and  a  remarkable  command  of  tonal 
coloring.  But  he  also  showed  that  he  has 
espoused  unconditionally  what  is  known  to-day 
as  Futurism.  His  own  compositions,  which 
figured  extensively  on  his  programmes,  are  typi- 
cal examples  of  a  style  that  no  longer  has  any 
connection  with  art,  and  only  the  extremists 
among  modern  impressionists  were  given  a  place 
in  his  recitals.  Of  the  greatest  interest  and 
value  was  the  series  of  six  historical  recitals 
|nven  in  several  of  the  larger  cities  by  Ossip 
Gabrilowitsdi.    In  these  concerts  the  artist  gave 


by  means  of  concrete  examples  a  clear  and  com- 
prehensive history  of  the  development  of  piano 
music  from  the  early  days  of  the  clavichord  in 
the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present  day.  The 
second  recital  was  devoted  exclusively  to  Bee- 
thoven, the  fourth  to  Chopin,  the  fifth  to  Brahms. 
If  the  15  recitals  played  in  15  consecutive  weeks 
by  Adriano  Ariani  had  served  no  other  purpose 
than  the  exhibition  of  a  phenomenal  memory, 
they  would  still  be  worthy  of  record.  Although 
they  did  not  reveal  the  performer  as  one  of  the 
pianistic  giants,  they  showed  him  to  be  an  artist 
of  sterling  merit.  Three  evenings  were  given  to 
Chopin,  three  to  Beethoven,  and  three  to  Schu- 
mann. Bach,  Brahms,  and  Debussy  each  filled 
one  evening,  while  the  remaining  three  evenings 
were  devoted  to  works  by  various  modem  com- 
posers. George  Copeland  introduced  in  one  of 
his  recitals  Debussy's  latest  composition.  Bet- 
oeuse  HSroique.  In  fact,  he  excels  as  an  inter- 
preter of  that  master  and  of  works  of  impres- 
sionistic tendencies;  but  his  playing  of  Chopin 
disclosed  a  lack  of  understanding  and  sympa- 
thetic interest.  A  unique  programme  was  pre- 
sented by  Ernest  Hutcheson,  when  in  one  concert 
he  performed  three  great  concertos  for  piano 
and  orchestra,  MacDowelPs  in  D  minor,  Tschai- 
kowsky's  in  B  b  minor,  Liszt's  in  £  b*  Besides 
exhibiting  the  artist's  brilliant  qualities  in  the 
most  favorable  light,  the  execution  of  these  works 
also  gave  evidence  of  almost  startling  powers  of 
endurance.  An  event  of  the  first  magnitude 
was  a  recital  of  compositions  for  two  pianos 
given  by  Harold  Bauer  and  Ossip  Gabrilowitsch. 
Among  the  other  great  pianists  who  contributed 
to  the  success  of  the  season  were:  Josef  Hof- 
mann,  Ferruccio  Busoni,  Leonard  Borwick,  Mark 
Hambourg,  Leopold  Godowsky,  Carl  Friedberg, 
Rudolf  Ganz,  Sigismund  Stojowsky,  Fanny 
Bloomfield-Zeisler,  Olga  Samaroff,  Germaine 
Schnitzer,  Katharine  Goodson,  Eleanor  Spencer, 
Ethel  Newcomb,  Tina  Lerner,  and  Ethel  Le- 
ginska. 

A  new  violinist,  the  Hungarian  Ferencz 
Hegedfls,  made  a  deep  impression.  Even  his 
d4but  sufficed  to  bring  home  the  conviction  that 
he  is  a  master  of  the  first  rank.  There  was  lit- 
tle evidence  of  the  traditional  fire  and  sweep 
generally  characteristic  of  artists  of  his  nation- 
alitv.  Instead,  he  impressed  by  a  large  and 
noble  tone,  depth  of  feeling,  breadth  of  concep- 
tion, and  wonderful  repose.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  young  countrywoman,  Mary  Zentc^,  also  a 
d§butante,  won  favor  with  her  typical  Hungarian 
dash.  She  had  selected  brilliant  numbers  well 
calculated  to  exhibit  tremendous  technical  facil- 
ity rather  than  powers  of  interpretation.  After 
a  year  spent  in  retirement  and  quiet  study 
Misc^a  Ehnan  reappeared,  meeting  with  his 
jeuatomary  success.  Splendid  artist  that  he  is, 
Albert  Spalding  seems  to  rise  to  a  hi^er  level 
with  every  successive  season.  Fritz  Kreisler's 
triumphs  continued  unabated,  and  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  conceive  how  he  can  add  to  his  artistic 
stature.  In  his  recital  of  December  12th  in 
New  York  he  performed  his  arrangement  of 
Schumann's  Fantasy  for  violin,  op.  131.  The 
work  was  never  popular  with  violinists;  for,  in 
the  first  place,  some  of  the  themes  show  a  weak- 
ness of  the  inventive  faculty  due  to  incipient  in- 
sanity, and  several  passages  for  the  solo  instru- 
ment are  neither  effective  nor  idiomatic.  Though 
requested  by  the  composer's  widow,  both  Joachim 
and  Brahms  shrank  from  making  alterations  for 


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fear  of  obliterating  the  real  Schumann  spirit. 
In  its  original  form  the  work  has  had  only  one 
hearing  in  the  United  States,  when  Max  Bendix 
played  it  in  1880  with  the  Thomas  orchestra 
without  success.  Kreisler  has  accomplished  his 
task  with  great  skill  and  reverence,  so  that  the 
arrangement  is  still  entirely  Schumann,  though 
not  Schumann  at  his  best.  After  several  years 
of  study  and  conoertizing  in  Europe  David 
Hochstein  returned  a  matured,  serious  artist. 
Among  the  more  notable  violinists  heard  during 
the  year  were:  Efrem  Zimbalist,  Theodore 
Spiering,  Maximilian  Pilzer,  Maud  Powell,  Cor- 
delia Lee,  and  Vera  Barstow.  Among  the  cellists 
the  incomparable  Pablo  Casals  continued  to 
exert  his  extraordinary  drawing  power,  both  as 
a  soloist  and  as  an  ensemble  player.  Other 
cellists  who  did  notable  work  were:  Alwin 
Schroeder,  Leo  Schultz,  Josef  Malkin,  and  Bea- 
trice Harrison.    . 

Vocaliata,  Many  new  aspirants  for  fame  came 
forward,  and  not  a  few  of  them  met  with  more 
than  average  success.  Povla  Frisch,  who  came 
with  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  Denmark's 
foremost  lieder  singers,  proved  that  her  fame 
rests  upon  solid  foundations.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  her  well  arranged  progranmies  left  noth- 
ing to  be  desired  either  from  the  technical  or 
the  emotional  side.  Luella  Chilson-Ohrman  dis- 
closed a  soprano  voice  of  unusual  beauty  and 
power,  remarkably  even  throughout  its  entire 
range,  which  instantly  thrill^  by  its  mere 
sensuous  charm.  With  this  natural  advantage 
she  combines  a  superior  intelligence  and  com- 
plete mastery  of  widely  different  styles.  The 
success  of  Julia  Heinrich,  a  daughter  of  the 
well  known  concert  singer  Max  Heinrich,  was 
so  pronounced  that  she  was  engaged  for  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House.  Anne  Arkadij,  an 
American  contralto  who  had  won  her  first  laurels 
abroad,  was  remarkable  for  her  dramatic  in- 
tensity. A  very  fine  and  capable  artist,  though 
on  a  less  ambitious  scale,  was  Adelaide  Fischer. 
Elise  Kutscherra,  who  is  still  remembered  as  a 
splendid  interpreter  of  Wagnerian  heroines  in 
Mr.  Damrosch's  German  opera  company,  made 
her  American  d6but  as  a  lieder  singer  with  sig- 
nal success.  Other  artists  who  had  won  reputa- 
tion on  the  operatic  stage  and  now  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  recital  were  Kathleen  Howard, 
Lois  Ewell,  and  Mary  Jordan.  After  an  ab- 
sence of  seven  years,  during  which  she  had  be- 
come a  favorite  with  the  Italian  operatic  public, 
Anita  Rio,  a  native  of  California,  scored  em- 
phatic successes  in  oratorio  and  at  several  of 
the  more  important  festivals.  A  unique  recital 
of  duets  wasgiven  by  Christina  Miller  (soprano) 
and  Qeorge  Mmlin  (tenor),  whose  voices  blended 
beautifully.  David  Bispham  appeared  in  a  new 
r6le  as  a  character  actor  in  Hugo  MUller's  one- 
act  drama  Adelaide,  having  Beethoven  for  its 
central  figure.  At  one  of  her  recitals  Julia  Culp 
offered  a  group  of  songs  by  Erich  Wolff,  her 
former  accompanist,  whose  promising  career  was 
cut  short  by  death.  Among  the  great  artists 
whose  concerts  were  merely  repetitions  of  former 
triumphs  were:  Mmes.  Melba,  Sembrich,  Gcr- 
hardt,  Verlet,  Fremstad,  Schumann-Heink,  Gad- 
ski,  Farrar,  Alda,  Matzenauer,  Destinn,  Kurt, 
Craft,  van  Endert,  Koenen;  and  Messrs.  Mc- 
Cormack,  de  Gogorza,  and  Williams. 

Obohestbab.  After  the  close  of  its  regular 
season  the  New  York  Symphony  Society  (Walter 
Damrosch)    gave  a  series  of  five  Master  Com-. 


poser  Concerts.  The  masters  selected  were  Bee- 
thoven, Liszt,  Rubinstein,  Brahms,  Tschaikowsky. 
The  soloists  were  Bauer,  Busoni,  Hofmann,  Bor- 
wick,  and  Gabrilowitsch.  Bauer  performed  a 
piano  concerto  by  Beethoven;  Busoni  one  by 
Liszt;  and  so  on.  It  was  an  act  of  mistaken 
piety  to  include  Rubinstein  in  this  series,  thus 
virtually  forcimar  a  comparison  of  his  faded,  life- 
less music  with  the  vital,  compelling  utterances 
of  the  other  masters.  A  noteworthy  event  was 
the  performance  by  the  New  York  Philharmonic 
Society  (Josef  Stransky)  of  Beethoven's  seldom 
heard  Triple  Concerto  for  piano,  violin,  cello,  and 
orchestra,  played  superbly  by  Germaine  Schnit- 
zer,  Maximilian  Pilzer,  and  Leo  Schulz.  A  re- 
newed attempt  by  the  Boston  Symphony  Orches- 
tra (Karl  Muck)  to  arouse  interest  in  Bruckner 
by  means  of  his  Seventh  Symphony  proved  un- 
successful. After  the  close  of  the  regular  season 
the  Philadelphia  Symphony  Orchestra  (Leopold 
Stokowski)  gave  a  two  weeks'  season  of  popular 
concerts,  which  drew  such  large  audiences  that 
it  was  decided  to  include  for  the  coming  year  a 
similar  series  on  a  larger  scale.  Active  work 
toward  the  establishment  of  a  pension  fund  was 
begun  by  giving  two  special  concerts.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger  a 
number  of  free  concerts  were  given  in  various 
public  school  buildings.  The  eager  interest 
manifested  induced  several  prominent  citizens 
to  launch  a  movement  for  the  establishment  of 
free  Sunday  concerts — a  plan  that  elicited  vigor- 
ous protests  from  many  clergymen.  The  sum  of 
$100,000  was  donated  by  Mrs.  E.  S.  Coolidge  to 
the  Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra  (Frederick 
Stock)  toward  the  creation  of  a  pension  fund. 
By  the  will  of  Miss  Cora  Dow  a  legacy  of  $700,- 
000  was  bequeathed  to  the  Cincinnati  Symphony 
Orchestra  (Ernst  Kunwald).  The  performance 
of  Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony  by  the  Los 
Angeles  Symphony  Orchestra  (Adolf  Tandler) 
marked  the  first  production  of  that  work  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  same  organiza- 
tion also  produced  Beethoven's  Triple  Concerto, 
The  engagement  of  Alfred  Hertz  as  conductor  of 
the  San  Francisco  Symphony  Orchestra  brought 
about  a  complete  reorganization  and  the  en- 
largement of  that  body  to  80  instrumentalists, 
with  Louis  Persinger  as  concert-master.  To  re- 
place the  disbanded  St.  Paul  Symphony  Orches- 
tra Josef  Sainton,  the  director  of  municipal 
music,  established  the  St.  Paul  Philharmonic 
Orchestra.  Twelve  concerts  at  popular  prices 
were  announced  for  the  first  season.  Through 
the  zeal  of  Glenn  D.  Gunn  the  American  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  of  Chicago  was  incorporated  for 
the  rather  narrow  object  of  producing  exclusively 
works  by  American  composers.  Likewise  the 
soloists  are  to  be  exclusively  native  artists. 
The  first  concert,  which  took  place  November 
10th,  offered  a  well  selected  programme  and  met 
with  gratifying  success.  How  far  and  how  long 
such  a  policy  can  be  continued  time  must  show. 
For  a  similar  purpose,  but  with  a  wider  scope. 
Max  Jacobs  founded  the  Orchestral  Society  of 
New  York.  At  every  concert  some  work  by  an 
American  composer  is  to  be  included,  and  native 
soloists  are  to  be  given  preference. 

Novelties.  The  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra 
(Karl  Muck)  produced  Liszt's  Faust  Symphony 
in  a  new  version.  In  Wagner's  library  Dr.  Muck 
recently  discovered  a  score  of  this  work  with 
changes  made  in  Liszt's  own  handwriting.  These 
alterations*  affect  chiefly  the  orchestration.    Some 


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minor  cuts  are  also  indicated,  while  the  thematic 
material  itself  remains  unchanged.  Gustav 
Strube's  VariationB  on  an  Original  Theme  proved 
to  be  an  excellent  and  effective  work,  while  Max 
Reger's  Vier  Tonbilder  nach  Bocklin,  op.  128,  was 
very  dull  and  uninteresting.  The  New  York 
Philharmonic  Society  (Josef  Stransky)  brought 
out  a  suite  in  three  movements,  Endymion,  by 
Arthur  Hinton,  which  pleased  because  of  its 
unpretentious,  natural  freshness.  Sigismund 
Stojowski's  Suite,  op.  9,  was  frankly  melodious 
and  ingratiating.  Max  Reger's  Variatums  and 
Fugue  on  a  Theme  of  Mozart,  op.  134,  served  no 
other  purpose  than  that  of  exhibiting  its  com- 
poser's formidable  contrapuntal  art.  A  sym- 
ghonic  poem,  PelUas  et  Milieande,  by  Arnold 
chOnberg,  the  leader  of  the  modem  extremists, 
was  heard  with  considerable  interest.  Having 
been  written  in  1902,  it  is  by  no  means  character- 
istic of  the  composer's  "last"  or  "advanced" 
style.  The  themes  in  themselves  are  insignifi- 
cant, but  admirably  developed.  The  brilliant 
and  effective  orchestration  betrays  the  influence 
of  Richard  Strauss.  A  Concerto  for  Pia/no  and 
Orchestra,  in  G  minor,  by  Frederick  Delius  was 
played  hy  Percy  Grainger.  The  work,  in  one 
movement,  was  very  uneven.  The  themes  were 
generally  fine,  but  in  their  development  too 
many  concessions  were  made  to  the  display  of 
mere  virtuosity.  The  slow  middle  section  was 
really  beautiful.  The  New  York  Symphony 
Society  (Walter  Damrosch)  gave  a  first  hearing 
of  two  smaller  works  by  Frederick  Delius,  8um^ 
mer  Night  on  the  River  and  On  Hearing  the  First 
Cuckoo  w  Spring.  The  former  was  a  typical  ex- 
ample of  extreme  impressionism,  vague,  hazy, 
and  entirely  devoid  of  anything  approaching  a 
melodic  phrase;  the  latter  was  somewhat  more 
substantial,  beine  based  on  a  Norwegian  folk 
theme.  The  conductor  also  performed  portions 
of  the  incidental  music  he  had  written  to  Eurip- 
ides's  Iphigenia  in  Aulis  and  Medea  and  Sopho- 
cles's  Electra  for  Miss  Anglin's  production  of 
those  plays  at  the  Greek  Theatre  at  Berkeley,  GaL 
Instead  of  reverting  to  the  monotonous  unison 
of  ancient  Greek  music,  the  composer  has  em- 
ployed the  modem  idiom,  introducing  sparingly 
characteristics  of  the  ancient  scale  to  obtain  a 
certain  exotic  coloring.  On  the  whole,  the  music 
was  verv  effective  in  its  quiet  stateliness,  and 
admirably  in  keeping  with  the  atmosphere  of  the 
dramas.  The  first  novelty  of  the  year  con- 
tributed by  the  Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra 
(Frederick  Stock)  was  Skriabin's  Prometheus, 
A  Poem  of  Fire,  op.  60.  The  Color  Key  Board, 
however,  called  for  in  the  score,  was  omitted, 
and  the  music  had  to  stand  on  its  own  merits. 
It  was  generally  condemned  as  cacophony  and 
meaningless  noise,  and  received  by  the  audience 
with  hisses.  John  Carpenter's  Adventures  in  a 
Peramhulator,  a  symphonic  suite  in  six  move- 
ments, contained  some  humorous  orchestral  ef- 
fects, but  its  musical  value  was  very  slight. 
Enrique  Granados's  symphonic  poem,  Dante, 
while  not  strikingly  original,  was  built  up  on 
pleasing,  melodious  themes,  and  the  effect  was 
heightened  by  masterly  orchestration.  Jan 
Wagenaar's  overture,  Cyrano  de  Bergeron,  proved 
to  be  a  work  of  real  merit  and  great  iJeauty. 
A  suite  in  four  movements,  P^cheurs  d^Islande, 
by  Pierre  Maurice,  depended  for  its  effect  more 
upon  skillful  instrumentation  than  upon  the 
value  of  its  thematic  material.  Hugo  Alfv^n's 
Symphony  No,  3,  in  E,  was  spontaneous,  natural 


music,  a  genuine  relief  from  the  rampant 
modernism.  The  Philadelphia  Symphony  Or- 
chestra introduced  Arnold  SchOnberg's  Kammer- 
symphonic.  The  larger  portion  of  it,  character- 
istic of  the  composer's  individual  style,  is  ugly. 
But  occasionally  the  composer  falls  into  the 
style  of  Wagner  or  Strauss,  and  then  there  is  a 
temporary  relief  from  cacophony.  Skriabin's 
Po^ne  Divin  proved  that  the  composer  can  keep 
a  very  large  orchestra  at  work  incessantly  with- 
out saying  anything  of  importance.  The  Min- 
neapolis Symphony  Orchestra  (Emil  Oberhoffer) 
brought  out  a  novelty  written  a  little  over  a 
century  ago,  Wilhelm  Maurer's  Concerto  for  Four 
Solo  Violins  and  Orchestra.  It  proved  a  veri- 
table gem  of  the  old  school,  and  was  received 
with  marked  favor.  Frederick  Delius's  A  Dance 
Rhapsody  showed  some  effective  rhythmical 
treatment.  The  novelties  offered  by  the  Rus- 
sian Symphony  Orchestra  (Modest  Altschuler) 
made  little  impression.  Although  Skriabin's 
Prometheus  had  its  American  premise  in  Chi- 
cago, the  performance  of  this  work  in  New  York, 
a  month  later,  deserves  special  mention  because 
of  the  fact  that  it  fully  carried  out  the  com- 
poser's intentions  as  to  the  employment  of  the 
Color  Key  Board  {clavier  de  Iwni&re).  In  order 
to  afford  the  audience  an  opportunity  of  form- 
ing some  definite  opinion  the  work  was  repeated 
in  its  entirety,  after  an  intermission  of  15 
minutes,  at  the  same  concert.  While  the  New 
York  audience  did  not  record  its  impression  by 
hissing,  the  fact  remains  that  the  repetition  was 
played  before  an  empty  house. 

Chamber  Music.  The  interest  in  joint  re- 
citals showed  no  falling  off,  as  evidenced  by  the 
numerous  concerts  given  by  these  artists: 
Casals-Bauer,  Mukle- Fryer,  Rich-Samaroff,  Josef- 
Manfred  Malkin,  Edouard-Gaston  D^thier,  Tour- 
ret-Decreus,  Schulz-von  Doenhoff.  The  Flonza- 
ley  Quartet  now  holds  a  somewhat  singular 
record :  Within  the  same  year  it  introduced  the 
longest  and  also  the  shortest  composition  ever 
written  for  string  quartet.  The  former  is  the 
Quartet  in  D  minor,  op.  94,  by  Max  Reger,  which 
required  almost  two  hours  for  its  performance; 
the  latter,  one  of  Three  Pieces  for  String  Quar- 
tet by  Igor  Stravinsky,  which  lasted  just  50 
seconds.  In  New  York  the  Stravinsky  novelty 
was  received  with  unrestrained  hilarity,  whereas 
Boston  took  this  futuristic  nonsense  seriously. 
The  Kneisel  Quartet  brought  out  Arnold  SchCn- 
berg's  Sextet  in  D  minor,  Verkldrte  Nacht,  op.  4, 
one  of  this  composer's  earliest  and  most  beautiful 
works.  A  new  Quartet  in  A,  by  D.  S.  Smith 
proved  to  be  well  written,  but  entirely  devoid  of 
all  inspiration.  Nothing  attests  more  convinc- 
ingly the  steady  growth  of  real  musical  culture 
than  the  hearty  support  given  to  several  new 
organizations.  The  (Juartet  of  Ancient  Instru- 
ments, consisting  of  H.  Gideon  (harpsichord), 
A.  Gietzen  (viola  d'amore),  F.  Mueller  (oboe 
d'amore)  and  B.  Steinke  (viola  de  gamba),  was 
organized  in  Boston  for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing works  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and 
eighteenth  centuries  written  for  those  instru- 
ments. The  New  York  Chamber  Music  Society 
is  an  association  of  12  artists  (strings,  wood- 
wind, horn,  and  piano)  founded  by  Carolyn 
Beebe  and  Gustave  Langenus  for  the  production 
of  compositions  demanding  unusual  combinations 
of  instruments.  In  Minneapolis  six  members  of 
the  local  Symphony  Orchestra  banded  themselves 
together  as  the  Minneapolis  Woodwind  Ensemble. 


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Four  famous  ensemble  players,  Sylvain  Noadc, 
Otto  Roth,  Emil  Ferir,  and  Alwin  Schroeder 
formed  a  new  quartet  known  as  the  Boston 
String  Quartet. 

Ghokal  SocxEToa.  The  Society  of  St.  Gr^- 
ory  of  America,  whose  efforts  for  the  promotion 
of  a  true  church  style  were  officially  recognized 
by  the  Pope,  held  its  second  annual  convention 
at  Baltimore  and,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev. 
Leo  Manzetti,  presented  a  programme  illustrat- 
ing the  various  types  of  music  regarded  as  digni- 
fied from  the  old  Gregorian  Chant  to  the  present 
day.  The  New  York  Oratorio  Society,  under 
Louis  Koemmenich,  gave  the  first  production  in 
America  of  Enrico  Bossi's  mystery  Oiovwnna 
d'Aroo  (in  English).  Like  almost  all  modem 
oratorios  by  Italians,  this  work  exhibits  a 
strange  blending  of  sacred  and  purely  operatic 
music.  Although  the  inspiration  is  uneven, 
there  are  some  fine  moments,  especially  the  two 
great  climaxes  in  the  coronation  and  death 
scenes.  The  Smetana  Singing  Society  of  Chi- 
cago, under  Adolf  Erst,  commemorated  the  fifth 
centenary  of  the  death  of  John  Huss  by  the  first 
American  production  of  Karl  Loewe's  oratorio 
Johann  Husa,  a  work  tuneful  rather  than  deep 
or  moving.  The  Chicago  Apollo  Club,  under 
Harrison  M.  Wild,  brought  out  two  novelties, 
Frederick  Cowen's  oratorio  The  Veil,  and  Florent 
Schmitt's  Forty-eeventh  Psalm.  The  former 
work  proved  hopelessly  dull;  the  latter  (really 
a  novelty  only  as  far  as  the  West  is  concerned, 
having  had  its  American  jMremiire  in  Boston  two 
years  ago)  was  received  favorably  in  spite  of 
ultra  modem  coloring.  The  Cecilia  Society  of 
Boston,  which  for  some  years  past  had  been 
steadily  declining,  was  reormnized  by  its  new 
president,  Henry  Mason.  That  it  was  also 
vitalized  was  shown  at  its  first  concert  in  the 
fall,  when  under  the  direction  of  Clifton  Chal- 
mers a  splendid  performance  of  Franck's  Lee 
Beatitudes  was  given. 

Festivals.  The  chief  interest  centred  natu- 
rally in  the  musical  events  given  in  connection 
with  the  great  Panama  Exposition.  The  regular 
Exposition  Orchestra  of  80  performers,  under 
Max  Bendix,  gave  over  500  concerts.  The  Bos- 
ton Symphony  Orchestra,  under  its  regular  con- 
ductor, Karl  Muck,  was  engaged  for  12  concerts; 
it  created  such  a  sensation  that  an  extra  concert 
had  to  be  given  before  it  was  allowed  to  depart. 
Extraordinary  interest  was  shown  in  three  con- 
certs devoted  to  the  works  of,  and  directed  by, 
Saint-Sa^ns.  The  venerable  master,  in  his 
eightieth  year,  not  only  had  made  the  long  jour- 
ney as  commissioner  of  his  government,  but  had 
also  brought  with  him  the  score  of  a  new  work, 
Haili  California,  written  especially  for  the  oc- 
casion. This  was  produced  under  his  personal 
direction,  but  the  general  impression  was  that 
the  composer  would  outlive  his  work.  Among 
numerous  other  orchestral  concerts  a  three  day 
Beethoven-Wagner  celebration  under  Alfred 
Hertz  deserves  special  mention.  Almost  all  the 
famous  bands  of  the  United  States  were  heard, 
and  a  number  of  oratorio  performances  with 
monster  choruses  are  to  be  recorded.  Not  less 
than  50  famous  organists  ^ave  innumerable  re- 
citals on  the  great  Exposition  Orj^n,  while  the 
names  of  celebrated  singers,  pianists,  violinists, 
and  cellists  that  appeared  in  concert  and  recital 
would  fill  a  separate  catalogue.  The  German 
singing  societies  along  the  Pacific  (I^oast  availed 
themselves  of  the  general  festive  mood,  banded 


together,  and,  under  Siegfried  Hagen  as  festival 
conductor,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Los  Angeles 
Symphony  Orchestra  (Adolf  Tandler),  gave  the 
first  great  Pacific  S&ngerfeet,  For  the  occasion 
Emperor  William  and  Emperor  Franz  Josef  had 
each  donated  a  cup.  Both  prizes  were  won  by 
(rermania  Sftngerbund  of  Los  Angeles  (Henry 
Schdnefeld).  The  annual  Welsh  Eisteddfod  this 
year  was  held  at  Los  Angeles,  and  the  principal 
prize  of  $10,000  was  equally  <Uvided  between  the 
Oakland  Chorus  of  Los  Angeles  (Alexander 
Stewart)  and  the  Haydn  Choral  Union  of  Chi- 
cago (Hugh  Owen).  The  most  important  event 
of  the  w^'s  festivities  arranged  in  connection 
with  the  Exposition  by  the  American  Federation 
of  Musical  Olvibs  was  the  production  of  Horatio 
Parker's  opera  Fairyland  (July  1st) ,  which  had 
won  the  $10,000  prize  offered  bv  the  Federation 
the  previous  year.  In  spite  ot  an  ideal  repre- 
sentation, with  the  finest  singers  and  under  the 
direction  of  Alfred  Hertz,  the  work  made  no  im- 
pression. It  sounded  even  weaker,  more  color- 
less, and  more  labored  than  the  same  composer's 
M<ma,  Fluent  and  correct  writing,  scholarly 
counterpoint,  skillful  orchestration  counted  for 
naught  when  the  dramatic  vein  was  so  com- 
pletely lacking. 

The  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  of  Boston  cele- 
brated the  centenary  of  its  foundation  with  a 
four  day  festival.  Under  the  direction  of  its 
regular  conductor,  Emil  Mollenhauer,  Verdi's 
Requiem  and  Mendelssohn's  Elijah  were  given. 
Horatio  Parker  had  written  an  oratorio,  Marven 
and  the  Orail,  especially  for  the  occasion,  but  it 
was  a  complete  fiasco.  The  fifty-eighth  annual 
Worcester  Musical  Festival,  under  the  direction 
of  Arthur  Mees  and  Gustav  Strube,  produced 
Beethoven's  seldom  heard  Choral  Phantasy. 
There  was  a  decided  falling  off  in  the  attendance, 
and  the  association  recorded  the  moat  serious 
deficit  in  its  history.  In  the  twenty-fourth  tri- 
ennial festival  and  contest  of  the  NordOstlicher 
Sftngerbund,  held  at  Brooklyn,  6000  singers  took 
part  under  the  festival  conductors  Carl  Fiqu6 
and  Felix  Jaeger.  The  much  coveted  Elaiser 
Prize  was  awarded  to  the  Arion  of  Brooklyn 
(Eugen  Klee).  At  the  tenth  annual  Bethlehem 
Bach  Festival,  under  Frederick  WoUe,  the  St. 
John*s  Passion  and  the  Mass  in  B  minor  were 
given.  In  the  open  air,  among  the  giant  trees 
of  California,  the  Bohemians  presented  Edward 
Schneider's  Apollo,  which  contained  very  melo- 
dious, effective  music.  The  first  op^  air  per- 
formance of  a  grand  opera  in  the  United  States 
aroused  wide  interest  and  assumed  in  all  re- 
spects the  appearance  of  an  important  festival. 
On  June  4th  Wagner's  Siegfried  was  performed 
in  the  Harvard  Stadium  at  Cambri<]^  before 
20,000  spectators.  It  was  given  with  the  regu- 
lar cast  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House: 
Sembach  (Siegfried),  Gadski  (Brttnnhilde), 
Whitehill  (Wanderer),  Reiss  (Mime),  Goritz 
(Alberich),  Ruysdael  (Fafner),  Gluck  (Forest 
Bird) .  The  orchestra,  directed  by  Alfred  Hertz, 
was  increased  to  120  instrumentalists.  Making 
due  allowance  for  inevitable  shortcomings  owing 
to  unfavorable  acoustic  conditions  in  the  open 
air  and  the  limited  facilities  of  a  temporary 
stage,  the  success  was  complete. 

Opera.  At  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  of 
New  York  160  performances  were  given  from  a 
repertory  of  37  works  by  22  composers.  Ac- 
cording to  nationality  these  were  divided  as 
follows:     German,  15  works  by  7  composers  to- 


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taled  63  performances;  Italian,  16  works  by  9 
composers  totaled  77  performances;  French,  4 
works  by  4  composers  totaled  12  p^ormances; 
Russian,  2  works  by  2  composers  totaled  8  per- 
formances. Wagner,  represented  by  0  works, 
led  with  38  performances.  Next  in  order  came 
Puccini,  of  vmom  4  works  achieved  24  perform- 
ances. Third  ranked  Verdi  with  21  performances 
of  4  works.  The  works  most  frequently  given 
were  Wagner's  Walkiire,  Verdi's  Aida  ana  Trova^ 
tore,  and  Puccini's  Madama  Butterfly^  each  d 
times.  Three  novelties  were  produced  as  fol- 
lows: 

Giordano's  Madame  Sana  Qine  (January 
25th),  with  Farrar,  Amato,  and  Martinelli  in 
the  principal  rOles,  under  the  direction  of  Tos- 
canini,  failed  to  arouse  interest  in  spite  of  superb 
interpretation.  The  music  not  only  is  deficient 
in  power  of  characterization,  but  positively 
feeble.  There  is  no  thematic  development,  but 
mere  literal  repetition.  In  all  respects  the 
work  shows  a  decided  falling  off  against  the 
same  composer's  earlier  operas. — ^Leoni's  VOra- 
coU}  (February  4),  with  Bori  and  Didur  in  the 
chief  rOles,  under  the  direction  of  Polacco,  made 
a  marked  impression.  The  music  is  always 
strong  and  expressive.  In  spite  of  a  Chinese 
subject  no  attempt  is  made  to  obtain  local  color 
bv  means  of  Chinese  diaracteristics,  but  the 
idiom  employed  is  that  of  the  modern  veristic 
Italian  composers. — ^Borodui's  Prinoe  Igor  (De- 
cember 30th),  with  Alda,  Amato,  and  Botta, 
under  the  direction  of  Polacco,  distinctly  dis- 
appointed the  rather  high  expectations  enter- 
tained. The  chief  fault  is  the  lack  of  real  dra- 
matic action  and  sharp  delineation  of  the  charac- 
ters, and  the  undue  preponderance  of  the  chorus 
hampers  the  progress  of  what  little  action  there 
is.  For  his  musical  effect  the  composer  relies 
principallv  upon  Russian  folk  themes  and  orien- 
tal coloring.  Unfortunately  these  means  are 
employed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  mo- 
notony. Borodin's  own  music  lacks  individual- 
ity ,and  distinction.  Only  once,  in  the  second 
act,  is  genuine  interest  aroused  through  the 
stirring,  oarbaric  strains  aoeompanyinff  a  ballet 
of  gorgeous  splendor. — ^The  revival  of  Mascagni's 
Iris  did  not  cause  much  excitement,  whereas 
Saint-SaSns's  Samson  et  Delilah  proved  an  unex- 
pected drawing  card.  As  far  as  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House  is  concerned,  the  production  of  this 
last  work,  which  opened  tiie  season  on  November 
15th,  may  be  regarded  as  a  novelty  rather  than 
a  revival,  since  the  opera  had  only  a  single  per- 
formance on  Feb.  8,  1896. 

The  departure  of  Toscanini  and  Hertz,  who 
through  many  seasons  had  guided  the  destinies 
of  Italian  and  (German  opera,  respectively,  and 
had  established  themselves  securely  in  the  af- 
fections of  all  opera  goers,  was  deeply  regretted. 
The  former's  place  was  taken  by  Giorsio  Polacco, 
whose  work  at  the  Metropolitan  had  won  high 
praise.  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  Artur 
Bodanzky  of  Mannheim,  who  chose  Odtterddm- 
n^erung  (November  18th)  for  his  d§but.  His 
success  was  instantaneous  and  most  emphatic. 
The  new  Italian  conductor  Gaetano  Bavaenoli, 
who  made  his  d6but  November  19th  with  La 
Boh^ms,  proved  likewise  a  valuable  acquisition. 
Among  the  new  sinsers  Melanie  Kurt  and  Giu- 
seppe di  Luca  tumel  out  to  be  stars  of  the  very 
first  magnitude.  The  former  made  her  d6but  as 
Isolde  (February  Ist),  and  was  at  once  recog- 
nized as  the  peer  of  the  greatest  artists  heard  in 


that  part.  Besides  a  glorious  voice,  unusual 
histrionic  ability,  a  queenly  stage  presence,  tem- 
perament, and  personal  magnetism,  she  also 
possesses  the  invaluable  attribute  of  youth. 
The  rOle  of  Figaro  in  Rossini's  Barbiere  di 
Seviglia,  which  di  Luca  chose  for  his  d6but 
(November  26th),  gave  him  ample  opportunity 
to  exhibit  an  astonishing  vocal  technic,  while 
subsequent  appearances  gave  proof  of  his  wonder- 
ful versatility  in  different  styles  of  opera. 
Henri  Scott,  though  new  as  a  melnber  of  the 
Metropolitan  company,  had  established  a  fine 
reputation  in  former  seasons,  when  he  was  heard 
in  New  York  as  a  member  of  the  Chicaso  com- 
pany. All  the  other  newcomers  proved  to  be 
competent  artists.  These  were  the  sopranos  Ida 
Cajatti,  Julia  Heinrich,  Flora  Perini,  and  Edith 
Mason;  the  tenors  Max  Bloch  and  Giacomo  Da- 
nacco;  the  bass  Pompilio  Malatesta.  Among 
the  artists  who  contributed  to  the  success  of  a 
brilliant  season  were:  Mmes.  Gadski,  Deetinn, 
Farrar,  Alda,  Bori,  Hempel,  Ober,  Matzenauer, 
and  Robeson;  and  Messrs.  Caruso,  Martinelli, 
Botta,  Sembach,  Urlus,  Braun,  Goritz,  Weil, 
Didur,  Witherspoon,  Rothier,  and  Amato. 

On  March  1st  the  Chicago  Opinra  Company 
filed  a  declaration  of  bankruptcy.  Under  the 
old  name  a  new  company  was  immediately  or- 
ganized with  Cleofonte  Campanuii  as  artistic 
director  and  Bemhard  Ulrich  as  general  busi- 
ness manager.  The  season  was  opened  November 
15th  with  Ponchielli's  Giooonda,  and  from  the 
very  beginninflr  the  works  of  Wagner  occupied  a 
conspicuous  place.  A  performance  of  the  com- 
plete cycle  of  the  Nibelunffen  dramas  was  given 
on  four  consecutive  Sunday  afternoons  More 
capacity  houses.  The  conductor  of  the  German 
works  was  Egon  Pollak,  of  Frankfort,  one  of 
Germany's  foremost  Wagner  interpreters;  while 
Campanini  and  Rodolfo  Ferrari  divided  the 
French  and  Italian  works  among  themselves. 
Most  of  the  singers  were  stars  of  the  former 
Chicago  company,  the  Boston,  Montreal,  and 
Metropolitan  companies.  Several  native  singers, 
who  had  achieved  fame  in  Germany,  made  fiieir 
d^but  in  their  own  country,  and  were  received 
with  marked  favor.  These  were  Francis  Mac- 
lennan  (Tristan),  James  Goddard  (K6nig 
Marke),  Graham  Marr  (Melot),  Marcia  van 
Dresser  (Elizabeth),  and  Frances  Rose  (Venus). 
A  deep  impression  was  also  made  by  the  Spanish 
soprano  Conchita  Supervia  and  the  Belgian 
baritone  Marcel  Maguenat.  On  the  list  of  sing- 
ers were  the  names  of:  Mmes.  Fremstad,  Melba, 
Claussen,  Edvina,  Beriza,  Melis,  de  Cisneros, 
Stanley,  and  Schumann-Heink ;  and  Messrs.  Dal- 
mores,  Muratore,  Zenatello,  McCormack,  Fer- 
rari-Fontana,  Dufranne,  Whitehill,  Journet,  An- 
cona,  and  Arimondi. 

After  the  declaration  of  bankruptcy  of  the 
Boston  Opera  Company,  in  May,  Max  Rabinoff 
bought  the  entire  scenery  and  most  other  proper- 
ties, and  organized  a  new  company  imder  the 
old  name,  with  which  he  made  a  successful  tour 
of  the  principal  Eastern  cities.  In  New  York 
the  Manhattan  Opera  House  was  used.  His 
operatic  repertory  was  rather  limited,  but  he 
made  a  specialty  of  elaborate  ballets,  with  Anna 
Pavlowa  and  Alexander  Volinine  as  powerful 
drawing  cards.  In  fact,  these  ballets  surpassed 
anything  ever  presented  in  that  line  in  this 
country.  Special  interest  was  ^own  in  the  re- 
vival of  Aubert's  La  Muette  de  Poriioi  (last 
heard  in  1887)  as  a  mimi-choreographic  opera, 


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in  which  the  terpsichorean  element  was  coordi- 
nated to  the  drama  and  the  music.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  Puccini's  Madama  Butterfly  the  rOle 
of  Cio-Gio-San  was  suns  by  a  native  Japanese 
soprano,  Mme.  Tamaki-Miura.  The  conductors 
were  Moranzoni  and  Jacchia  for  the  operas  and 
Schmid  for  the  ballets.  The  singers  included: 
Mmes.  Vilani,  Teyte,  Lyne,  Gay,  and  Leveroni; 
and  Messrs.  Martin,  Andres,  Baklanov,  Ananian, 
Chalmers,  and  Mardones. 

After  a  little  more  than  a  year's  activity  the 
Century  Opera  Company  abruptly  terminated 
its  season  in  Chicago  in  January,  and  soon  aft- 
erwards disbanded.  From  amons  the  members 
of  the  defunct  organization  M.  and  S.  Aborn,  the 
former  directors  of  the  Century,  formed  a  new 
company  with  which  they  ^ve  opera  in  English 
in  several  of  the  larger  cities.  Owing  to  con- 
ditions arising  from  the  war  and  to  serious 
damage  caused  by  a  great  storm  the  New  Orleans 
Opera  Company  decided  to  abandon  its  usual 
season. 

European  Couitthies 

Gebmant.  a  decision  of  vital  importance  to 
German  composers  and  publishers  was  handed 
down  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  a  law- 
suit instituted  over  two  years  ago  by  the 
OenoM$enschaft  Deutscher  Tonsetzer  against 
some  60  publishers.  The  dispute  turned  upon 
the  question  of  royalties  paid  by  the  manufac- 
turers of  mechanical  instruments.  The  com- 
posers had  reserved  to  themselves  all  riffhts  in 
this  matter,  and  the  publishers  claimed  equal 
rights.  In  every  instance  the  courts  declared 
the  publishers  entitled  to  half  the  royalties  thus 
paid  by  manufacturers.  The  final  decision  of 
the  Supreme  Court  not  only  confirmed  the  verdict 
of  the  lower  courts,  but  even  went  so  far  as  to 
declare  null  and  void  all  existing  contracts  be- 
tween publishers  and  composers.  One  rather 
strange  effect  of  the  war  was  the  comparative 
nelgeet  of  contemporary  composers  and  an  un- 
usual interest  manifested  in  the  works  of  the 
classic  masters.  Thus  Berlin  heard  no  less  than 
15  performances  of  Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony 
and  four  complete  cycles  of  that  master's  sym- 
phonies, while  the  record  for  the  production  of 
Brahms's  works  is  not  far  behind.  General  Inten- 
dant  von  Huelsen  of  the  Berlin  Royal  Opera  ar- 
ranged a  series  of  concerts  in  various  Belgian 
cities  by  the  forces  of  the  Berlin,  Munich,  Dres- 
den, and  Stuttgart  institutions,  chiefly  for  the 
benefit  of  wounded  soldiers.  Before  crowded 
houses  the  Berlin  Philharmonic,  under  Camillo 
Hildebrandt,  gave  a  six-day  Beethoven  Festival, 
during  which  all  the  sjrmphonies,  the  violin  con- 
certo, the  piano  concertos  in  E  b  and  C,  and 
the  Triple  Concerto  were  performed.  In  spite 
of  the  war  the  centenary  of  the  birth  of  Robert 
Franz  was  observed  everywhere,  but  especially 
at  Halle.  The  celebration  at  Schmalkalden  of 
the  hundredth  birthday  of  Carl  Wilhelm,  the 
composer  of  Die  Wacht  am  Rhein,  naturally  be- 
came the  occasion  of  an  immense  patriotic  demon- 
stration. Many  of  the  smaller  opera  houses 
that  had  closed  their  doors  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  resumed  operations.  But  throughout 
the  empire  very  few  novelties  were  produced, 
whereas  a  number  of  older  operas  were  revived. 
Among  these  revivals  Marschner's  Hans  HeUing, 
M^hul's  Joaeff  and  the  earlier  Mozart  operas 
were  received  with  unexpected  interest.  Schill- 
ing's Mcna  Lisa  had  its  premise  at  Stuttgart, 


and  met  with  only  a  tuco^  d'estime,  while  sub- 
sequent performances  at  Vienna  and  Berlin 
barely  escaped  a  fiasco.  Leo  Fall  scored  an 
enormous  success  at  Berlin  with  a  new  light 
opera,  Der  kiinatliche  Menech,  and  three  wedu 
later  almost  duplicated  this  success  with  his 
latest  work,  Die  Kaiaerin.  Of  numerous  choral 
works  only  one  made  a  deep  impression.  Max 
Bruch's  neldenfeier,  on  a  text  by  his  daughter 
Margarethe.  Tliis  work,  produced  by  the  Ber- 
lin Philharmonic  Chorus  under  Siegfried  Ochs, 
is  ranked  with  the  masterpieces  of  the  composer's 
early  manhood.  The  first  performance  of  a  new 
work  by  Richard  Strauss  is  always  an  event  of 
the  first  magnitude.  Under  the  composer's  per- 
sonal direction  the  premise  of  his  Alpeneym- 
phonie  took  place  at  Berlin  on  October  28th.  As 
usual  in  the  case  of  a  Strauss  premise,  the  first 
reports  are  confiicting,  but  upon  the  majority 
of  the  critics  the  new  work  made  a  decidedly 
favorable  impression,  being  praised  as  lucid, 
well  developed,  and  euphonious.  It  is  hailed 
with  joy  as  marking  a  return  to  the  earlier  style 
of  the  great  tone-poems,  which,  after  all,  remain 
Strauss's  highest  achievement. 

England.  Many  concerts  were  given  for  the 
various  war  funds  and  charities,  and  consider- 
able sums  were  realized.  Earlier  in  the  year 
only  works  by  native  composers  were  heard,  but 
audiences  soon  tired  of  this  fare.  (See  section 
General  Neu?e.)  The  regular  season  of  grand 
opera  was  omitted.  Instead,  Vladimir  Rosing  an- 
nounced a  season  of  Russian,  Italian,  and  Frendi 
opera  at  Hammerstein's  Opera  House.  At  the 
opening  night  Tschaikowsky's  Pique  Dame  had 
its  fir^  performance  in  England.  In  spite  of 
excellent  artists  the  underUiking  collapsed  at 
the  end  of  the  first  week.  More  successful  was 
a  season  of  opera  in  English  under  the  direction 
of  Robert  Courtneidge  and  Thomas  Beecham  at 
the  Shaftesbury  Theatre,  which  met  with  such 
favor  that  the  original  season  of  six  wedcs  was 
extended  indefinitelv. 

France.  Musical  activities  were  practically 
paralyzed  by  the  war,  for  none  of  the  belligerent 
countries  had  so  many  of  its  musicians  at  the 
front  as  France.  On  the  plea  of  unfairness 
toward  the  strongest  men,  who  were  giving  their 
services  to  their  country,  the  prize  competitions 
at  the  Conservatoire  were  restricted  to  women. 
In  order  to  avoid  further  importation  of  the 
German  editions  of  the  classics,  French  publish- 
ers began  to  bring  out  the  Gearmon  masterpieces 
in  French  editions.  Thus  there  were  published 
during  the  year  Mozart's  Sonatas  revised  by 
Saint-SaSns,  Beethoven's  Sonatae  by  Dukas,  some 
works  of  Chopin  by  Debussy,  and  some  of  Men- 
delssohn by  Ravel.  In  December  the  Lamourenx 
concerts  were  resumed.  The  Grand  Op^ra,  whos^ 
doors  had  been  closed  for  more  than  18  months, 
began  to  give  performances  twice  a  week.  But 
no  complete  operas  were  given,  only  single  acts. 
The  Op^ra  Comique  resumed  full  performances. 
Owing  to  its  limited  personnel,  however,  only 
six  works  found  their  way  into  the  reper- 
tory. 

Bibliography.  The  war  prevented  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  books,  with  the  excepticm  of 
those  printed  in  England.  Among  the  more  im- 
portant English  and  American  books  are  the 
following: 

C.  van  den  Borren,  The  Sources  of  Keyboard 
Musio  in  England  (London),  a  detailed  ac- 
count,  drawn   from   authentic  sources,    of  the 


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virginal  and  the  development  of  virginal  music 
from  the  fourteenth  century  on,  showing  also 
the  influence  of  the  instrument  upon  the  growth 
of  the  various  dance  forms;  H.  Brower,  Piano 
Mastery  (New  York),  valuable  as  a  record  of 
the  views  of  30  emipent  pianists  on  various  prob- 
lems of  technic  and  interpretation;  A.  Dol- 
metsch,  The  Interpretatum  of  the  MuHo  of  the 
Seventeenth  cmd  Eighteenth  Centuriet  (London), 
very  valuable  because  of  numerous  quotations 
from  writers  of  those  centuries  explaining  the 
proper  performance  of  the  music  of  their  time; 
J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland,  The  Consort  of  Music: 
A  Study  of  Interpretatum  and  Ensemble  (Lon- 
don), an  adequate  historical  account,  laying 
chief  stress  on  chamber  music;  F.  Salvador- 
Daniel,  The  Mueie  and  Musical  Instruments  of 
the  Arab  (New  York),  a  good  treatise  on  both 
theory  and  practice;  E.  van  der  Straeten,  The 
Violoncello  and  the  Viols  (London),  authorita- 
tive and  complete,  with  detailed  account  of  all 
famous  makers  and  appendix  giving  sketches  of 
principal  performers;  G.  van  Vechten,  Music 
after  the  Oreat  War,  and  other  Studies  (New 
York),  a  fnU  account  and  explanation  of  the 
principles  of  futurist  music  from  the  standpoint 
of  an  admirer. 

MTJTUAL  WELFABE  LEAOT7B.  See 
Penology,  Osborne  and  Sing  Sing, 

NARE8,  Sib  Geobgb  Stbong.  English  naval 
officer  and  explorer,  died  Jan.  16,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  1831,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1845.  In 
1873  he  commanded  the  Challenger  in  deep  sea 
expeditions,  and  in  1876  was  in  command  of  the 
Arctic  expedition  of  the  Alert  and  Discovery j 
which  gained  a  point  beyond  83''  north.  From 
1879-86  he  was  professional  officer  of  the  board 
of  trade.     He  was  made  vice-admiral  in  1892. 

NATAL.  Formerly  a  British  colony;  a  prov- 
ince of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  since  the  for- 
mation of  that  state  May  31,  1910.  The  area 
(including  Zululand)  is  36,290  square  miles;  the 
population  (1911  census),  1,194,043.  Whites 
numbered  98,114,  Indians  and  other  Asiatics 
133,439,  and  natives  962,490  (including  9092 
mixed  and  other  colored).  The  capital  is  Pieter- 
maritzburg,  which  had  in  1911  30,655  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  14,737  were  white;  Durban  had 
69,187  inhabitants,  of  whom  31,783  were  white. 
Immigrants  in  1912,  26,202;  emigrants,  14,433. 
Education  (excepting  higher  education,  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Union  government)  is 
directed  by  the  provincial  administration.  At 
government  and  inspected  schools  in  1913,  17,093 
white  pupils  were  in  regular  attendance;  at  gov- 
ernment high  and  preparatory  schools,  the  aver- 
age attendance  was  893.  About  1500  pupils  at- 
tend private  schools.  At  the  government-aided 
schools  for  natives,  there  was  an  enrollment  of 
20,098  in  1913,  and  at  the  government-aided 
schools  for  Indians,  3967. 

At  the  end  of  1912,  8,460,000  acres  of  land 
had  been  alienated,  besides  2,310,000  condition- 
ally alienated.  These  figures  are  exclusive  of 
about  4,500,000  acres  granted  and  leased  in  Zulu- 
land  and  the  northern  territories.  The  prin- 
cipal agricultural  products  are  corn,  tea,  sugar, 
and  tobacco.  In  1913,  sheep  numbered  2,031,146, 
and  goats  1,067,192,  as  compared  with  1,519,258 
and  989,274  in  1911;  horses  in  1911  numbered 
75,567,  cattle  456,087,  mules  15,602,  asses  28,018, 
swine  110,332,  and  ostriches  4111.  There  are 
extensive  mineral  resources.  The  output  of  coal 
in  1912  was  2,765,068  tons,  and  in   1913  2,898,- 


726  tons.  A  whaling  industry  is  carried  on  at 
Durban.  In  1913,  1344  whales  were  killed  and 
landed.  The  whaling  output  in  1912  and  1913, 
respectively,  was  6666  and  8024  tons  of  oil,  2000 
and  1644  tons  of  fertilizer,  and  50  and  38  tons 
of  whalebone. 

NATIONAL  AGADEMTy  Exhibitions  or. 
See  Painting  and  Sculptube. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN  EX- 
HIBITION.    See  Painting  and  Sculptube. 

NATIONAL  ANTI-TT7BEBCT7LOSI8  AS- 
SOCIATION.   See  Chabities. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  JEWISH 
SOCIAL  WOBKEBS.    See  Chabities. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  MANU- 
FACTT7BEBS.  See  Emflotebs'  Associations, 
section  so  entitled. 

NATIONAL  BANKS.  For  information  re- 
garding the  Federal  Reserve  System,  the  reader 
should  consult  Banks  and  Banking.  See  also 
references  there  given. 

Statistics.  According  to  a  report  of  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency,  there  were  in  the 
country  on  Sept.  2,  1916,  7613  national  banks. 
Their  aggregate  resources  were  $12,267,000,000. 
Of  this  sumi  loans  and  discounts  represented  $6,- 
766,680,000;  United  States  bonds,  $781,726,000; 
other  bonds  and  securities,  $1,219,000,000;  specie, 
$719,843,000;  legal  tender  notes,  $122,765,000; 
banking  houses,  furniture,  and  fixtures,  $279,- 
392,000.  The  principal  items  of  liabilities  were: 
capital  stock,  $1,068,863,000;  surplus  and  un- 
divided profits,  $1,022,596,000;  national  bank 
notes  outstanding,  $718,496,000;  demand  de- 
posits, $5,426,610,000;  time  deposits,  $1,335,572,- 
000;  the  distribution  of  national  banks  with  the 
segregate  resources  for  each  geographical  divi- 
sion was  as  follows:  New  England  States,  434 
banks  with  $960,969,000  assets;  Eastern  SUtes, 
1652,  with  $5,095,899,000;  Southern  States,  1586, 
with  $1,355,540,000;  Middle  Western  States, 
2101,  with  $3,228,558,000;  Western  States,  1298, 
with  $768,018,000;  Pacific  Stotea,  536,  with 
$851,666,000.  There  were  two  national  banks  in 
Alaska,  and  five  in  Hawaii.  The  predominance 
of  New  York  City  as  the  financial  centre  of  the 
country  is  revealed  by  the  fact  that  it  has  33 
national  banks  with  $2,410,000,000  assets,  or 
nearly  20  per  cent  of  the  total  assets  for  the 
entire  country. 

RiGGS  National  Bank  op  Washington. 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency  Williams,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  McAdoo,  ordered  the 
United  States  Treasurer  to  pay  into  the  Treasury 
certain  interest  on  United  States  bonds  which 
had  accrued  to  the  credit  of  this  bank  as  a  fine 
of  $5000  for  failure  of  the  bank  to  observe  bank- 
ing regulations.  On  April  13th  the  bank  began 
an  injunction  suit  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  against  the  Comptroller, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  the  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States  to  prevent  them  from  con- 
spiring against  the  bank,  from  carrying  out  this 
order,  and  from  demanding  special  reports.  In 
answer  to  this  the  Comptroller  alleged  that  the 
bank  had  encouraged  speculation,  had  itself  en- 
gaged in  stock  speculations,  and  other  violations 
of  the  law.  He  showed  that  ofiicials  had  admit- 
ted borrowing  from  the  bank  on  "dummy"  notes. 
The  bank  in  turn  sought  to  enlist  the  sympa- 
thetic support  of  other  national  banks  on  the 
ground  that  the  administration  had  been  un- 
sympathetic and  unjust.  The  case  assumed 
great  importance,  being  taken  up  by  President 


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Wilson,  with  the  Departments  of  Justice,  Treas- 
ury, and  Post  Office,  and  with  the  cabinet. 
Louis  D.  Brandeis  and  Samuel  Untermeyer  be- 
came counsel  for  the  government  and  its  offi- 
cials, and  ex-Soiator  Bailey  of  Texas  for  the 
bank.  The  case  was  heard  before  Justice  Mc- 
Coy in  May.  The  decision  rendered  May  22nd 
upheld  the  administration,  finding  that  the  bank 
had  persistently  violated  the  law.  It  found 
nothing  to  impugn  the  sood  faith  of  the  gov- 
ernment officials,  and  hence  the  injunctions 
sought  were  denied,  except  as  to  the  fine. 

Intebest  Rates.  On  October  27th,  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency  Williams  addressed  to 
each  national  bank  a  circular  in  which  he  al- 
\eged  that  national  banks  were  charging  usurious 
rates  of  interest.  In  November,  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  National  Bank  Section  of  the 
American  Bankers'  Association  protested  against 
this  circular.  The  committee  held  that  the  prac- 
tice complained  of  was  not  general,  but  was  con- 
fined to  certain  sections  of  uie  country,  and  that 
in  fact  national  banks  loan  millions  each  year  at 
much  less  than  the  legal  rates.  To  this,  in  turn, 
the  Comptroller  made  a  vigorous  reply,  citing 
evidence  of  the  practices  complained  of.  He  de- 
clared that  reports  in  his  office  showed  that  some 
national  banks  were  loaning  small  sums  at  rates 
ranging  from  50  per  cent  to  2400  per  cent  a 
year,  and  were  exacting  ruinous  rati»  on  much 
larger  sums.  The  evil  of  usury,  he  said,  was 
not  confined  to  any  section  of  the  country,  but 
was  greatest  in  the  West,  Southwest,  and  North- 
west, especially  in  agricultural  communities.  In 
comment  on  this,  it  was  shown  by  bankers  that 
the  dividends  paid  by  all  national  banks  in  1914 
equaled  11.37  per  cent;  and  that  those  of  State 
banks  equaled  10.02  per  cent;  and  of  trust  com- 
panies 12.70  per  cent. 

NATIONAL  CITY  BANK.  See  Financial 
Review,  American  International  Corporation, 

NATIONAL  COMMITTEE  FOB  PREVEN- 
TION OF  BLINDNESS.    See  Charities. 

NATIONAL  CONFERENCE  ON  MABKET- 
ING  AND  FARM  CBEDITS.  See  Aqucul- 
TURAL  Credit. 

NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  INDT7STBIAL 
DEFENSE.  See  Emfloteeb'  Associations,  sec- 
tion so  entitled. 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE.  See  Military 
Progress. 

NATIONAL  FEDEBATION  OF  REME- 
DIAL   LOAN    ASSOCIATIONS.      See    Loan 

RlTARKR 

NATIONAL  FORESTS.  During  the  year 
12  national  forests  were  reduced  in  area.    Cer- 


tain inter-forest  transfers  were  made  involving 
three  national  forests,  and  the  Zuni  Nationu 
Forest  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  was  consoli- 
dated with  the  Manzano  National  Forest.  There 
are  now  162  national  forests  embracing  184,240,- 
596  acres,  of  which  area  approximately  89  per 
cent  is  public  land.  For  information  in  regard 
to  irrigation  projects  during  the  year,  see  Irri- 
gation. For  details  in  regard  to  public  lands 
of  Alaska  see  the  article  Alaska.  See  also  For- 
estry. 

NATIONAL  GUARD.  See  Miutart  Prog- 
ress, United  States;  and  Miutia. 

NATIONAL  METAL  TRADES  ASSOCIA- 
TION. See  Employers'  Associations,  section 
so  entitled 

•  NATIONAL  MUNICIPAL  LEAGUE.  Bee 
Municipal  Govebnment. 

NATIONAL  PROBATION  ASSOCIATION. 
See  diABiTiES 

NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL.  Bee 
Workmen's  Compensation. 

NAVAL  AERONAUTICS.  See  AJteoNAU- 
tics;  and  Naval  Progress. 

NAVAL  PROGRESS.  Seven  of  the  eight 
great  naval  powers  of  the  world  were  involved  in 
the  European  war  during  1916,  and  the  secrecy 
that  the  governments  have  thrown  about  their 
operations  makes  it  ezceedinglv  difficult  to  as- 
certain the  exact  facts  in  regard  to  the  construc- 
tion and  loss  of  vessels;  but  the  accompanying 
tables  are  very  nearly  correct,  the  probable  er- 
rors existing  chiefly  in  the  number  of  subma- 
rines and  destroyers  built  and  building — par- 
ticularly in  the  tables  for  Great  Britain  and 
Germany.  The  exact  number  of  battleships  and 
battle  cruisers  building  in  these  countries  was 
also  unknown,  as  was  the  character  of  the  new 
ships.  From  such  information  as  leaked  out, 
the  new  British  ships  were  believed  to  be  battle 
cruisers  of  32  knots  speed;  though  4  battlediips 
were  ordered  in  1014,  these  may  have  been 
changed  to  battle  cruisers.  All  British  battle- 
ships in  hand  at  the  end  of  1913  were  practicaily 
completed  at  the  end  of  1016,  and  many  were  in 
service.  While  the  Germans  were  not  making 
equally  rapid  progress  in  shipbuilding,  they  ap- 
parently were  concentrating  their  efforts  upon 
those  which  were  launched  or  laid  down  before 
the  war  broke  out,  and  there  was  no  report  that 
they  had  begun  any  new  ones  of  large  size.  The 
construction  of  large  ships  seemed  to  be  going 
on  at  the  usual  rate  in  France  and  Italy,  and  at 
a  reduced  rate  in  Russia  and  Austria.  In  Japan, 
the  very  slow  work  of  the  previous  two  or  three 
years  had  been  somewhat  accelerated. 


NUMBERS  AND  TONNAGE 
Of  VMBeU  Oompleted  and  Under  Oonitruction  in  the  Eight  Greatest  Naviee  of  the  World  on  January  1,  19 le 

Gbbat  BarrAiii  Girmakt 

FMMb                     Yesaelt  VeueU  VesagU 

BuOt  Building  BuiU                        Building 

No,             Tont  No.           Tom  No.           Tona            No.           Ton* 

BatUeshipB    (Dreadnought  type) 88          766.450  4         120.000  17         891.088            8             90,000 

BattleehipB    (Pre-dreadnonght) 27          887.200  19         280.058          

Battie  cruisers 10          217,800  6*       198.000  5         122,040           2*           64,000 

Coast  defence  ships 18*          20.600  10*         18,000  

Armored  cruisers 27          828.050                   8  28.679                         

Fast  cruisers  (28  knots  or  faster) . .   45           188.880  8*         45,400  18            51,730           6             80.986 

Other  cruisers    84           225.650 12  49,772          

Destroyers    288           170.810  ..          (f)  156           98.668                         (t) 

Torpedo  boaU    46             11,618  8              1.264          

Submarines     Ill*           61,182  40*         85.000  50*          80,000         60*          40,000 

679       2.877.140  68         416.400  288          997,289          71           224.986 
ToUl:  Ships.  647;  tonnage,  2.798,540.                              Total:  Ships,  854;  tonnage,  1.222,175 


Digitized  by 


Google 


NAVAI.  PBOGBESS 

Ukxtsd  iStatbi 

BufU 

No.  Tofu 

BattlMhipB   (Dreadnought  type) 12  276.650 

Battleships    ( Pre-dreadnonght)    20  277.282 

Battle  emisera 

Coast  defence  ships 4  12,000 

Armored  cruisers 15  186.645 

Fast  cruisers  (28  knoU  or  faster) . .     8  11,250 

Other  cruisers   8  26,060 

Destroyers     57  41.417 

Torpedo  boats    17  8,041 

Submarines     88  

174  886,145 
Total:  Ships,  226;  tonnage.  1,006,175. 


441 


KAVAL  PBOGBESS 

Fkanoi 


Veatelt 

BvUding 


No. 
5 


11 
86 


52 


Ton$ 
158,800 


12,280 


VesatU 

BuiU 


No. 

7 

15 

2 

17 

8 

4 

89 

182 

05 


Tont 
161,672 
227,191 

Voiso 

179,859 
21,648 
16.657 
40,928 
18.144 
45,784 


BuOding 


No. 
0 


Tont 
244,000 


89,000 
(!)"*' 


(!) 


171,080         864  725,918  15 

1V>U1:  Ships,  879;  tonnage,  1.008,918. 


288.000 


Japan 


BUSIIA 


F«f«sls 

BufU 
No. 


Yeaseli 

Bwiidinff 


Tont 

Battleships   (Dreadnought  trpe) 2  41,600 

Battleships    ( Pre-dreadnought)    12  181,204 

Battle    cruisers    2  55,000 

Coast  defence   ships    1  4,126 

Armored  cruisers 18  187,672 

Fast  cruisers  (28  knoU  or  faster) . .     5  25.450 

Other  cruisers    8  81,648 

Destrovers     54  21,709 

Torpedo  boaU    46  4,145     . . 

Submarines   18  2,672       2 

156  505.216     18 
Total:  Ships,  174;  tonnage,  686,616. 


No. 

4 


10 


Tons 
125,200 

66,666 


10,000 
*  1,266 


BuUt 


No. 
5 

7 

1 

5 

5 

2 

118 

19 

40* 


Tont 
114,500 

99.678 
8,880 
56,155 
82,605 
18,462 
66,718 
2.682 
18,000 


BuStding 


No. 
2 

4 


17* 

is* 


Ton§ 

45.000 
180.000 


42.510 
28.694 

iV.666 


191,400         202  407,580  44  252,204 

Total:  Ships.  246;  tonnage,  659,784. 


Italy 


BuOt 

No. 
6 


Ton§ 

180,646 

82,805 


Tssssb 

BwUdkiff 


Battleships    (Dreadnought  type) . 
Battleships    ( Pre-dreadnought)     . 

Battle  cruisers 

Coast  defence  ships 

Armored  cruisers 6  50,119 

Fast  cruisers  (28  knots  or  faster)  . .     8  10.884 

Other  cruisers    2  6.240 

Destrovers     41  20.980 

Torpedo  boaU    70  11.856 

Submarines     19  7,200 


No. 

4 


1 

2 

16 

i6* 


154  819,680     88 

Total:  Ships,  187;  tonnage,  468,020. 


Tont 
112,000 


5.000 

5,120 

X6,800 

*  9,426 


AUSTBIA 

VooaoU 

BuUt 
No.  Tout 

4  80,040 

6  74,618 


4 

8 

4 

8 
20 
67* 
18* 


80.186 
18.508 
18,586 

8,564 
10.858 
18,095 

9.000 


Veasols 

BvOding 
No.  Tons 

4  98,000 


14,400 

'  4,866 

(!)'"' 


148,840         129         257,889         18  117,200 

ToUl:  Ships,  142;  tonnage.  875.089. 


Vessels  more  than  20  years  old  are  excluded  from  oonslderation  in  the  table  unless  rebuilt  within  10 
years.     No  cruisers  of  less  than  1500  tons  are  included. 

Battleships  are  Teasels   in  which  the  properties  of  oifense  and  defense  are  developed  to  the  highest  degree. 

Battle  cruisers  are  vessels  which  carry  a  Sattery  of  calibre  equal  to  that  of  contemporary  battleships  but 
the  armor  protection  may  be  less.     Hie  speed  is  much  greater  than  that  of  battleships. 

Armored  cruisers  have  much  smaller  guns  than  contemporary  battleships;  their  speed  is  somewhat  greater 
and   their   armor   much  thinner. 

Coast  defense  vessels  consists  of  armored  craft  of  less  than  10.000  tons;  and  of  all  armored  vessels  that 
can  not  fight  efficiently  at  sea. 

Torpedo  boats  differ  from  destroyers  in  being  smaller,  usually  slower,  and  in  having  lighter  and  fewer 
guns. 

The  submarine  tonnage  of  the  United  States  would  add  considerably  to  its  total;  the  figures  are  omitted 
in  deference  to  the  wishes  of  the  Navy  Department. 

*  Exact  numbers  and  tonnage  in  doubt;  figures  giren  are  based  upon  reliable  information  and  believed 
to  be  nearly  correct. 


The  tables  iriven  in  the  Year  Book  for  1014 
show  the  condition  of  each  navy  a  month  before 
the  war  began.  By  comparison  it  will  be  seen 
that,  while  13  old  battleships  had  disappeared 
from  the  lists  of  the  British  navy,  owing  to 
losses  in  war  or  because  they  had  reached  the 
age  of  20  years,  the  number  of  dreadnoughts 
had  increased  from  20  to  33.  In  the  German 
navy,  of  9  armored  cruisers  but  3  were  left. 
The  British  navy  had  lost  an  equal  number.  As 
the  armored  cruiser  is  a  discredited  type,  these 
losses  were  unimportant. 


The  naval  situation,  as  regards  the  sea 
strength  of  the  principal  powers,  remained  un- 
chan^d  in  1915.  Great  Britain  was  far  in  the 
lead — almost  equal  to  any  three  of  the  others; 
Germany  was  second;  France  and  the  United 
States  were  practically  tied  for  third  place,  but 
this  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  submarine  ton- 
nage for  the  latter  is  omitted — ^moreover,  the 
large  number  of  small  torpedo  boats  adds  little 
to  France^B  strength,  but  considerably  to  her 
tonnage  and  numbers;  Japan  is  fifth;  Russia, 
sixth;  Italy,  seventh;  and  Austria,  eighth. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


KAVAL  PBOGBESS 


442 


NAVAL  FBOGKESS 


WARSHIP  LOSSES 
Of  the  Tarioas  naTies  from  Aug.  1,  1914,  to  Jan.  1,  1916. 


Num€of 
Ship 

Aadacions    

Bulwark    

Formidable    

Irresistible 

Majestic    

Ocean    

Goliath    

Trinmph    

Warrior     

CK>od  Hope 

Monmoatn     

Abonkir 

Oressy    

Hoffoe    

Argyll    

Hawke 

Hermes    

Amphion    

Pathfinder    

Pegasus 

Maori    

Lynx    

Recruit    

Speedy     

Niger 

No.  10 

No.  12 

No.  96 

D-2     

D-5     

A-E-1     

A-E-2     

E-8     

E-7     

ElO   

E-13     

E-15     

E-20     

Fishgard  II    

Princess  Irene   .  . . 
Clan    McNaughton . 

Rohilla     

Viknor     

Bayano    

India    

Tara , 

Oceanic   

Royal  Edward 

Marquett«    

Ramaxan    

Ramsey    

Total:  61  ships;  825,854  tons 

Fbakox 

Nams  of  How 

Ship  Type          Tonnaffo  Lost 

BouTot B.S.  12,205     M 

Gambetta   A.O.  12,000  ST. 

Dague    D.  720     M. 

Mousquet     D.  298     G. 

No.    219    T.B.  87  G(») 

No.    888    T.B.  97  Ool. 

No.    847    T.B.  98  Col. 

Curie S.  898     G. 

Saphir    S.  890     W. 

Mariotte     S.  522  G(») 

Turquoise    8.  890     G. 

Zel^    G.B.  680     G. 

Casablanca    Min.  495     M. 

Total:   18  ships;  28,880  tons. 

Russia 

Name  of  How 

Ship  Type  Tonnage  Lost 

Pallada    A.O.  7.776  S-T. 

Jemtchug     C.  8.050     T. 

Pushtchin    D.  826     G. 

Donetz G.B.  1,200     G. 

Kubanets G.B.  1,200     G. 

Sivutch    G.B.  960     G. 

Tenesei    Min.  2.926  8-T. 

Prut Min.  6,500     G. 

Oleg Min.  1,125     G. 

Athos Min.  1.748     G. 

Byasan Tran.  8.522   Cap. 

Total:  11  ships;  29.827  tons. 


Great  Butain 

How 

Type 

Tonnage  LoH 

Date 

B.S.D. 

25,000     M 

271014 

B.S. 

16.000  Ex.  A 

26-1114 

B.S. 

15,000    8-T. 

11-15 

B.S. 

15.000     M. 

18-8-15 

B.S. 

14.900     T. 

27-5-15 

.    B.S. 

12.950     M. 

18-8-15 

.    B.S. 

12.950    T. 

12-5-15 

.    B.S. 

11,800  ST. 
13.550     M. 

26-5-15 

.    A.O. 

5-9-14 

A.O. 

14.100     G. 

1-11-14 

A.O. 

9.800     G. 

1-11-14 

A.O. 

12.000  ST. 

22-9-14 

A.O. 

12.000  ST. 

22-9-14 

A.O. 

12.000  S-T. 

22-914 

A.O. 

10.850     W. 

28-10-15 

0. 

7.850  ST. 

13-10-14 

0. 

6,600  8-T. 

81-10-14 

0. 

8.500     M. 

5-8-14 

C. 

8,000  ST. 

5-9-14 

0. 

2.186     G. 

20-914 

D. 

1.085     M. 

7-515 

D. 

986     M. 

9-8-15 

D. 

886  ST. 

1-615 

.    G.B. 

810    M. 

8-9-14 

G.B. 

810  ST. 

11-11-14 

.    T.B. 

216  8-T. 

10-6-15 

T.B. 

216  ST. 

10-6-16 

T.B. 

180  Col. 

1-11-15 

8. 

550  Miss. 

8. 

550     M. 

811-14 

8. 

725     P. 

14-9-14 

8. 

725  G(f) 

80-4-15 

8. 

725     M. 

18-10-14 

.      8. 

725  T(f) 

-9-15 

8. 

725  Miss. 

8. 

726  W. 

8. 

725  W. 

18-415 

8. 

800  T<t) 

5-11-15 

.  Tr.  Sh. 

6.010     F. 

189-14 

Aux.  0. 

5.984  Ex.  A. 

27-5-15 

Aux.  0. 

4.985     W. 

8-2-15 

Aux.  0. 

7.400     M. 

80-10-14 

Aux.  C. 

6,886     W. 

14-1-16 

Aux.  0. 

5,248  ST. 

10-8-15 

Aux.  0. 

7.900  ST. 

8-8-16 

Aux.  0. 

6.822  8-T. 

5-11-15 

Tran. 

18.000  Col. 

8-9-14 

Tran. 

11,117  8-T. 

14-8-15 

Tran. 

7,067  T-S(f)       11-15 

Tran. 

8-G. 

19-9-15 

Patr. 

8-8-15 

Japan 

Name  of  How 

Ship  Type        Tonnage  Lott  Date 

Takachiho    0.  8.650     T.  1710-14 

Shirotaji    D.  880     W.  4-9-14 

(Unknown)     T.B.  (!)       M.  (t) 

No.  88 T.B.  110     M.  1111-14 

Total:  4  ships;  4,140  tons. 

iTAIiT 

Name  of  How 

Ship  Type  Tonnage  Lowt  Dale 

Benedetto  Brin  . . .  B.S.  13.216  Ex.  A.  28-915 

Amalfl    A.O.  9.968  ST.           7-7-15 

Giuseppe  Garibaldi.  A.O.  7.284  S-T.  18-715 

Turbine D.  880     G.  24-5-15 

Medusa    8.  800  ST.  176-15 

(t)     8.  (t)      A.B.          (!) 

Total:  6  ships;  81,037  tons 
Total  losses  of  Entente  Allies:  85  ships;  418,288  tons. 

Gbbmaky 


Date 

18-8-15 

27-4-15 

24-2-15 

28-10-14 

1-15 

9-10-14 

9-10-14 

12-14 

17-1-15 

26-7-15 

1-11-15 

28-10-14 

4-6-15 


Date 
11-10-14 
281014 
80-10-14 
29-10-14 
28-10-14 

16-8-16 

6-615 

29-10-14 

24-12-14 

24-12-14 

6-8-14 


Name  of 

How 

Ship 

Type 

Tonnage  Loat 

Date 

Moltke  (!)    

B.C. 

22.640  8-T. 

816 

Pommem    

B.S. 

12.997  ST. 

2-7-15 

Bliicher   

.     A.C. 

16.500     G. 

24-115 

Gneisenau    

A.O. 

11.600     G. 

8-12-14 

Schamhorst    

A.O. 

11.600     G. 

8-12-14 

Torek     

A.O. 

9,050     M. 

8-11-14 

Prins  Adalbert   . . . 

A.O. 

9.050  ST. 

281015 

Priedrich  Karl   . . . 

A.O. 

8.858     M. 

12-1214 

Karlsruhe    

C. 

4,900       ! 

11-14 

Magdeburg 

0. 

4.478     G. 

27-8-14 

Augsburg    

0. 

4.280     G. 

7-8-14 

Mainz    

C. 

4.280     G. 

28-8-14 

Koln 

C. 

4.280     G. 

28-8-14 

Emden 

C. 

8.592     G. 

9-11-14 

Dresden 

C. 

8.592     G. 

14-8-15 

Niirnberg     

0. 

8.896     G. 

8-12-14 

KSnigsberg    

C. 

8.848     G. 

4-7-15 

Leipzig     

C. 

8.200     G. 

8-12-14 

Undine 

C. 

2.672  ST. 

711-15 

Ariadne 

0. 
C. 

2.618     G. 
2.040  S-T. 

28-8-14 

Hela 

18-9-14 

(5eier    

0. 

1,680     I. 

8-11-14 

Kormoran    

0. 

1.680  Ex.0 

6-11-14 

(Three  !)    

0. 

(!)       G. 

17-8-15 

Eber 

G.B. 

1,000     I. 

9-14 

litis    , 

.     G.B. 
G.B. 
G.B. 

900  Ex.0. 
900  Ex.0. 
900  Ex.0. 

6-11-14 

Tiuchs    

6-11-14 

Txger    

611-14 

Jn'niar , 

.     G.B. 

900  Ex.0. 

6-11-14 

Wissman    

,      G.B. 

200  Cap. 

20-8-14 

Tsing-tao 

GB. 

168     I. 

17-8-14 

Vaterland    

G.B. 

168     1. 

17-8-14 

V.186    

D. 

750     G. 

V-187     

D. 
T>. 
D. 
D. 
D. 
D. 
D. 
D. 
T). 
T>. 

650     G. 
676     G. 
487  ST. 
420     G. 
420     G. 
420     G. 
420     G. 
400     W. 
850  Col. 
689  8k. 

28-8-14 

8-106     

8-126     

6-10-14 

8-119     

1710-14 

8-118     

17-10-14 

8-117     

17-10-14 

8-115     

17-1014 

8-90 

20-10-14 

8-124     

23-11-14 

rO  196,  type)    

?fl-7-15 

Unknown     

T>. 

(!)      8k. 

22-8-15 

Taku    

T>. 
T>. 

280     G. 

(!)        G. 

6-11-14 

Eirtt  boats 

17-R-15 

U-51     

8. 

800    G. 

17-7-15 

U-29     

8. 
8. 
8. 

a. 

8. 

8. 

S. 

8. 

,      TB. 

T.B. 

Aux.  0. 

800  MiRR. 
800  M5m. 
750  Rnm. 
250  Rnm. 
300  «<k. 
250  Ram. 
187  Wnm. 
250  R««m. 
150     G. 
150     G. 
17.824     T 

3-15 

U-27    

8-15 

U-18     

28-11-14 

U-15     

Q-8-t4 

U-14     

16-6-15 

U-12     

10-3-15 

U-8     

4-3-1 5 

U-8     

9-8-14 

A-2     

1.5-15 

A-6 

1-5-15 

Berlin    

1«11-14 

kronpr.   Wllhelm    . 

Avx.  n. 

14.705     T. 

90.il.1R 

Kais.  Wilh.  der 

Aux.  0. 

14,850     G. 

27-8-14 

Groe 

Anx.  P. 

9  854      G. 

Cnn.  Trnfnlear   .  . . 

14-9-14 

Prins  Eftel  Frledr. 

Aux.  0. 

8  865     I. 

7-i-1R 

Patagonia    

Aux.  r. 

M>        T. 

16-11-14 

Kormoran  II 

A„x.  r. 

3.508     T. 

1.5-1  O.I  4 

Navarra     

Aiix.  c. 

3  fl41     a. 

11-11-14 

Bethania    

Anx.  C. 

4.848  n^T). 

9-14 

Snreewald    

Anx.  n. 

2,414  n«T>. 

1O.0.14 

Graecia    

Anx.  n. 

1,697  C"0. 

1014 

Itolo     

Aux.  0. 

165     G. 

9-14 

D 

igitizedby  VnOOQb 

KAVAL  FBOGBESS 

Name  of  How 

Ship  Type  Tonnoff*  Lost 

Meteor Anx.  0.  8,618  Ex.0. 

Komet    Tel.  Gap. 

Koenisrin  Lnite. . . .  Min.  948     O. 

AlbfttroM Min.  W. 

Bnahin    Min.  Ex.0. 

Macedonia Sup.  4,847  Cap. 

Moewe Snrv.  650     O. 

Planet    Snrv.  660     G. 

Karnac    Trans.  4.487     I. 

Ophelia    Hoep.  1,158  Cap. 

Lockran Tend.  1.020     I. 

Totol:  89  shipt;  265,204  tons. 


Austria 

Name  of  How 

Ship                         Type  Tonnage  Lost 

Kaiserin  Elisabeth   .       0.  4.000  Ex.0. 

ZenU C.  2,800     O. 

BeethoTen    Aux.  0.  2,069     M. 

(Unknown)     G.B.  ....    Sk. 

No.  19 T.B.  78     M. 

(Unknown)     T.B.  ....     M. 

(Unknown)     T.B.  M. 

(Unknown)     S.  ....     G 

Ull     a  860  A.B. 

^•12     8.  1,000  S-T. 

U-8     8.  800     G. 

Total:   11  ships;   10.807  tons. 


443 


NAVAL  PBOGBESS 


Date 

8-815 

16-1014 

5-a-14 

2-6-15 

6-11-14 

4-15 

9-814 

'  ll-ii 

17-10-14 

8-11-14 


Date 
6-11-14 
16-8-14 
17-1214 
24-515 
17-8-14 


19-10-14 

1-7-15 

11-8-15 

18-8-15 


Turkey 
Name  of  How 

Ship                       Type        Tonnage  LoH  Date 

Mesudich B.8.              10.000  ST.  18-12-14 

Barbarossa    B.S.                9.900  S-T.  9-8-16 

Medjidieh     C.                  8,482     M.  8-4-15 

Berk-i-Satyet G.B.                   725     M.  29-4-15 

Pelenki-Deria G.B.                   775     T.  23-5-15 

Burak  Reis G.B.                   610    8k.  1-11-14 

(1  of  same  type)  .  .     G.B.                   510     M.  12-14 

Yar  Hissar D.                     284  ST.  6-9-15 

Dhair  Hissar T.B,                     97     W.  17-4-15 

Carmen    Tran.              4.424  8-T.  24-10-15 

Two  others Tran.               (!)      ST.  6-15 

Bezemialen     ....         Tran.               (!)        G.  14-11-14 

Bachriaehmar Tran.               (!)        G.  14-11-14 

Mediat  Pasha Tran.               (!)       G.  14-11-14 

Tatal:  15  ships;  80.657  tons. 
Total  losses  of  Teutonic  Allies:  115  ships;  806.668  tons. 


Abbreviatione  used  in  foregoing  table: 

A-B. 

AC. 

Aux.  C. 

B.C. 

B.S. 

B.8.D. 

C. 


Destroyed  by  bomb  from  air  craft. 

Armored  Cruiser. 

Auxiliary  Cruiser    (armed  merchant 

Battle  CJruiser. 

Battleship,  old  type. 

Battleship.   Dreadnought  type. 

Cruiser. 


ship). 


Cap.  Captured. 

Col.  Sunk  by  collision. 

D.  Destroyer. 

Ex. A  Explosion,    accidental. 

Ex.C.  Vessel  blown  op  to  avoid  capture. 

P.  Foundered. 

G.  Destroyed  by  gunfire. 

G.B.  Gunboat. 

Hosp.  Hospital   ship. 

I.  Interned  in  a  neutral  port, 

M.  Sunk  by  a  mine. 

Min.  Minelayer. 

Miss.  Missing,   fate  unknown. 

Patr.  Patrol  boat. 

Ram.  Rammed   and  sunk. 

S.  Submarine. 

S-G.  Destroyed  by  gunfire  from  a  submarine. 

Sk.  Sunk;  exact  details  unknown. 

S-T.  Torpedoed  by  a  snbmarbine. 

Sup.  Supply  Teasel. 

Surv.  Surveying   vessel. 

T.  Torpedoed   (not  by  a  submarine). 

T.B.  Torpedo  boat, 

Tel.  Telegraph  ship. 

Ten.  Tender. 

Tran.  Transnort. 

Tr.  Sh.  Training  ship. 

W.  Wrecked. 

W.C.  Run  ashore  to  avoid  capture. 


United  States  Navy.  Preparedness  and 
New  Programme.  What  might  happen  to  the 
United  States,  if  suddenly  called  unon  to  de- 
fend herself,  has  been  clearly  shown  by  the  war 
operations  of  the  great  European  struggle. 
When  passion  and  self-interest  act  together, 
might  is  successful,  whether  right  or  not.  The 
same  guaranties  of  neutrality  were  given  to 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  and  Luxemburg.  But 
neither  guaranties,  abstract  right,  peaceful  in- 
clination, absence  of  offense,  nor  any  other  of  the 
supposed  shields  for  righteous  nations  defended 
Luxemburg  or  Belgium  from  the  invader. 
Switzerland  escaped  solely  because  she  quickly 
mobilized  an  army  of  250,000  men  and  prepared 
to  mobilize  250,000  more. 

A  student  of  Chinese  history  may  learn  much 
that  is  of  use  to  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
That  great  and  populous  country  has  a  lengthy 
sea  coast  like  our  own.  It  has  much  wealth  in 
the  aggregate,  though  the  masses  are  poor.  As 
in  the  United  States,  the  trade  of  a  soldier  or 
sailor  is  looked  down  upon.  Money  is  spent  for 
all  things  but  defense.  "Preparedness"  has  as 
yet  no  Chinese  equivalent  in  language,  thought, 
or  fact.  Politicians  quarrel  over  offices  and  the 
Chinese  form  of  "pork  barrel."  No  offenses 
against  foreign  nations  are  committed  by  the 
Chinese  government;  and  the  offenses  of  indi- 
viduals are  apologized  for  and  reparation  prof- 
fered. China  wants  and  has  always  wanted 
peace.  Not  only  has  she  desired  to  escape  war, 
but  she  has  never  made  any  suitable  prepara- 
tions to  defend  herself  if  war  were  forced  upon 
her.  What  is  the  result?  England  annexed  a 
portion  of  her  southwestern  domain  and  the 
great  seaport  of  Hongkong;  France  seized  and 
appropriated  a  vast  area  in  the  south;  the  Rus- 
sian frontier  has  been  steadily  advancing  at  the 
expense  of  China  for  a  century;  Japan  has  de- 
prived her  of  a  kingdom  and  half  a  dozen  prin- 
cipalities; Germany  forced  the  cession  of  a  fine 
port  and  the  surrounding  territory;  and  the 
whole  country  would  have  been  divided  into 
"Spheres  of  Influence"  by  the  Great  Powers  but 
for  their  incompatible  jealousies  and  the  pro- 
tests of  the  United  States. 

These  facts  were  beginning  to  be  understood 
by  the  American  people  and  government  and 
this  has  resulted  in  a  strong  campaign  for  pre- 
paredness to  resist  aggression,  defend  the  right, 
and  insure  national  existence,  aims,  prosperity, 
and  happiness  against  the  envy  and  greed  of  the 
powerful.  The  first  line  of  defense  is  the  navy, 
and  if  this  is  preserved  intact,  safety  is  assured ; 
combined  with  an  adequate  army,  it  makes  the 
country  not  only  safe  but  impregnable. 

A  full  appreciation  of  the  situation  in  1915 
caused  the  Navy  Department  to  present  the 
most  extensive  and  far-reaching  plans  which 
have  ever  received  official  sanction  in  the  United 
States.  The  five-year  programme  included  in 
the  plans  provided  for  new  construction  was  as 
follows : 

SHIP  CONSTRUCTION  FOR  FIVE  YEARS 

1917  1918  1919  1920  1921  Total 

Battleships      2  2          2          2          2  10 

Battle    cruisers    2  0          1          2          1  6 

Scout  cruisers    8  1          2          2          2  10 

Destroyers     15  10          5        10  10  50 

Fleet  submarines   ....    5  4         2         2         2  15 

Coast   submarines    ...  25  15  15        15  15  85 

Gunboats     2  1          0          0          0  8 

Hospital  ship 1  0         0         0         0  1 

Ammunition  ships   ...   0  0         0         1          1  2 


Digitized  by 


Google 


NAVAL  FBOORESS  444  NAVAL  FBOGBESS 

1917  1918  1919  1990  1981  Total  which  the  vessels  fired  at  unfortified  towns  and 

Fuel  oil  ships   0        1        0        1        0  2  killed  many  non-combatants,  were  possibly  recon- 

B«pair  ship  jO      ^      ^      J3      ^      1  noissances  in  force  to  determine  the  location  o! 

Toul     55      84      27      85      84      186  the   British   fleet.    On   Jan.    24,    1915,   with  a 

squadron  consisting  of  the  Derfflinger,  Seydlitt, 

The    corresponding    necessary    appropriations  Moltke,  and  Bluc)^,  the  Germans  attempted  a 

were:  third  raid  or  reconnoissance.     Between  8  and  9 


JTmv  8Mp9. 
Dreadnoughts    . . . 
Battle  eruisers   . . 
Scout  eruisers    . . 

Destroyers     

Fleet  submarines 
Coast  submarines 
Gunboats 


1917 

$15,560,000 

11,158.000 

6,900,000 

10,500,000 

4,425,000 

5,760,000 

760,000 

Hospital  ship    1,250,000 

Ammunition  ships    

Fuel   oU   ships    700,000 

Repair   ship    


1918 

126,580,000 

11.921,500 

6,850,000 

16,900,000 

5,577.600 

18.950,000 

1.140,000 

1,200,000 


1919 

$87,600,000 

17,500,000 

10,000.000 

10,100,000 

5,487.500 

9,750.000 

880,000 


655,250 


1990 

1921 

$87,600,000 

17.118,500 

8.650.000 

10.800,000 

4.215.000 

9,760,000 

$87,600,000 

23.460.500 

10.000.000 

18.600,000 

8.400.000 

9.750.000 

380.000 

799.687 
700.000 

1.766.000 

655.250 

1.175.000 

Total    

For    completion    of    ships 

▼iouBiy  authorized 28,869,127 

Total    $85,872,127 


pre- 


$57,008,000         $84,278,750  $90,767,500         $89,188,087  $101,786,750 


Ayiation     

Beserre    of    munitions 


2,000,000 
8,000,000 


20,149.000 
$104,422,750 

1.000,000 
5.000.000 


1,000.000 
5,000,000 


1,000.000 
5.000.000 


1.OO0.000 
2.OO0.000 


Grand    Total     $95,872,127       $110,422,750         $9j9,767,500         $95,188,087  $104,786,750 


President  Wilson  reconunended  the  adoption 
of  the  five-year  programme.  If  Congress  should 
assent,  the  grand  total  to  be  spent  on  the  navy 
during  tiie  five  years  would  be: 

For   185   new  ships    $422,964,087 

For  continuing  work  on  ships  already  au- 
thorised           48.518.127 

For    aviation    6,000,000 

For  reserve  supply  of   munitions    25,000,000 


Total    for    increase     f 502,482.2 14 

For  upkeep  of  the  navy    $515,000,000 


Total  for  the  navy  for  ilTe  years 


.$1,017,482,214 


The  plans  called  for  an  increase  of  250  in 
the  number  of  midshipmen  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy, and  an  increase  in  the  enlisted  force  of 
7600  sailors,  2500  apprentice  seamen,  and  1500 
marines. 

Naval  Operations  in  1915 

During  the  early  months  of  the  war  nearly 
the  whole  of  Germany's  colonial  possessions 
were  surrendered  to  British  expeditions — in  the 
Pacific,  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand;  in 
South  Africa,  from  the  British  South  African 
Confederation.  No  further  work  of  importance 
'  was  left  for  the  colonial  navies.  At  the  end  of 
1914,  only  five  German  war  vessels  were  beyond 
the  British  blockade  in  the  Baltic  and  at  the 
Dardanelles.  The  li^ht  cruiser  Konigaherg, 
blockaded  in  the  Rufiji  River,  was  destroyed  in 
April,  1916,  by  the  Severn  and  If er«et^  ( 1200 
tons,  two  6-inch,  and  two  4.7-inch  guns),  built 
as  river  monitors,  and  purchased  from  Brazil 
when  completed.  The  Dresden^  which  escaped 
from  the  battle  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  was  de- 
stroyed  off  Juan  Fernandez  on  March  14th  by 
a  portion  of  the  British  squadron  which  took 
part  in  the  Falklands  battle.  The  internment 
at  Norfolk,  during  the  month  of  April,  of  the 
auxiliary  cruisers  Prinz  Eitel  Friedrich  and 
Kronprinz  WUhelm  left  the  sea  clear  of  German 
armed  vessels  except,  possibly,  the  Karlsruhe, 
The  fate  of  this  vessel  is  unknown.  She  was  re- 
ported wrecked  and  blown  up  in  November,  1014, 
but  nothing  definite  has  been  published. 

The   German   raids   on   the  British   coast,   in 


A.M.  they  sighted  the  British  battle  cruiser 
squadron  composed  of  the  lAotir  Tiger,  Priwesi 
Royal,  and  New  Zealand,  and  immediately 
changed  course  180*  and  went  ahead  full  speed 
in  retreat.  The  British  squadron  pursued  at 
full  speed,  but  it  was  after  9  o'clock  oefore  they 
got  within  range.  In  the  action  which  followed, 
the  German  armored  cruiser  Blucher  was  sunk. 
The  British  battle  cruiser  Lion  was  injured  in 
her  machinery  and  fell  out  of  the  chase,  and 
one  or  more  of  the  German  battle  cruisers  were 
believed  to  be  considerably  damaged. 

From  this  time  to  the  close  of  the  year  the 
vessels  of  the  German  fieet,  except  submarines, 
have  remained  behind  their  defenses.  The  Brit- 
ish blockade  of  the  coast  has  grown  more  and 
more  effective.  In  September,  a  fiotilla  of  Brit- 
ish submarines  broke  through  the  mine-fields 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic  and  joined  the  Rus- 
sian Baltic  fieet.  The  combined  flotillas  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  up  the  trade  with  Sweden, 
which  supplied  large  quantities  of  foodstuffs, 
iron,  steel,  copper,  cotton,  and  nitrates.  It  is  a 
singular  and  noteworthy  fact  that  the  Germans 
were  not  risking  any  part  of  their  forces  to  keep 
this  trade  route  open  nor  to  operate  against  the 
British  or  Russians.  Armored  cruisers,  old 
cruisers,  and  a  few  old  battleships  were  risked 
in  the  Baltic  and  were  lost.  But  experience 
had  already  taught  that  these  vessels  were  of 
no  great  fighting  value.  It  was  therefore  evi- 
dent that  the  (rermans  were  holding  their  main 
fleet  in  readiness  for  some  great  coup— if  tiie 
opportunity  ever  offered. 

Since  January,  1916,  the  German  navy  con- 
fined its  activities  almost  wholly  to  operations 
against  commerce,  that  of  the  enemy  and  that 
of  neutrals.  On  February  4th,  the  German  Ad- 
miralty issued  the  following  proclamation: 

"The  waters  around  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, including  the  whole  English  Channel,  are 
declared  a  war  zone  from  and  after  Feb.  18,  1915. 

"Every  enemy  merchant  ship  found  in  this 
war  zone  will  be  destroyed,  even  if  it  is  impos- 
sible to  avert  dangers  which  threaten  the  crew 
and  passengers. 

"Also,  neutral  ships  in  the  war  zone  are  in 
danger,  as  in  consequence  of  the  misuse  of  neu- 


Dinitized  bv 


Google 


NAVAL  PBOOBESS 


445 


KEBBA8KA 


tral  flags,  ordered  by  the  British  government  on 
January  3l8t,  and  in  view  of  the  hazards  of 
naval  warfare,  it  cannot  always  be  avoided  that 
attacks  meant  for  enemy's  ships  will  endanger 
neutral  ships. 

''Shipping  northward,  around  the  Shetland  Is- 
lands, in  the  eastern  basin  of  the  North  Sea,  and 
in  a  strip  of  at  least  30  nautical  miles  in  breadth 
along  the  Dutch  coast,  is  not  endangered  in  the 
same  way." 

This  was  followed  by  an  attack  upon  British 
shipping  of  all  kinds.  At  first,  some  attention 
was  paid  to  human  life,  time  to  take  to  the 
boats  being  allowed,  but  even  this  was  even- 
tually given  up.  The  culmination  of  this  sort 
of  warfare  was  reached  when,  on  May  7,  1915, 
the  great  transatlantic  liner  Lusitania  was  tor- 
pedoed without  warning  and  sank  within  16 
minutes,  with  a  loss  of  472  lives — 205  being 
women  and  children.  In  the  first  explanations 
of  the  German  government,  it  was  said  that  the 
fjuHiania  was  sunk  because  she  was  carrying 
arms  to  England.  But  a  few  days  later,  the 
American  steamer  Nehraskan,  bound  westtoardt 
was  torpedoed  beyond  the  war  zone  as  prescribed 
by  the  German  proclamation,  and  a  submarine 
attempted  to  torpedo  the  Gunard  liner  Orduna, 
also  bound  toestward,  on  July  9th.  This  war- 
fare, in  defiance  of  the  ordinary  dictates  of  hu- 
manity and  of  the  cardinal  principles  of  inter- 
national law,  was  continued.  In  the  meantime 
the  British  Admiralty  had  stretched  great 
lengths  of  heavy  wire  netting  across  the  Channel 
and  in  other  places  where  German  submarines 
might  be  expected.  The  results  were  gratifying. 
The  Channel  was  cleared  of  submarines,  and 
troops  and  munitions  were  carried  to  the  Con- 
tinent in  safety.  A  large  number  of  German 
submarines  were  caught  in  these  nets  or  other- 
wise destroyed.  The  total  number  was  placed  at 
over  50.  At  any  rate,  Germany  seemed  to  think 
the  game  not  worth  the  candle,  for  she  trans- 
ferred her  principal  activities  to  the  Dardanelles 
and  the  Mediterranean.  Here  the  Austrian  sub- 
marines were  trying  to  outrival  the  record  of 
their  allies.  It  was  probable  that  the  net  would 
decrease  their  mobility  and  importance,  if  it 
were  suitably  applied. 

The  Britirii  operations  in  the  Dardanelles  fur- 
nished a  striking  example  of  "how  not  to  do  it." 
It  was  easy  for  a  powerful  ship  to  silence  a  fort 
of  old  design;  it  might  even  drive  out  the  fort's 
garrison.  But  if  there  are  no  troops  to  hold 
the  fort  after  the  enemy  is  driven  out,  he  will 
return  whenever  the  ^ip  ceases  firing.  The 
British  naval  attack  on  the  Dardanelles  forti- 
fications occasionally  resulted  in  evacuation  by 
the  Turks,  but  they  returned  after  the  firing 
ceased.  When  these  attacks  began  the  Turks 
had  neither  men,  supplies,  nor  anununition  on 
the  peninsula.  The  persistence  of  the  attacks 
showed  that  the  British  attached  some  impor- 
tance to  the  matter,  so  they  increased  their 
forces  six  or  eight  times,  and  laid  in  a  large 
stock  of  ammunition  and  provisions.  After  giv- 
ing them  this  ample  warning  and  sufficient  time 
to  take  advantage  of  it,  the  British  sent  their 
troops  and  landed  them  at  the  tip  of  the  penin- 
sula, from  which  they  could  not  hope  to  reach 
the  Bulair  isthmus  for  many  months.  In  the 
nieantime  the  Turks'  line  of  communications  re- 
mained intact.  The  attempt  to  force  the  Straits 
without  securing  the  fortifications  cost  the  Al- 
lies six  battleships  and  an  armored  cruiser,  in 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

VtUu* 

7.100,000  218.000.000  $100,110,000 

7,100.000 

178,950.000 

92.194,000 

8,947,000 

72.164.000 

60.600,000 

3,668.000 

68,116.000 

64.710.000 

2.200,000 

70.400.000 

21.824.000 

2,176.000 

69.600,000 

27.840.000 

200.000 

8,600,000 

2.666,000 

122,000 

1.962,000 

1.444.000 

105,000 

8.266.000 

1.867,000 

118.000 

2.656,000 

1,248.000 

110,000 

11,550.000 

4,851,000 

118.000 

9.440,000 

5.098.000 

1.650.000 

a  4.290.000 

24,882.000 

1,600,000 

2,585,000 

17,492,000 

addition  to  lesser  craft  Finally,  the  invasion  of 
Serbia  by  the  Austro-German  army  caused  a 
withdrawal  of  the  troops  to  the  new  front. 

See  also  AfiBONAUTics;  BATTt^SHiPS;  and 
Chemistby,  Industrial,  Relations  of  Chemistry 
to  Oovernment. 

NAVT.  See  Battleships;  Naval  Pboobess; 
and  the  section  Navy  uifder  various  countries. 

NEABIKGy  Pbof.  Scott.  See  Universities 
AND  Colleges,  Academic  Freedom. 

NEBULA.    See  Astbonomt. 

NEBBABXA.  Popitlation.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916,  was 
1,268,624.  The  populati<m  in  1010  was  1,102,- 
214. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn     1916 

1914 
Wheat    ....1915 

1914 
OatB     1915 

1914 
Rye     1915 

1914 
Barley     . .  .1915 

1914 
Potatoes    ..1915 

1914 
Hay 1915 

1914 
a  Tons. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  1,028,000  and 
1,038,000,  valued  at  $96,632,000  and  $95,496,000; 
mules  numbered  115,000  and  98,000,  valued  at 
$10,192,000  and  $8,925,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 650,000  and  625,000,  valued  at  $39,000,000 
and  $39,062,000;  other  cattle  numbered  2,237,000 
and  2,034,000,  valued  at  $90,698,000  and  $82,- 
987,000;  sheep  numbered  374,000  and  374,000, 
valued  at  $2,020,000  and  $1,696,000;  swine  niun- 
bered  4,266,000  and  3,809,000,  valued  at  $40,100,- 
000  and  $41,518,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  1,776,000  and  1,789,000 
pounds  respectively. 

Transportation.  The  total  length  of  single 
track  railway  in  the  State  in  1914  was  6242. 
The  longest  railways  include  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton, and  Quincy,  2872;  the  Union  Pacific,  1213; 
and  Chicago  and  Pacific,  1102. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914,  ages  5  to  16,  was  383,882,  with  an  enroll- 
ment in  the  public  schools  of  288,369.  The  aver- 
age daily  attendance  was  214,152.  The  total 
number  of  teachers  was  1327  in  1915.  The  total 
number  of  school  houses  was  7586.  The  aver- 
age monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  was  $72.80, 
and  of  female,  $62.21.  The  total  expenditures 
for  schools  in  1915  were  $10,121,558. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  year  end- 
ing November,  1914,  were  $6,754,142.  The  ex- 
penditures were  $6,346,034.  The  balance  in  the 
treasury  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  $746,108. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  institu- 
tions under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners of  State  Institutions  include  the  follow- 
ing: Nebraska  Institution  for  Feeble-minded 
Youth  at  Beatrice,  Girls'  Industrial  School  at 
Geneva,  Nebraska  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home  at 
Burkett,  Asylum  for  the  Insane  of  Nebraska  at 


Digitized  by 


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NBBBASKA 


44A 


KBCBOLOGY 


Ingleside,  State  Industrial  School  at  Kearney, 
Hospital  for  Tuberculous  at  Kearney,  Nebraska 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Lincoln,  Orthopedic 
Hospital  at  Lincoln,  State  Penitentiary  at  Lin- 
coln, Nebraska  Industrial  Home  at  Milford,  Sol- 
diers' and  Sailors'  Home  at  Milford,  Institute 
for  the  Blind  at  Nebraska  City,  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  of  Nebraska  at  Norfolk,  Nebraska  School 
for  the  Deaf  at  Omaha,  Nebraska  Reformatory, 
which  is  unlocated,  Home  for  Dependent  Chil- 
dren at  Lincoln. 

State  Government.  Governor,  John  H.  More- 
head;  Lieutenant-Governor,  James  Pearson;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  C.  W.  Pool;  Treasurer,  O.  E. 
Hall;  Auditor,  W.  H.  Smith;  Attorney-General, 
W.  G.  Reed;  Superintendent  of  Education,  A.  0. 
Thomas;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  W.  B. 
Eastham — all  Democrats  except  Thomas,  Repub- 
lican. 

JuDiciABY.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
A.  M.  Morrissey;  Justices,  Charles  B.  Letton, 
Francis  G.  Hamer,  Jacob  Fawcett,  William  B. 
Rose,  John  B.  Barnes,  and  Samuel  H.  Sedgwick; 
Clerk,  H.  C.  Lindsay. 

State  Legislatube: 


Senate      Hotue 

Democrats     19  61 

BepublicanB    14  89 


Democratic    majority. 


22 


Joint  Ballot 
80 
58 

27 


NEBRASKA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education,  founded  at  Lincoln, 
Neb.,  in  1869.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  3974.  Of 
this  number,  3067  were  in  the  colleges,  and  907 
in  the  schools  and  extension  courses.  The  fac- 
ulty, including  teachers  of  all  ranks,  numbered 
319.  The  professor  of  forestry  resigned  during 
the  year,  and  the  department  was  added  to  that 
of  horticulture.  There  was  established  a  de- 
partment of  poultry  husbandry.  The  Bessey 
Memorial  Fellowship  fund  was  created.  The 
permanent  endowment  funds  of  the  university 
on  Oct.  31,  1915,  were  $705,820,  and  the  annual 
income  amounted  to  $42,500.  The  library  con- 
tained 113,933  bound  volumes. 

NEBRASKAN,  The.  See  Naval  Pbogbess, 
Naval  Operations  in  1915. 

NEBBASKAN   CASE.     See  United   States 

AND  THE   WaB. 

NECBOLOGT.  The  following  list  contains 
the  names  of  notable  persons  who  died  during 
1915.  The  marking  of  names  with  an  asterisk 
indicates  that  biographical  notices  will  be  found 
under  names  so  marked  in  the  proper  alphabeti- 
cal places  in  the  Yeab  Book. 

Acker,  Paul.  German  journalist  and  novelist.  Bled 
June  27;  born.   1874. 

*  Adams,  Oharles  Francis.  American  soldier,  publi- 
cist, and  historian. 

Adams,  Charles  Hemenway.  American  editor.  Bied 
August  28;  born,   1845. 

*  Adamson,  Alfred.     American  naval  officer. 

*  Adickes,   Frans.     German  public  official. 

*  Agliardi,  Antonio.     Roman  Oatholic  cardinal. 

*  Albee,  John.     American  author  and  poet. 

*  Aldrich,  Nelson  Wihnarth.  Former  United  SUtes 
Senator. 

*  Alexander,  Gross.     Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman. 

*  Alexander,  James  Waddell.  Former  life  insurance 
official.  . 

*  Alexander,  John  White.     American  artist. 

*  Allen,  Charles  Julius.     American  soldier. 

*  Allen,  William  Frederick.  American  editor  and  en- 
gineer. 

*  Alverstone.  Sir  Richard  Everard  Webster,  first 
baron.     English  jurist. 


*  Anderson,  George  Smith.     American  soldier. 

Arisaka,  Mariaki,  Lieutenant-General  Baron.  Japa- 
nese soldier,  inventor  of  a  quick-firing  gun.  Died  Jan- 
uary 11;  bom,  1852. 

*  Armstrong,  Paul.     American  dramatist. 
Assheton,     Richard.     English    scientist.     Died    Octo- 
ber 21;  born,   1863. 

*  Atkinson,  Rev.  Edward.  English  scholar  and 
clergyman. 

*  Aubert,  Marie  Jac<)ues  Charles.     French  admiral. 
Avery,  Susan.    American  writer  and  suffragist.    Died 

February  2;  born,  1818. 

Bacon,  Henry.  Former  member  of  Congress.  Died 
March  25 ;  born,  1846. 

*  Bancroft,  William  H.     American  railroad  official. 

*  Bard,  Thomas  Robert.     American  public  official. 
Bamaby,     Sir    Nathaniel.     English    naval    designer. 

Died  June  15 ;  born,  1829. 

Batcheller,  George  Clinton.  American  manufacturer 
and  art  collector.     Died  January  25;   born   1884. 

*  Bates,  Lindon,  Jr.     American  engineer. 

*  Bauer,  Francis  S.     Austrian  cardinal. 

Beachey,  Lincoln.  American  aviator.  Died  March 
15;  bom,  1887. 

Beadle,  William  Henry  Harrison.  American  soldier. 
Died  September  11 ;  born,  1888. 

*  Beehler,  William  Henry.  American  naval  officer 
and  scientist. 

Below,  Nicholas  von,  Major-General.  German  soldier. 
Death  reported  Aug.  4. 

Benedict,  Wayland.  American  philosopher  and  edu- 
cator.    Died  July  21;  born.  1848. 

*  Benson,  Richard  Meux.  English  clergyman  and 
virriter. 

Berenger,  Ren£.  French  statesman.  Died  August 
SO;  born,  1880. 

Berger,  Rudolph.  German  opera  singer.  Died  Feb- 
ruary 27;  born,  1875. 

*  Bessey,  Charles  Edwin.  American  botanist  and 
educator. 

*  Betbeder,  Onofre.     Argentine  vice-admiral. 
Billinghurst,   Guillermo.     Former   President  of  Peru. 

Died  June  28;  bom,   1860. 

Birkinbine,  John.  American  mining  engineer.  Died 
May  14;  born,   1844. 

*  Black,  John  Charles.  American  soldier  and  public 
officer. 

Blethem,  Alden  Joseph.  American  editor.  Died  July 
11;  born,  1846. 

*  Boardman,  George  Nye.  American  theologian  and 
educator. 

Bonal,  Edmond.  French  historian.  Died  October 
19:  bora,  1840. 

Bonnett,  William  Whitelock.  American  engineer  and 
mathematician.     Died  August  6. 

Bookwalter,  John  W.  American  writer,  philanthro- 
pist, and  inventor.     Died  September  27;  born,  1839. 

Boucherville,  Eugene  Boucher  de.  Former  premier 
of  Quebec.     Died  September  10;  born,  1822. 

*  Bowles,  Samuel.     American  editor. 

*  Brackett,  Cyrus.  American  physicist  and  educa- 
tor. 

Brackett,  Gustavus  Benson.  American  pomologist. 
Died  August  2;  born,  1827. 

Bradbury,  Joseph  P.  American  jurist  Died  July 
17;  born,  1888. 

*  Br  addon,   Mary   Elizabeth.     English   novelist. 
Brentano,     Simon.     American    publisher     and    book 

seller.     Died  February  15;   bora,   1859. 

Broadhead,  Eva  Wilder.  American  writer.  Died 
August   6;    bora,    1870. 

*  Brooke,    Rupert.     English  poet  and   writer. 

*  Brown,  Thomas  Jefferson.     American  jurist. 
Brunner,    Heinrich.     German    jurist    and    educator. 

Died  August  11;  born,  1889. 

*  Bryan,  George  James.  Americsn  publisher  and 
writer. 

*  Bucknam,  Ransford  B.     American  engineer. 
Buckndl,     Sir    Thomas    Townsend.     En^ish    jurist. 

Died  October  4 ;  born,  1845. 

Buckstone,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell.  British  administra- 
tor.    Died  October  28;  born,   1837. 

*  BuUen,    Frank   Thomas.     English   author   and  lee- 

Bunny,  John.  American  comedian.  Died  April  26; 
born,    1868. 

*  Burg,  Ferdinand.  Formerly  Archduke  Ferdinand 
of  Austria. 

*  Burke,  Andrew  Sheridan.     American  soldier. 

*  Burke,  Thomas  Martin  Aloysius. 

*  Burnam-Eddin,  Mehmed.     Turkish  prince. 

*  Burr.  Joseph  Arthur.     American  jurist. 
Busse-Palma,  George.     French  lyric  poet. 

*  Bussey,  Cyrus.     American  soldier. 

Cadogan.  George  Henry,  fifth  Earl.  English  noble. 
Died  March  6;   born,    1840.     _        ^    ^  ^,         ^.  ^ 

Caillavet,  Gaston  Armand.  French  dramatist.  Died 
January  18;  bora,  1870. 


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NECBOLOOY 


*  Oallender,  Quy  Stevens.  American  edneator  and 
economist. 

Gammacbo,  Sebastian.  Mexican  statesman.  Died 
November  8;  bom,  1822. 

Cantort,  Antonio.     Italian  general.     Died  Jul7  26. 

Capper,  Sir  Thompson.  English  soldier.  Died  Octo- 
ber;  born,    1863. 

*  Garden,  Sir  Lionel  Edward  Oresley.  British  dip- 
lomat. 

*  Carr,  Lueien.  American  archsBologist  and  art  cura- 
tor. 

*  Champlin,  John  Denison.  American  author  and 
editor  of  reference  books. 

*  Chandler,  John  Gorham.     American  soldier. 

*  Cheng  Tseng  Jn.  Ghinese  admiral  and  administra- 
tor. 

*  Cheyne,  Thomas  Kelly.  English  Hebraist  and  Bible 
critic. 

*  Clark,  Oharlee  Heber.     American  writer.     . 
Clark,     Charles     Hobart.     American     soldier.     Died 

January  16;  born,   1852. 

*  Olouston,  Sir  Thomas  Smith.     English  physician. 

*  Cockrell,   Francis  Marion.     United   SUtes  Senator. 

*  Codman,   Robert.     American   bishop. 

*  Coffin,  Belden  Jennings.  American  astronomer  and 
educator. 

*  Colton,  Charles  Henry.     American  bishop. 

*  Coman,  Katharine.     American  educator. 

*  Comstock,    Anthony.     American   public   official. 

*  Gonant.  Alban  Jasper.     American  artist. 

*  Gonant,   Charles  Arthur.     American  economist  and 

*  Gonaty,   Thomas  James.     American  bishop. 

*  Condon,   Edward  O' Meagher.     Irish  patriot. 
ConstantinoTitch,   Gonstantin,   Grand  Duke.     Russian 

soldier  and  scientist.     Died  June  15  ^  born,  1868. 

*  CoBta,  Alfonso.     Portuguese  statesman. 

Cotton,  Sir  Henry  (John  Stedman).  British  adminis- 
trator.    Died  October  21;  born,  1845. 

Coy,  Eliab  Washburn.  American  educator.  Died 
March  29 ;  born,  1832. 

Crane,  Frederick.  American  manufacturer  and  artist. 
Died  January  25 ;  bom,  1847. 

*  Crane,  Walter.  English  painter,  designer,  iUustra- 
tor.    and  writer. 

*  Greelman,  James.     American  editor  and  journalist. 

*  Croffut,  William  Augustus.     American  author. 

*  Crosby,  Frances  Jane  Van  Alstyne.  American 
hymn  writer. 

Growell,  J.  Foster.  American  engineer.  Died  March 
29;   born,   1848. 

Crowell,  Thomas  Young.  American  publisher.  Died 
July  29;  born,  1886. 

Cudahy,  John.  American  meat  packer.  Died  April 
23:  born.  1844. 

Cummings,  William  Hayman.  English  composer. 
Died  June  18;  born,  1831. 

DWbery,  Helen  Burrell.  American  writer.  Died 
May  8;  bom,  1842. 

Dana,  Edith  Longfellow.  Daughter  of  Henry  W. 
Longfellow.     Died  July  21. 

Daniel,  Robert  T.  American  jurist.  Died  May  27; 
born,  1858. 

Darahona,  Luis  Alonso.  Dominican  statesman. 
Died  October  20. 

Davis,  Theodore  M.  American  Egyptologist.  Died 
February  28;  bom,  1837. 

Dawbarn,  Robert  Hugh  McKay.  American  physi- 
cian.    Died  July  18 ;  born,  1850. 

De  Gourmont,  R4my.  French  author.  Died  Septem- 
ber  28;    born.    1858. 

*  Delafield,  Francis.     American  physician. 

*  Delany,  John  Joseph.     American  jurist. 

*  Dias,  Porflrio.     Mexican  statesman. 

Dickson,  Samuel.  American  lawyer.  Died  May  28; 
born.  1837. 

Doane,  William  Powell.  American  hymn  writer  and 
composer.     Died   December  24;   bom,   1832. 

*  Dodge,  Arthur  Pillsbury.  American  lawyer,  in- 
ventor, and  publisher. 

*  Donaldson,  Sir  James.  English  scholar  and  edu- 
cator. 

*  D'Ooge,  Martin  Luther.  American  scholar  and 
educator. 

*  Dougherty,  William  Edward.     American  soldier. 
Dresser,    Daniel    LeRoy.     American    financier.     Died 

July  11;  born,  1866. 

*  Du  Bois,  Augustus  Jay.  American  engineer  and 
educator. 

Duckworth,  Sir  James.  English  merchant,  legislator, 
and  traveler.     Died  January  1;  born,  1844. 

Du  Mont.  Frederick.  American  educator.  Died  May 
11:  born.  1838. 

Dunbar,  James  Robert.  American  jurist.  Died  Au- 
gust 20 ;  born.  1847. 

Dunn.  Martha  Baker.  American  author.  Died  July 
22;   born.    1848. 

*  Durnovo,    Peter    Nikolaievich.     Russian   statesman. 


*  Dyche,  Louis  Lindsay.  American  soSlogist,  edu- 
cator, and  explorer. 

Eames,  Charles  J.  American  chemist.  Died  March 
4;    born,    1831. 

*  Edwardes,  George.     English  theatrical  manager. 

*  Ehrlich,   Paul.     German  scientist. 

*  Elkin,   John   Pratt.     American  jurist 

*  Emerson,  Luther  Orlando.  American  composer  and 
hymn  writer. 

*  Fabre,  J.  H.     French  entomologist. 

Fargo,  James.  American  express  official.  Died  Feb- 
mary  8;  born.  1829. 

Fields,  Annie.  (Mrs.  James  T.  Fields.)  Died  Jan- 
uary 5 ;  born,  1884. 

*  Finlay,  Charles  John.  Cuban  scientist  and  biolo- 
gist. 

Firkins,  Chester.  American  poet.  Died  March  2; 
born,   1882. 

Fischer,  Benjamin  Franklin.  American  soldier. 
Died  September  9;  born,  1884. 

*  Fitch,  George.     American  writer. 

Fleming,  Sir  Sandford.  Canadian  engineer  and  sci- 
entist.    Died  July  22 ;  born,  1827. 

*  Flint,  Austin.     American  alienist. 

Flores,  Antonio.  Former  President  of  Ecuador. 
Died  August  21. 

*  Forman,  Justus  Miles.     Amarican  writer. 

*  Forsyth,  (3eorge  Alexander.     American  soldier. 

*  Forsyth,  John  Mc<)ueen.     Ameriean  admiral. 

*  Forwood,  William  Henry.     Ameriean  soldier. 

*  Fosdick,  Charles  Austin.     American  writer. 

*  Fowler,  Thomas  Powell.     Ameriean  railway  offiecr. 

*  Fox,    Joseph   John.     Roman   Gatiiolic  bishop. 
Freedman,       Andrew.     Ameriean       eapltaliat     Died 

December  4;  bom,  1840. 

*  Freeman,   Henry  Blanchard.     Ameriean  soldier. 
Friedlander,     Dr.     Max.     German    muaio    historian. 

Born,  1852. 

*  Frohman,    Charles.     American   theatrieal   manager. 
Frothingham,  George  Byron.     American  opera  singer. 

Died  January  19;  born,  1887. 

Fuller,  Frank.  American  governor.  Died  February 
19;  born,  1827. 

Gardner,  Eugene  Clarence.  American  author  and 
architect.     Died  Febmary  8 ;  born,  1837. 

*  Garnett,  Theodore  Stanford.     American  jurist. 

*  Garrett,   Mary   E.     American  philanthropist. 
Geiger,  Albert.     German  poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist. 

Born,  1866. 

*  €^eikie,  James.     Scotch  geologist  and  educator. 

*  Gerville-R^ache,  Jeanne.     French  opera  singer. 
Glasenapp,    Oarl   Friedrich.     German   writer.     Born, 

1847. 

Goldmark,  Karl.  Hungarian  composer.  Died  Jan- 
uary 8;  born,  1880. 

*  Goodale,  Greenleaf  Austin.     American  soldier. 
(Soodell.    David    Henry.     American    governor.     Died 

January  22;  born,   1885. 

*  Goodrich.  John  Ellsworth.     Ameriean  educator. 

*  Gould,  Elgin  Ralston  Lovell.  American  pnblie  offi- 
cer and  economist. 

Grace,  William  Gilbert.  English  erioketer.  Died 
October  21 ;  born,  1848. 

Granger,  Charles  T.  American  chief  justice.  Died 
October  26;  born,  1886. 

*  Gray,  John  Clinton.     American  jurist 

*  Greene,  Edward  Lee.  American  botanist  and  edu- 
cator. 

*  Gregory,  Daniel  Seelye.  American  clergyman  and 
editor. 

*  Gregory,  Eliot     American  artist  and  writer. 

*  Groton,  William  Mansfield.  American  theofegian 
and  educator. 

Guiceiardini,  Count  Francesco.  Italian  statesman. 
Died  September  1;  bom,  1851. 

*  Guild,  Curtis  Jr.     American  editor  and  diplomat. 

*  Guthe,  Karl  Eugen.  American  educator  and  phy- . 
sicist. 

Hall,  James  Knox  Polk.  American  member  of  Con- 
gress.    Died  January  6 ;  born,  1886. 

*  Handbury,   Thomas  Henry.     American  soldier. 
Hanssen,    Klaus.     Norwegian    physician.     Died   Jan- 
uary 3;  born,  1834. 

*  Hardie,  James  Keir.  English  labor  leader,  and 
member  of  Parliament 

Harkness,  Lamon  Vernon.  American  capitalist. 
Died  January  17;  born,  1850. 

Harland,  Edward.  American  soldier  and  lawyer. 
Died  March  9;  bom,  1832. 

Harper,  John  Wesley.  American  publisher.  Died 
August  14;  born,  1841. 

*  Harris,  Andrew  Linter.  Ameriean  government  offi- 
cial. 

Hartley,  Sir  Charles.  English  engineer.  Died  Feb- 
ruarv  20;  born,  1825, 

*  Harty,  Joseph  Johnson.     American  educator. 

*  Hawaweeny.   Raphael.     Svrian-Greek  bishop. 

*  Hazeltine,  George.     American  lawyer  and  editor. 


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KECBOLOGY 


*  Hendenon,  Charles  Richmond.  American  lociolo- 
gist  and  educator. 

*  Hensel,  William  Uhler.  American  lawyer  and  edu- 
cator. 

*  Herreshoff,  John  Brown.     American  yacht  deaigner. 

*  Henrieu,  Paul  Ernest.     French  dramatist 

*  Heywood,  Oharles.     American  soldier. 

*  Hoeber,   Arthur.     American  painter  and  art  critic. 

*  Holder,  Charles  Frederick.  American  naturalist  and 
writer. 

*  Holmes,  Joseph  Austin.  American  geologist  and 
public  official. 

*  Horn,  Edward  Traill.     Lutheran  minister. 

*  Horton,  Oliver  Haryey.     American  jurist. 

*  Hough,   Warwick.     American  jurist. 

*  Howe,  Walter.     American  soldier. 

Howland,  William  Le  Grand.  American  composer 
and  playwriffht.     Died  July  27 ;  born,  1878. 

*  Hubbard,  Elbert.     American  author  and  lecturer. 

*  Hubbard,  Thomas  Hamlin.  American  lawyer,  sol- 
dier, and  financier. 

Huddleston,  John  Henry.  American  physician. 
Died  October  80 ;  born,  1864. 

*  Hudson,  Richard.     American  educator. 

Hugo,  Adele.  Daughter  of  Victor  Hugo.  Died  April 
22;  born,  1880. 

*  Humphrey,  Lyman  Underwood.  American  public 
official 

*  Hunter,  Thomas.     American  educator. 

Huret,  Jules.  French  author.  Died  February  14; 
born,   1864. 

Huysmans,  Louis.  Belgian  statesman.  Died  Sep- 
tember 9;  born,   1845. 

niingham,  Percy.  English  member  of  Parliament. 
Died  January  8;  bom,  1860. 

*  Inouye,  Eaoru,  Marquis.     Japanese  statesman. 

*  Isherwood,  Benjamin  Franklin.  American  rear  ad- 
miral. 

*  Ivina,  William  Mills.     American  lawyer. 
Jackson,  Mary  Anna.     Widow  of  Stonewall  Jackson. 

Died  March  24;  born,  1881. 

James.  Frank.  Last  surrivor  ol  James  robber  gang. 
Died  Feoruary  18;  bom,  1842. 

Jamison,  Charles  Arbuckle.  American  financier. 
Died  July  22;   born,    1878. 

Jasper,  John.  American  educator.  Died  February 
7;  born,   1887. 

Jay,  William.  American  lawyer  and  capitalist. 
Died  March  28;  bom,  1841. 

Jenkins,  Michael.  American  financier.  Died  Septem- 
ber 7;  born.  1848. 

Jersey,  Victor  Albert,  George  Child  Villiers,  seventh 
Earl  of.  English  nobleman.  Died  May  8;  bom, 
1845. 

*  Joyce,  John  Alexander.  American  soldier  and 
writer. 

Ksne  Charles  3.  AmeHcAii  jurist  Died  Mareh  29; 
bom  J,  1891. 

*  Kennedy,  Sir  William  Kann.     English  jurist 

*  King,  Henry.     AmeTican  editor. 

*  Klein,  Charles.     Americjin  playwright 

*  KoUen,  G^rrci  John.     Ammcan  educator. 

La  rone,  C^pt,  Claude  A.  Britiah  soldier.  Killed  in 
action  in  March. 

*  LamprechU  KnrL     Germrai  historian. 

Langdler.  Sir  Frsncoifl- Charles  Stanilas.  Lieutenant- 
GoTflmor  of  Quebei?.     Piefl  F»ibruarv  8;  born,  1888. 

*  LanirlTKD*    LouIb    Philip.     Canadian  archbishop. 

*  Laatclotx,  Carl  A.     Americ^in  educator  and  musician. 

*  Leamfid,   WaUct.     AnieTiciin  banker  and  author. 

*  Lf5  Moyne,  SnrBh   (CowpUl     American  actress. 

*  Lcschetiiky.  Th«odor.     AuBtrian  pianiat. 

Lewifi,  Oriifitli  W.  Former  U.  S.  Senator.  Died 
AugtiBt  2 8th  :  born,  1863. 

*  Libby,  Char] eft  Prpemiia.     American  lawyer. 

*  Little,  George  Thomai.     American  librarian. 

*  Littlefleld,  Ohnrlea  Kdgar.  Member  of  Oongreas 
from  Maine. 

*Loeffler,  Friedrich.     German  scientist. 
-     Loli6e,     Frederic     Auguste.     French     writer.     Bom, 
1856. 

*  Londonderry,  Charles  Stewart  Henry  Vane-Tempest- 
Stewart.   Marquis  of.     English  nobleman. 

Longfellow,  Edith.     See  Dana,  Edith  LongfelViw. 

*  Long,  John  Davis.  American  lawyer  and  pubUe 
ofBcial. 

*  Lorenxelli,  Benedetto.     Italian  cardinal. 

*  Lounsbury,  Thomas  Raynesford.  American  scholar 
and  educator.  _    ^ 

*  Ludlow,  Nicholl.     Rear  admiral  in  the  U.  S.  navy. 

*  Lund,  Troels.     Danish  writer. 

*  Maartens,   Maarten.     British-Dutch  novelist. 

*  M'Calvay,  Aaron  Vance.     American  jurist. 

*  McClain,  Emlin.     American  jurist. 

McClure.  John.  American  jurist.  Died  July  8; 
born,   1886. 

*  McCollom,  John  Hildreth.  American  physician  and 
educator. 


*  MacCord,  Charles  William.     American  draftsman. 

*  McCormiek,  Alexander  Hugh.  American  rear  ad- 
miral. 

*  McCullough,  John  Griffith.  Former  Qovernor  of 
Vermont. 

*  Macdonald.  Sir  Claude  Maxwell.  English  soldier 
and  diplomat. 

McOowan,  John.  American  rear  admiraL  Died  Au- 
gust 18:  bom,  1848. 

*  McKelway,   St.   Clair.     American  editor. 
McKendry,      Carolyn      Tucker.     American      author. 

Died  April  1;  bom,  1885. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander  Cameron.  American  edueator. 
Died  March  28;  born,  1855. 

*  Mackensie,  Morris  Boblnson  -Slidell.  American  rear 
admiral. 

*  McPheraon,  Smith.     American  jurist. 

*  Maes,  CamiUus.     American  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 

*  Malone,  Walter.     American  jurist  and  author. 

*  Manatt,  James  Irving.  American  acholar  and  edu- 
cator. 

*  Manney,  Henry  Neuman.     American  rear  admiral. 

*  Martin,  James  Loren.     American  jurist. 
Martin,  Pierre.     French  inventor.     Died  May  28. 
Mason,  Madison  Charles  Butler.     American  negro  edu- 
cator.    Died  July  80;  bora,  1849. 

Matson,  Courtland  Cusning.  Former  member  of 
Congress  from  Indiana.  Died  September  4;  born, 
1840. 

Meldola,  Raphael.  Engliah  chemist.  Died  November 
6 :  bora,  1849. 

*  Merrill,  Stuart.     American  poet. 

*  Mesitees,  Alfred  Jean.     French  acholar  and  writer. 
Milman,   Sir  George  Bryan.     English  lieutenant-gen- 
eral.    Died  January  80;  bom,  1822. 

*  Mitchell,  James  Tyndale.  American  jurist  and 
author. 

*  Mixner,  Henry  Rutgeras.     American  soldier. 
Montague,   Victor  Alexander.     Eni^h  rear  admiraL 

Died  Januarv  80;  bom,  1841. 

*  Moore,  Edward  Bruce.     American  public  official. 
Morehouse,  James.     English  bishop  of  the  Church  of 

England.     Died  April ;  bom«  1826. 

*  Mulry,  Joseph.  American  Roman  Catholie  priest 
and  educator. 

*  Murray,  ^Sir  James  Augustus  Henry.  English  phi- 
lologist and  editor. 

*  Nares,  Sir  George  Strong.  English  naval  officer  and 
explorer. 

*  Needham,  Henry  Beach.     American  journalist. 

*  Nelson,  William  RockhiU.  American  editor  and  pub- 
lisher. 

Neuman,  Ernst  German  sociologist  Died  June; 
bom,  1862. 

Noble,  -Sir  Andrew.  English  exx>ert  on  artillery  and 
explosives.     Died  October  22;  born,  1881. 

O'Connor,  Sir  Luke.  English  major-general.  Died 
February  1;  born.  1881. 

*  O' Donovan,  Jeremiah.     Irish  patriot 

*  O'Rourke.  Jeremiah.     American  architect 

*  Parker,  Joseph  Benson.     American  rear  admiral. 
Parry,     David     MacLean.     American    manufacturer. 

Died  May  12 ;  born,  1862. 

*  Parsons,   John  Edward.     American  lawyer. 
Pausinger.  Frans  von.     Austrian  painter.     Died  April 

6;  born,  1889. 

*  Payer,  Julius  von.     Austrian  explorer  and  painter. 
Pegoud,  Adolphe.     French  aviator.     Died  August  81 ; 

bora,  1889. 

Pelletan,  Camilla.  French  statesman.  Died  June  5; 
born,  1846. 

*  Perry,  Enoch  Wood.  American  artist  and  public 
official. 

*  Phelps,  Thomas  StoweO.  Rear  admiral  of  the  U.  S. 
navy. 

*  Phillips,  Andrew  Wheeler.  American  educator  and 
mathematician. 

*  Phillips.  Stephen.     EngUsh  poet 

*  Phyfe,  William  Henry  Pinkney.  American  writer 
and  ornithologist 

*  Pickard,  Samuel  Thomas.     American  journalist 
Pitou,      Augustus.     American      theatrical     manager. 

Died  December  4:  bom,  1867. 

Poor,  Henry  William.  American  banker.  Died  April 
18:  bora,  1844. 

*  Poppenberg,  Felix.     German  historian. 

*  Pratt  Sereno  S.     American  financial  expert. 

*  Prime,  Frederick.     American  educator  and  geologist. 
Putnam,    John    Bishop.     American    publisher.     Died 

October  8;  born,   1848.  ,     , 

*  Putnam,  Ward.  American  anthropologist  and  so- 
ologist. 

Quesada,   Don  Gonzalo  de.     Cuban  diplomat.     Died 

*  Quigley,  James  Edward.  American  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop.  .  ,    „^      _,  ^ 

Ream,  Norman  Bruce.  American  capitalist.  Died 
February  9;  born,  1844. 


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HSBBS 


Reed,  Fanny  M.  American  singer.  Died  January  21 ; 
born,  1886. 

Renter.  Baron  Her1>ert  de.  British  head  of  the  Ren- 
ter agency.     Died  April  18;  bom,  1862. 

*  Bidder,   Herman.     American  editor. 

Ripley,    Edward   Hastings.     American  soldier.     Died 
September  14;  born,  1889. 
^  Robertson,  Morgan.     American  writer. 

*  Robinson,  Edward  Van  Dyke.  American  eeono- 
mist  and  educator. 

Robinson,  Tracy.  American  author  and  railroad 
man.     Died  November  20;   born,   1888. 

Roche,  James  Oonnor.  American  war  eorremondent, 
poet,  and  dramatist.     Died,  August  24;  bom,  1848. 

Rockefeller,  Mrs.  John  D.  Wife  of  oil  magnate. 
Died  March  12;  bom.  1840. 

Rollins,  Frank  West.  Former  Cfovernor  of  New 
Hampshire.     Died  October  29:  bom,   1880. 

*  Ropes,  Oharlee  Joseph  Hardy.  American  theolo- 
gian. 

Rossa,   O'DonoTan.     See  O'Donoran. 

Rostand,  Eugdne.  French  economist.  Died  January 
20;   bora,    1884. 

Rothschild,  Alonso.  American  biographer  of  Lincoln. 
Died  September  27;  born,  1862. 

*  Rothschild,  Nathan  Meyer,  Baron.  English  finan- 
cier. 

*  Bucker,  Sir  Arthur  William.  Professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  physics. 

Ruppert,  Jacob.  American  brewer.  Died  May  26; 
born,  1841. 

*  Sarrien,    Jean    Marie    Ferdinand.     Freneh    statei- 

mAn. 

^•Sawyer,     Bollin     Augustus.     American    Preabyter- 


ian  clergyman  and  writer. 

*  Scanlan,  Lawrence.  American  Roman  OathoUo 
bishop. 

*  Schechter,  iSolomon.  American  Hebrew  scholar  and 
educator. 

*  Schindler,  Solomon.  American  Jewish  rabbi  and 
writer. 

Schun,  Agatha.  American  editor,  daughter  of  Oarl 
Schun.     Died  July  18 ;  bom,  1862. 

*  Schwartc,  Joost  Marius  Willem  van  der  Poorten. 
See  Maartens,liaarten. 

*  Seaman,  William  Henry.     American  Jurist. 

*  Sedgwick,  Arthur  George.  American  lawyer  and 
writer. 

Seligman,  Henry.  American  banker.  Died  January 
10:   bom.   1824. 

Sewell,  Barton.  American  capitalist.  Died  Jan- 
uary 7;  born,   1848. 

Seymour,  William  Frederick  Ernest.  Eni^sh  noble- 
man  and   soldier.     Died  February  0;   born,    1861. 

*  Sharp,  Benjamin.  American  so61ogist  and  ez- 
plcrer. 

*  Shattuck,    Samuel   Walker.     American   educator. 

*  Sherman,  Frank  Asbury.  American  scholar  and 
educator. 

Shipman,  Andrew  Jackson.  American  lawyer.  Died 
October    17;    born,    1867. 

*  Shurtlell,  Roswell  Morse.  American  artist  and  Il- 
lustrator. 

*  Skriabin,  Alexander  Nicholaeyich.  Russian  com- 
poser. 

Sloan,  WilUam  Douglas.  American  financier  and 
philanthropist.     Died  Mlarch  10;  bom,  1844. 

Smith.  Gerrit.  American  iuTentor.  Died  May  4; 
bora,   1889. 

*  Spaldine, 
and  baseball  offlciaL 

*  Spanntius,  Frederick  W.     American  chemist. 
•Spencer,  Hiram  Ladd.     Canadian  poet  and  journal- 
ist.    Died  October  16;  bom,  1886. 

*  Sprague,  William.     American  public  official. 

*  Staaff,  Karl  Albert.     Swedish  statesman. 
Stevenson,      Matilda      Ooz.     American      ethnologist. 

Died  June  24;  bora^  1866. 

Stewart,  John  Wolcott.  Former  GoTemor  of  Ver- 
mont.    Died  October  29;  born,  1826. 

*'Stillman,  Thomas  Bliss.  American  ehemieal  en- 
gineer. 

*  Stoessel.  Anatole  MikailoTitch.     Russian  soldier. 

*  Story,    John    Patten.     American    soldier. 

*  Story,  Thomas  Waldo.     American  sculptor. 
Streamer,    Volney.     American   actor,   writer,   and  li- 
brarian.    Died  April  14;  bom  1852. 

*  Streett,   David.     American  physician  and  educator. 
Sutton,  James  Fountain.     American  art  oonnoisseur. 

Died   November  24;   born,   1846. 

*  Sylvester,  Frederick  Oakes.     American  artist 
Ssell,      Koloman.     Former      premier     of      Hungary. 

Died  August  16;  born,  e.  1848. 

*  Tassin,  Wirt  du  Yivier.  American  chemist  and 
metaDurgist. 

*  Taylor,    Frederick    Winslow.     American    engineer. 

*  Taylor,  John  Phelps.  American  clergyman  and 
educator. 

Y.  B.— 16 


*  niayer,   Esra  Bipl«y.     Ai 
cator. 

*  Thomas,   Jesse  Burgess. 

*  Tisdall.  FiU  Gerald.     Am> 
*ToU,    William    Edward. 

*  Tompkins,    Charles    Henr 

*  Tracy,  Benjamin  Franklin 
lie  official,  and  financier. 

*  Trudeau,  Edward  Livingi 
and  authority  in  tuberculosis. 

*Tupper,  Sfar  Charles.     Cai 

*  Turner,    Sir  Joseph.     Eni 

*  Van  Amringe,  John  How 
Van  Deman,  Henry  E.     Ai 

April  28. 

VanderbUt,     Alfred     Gwyni 
Died  May  7;  born.  1877. 

*Van   Home,    William   Om 

*'Vannute]U,  Serafino.     Ital 
dinal. 

*  Vassary,   Claudius  Fraud 
Died  September  4;  bom,  188S 

*  Waldteufel,   Emile  Charlei 
composer. 

Waller,   Lewis.     English  ac; 
1860. 

*  Walsh,  BIhnche.     America 

*  Walton,   William.     Americ 

*  Ward,  Edgar  Melville.  Az 
Ward,       Samuel      Baldwin 

Died  June  8;  bom,  1842. 

*  Ware,    William    Robert, 
educator. 

*  Warner,   Anna  Bartlett. 

*  Warren,  Samuel  Prowse. 
oiganist. 

*  Washburn,  George.     Amer 
cator. 

*  Washington.  Booker  T.  A 
*Wataon,  William.  Americi 
*Weidner,  Revere  Franklii 
Werner,    Anton    Alexander 

painter.     Died  January  6;  bori 

*  Whitney,  Anne.  Americai 
*Widener,  Peter  A.  Brown. 

*  Wilder,   MarshaU  P.     Amc 
tertainer. 

Wilding.    Anthony    F.     Aust 

KUled  at  DardaneUee,  May  12 

*Willard,  Edward  Smith.     ] 

*  Williams.     John     Langbou 
and   philanthropist. 

>  WilUams,  Bichard  Richardi 
te,    Count    Sergius    Jc 


►Witte, 


English 


Wood,   Mrs.  John. 
12;  born.  1888. 

*  Woodbury,    Urban   Andraii 
fldal. 

*  Woodruff,  Charles  Edward, 
cal  officer. 

Zamor,   Orestes.     Former   Pi 
cuted  July  22. 

KEEDHAK,  Hbnbt  Bej 
nalist,   died  June   17,    191. 
Castile,  N.  Y.,  in  1871,  ai 
years  at  Brown  University, 
a  law  course  at  George  Wi 
In  1894  he  was  admitted  i 
ticed  law  for  three  years, 
staff  of  the  New  York  Evt 
he  remained  until  1900,  wb 
ant  manager  of  McClure*g 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  t 
1905-6,  and  from   1904  un 
general  writer  for  magazin 
special  commissioner  to  ini^ 
tions  in  the  Panama  Gana 
was  special  correspondent  fc 
Mr.  Needham  was  killed  ii 
aeroplane    piloted    by    Liei 
Wameford    (q^.),  a  Britit 
testing,  near  raris,  the  a^r 
Needham  was  a  passenger, 
way  Lieutenant  Wameford 
maehine  and  it  fell  to  the 
height.    He,  as  well  as  Mi 
stantly  kiUed. 


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NETHEBLAND8 


NEGBI  SEMBIULN,  The  (Nine  States). 
A  federation  of  states  composing  a  state  of  the 
Federated  Malay  States  (q.v.).  The  native  Ma- 
lays number  71,350  and  are  mainly  engaged  in 
agriculture  in  the  Kuala,  Pllah,  and  Tampin 
districts;  the  Chinese  work  in  the  tin  mines. 
Area  occupied  (end  of  1913)  for  mining,  22,894 
acres;  output,  4533  piculs  tin  and  43,537  tin  ore. 
Area  devoted  to  agriculture,  etc.,  361,922  acres, 
of  which  under  rubber,  100,000  acres;  rice,  32,- 
000;  coconuts,  20,000. 

Seremban  is  the  government  headquarters. 
There  are  native  rulers  with  British  resident  ad- 
visers. 

NEIHABDT,  J.  G.  See  Lttebatubb,  Eng- 
lish AND  Amebican,  Poetry, 

NELSON,  WuxiAic  Rockhill.  American 
editor  and  publisher,  died  April  13,  1915,  He 
was  born  at  Fort  Wayne  in  1841,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Notre  Dame  University  in  that  State. 
He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
but  did  not  long  devote  himself  to  that  profes- 
sion. He  became  interested  in  a  patent  for  a 
form  of  pavements,  which  he  introduced  in 
many  cities.  For  a  time  he  was  a  cotton  planter 
in  Georgia  and  for  another  period  a  bridge  con- 
tractor in  Indiana.  He  then  purchased  the  Fort 
Wayne  Sentinel,  but  in  1880  sold  it.  He  re- 
moved to  Kansas  City,  where  with  8.  E.  Moore 
he  founded  the  Kansas  City  8tar.  This  paper 
after  a  hard  struggle  for  existence  came  to  be 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  influential  jour- 
nals in  the  United  States,  and  Mr.  Nelson  came 
to  be  one  of  the  great  figures  of  American  jour- 
nalism. The  paper  was  from  the  beginning  a  fear- 
less exponent  of  what  Mr.  Nelson  believed  to  be 
right.  He  undertook  and  carried  through  many 
important  civic  reforms  in  Kansas  City,  includ- 
ing improved  pavements,  a  system  of  parks,  and 
the  planting  of  trees  and  shrubbery.  His  policy 
brought  him  into  frequent  conflict  with  the  po- 
litical machine  and  leaders,  but  almost  invari- 
ably he  was  successful  in  bringing  about  what 
he  attempted.  He  was  several  times  tried  for 
libel,  but  was  always  acquitted.  In  the  wider 
field  of  State  politics  he  broke  up  rings  which 
practically  covered  Missouri  and  neighboring 
States.  It  is  said  that  he  refused  several  of- 
fices under  the  government,  preferring  to  remain 
at  the  head  of  his  paper.  In  1905  he  purchased 
the  Kansas  City  Times. 

NEOKH  A  Ttai  VAN.  See  Salvabban  and 
Ndosalvabsan. 

NEOSALVABSAN.  See  Salvarsan  and 
Neosalvarsan. 

NEPAL.  An  independent  Himalayan  king- 
dom. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tibet,  on 
the  east  by  Sikkim  (an  Indian  native  state), 
and  on  the  south  and  west  by  British  India. 
Estimated  area,  about  54,000  square  miles. 
There  are  widely  varying  estimates  of  popula- 
tion, 3,000,000  being  perhaps  the  most  plausible 
figure.  The  capital  is  Katmandu,  with  about 
50,000  inhabitants.  Exports  include  cattle, 
hides  and  skins,  gums,  resins,  dyes,  drugs, 
spices,  and  native  butter.  According  to  Indian 
returns  of  trade,  imports  into  India  from  Nepal 
in  1912-13  were  valued  at  45,498,493  rupees,  and 
exports  from  India  to  Nepal  at  22,243,544  ru- 
pees; in  1913-14,  43,275,326  rupees  and  20,480,- 
286  rupees.  These  figures  include  treasure.  A 
British  resident,  with  a  Sepoy  escort,  is  estab- 
lished at  Katmandu;  he  does  not  interfere  with 
internal  affairs.    The  government  is  a  military 


oligarchy;  the  chief  power  rests  with  the  prime 
minister.  The  sovereign  is  Tribhubana  Bir 
Bikram,  who  was  born  June  30,  1906,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Dec.  11,  1911. 

NETHEBLANDS,  The  (or  Holland).  A 
constitutional  monarchy  of  western  Europe,  ly- 
ing between  Germany  and  the  North  Sea.  The 
capital  is  The  Hague. 

Area  and  Population.  The  total  area,  in- 
cluding the  rivers  of  Zeeland  and  South  Hol- 
land, the  Zuider  Zee,  the  Dollart,  and  the  Wad- 
den  (the  shallows  extending  along  the  shores  of 
Friesland  and  Groningen  as  far  as  the  Dollart), 
based  on  a  low-tide  planimetric  calculation,  is 
40,828.71  square  kilometers  (15,764  square 
miles).  The  land  area  by  provinces,  the  popu- 
lation according  to  the  census  of  Dec.  31,  1909, 
together  with  uie  population  as  calculated  Dec. 
31,  1914,  and  the  density  per  square  kilometer 
in  1914,  are  given  in  the  table  below. 


8q.  km. 

1909 

1914 

D. 

North  Brabant 

.   4,972.84 

628.079 

670,020 

181 

Oelderland    ... 

.    5,024.40 

689.602 

188,775 

71 

South  Holland 

.    2,981.00 

1,890,744 

872.625 

112 

North  HoUand 

.  .2,762.01 

1,107,698 

845,649 

146 

Zeeland     

.    1.881.75 

282,515 

681.824 

184 

Utrecht     

.    1,868.21 

288,514 

1,202,652 

480 

Prlealand    .... 

.    8,220.25 

859,552 

1,587,668 

491 

OverijtMl    

.    8.854.50 

882,880 

882,682 

178 

Oroningen     . . . 

.   2.288.52 

828,045 

410,826 

121 

Drenthe    . .  / . . 

.   2.662.09 

178,818 

807,547 

222 

Limburg   

.   2,194.68 

882,007 

289,676 

88 

Total     

.82,600.25* 

5,858,175 

6,889,854 

185 

*  12,587  sqnare  mfles. 

Total  number  of  males  (1909),  2,899,125;  fe- 
males, 2,959,050.  According  to  nationality,  the 
population  was  divided  as  follows:  Dutch,  5,- 
788,193;  Germans,  37,534;  Belgians,  18,338; 
French,  2645;  British,  2102;  Austro-Hungarians, 
1223;  others,  3908;  not  indicated,  4152.  In  1909 
Protestants  numbered  3,334,487;  Roman  Catho- 
lics, 2,063,103;  Jews,  106,409;  persons  of  otiier 
faiths,  63,008;  without  religion,  291,168.  There 
were  (1913)  48,212  marriages,  180,257  births, 
and  82,583  deaths,  including  still-births;  6716 
still-births;  excess  of  births  over  deaths,  97,674. 
Emigrants  numbered  in  1913,  2330;  in  1912, 
2155  (of  whom  1150  adult  males,  504  adult  fe- 
males) ;  in  1911,  2638  (of  whom  1426  adult 
males,  604  adult  females).  The  larger  cities 
(conununal  population  as  calculated  Dec.  31, 
1913)  follow:  Amsterdam,  595,250;  Rotterdam, 
459,357;  The  Hague,  301,851;  Utrecht,  124,415; 
Groningen,  79,082;  Haarlem,  71,176;  Arnhem, 
65,018;  Leiden,  59,500;  Nimeguen,  59,147;  Til- 
burg,  54,641;  Dordrecht,  48,984;  Maastricht, 
39,429;  Apeldoom,  38,759;  Leeuwarden,  38,366; 
Bois-le-Duc,  35,470;  Enschede,  37,065;  Delft, 
34,909;  Schiedam,  34,555;  Zwolle,  33,836;  Hil- 
versum,  33,311;  Emmen,  31,998;  Deventer,  29,- 
181;  Breda,  27,981;  Helder,  27,446. 

Education.  The  Dutch  system  of  education  is 
peculiar  in  that  the  state  encourages  and  sub- 
sidizes private  instruction  in  preference  to  main- 
taining public  schools,  though  these  are  provided 
by  local  taxation  in  the  districts  where  other 
schools  are  inadequate.  Primary  instruction  is 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of  7  and  13.  The 
average  attendance  is  95  per  cent.  Secondary 
instruction  is  not  free.  A  noteworthy  feature 
is  the  excellence  of  the  special  agricultural  and 
horticultural  schools.  There  are  universities  at 
Amsterdam,  Groningen,  Leiden,  and  Utrecht  (to- 
tal students  in   1913,  4120,  of  whom  1764  fe- 


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IfBTHBftLANDS 


males),  besides  a  technical  university  (1432  stu- 
dents in  1913,  of  whom  82  females) . 

Production.  The  area  (in  hectares)  devoted 
to  principal  crops,  and  the  production  (in  metric 
quintals)  for  two  years,  with  the  production  per 
hectare  in  1913-14,  are  as  follows: 


1918-14  1914-15 

WhMt    .   58.567     64,815  1, 

Rye     ...226.678  222,157  8, 
Barley    .   27,201     26.565 

OaU      .  .189,045  141.865  2, 
Flax*    ..      7,728       8,670 

Beets*    .    68.284     67.090  19, 

Pototoea  128.885  171,758  25, 

*  Fibre  production.  t 


QuhUaU 
1913-14       1914-15 


,464.175  1,546.837 
,717,487  8,486,976 
698.870  704,060 
,896.861  2,851,285 
49.040  40,072 

,041,820  16,661,446  816.4 
,267.750  28,888.608  150.0 
Susar  beets. 


0«. 

ha. 
26.0 
16.4 
26.8 
20.7 

6.4 


The  quality  of  the  wheat  and  oat  crops  in 
1914-15  suffered  from  the  too  abundant  August 
rains,  which  also  caused  the  spread  of  Phytoph- 
thora  infestana  among  potatoes  on  clay  soils. 
There  are  grown  for  export  great  quantities  of 
bulbs,  shrubs,  trees,  vegetables,  and  fruits; 
bulbs,  shrubs,  and  trees  exported  in  1911  were 
valued  at  16,166,141  guilders;  vegetables,  56,- 
700,000;  fruite,  2,546,000.  There  were  in  the 
country,  June,  1913,  334,445  horses,  2,096,599 
cattle,  842,018  sheep,  232,478  goats,  1,350,204 
swine,  7,182,287  fowls,  and  69,707  beehives. 

From  the  state  coal  mines  (mostly  in  Lim- 
burg),  1,725,394  metric  tons  were  produced  in 
1912,  valued  at  12,044,500  guilders  (1,292,289 
metric  tons  in  1910,  valued  at  8,232,000  guil- 
ders). The  North  Sea  fisheries  products  (her- 
ring) were  valued  at  10,763,841  guilders  in 
1912;  oysters,  2,937,832  kilos.  The  fisheries 
products  (North  Sea)  were  valued  at  11,654,051 
guilders  in  1910,  exclusive  of  oysters  (oyster 
catch,  3,210,614  kilos).  There  were  reported  in 
1912  418  distilleries,  11  sugar  refineries,  27 
beet-sugar  refineries,  33  salt  works,  427  brew- 
eries, and  64  vinegar  factories.  Number  of  dis- 
tilleries (1910),  464;  breweries,  440;  sugar  re- 
fineries, 12;  beet-sugar  refineries,  27;  salt  works, 
34;  vinegar  works,  73.  Export  of  cheese  (1910), 
19,491,000  guilders. 

CoMMEBCE.  On  account  of  the  great  war,  the 
export  of  cereals  and  flour  has  been  prohibited 
since  Aug.  3,  1914;  of  cotton  since  Aug.  7;  of 
rice  since  Sept.  3;  and  of  linseed  since  Sept.  24. 
The  decree  of  Jan.  26,  1915,  suspending  provi- 
sionally the  prohibition  on  the  export  of  raw 
cotton,  has  been  annulled  by  a  royal  decree  of 
June  2nd.  The  Netherlands  is  practically  a 
free-trade  country.  The  few  duties  levied  have 
rather  a  fiscal  than  a  protective  object,  llie  to- 
tal imports  for  consumption  and  exports  of  do- 
mestic produce  are  seen  below  for  three  years 
(precious  metals  included),  in  guilders  (par 
value  of  the  guilder,  40.196  cents) : 

1910  1918  1918 

Imports    ...8.265,200,000  8.618.000,000  8,017,800,000 
ExporU    ...2.682,800,000  8.113.100,000  8,082.000,000 

By  great  classes  the  trade  is  given  in  the  table 
below  for  two  years,  in  thousands  of  guilders: 

1918  1918  1918  1918 

Imports  ExporU 

Foodstuffs   .  . .     001,200  1,008,600      014.100  1.000,600 
Raw   matls.    .1,801.800  1.608.400  1,038,400  1.022.400 

Mfra 605.000      700,700      584.000      506,500 

Misc 570.000      604,100      568,800      446,100 


Mdse.     . 
G.  ft  B.' 


.8.567,400  8,001,700  8,004,800  8,064,600 
45,600         16,100         18.800        18.800 


The  principal  countries  of  ori^n  and  destina- 
tion in  the  1913  trade  follow,  with  the  value  of 
their  trade  in  thousands  of  guilders: 

Imps.  Bxpt, 

Germany     1.188,800  1.477.700 

Du.   E.   India    528,400  162,700 

Rossis     866.100  80,600 

U.    K 880,600  666.800 

U     8 442.700  •    181.200 

Belsrinm     862,000  880,600 

Spian     00,400  11,000 

Br.  E.  Ind.   00,000  8,800 

Rumania     84,800  7.200 

Braxil     42 100  900 

Sweden     68,800  26,000 

Norway 46,000  28,100 

France    88,200  81.400 

Turkey    10,000  20,700 

lUly     12.100  22,200 

Africa   18,000  20.000 

Other     201,100  118,100 

Totol 8,017.800         8,082,000 

Sailing  vessels  entered  (1914),  869,  of  667,643 
cubic  meters  capacity  (of  which  549,  of  159,577 
cubic  meters  Dutch) ;  cleared,  1014,  of  688,196 
cubic  meters  (635,  of  182,657  cubic  meters 
Dutch).  Steamers  entered,  11,585,  of  37,650,703 
cubic  meters  capacity  (3771,  of  12,788,122  cubic 
meters  Dutch);  cleared,  11,655,  of  37,700,609 
cubic  meters  (3845,  of  12,983,966  cubic  meters 
Dutch).  Merchant  marine,  Jan.  1,  1915,  787 
vessels,  of  1,946,007  cubic  meters  capacity  (407 
steamers,  of  2,036,664  cubic  meters). 

CoMMUNiOATioNB.  On  Jan.  1,  1912,  there 
were  in  operation  3234  kilometers  of  railway; 
Jan.  1,  1913,  3256  kilometers;  Jan.  1,  1915,  3339 
kilometers.  The  land  is  a  network  of  canals  and 
rivers.  State  telegraph  lines,  1913,  8098  kilo- 
meters; wires,  40.354  kilometers.  Post  offices, 
1537;  receipts,  18,593,000  guilders;  expenditiure, 
15,484,000. 

Finance.  The  1916  budget  is  given  below  in 
detail: 


R«t7«ntie  1000  ffl. 

Excise    64.808 

Direct    taxes    62,680 

Stamps,  etc 82,456 

Posts,    etc 8.008 

Customs     17,631 

Railways   4,426 

Pilot  dues 8.876 

Domains    1,600 

Lottery    656 

Licenses    170 

Mine  duties 60 

Miscellaneous    ....  88.815 


ExpendUur$  1000  ffh 

Internal   adm.    ...  10.700 

Interior  (dept.)    ..  44.280 

PubUc   debt    42,701 

War     85,002 

Finance,   etc 64,040 

Navy    27,140 

Agricultnre,  ete.  . .  17.861 

Justice 12,474 

Oolonisl    office    . . .  8.080 

Foreign  affairs  . . .  1,608 

OivU  list 816 

Oabinet,    etc 888 

Miscellaneons    ....  60 


Totol    224.708      Totol 


.260.469 


Totol     8,618,000  8,017,800  8,118,100  8,182.000 

*  Coin  and  bullion. 


The  receipts  include  4,190,745  guilders  ex- 
traordinary, and  the  expenditures  28,250,737 
guilders  extraordinary.  The  total  public  debt 
stood,  Jan.  1,  1916,  at  1,405,991,900  guilders; 
interest,  70,200,981. 

Navt.  The  Dutch  East  India  possessions  con- 
tribute to  the  maintenance  of  the  fleet.  A  bill 
for  the  construction  of  a  new  East  Indian  fleet 
was  defeated  in  May,  1912,  the  proposals  being 
considered  inadequate  by  the  majority.  Upon 
the  defeat  of  the  bill  followed  the  resignation  of 
Vice- Admiral  Wentholt,  minister  of  marine.  An 
expenditure  of  12,000,000  guilders  (a  reduction 
from  the  40,000,000  first  proposed)  was  voted 
in  July  following;  for  coast-defense  purposes, 
nearly  half  of  which  was  intended  for  the  forti- 
flcations  at  Flushing.    Four  destroyers  built  at 


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HBVADA 


Flushing,  two  completed  in  1911  and  two  in 
1912,  were  for  the  East  India  service;  their 
displacement  is  515  tons,  speed  30  knots,  range 
6200  miles.  The  four  under  construction  in  1914 
are  also  for  the  East  India  service.  They  dls- 
.  place  480  tons,  and  have  a  speed  of  30  knots. 
Eight  torpedo  boats  building,  authorized  in  1913, 
will  displace  200  tons,  and  have  a  speed  of  26 
knots.  ^Three  gunboats  building  will  displace 
540  tons,  and  have  a  speed  of  16  knots.  Four 
submarines  are  building,  2  of  which,  of  350  tons 
submerged  displacement,  are  for  the  East  India 
service,  and  2,  of  200  tons  submerged  displace- 
ment, are  for  home  waters.  In  their  report  of 
July,  1913,  the  commission 'of  naval  defense  rec- 
ommended the  construction  of  9  dreadnoughts, 
of  21,000  tons,  6  torpedo  cruisers,  of  1200,  8  de- 
stroyers, 44  torpedo  boats,  and  22  submarines. 

The  fleet  is  engaged  in  the  protection  both  of 
Dutch  waters  and  coasts,  and  of  the  East  Indian 
possessions.  It  included,  previous  to  the  out- 
break of  the  European  war,  9  armored  and  6  pro- 
tected cruisers,  of  66,430  aggregate  tons;  4  mine- 
layers, of  1880  tons;  38  torpedo  boats;  4  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers;  and  5  submarines. 

Government,  llie  executive  power  is  vested 
in  the  sovereign;  the  legislative,  in  a  parliament 
(States-General)  of  two  chambers  acting  jointly 
with  the  sovereign.  Reigning  sovereign,  Queen 
Wilhelmina,  bom  Aug.  31,  1880;  succeeded  on 
the  death  of  her  father,  Nov.  23,  1890,  under  the 
regency  of  her  mother;  became  of  age  and  was 
enthroned,  Aug.  31,  1898;  married,  Feb.  7,  1901, 
Henry,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  Heir- 
ess-apparent, Princess  Juliana,  bom  April  30, 
1909. 

HiSTOBT.  Internal  Affaira.  On  January  4th 
the  Netherlands  Overseas  Trust  Company  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  taking  over  from  the 
government  the  responsibility  for  all  shipments 
consigned  to  the  Netherlands.  The  company 
also  expected  to  place  shipping  on  a  firmer  finan- 
cial basis.  Late  in  January,  Great  Britain  and 
France  agreed  that  all  cargoes  for  the  Nether- 
lands, whether  contraband  or  not,  should  be  per- 
mitted to  enter  the  country  when  consigned  to 
the  company.  Early  in  January  the  government 
undertook  to  float  a  loan  of  275,000,000  guilders 
(approximately  $100,000,000).  Responses  were 
so  few  at  first  that  it  was  expected  the  govern- 
ment would  be  compelled  to  make  it  a  forced 
loan,  taxing  all  incomes  which  exceeded  a  cer- 
tain amount.  Later,  however,  the  response  be- 
came so  great  that  the  loan  was  oversubscribed 
nearly  100  per  cent.  In  proportion  to  popula- 
tion the  loan  was  nearly  six  times  larger  than 
any  previous  loan  contracted  in  the  Netherlands. 
Late  in  February  the  government  increased  the 
size  of  its  extraordinary  war  debt  from  $12,000,- 
000  to  $20,000,000.  Late  in  November  a  new 
taxation  bill  was  introduced  before  Parliament, 
making  the  total  taxation  amount  to  $105,000,- 
000,  or  $21  per  capita.  This  was  an  increase 
of  nearly  $5  per  capita  over  the  taxation  of  1914. 

The  European  War,  At  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber, 1914,  there  were  1,200,000  Belgian  refuf;ees 
in  Holland.  Besides  this  there  was  a  mobilized 
Dutch  army  of  330,000  men.  The  country  was 
put  to  its  last  resources  to  feed  this  tremendous 
number  of  dependents.  Throughout  the  year 
Holland  constantly  was  in  trouble  with  the 
Allies  or  the  Germans  with  regard  to  violation 
of  her  territory  or  capture  and  hindrance  to  her 
■hipping.    Late  in  January  two  Zeppelins  flying 


over  Dutch  territory  aroused  the  first  protest 
from  the  Netherlands  government.  In  a  note  to 
Germany  in  the  middle  of  February  the  Nether- 
lands denied  the  general  charges  made  against 
her  that  she  was  acting  in  an  unneutral  manner. 
At  the  same  time  tibe  government  protested 
against  the  action  of  the  Germans  in  searching 
neutral  vessels  and  against  the  policy  of  the 
British  merchantmen  in  their  continued  use  of 
neutral  flags.  The  failure  of  Germany  to  answer 
the  Dutch  note  caused  much  apprehension  in  the 
country  and  fear  that  a  crisis  was  at  hand.  Re- 
ports tiiat  the  countrv  would  declare  war  against 
Germany  were  denied,  but  the  government  con- 
tinued to  mass  troops  on  the  border  opposite  the 
Prussian  forces.  The  capture  on  March  18th  of 
the  two  Dutch  vessels — Baiavier  V  and  Zaan- 
Strom — by  the  German  submarine  U'28  brought 
about  another  critical  situation  in  the  affairs  of 
the  two  countries  and  demands  from  the  press 
that  Holland  resent  the  action  of  her  neighbor 
country.  In  April  Great  Britain  allowed  all  con- 
ditional contraband  and  some  articles  on  the  ab- 
solute contraband  list  to  pass  through  the  war 
blockade  zone  providing  they  were  consigned  to 
the  Netherlands  government  or  the  Netherlands 
Overseas  Trust  Company.  On  August  8th  Hol- 
land enacted  a  new  law  calling  to  the  colors 
practically  every  able-bodied  man  in  the  coun- 
try. On  August  23rd  another  German  airship 
flew  over  Holland,  this  time  eliciting  an  apology 
from  the  German  government  (August  28th) 
which  claimed  that  adverse  winds  had  blown  the 
aviator  from  his  course  and  over  Dutch  territory. 
Martial  law  over  the  movements  of  all  workmen 
employed  in  making  war  mimitions  was  declared 
on  October  14th.  All  workmen  who  desired,  to 
travel  from  one  district  to  another  were  required 
to  obtain  military  permits.  On  November  Uth 
the  govemment  announced  that  after  the  25th 
inst.  "a  state  of  siege  will  be  declared  in  some 
of  the  communes  of  North  Holland,  and  also  in 
some  parts  of  Amsterdam,  especially  between 
Zaandam  and  the  North  8ea  Canal,  and  in  the 
communes  of  Mulden,  Misuwar,  Amstel,  and 
Ouder  Amstel." 

NETTTRALITY.  See  United  States  and 
THE  Was. 

NEVADA.  Population.  The  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  102,- 
730.    The  population  in  1910  was  81,875. 

Agbicultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Acreage  Prod.  Bu,  Yalue 

Corn     1915  1,000  85.000  $38,000 

1014  1,000  86.000  40.000 

Wheat    1916  56,000  1.660.000  1.577.000 

1914  45,000  1,882,000  1,266.000 

Oats     1915  18.000  685,000  822.000 

1914  18,000  676,000  872.000 

Barley    1915  12.000  676,000  408,000 

1914  18.000  611.000  897.000 

Potatoes     1916  18,000  2,286,000  1,566,000 

1914  12,000  1,600,000  1.092,000 

Hay    1916  225,000  a  675,000  5,062,000 

1914  247.000  808.000  6,666.000 
a  Tons. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  77,000  and 
78,000,  valued  at  $5,775,000  and  $5,382,000; 
mules  numbered  3000  and  3000,  valued  at  $225,- 


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453 


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000  and  $237,000;  milch  cows  numbered  26,000 
and  24,000,  valued  at  $1,900,000  and  $1,860,000; 
other  cattle  numbered  472,000  and  450,000,  val- 
ued at  $18,738,000  and  $18,315,000;  sheep  num- 
bered 1,532,000  and  1,532,000,  valued  at  $8,886,- 
000  and  $7,507,000;  swine  numbered  40,000  and 
36,000,  valued  at  $360,000  and  $418,000.  The 
production  of  wool  in  1915  and  1914  was  5,890,- 
000  and  5,502,000  pounds  respectively. 

Mineral  Pboduotion.  The  gold  production 
in  the  State  in  1914  amounted  to  555,402  fine 
ounces  valued  at  $11,481,188,  compared  with 
570,580  fine  ounces  valued  at  $11,795,130  in  1913. 
This  continues  the  annual  decline  that  has  been 
notable  since  the  record  production  of  $18,878,- 
864  in  1910.  There  was  a  slight  decrease  in  the 
production  of  silver  in  1914,  chiefly  because  of 
the  lowered  price  of  the  metal  in  the  last  half  of 
the  year.  The  total  output  was  15,455,401 
ounces  valued  at  $8,546,887,  compared  with  16,- 
090,083  ounces  valued  at  $9,718,410  in  1913.  In 
spite  of  the  decrease  Nevada  held  first  place  in 
the  production  of  silver  in  1914.  The  value  of 
the  total  mineral  production  in  1914  was  $29,- 
984,338,  compared  with  $37,842,084  in  1913. 

Tbansportation.  The  total  mileage  in  the 
State  in  1914  was  2416.  The  longest  railways 
were  those  of  the  Central  Pacific,  746;  the  San 
Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and  Salt  Lake,  267;  and  the 
Western  Pacific,  427. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914  was  13,433  with  a  total  enrollment  in  the 
public  schools  of  12,511.  The  average  daily  at- 
tendance in  the  schools  was  9593.  &e  teachers 
both  male  and  female  numbered  620.  Provision 
was  made  by  the  Legislature  of  1915  for  teachers' 
pensions.  The  total  expenditures  for  1914  were 
$625,562. 

Finance.  The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing 1914  amounted  to  $881,538,  and  the  disburse- 
ments to  $1,073,114.  As  the  treasury  began  the 
year  with  a  balance  on  hand  of  $449,404,  its 
favorable  balance  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  re- 
duced to  $257,828. 

Chabities  and  Ck>BBECTioN8.  The  State  in- 
stitutions under  the  control  of  the  State  are  the 
Nevada  State  Prison  at  Carson  City,  Nevada 
State  Industrial  School  at  Elko,  Nevada  Or- 
phans' Home,  Nevada  Home  for  Mental  Diseases 
at  Reno.  The  Legislature  of  1913  created  a 
school  of  industry,  which  was  not  officially 
opened  or  ready  for  inmates  until  Jime,  1915. 
The  Florence  Crittenton  School  for  Girls  at  Reno 
while  not  a  State  institution  receives  State  aid. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
passed  in  February  a  so-called  "easy  divorce" 
bill,  restoring  the  six  months'  residence  require- 
ment which  had  been  abolished  by  the  L^isla- 
ture  of  1913.  Business  men  and  women  of  all 
classes  made  demonstrations  in  favor  of  the 
measure.  The  bill  became  effective  on  its  pass- 
age. Governor  Boyle  made  an  attonpt  to  obtain 
a  referendum  on  the  law,  but  this  was  rejected  by 
the  Legislature,  and  as  a  result,  there  can  be  no 
change  in  the  measure  by  a  vote  of  the  people, 
within  two  years. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Emmet  D. 
Boyle;  Lieutenant-Governor  and  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral, Maurice  J.  Sullivan;  Secretary  of  State, 
George  Brodigan;  Treasurer,  Edward  Malley; 
Auditor,  Paul  Gaston;  Comptroller,  George  A. 
Cole;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  John 
Edward  Bray;  Attorney-General,  George  B. 
Thatcher — all  Democrats. 


Judigiast.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Frank  H.  Norcross,  Republican;  Justices,  P.  A. 
McCarran,  Democrat;  Ben  W.  Coleman,  Demo- 
crat; Clerk,  H.  R.  Mighels. 

State  Legislature: 

Senate  Hwub  J&itd  Battot 

RepublicAM    10  24                  84 

Democrats     8  25                  38 

Independents    8  8                   6 

Socialists     1  1                    2 

NEVADA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  institu- 
tution  for  higher  education,  founded  in  1886  at 
Reno,  Nev.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1015  was  387.  The  fac- 
ulty includes  24  professors,  6  associate  pro- 
fessors, 4  assistant  professors,  and  10  instruc- 
tors. €reorge  Francis  James,  Ph.D.,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  education  and  director  of  the 
summer  school.  Louise  Fargo  Brown,  Ph.D., 
was  appointed  dean  of  women;  Charles  Dodgio 
was  appointed  instructor  in  Romance  languages; 
and  Charles  Albert  Norcross  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  agricultural  extension.  James  Reed 
Young  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  soci- 
ology. The  productive  funds  of  the  imiversity, 
which  is  supported  chiefly  by  legislative  appro- 
priations, amounted  in  1915  to  $306,354,  and  the 
income  to  $218,688.  The  library  contained  39,- 
000  volumes. 

NEVABSEKOBENZOL.  See  Salvabsan  and 
Nbosalvabsait. 

NEW  BBTTKSWICX.  One  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  area 
is  27,985  square  miles.  The  population  at  the 
1911  census  was  351,889.  Fredericton,  the  cap- 
ital, had,  in  1911,  7208  inhabitants.  New  Brims- 
wick  is  administered  by  a  Lieutenant-€rovemor, 
who  is  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  Grovemor- 
G«neral  of  the  Dominion  and  who  acts  through 
a  responsible  executive  council.  The  legislative 
House  of  Assembly  consists  of  a  single  chamber 
of  46  members  elected  by  popular  vote  for  four 
years.  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1915,  Josiah 
Wood,  appointed  March  6,  1912.  Premier  and 
minister  of  lands  and  mines,  George  J.  Clarke. 
See  Canada. 

NEW  CAIiEDONIA.  A  French  Melanesian 
colony.  Area,  with  the  Loyalty  Islands,  etc., 
18,653  square  kilometers,  with  about  50,600  in- 
habitants in  1911.  Of  this  total  the  WalUs 
Archipelago  occupies  96  square  kilometers,  and 
contains  4500  inhabitants;  Fortuna  and  Alofi, 
159  square  kilometers,  with  15,000.  Noumte, 
with  6968  inhabitants,  is  the  capital.  There  are 
16  kilometers  of  railway.  Imports,  1913,  17,- 
707,916  francs;  exports,  15,838,405  francs.  Ves- 
sels entered  in  the  1912  trade,  106,  of  160,618 
tons.  The  export  of  minerals  in  1911  was  val- 
ued at  7,351,000  francs.  Debt,  Jan.  1,  1912,  10,- 
361,591  francs. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  An  island  colony  of 
Great  Britain,  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  Area,  42,734  sqiuire  miles; 
population  (1911),  242,619;  as  estimated  1913, 
247,574.  St.  Johns,  the  capital,  had  in  1911, 
32,292  inhabitants;  Harbour  Grace,  4279;  Bona- 
vista,  3911;  Carbonear,  3540;  Twillingate,  3348. 
Fishing,  agriculture,  mining,  and  lumbering  are 
the  chief  industries.  The  settlements  are  largely 
on  or  near  the  coast.  Paper  and  pulp  mills  have 
been  established  at  Grand  Falls  and  Bishop's 
Falls. 


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KEWFOUNDUINI) 


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NEW  JEBSBY 


Imports  (1912-13),  $16,012,365;  exports,  $14,- 
672,889;  shipping  entered  and  cleared,  2,561,975 
tons;  revenue,  $3,919,040;  expenditure,  $3,803,- 
561.  Public  debt,  Oct.  1,  1914,  $30,450,765.  Re- 
ported length  of  government  railway  open  to 
traffic,  794  miles;  private  railway,  47-  miles; 
telegraph,  4897  miles. 

Attached  administratively  to  Newfoundland  is 
that  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Labrador  compre- 
hended between  Hudson  Strait  and  Blanc  Sa- 
blon,  including  the  Hamilton  basin.  Labrador 
has  a  600-mile  coast- line  and  an  area  of  about 
120,000  square  miles;  population  (estimated 
1913),  3998. 

An  additional  contingent  of  250  soldiers  and 
75  naval  reservists  was  sent  to  England  March 
30,  1915,  making  a  total  of  1000  soldiers  and 
1000  sailors  furnished  by  the  island. 

NEW  GUINEA.  The  largest  of  the  East  In- 
dian islands.  See  Dutch  East  Indies;  Gebman 
New  Guinea;  Papua, 

NEW  HAMPSHIBE.  Population.  The  es- 
timated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915, 
was  440,584.  The  population  in  1910*  was  430,- 
572. 

AoBiGULTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn     1915 

1914 
OaU     1915 

1914 
Barley    1915 

1914 
PoUtoM    1915 

1914 
Hay    1915 

1914 
Tobacco    1915 

1914 

a  Tons,     b  Pounds. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  47,000  and 
47,000,  valued  at  $6,204,000  and  $5,969,000; 
milch  cows  numbered  97,000  and  95,000,  valued 
at  $5,820,000  and  5,700,000;  other  cattle  num- 
bered 65,000  and  64,000,  valued  at  $1,852,000  and 
$1,792,000;  sheep  numbered  37,000  and  38,000, 
valued  at  $204,000  and  $186,000;  swine  num- 
bered 55,000  and  52,000,  valued  at  $688,000  and 
$728,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  195,000  and  201,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

Transportation,  The  total  mileage  of  rail- 
ways on  June  30,  1914,  was  12,062.  There  was 
no  new  construction  in  1915. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914  was  73,480.  The  total  enrollment  was  63,- 
004,  and  the  average  daily  attendance  was  about 
50,000.  The  average  monthly  salary  of  women 
teachers  was  $42.80,  and  of  men  teadiers, 
$65.91. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
shows  a  balance  on  hand  Sept.  1,  1914,  of  $741,- 
930.  The  total  receipts  were  $3,400,296.  The 
disbursements  for  the  same  year  were  $3,526,105, 
leaving  a  balance  on  hand  on  Sept.  1,  1915,  of 
$616,121.  The  total  net  indebtedness  of  the 
State  was  on  the  same  date  $1,100,476. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charities 
and  corrections  under  the  control  of  the  State 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu, 

Yaiue 

22,000 

990.000 

$752,000 

21,000 

966,000 

792.000 

12,000 

456.000 

246.000 

12,000 

456,000 

264.000 

1,000 

80,000 

24,000 

1,000 

82,000 

26,000 

16.000 

1,520,000 

1,444,000 

17,000 

2,708.000 

1.622,000 

504,000 

a  504,000 

8,770.000 

520,000 

598.000 

10,166.000 

100 

b  140,000 

17.000 

100 

177,000 

82,000 

authorities  include  the  county  farms,  the  State 
Sanatorium  for  Tuberculosis  Patients,  the  State 
Hospital  for  the  Insane,  New  Hampshire  Sol- 
diers' Home,  New  Hampshire  Orphans'  Home, 
and  the  New  Hampshire  School  for  Feeble- 
minded. The  penal  institutions  include  the  New 
Hampshire  State  prisons,  the  county  jails, 
county  house  of  corrections,  and  State  industrial 
schools. 

Politics  and  Government.  Governor  Rol- 
land  H.  Spaulding  was  inaugurated  on  January 
7th.  His  inaugural  address  was  devoted  almost 
entirely  to  suggestions  for  improving  the  busi- 
ness administration  of  affairs  of  the  State.  He 
opposed  the  authorization  of  any  additional 
State  roads  at  the  present  time,  and  declared 
that  the  present  method  of  attonpting  to  tax 
intangible  property  was  a  failure,  and  unjust  in 
its  workings. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Rolland  H. 
Spaulding;  Secretary  of  State,  Edward  C.  Bean; 
Deputy  Secretary  of  State,  Hobart  Piisburg; 
State  Treasurer,  J.  Wesley  Plummer;  Adjutant- 
General,  Herbert  E.  Tutherly;  Attorney-General, 
James  P.  Tuttle;  Commissioner  of  Insurance, 
Robert  Merrill;  Labor  Commissioner,  John  S.  B. 
David;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Andrew  L. 
Felker. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Frank  N.  Parsons;  Associate  Justices,  Reuben 
E.  Walker,  John  E.  Young,  Robert  J.  Peaslee, 
William  A.  Plummer;  Clerk,  Arthur  H.  Chase. 

State  Legislature: 


Senate 

RepublicaiiB    17 

Democrats     6 

Progressives   1 

Republican  majority. .     10 


H0U9» 

JokUBottot 

260 

160 

6 

267 

156 

6 

95 


105 


NEW  HEBBIBES.  A  group  of  Melanesian 
islands  jointly  administered  by  France  and  Great 
Britain  through  the  French  and  English  high 
commissioners  for  the  Pacific.  There  are  resi- 
dent-commissioners: M.  King,  British;  J.  Mira- 
mende,  French.  Estimated  area,  6100  square 
miles;  estimated  population,  70.000.  There  are 
Presbyterian  and  Roman  Catholic  missions. 
Vila,  in  the  island  of  Efate,  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. A  large  proportion  of  the  natives  are 
cannibals,  and  the  sale  to  them  of  arms,  ammu- 
nition, and  intoxicating  liquors  is  prohibited. 
For  1014-15,  the  estimated  revenue  and  expendi^ 
ture  were  £21,218  and  £10,400.  Deficits  are  met 
by  the  British  and  French  governments  jointly. 
In  addition,  for  1914-15,  there  was  an  estimated 
British  expenditure  of  £8156. 

KEW  JEBSET.  Population.  According  to 
the  State  census  of  1915  the  population  of  the 
State  was  2,844,342  in  that  year.  The  popula- 
tion in  1910  was  2,537,167. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Aereage  Prod.  Bu,          FoltM 

Corn     1915     285,000  10.830,000  $8,122,000 

1914     272,000  10,472.000  7.969.000 

Wheat    1915       78,000  1.560,000  1,654.000 

1914       79,000  1,422,000  1.660,000 

OaU     1915       70,000  2.275,000  1.092,000 

1914       67.000  1,948.000  1,049.000 

Rye    1916       71,000  1,420.000  1,806,000 

1914       70,000  1,296.000  1,062,000 

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JSfMW  MSXICO 


Aereags  Prod.  Bu,          Yaluo 

Pototoes     1916       93,000  12,090.000  f  9.068.000 

1914   92,000  9.936.000   6,061.000 

Hay  1915  861,000  a  528,000   9,937.000 

1914  861,000  487.000   9.496,000 
a  Tons. 

Lite  Stock.  The  United  State  Department 
of  Afnriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  92,000  and 
02,000,  valued  at  $13,248,000  and  $13,432,000; 
mules  numbered  4000  and  4000,  valued  at  $656,- 
000  and  $676,000;  milch  cows  numbered  152,000 
and  146,000,  valued  at  $10,702,000  and  $0,028,- 
000;  other  cattle  numbered  73,000  and  70,000, 
valued  at  $2,372,000  and  $2,205,000;  sheep  num- 
bered 20,000  and  31,000,  valued  at  $186,000  and 
$186,000;  swine  numbered  161,000  and  161,000, 
valued  at  $2,061,000  and  $2,254,000.  The  pro- 
duction of  wool  in  1015  and  1014  was  06,000  and 
07,000  pounds  respectively. 

MiNE&AL  Pboduction.  The  production  of  iron 
ore  in  1014  was  350,135  long  tons,  compared 
with  a  production  of  325,305  tons  in  1013.  The 
marketed  value  of  the  product  in  1014  was 
$1,076,208,  compared  with  a  value  of  $080,303 
in  1013.  The  zinc  mines  of  tiie  State  increased 
their  output  from  144,312,560  pounds  of  recover- 
able zinc  in  1013  to  148,506,500  pounds  in  1014. 
Owing  to  the  low  average  price  of  spelter  the 
value  of  the  output  decreased  from  $8,081,502  in 
1013  to  $7,515,014  in  1014.  The  quantity  of  ore 
sold  or  treated  was  520,443  short  tons  in  1014, 
and  400,434  tons  in  1013.  The  value  of  the  total 
mineral  production  in  1014  was  $31,756,503, 
compared  with  $35,031,101  in  1013. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  Jan.  1,  1015,  was  5810.  This  in- 
cludes 2417  of  first  track,  032  miles  of  second 
track,  166  miles  of  third  track,  140  miles  of 
fourth  track,  and  2353  miles  of  siding. 

Education.  The  total  school  enrollment  in 
the  public  schools  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June,  1014,  was  406,800.  The  average  daily  at- 
tendance was  382,218.  The  teachers,  male  and 
female,  numbered  15,085.  The  total  expendi- 
tures for  the  year  were  $25,783,014. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  Oct.  31,  1014,  were  $0,036,340,  and 
the  disbursements,  $0,678,727.  The  balance  on 
hand  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  $1,085,605, 
which  includes  a  balance  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  of  $1,727,002. 

Chabities  and  Cobbections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control 
of  the  State  include  State  Hospitals  for  the  In- 
sane at  Morris  Plains  and  Trenton,  State  Home 
for  the  Feeble-minded  at  Vineland,  New  Jersey 
State  Home  for  Epileptics,  New  Jersey  State 
Prison,  New  Jersey  Reformatory,  State  Home 
for  Boys,  State  Home  for  Girls,  Soldiers'  Home 
at  Kearny,  Soldiers'  Home  at  Vineland,  and  the 
Sanatorium  for  Tuberculosis  Diseases. 

Politics  and  Gk)VEBNMENT.  The  Legislature 
passed  a  bill  which  was  signed  by  Governor 
Fielder  allowing  the  appointment  of  women  as 
police  officers  in  the  State.  A  local  option  bill 
passed  the  Senate  on  March  2nd,  by  a  vote  of  11 
to  2.  It  was,  however,  defeated  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  on  March  23rd,  by  a  vote  of  44 
to  13,  in  one  of  the  most  stormy  sessions  of  re- 
cent years.  The  Legislature  passed  a  joint  reso- 
lution amending  the  State  Constitution  bv  ex- 
tending suffrage  to  women.  As  the  amendment 
had  passed  two  successive  Legislatures  it  was 


submitted  to  a  popular  vote  at  a  special  election 
on  October  10th.  The  amendment  was  defeated 
by  a  vote  of  133,201  for,  and  184,474  against. 
See  Woman  Suftbage. 

Governor  Fielder  on  April  13th  vetoed  bills 
designed  to  amend,  and,  in  his  opinion,  to  weaken 
three  of  the  so-called  "seven  sisters"  anti-trust 
laws,  which  were  prepared  under  the  supervision 
of  President  Wilson,  when  he  was  Governor  of 
New  Jersey,  and  were  passed  by  the  Legislature 
of  1013.  A  bill  proposed  to  abolish  capital 
punishment  was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives on  April  7th  by  a  vote  of  28  to  21. 

As  the  suffrage  question,  the  most  important 
issue  in  State  politics  in  1015,  had  been  decided 
on  October  10th,  there  was  a  lack  of  general  in- 
terest in  the  election  of  November  2nd.  The  vot- 
ing was  confined  to  the  election  of  six  members 
of  the  State  Senate,  and  full  membership  of  60  in 
the  House.  In  these  elections  the  Republicans 
retained  a  majority  in  the  State  L^slature. 

State  Govebnment.  Governor,  James  F. 
Fielder,  Democrat;  Secretary  of  State,  Thomas 
F.  Martin,  Democrat;  Treasurer,  Edward  E. 
Grosscup,  Democrat;  Comptroller,  Edward  I.  Ed- 
wards, Democrat;  Attorney-General,  John  W. 
Wescott,  Democrat;  Adjutant-General,  Wilbur  F, 
Sadler,  Jr.,  Republican;  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, Calvin  N.  Kendall,  Democrat;  Conmiis- 
sioner  of  Insurance,  G.  M.  La  Monte,  Democrat. 

JuDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
William  S.  Gummere;  Associate  Justices,  C.  G. 
Garrison,  F.  J.  Swayze,  T.  W.  Trenchard,  Charles 
W.  Parker,  James  J.  Bergen,  J.  Jb .  Minturn,  Sam- 
uel Kalisch,  Charles  C.  Black;  Clerk,  William  C. 
Gebhardt. 

State  Legislatube: 


S$nat$ 

Republicans    18 

Democrats 8 

Republican   majority.  .       5 


HOU90 

Joint  Battot 

41 

64 

10 

27 

22 


27 


NEW  JEBSET  GAKAL.    See  Canals. 

NEW  KEXICO.  Population.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916, 
was  396,017.     The  population  in  1910  was  327,301 . 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  ^d 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Aer§age  Prod.  Bu.  Valuo 

Com     1916  105,000  2.780,000  $1,993,000 

1914  92.000  2,576,000  2,061.000 

Wheat    1915  97.000  2,156,000  1,941,000 

1914  76,000  1,888.000  1.664,000 

Oats     1915  60,000  2.160,000  1,080.000 

1914  52.000  1.976.000  889,000 

Barley     .1915  8.000  264.000  185,000 

1914  5,000  170,000  128.000 

PoUtoea 1915  8,000  800,000  760,000 

1914  9,000  900.000  855,000 

Haj    1915  201,000  a  442,000  8,890,000 

1914  206,000  515,000  4,790.000 
a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  234,000  and 
217,000,  valued  at  $13,572,000  and  $11,935,000; 
mules  numbered  17,000  and  16,000,  valued  at 
$1,445,000  and  $1,296,000;  milch  cows  numbered 
76,000  and  62,000,  valued  at  $5,092,000  and  $4,- 
182,000;  other  cattle  numbered  1,090,000  and 
991,000,  valued  at  $43,709,000  and  $35,180,000; 


Dinitized  by 


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HEW  MEXICO 


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NEW  YORK 


Bheep  numbered  3,440,000  and  3,340,000,  valued 
at  $14,792,000  and  $11,600,000;  swine  numbered 
91,000  and  73,000,  valued  at  $819,000  and  $715,- 
000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1916  and  1914 
was  18,620,000  and  19,077,000  pounds  respect- 
ively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  production  of  cop- 
per in  the  State  amounted  to  69,307,025  pounds, 
valued  at  $7,887,964,  compared  with  66,308,706 
pounds,  valued  at  $8,727,860  in  1913.  The  total 
recorded  output  at  the  end  of  1914  was  238,766,- 
647.  The  production  of  gold  in  1914  amounted 
to  66,681  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $1,171,696,  com- 
pared with  42,663  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $881,- 
926  in  1913.  The  silver  production  in  1914  was 
1,777,446  ounces,  valued  at  $982,927,  compared 
with  1,631,273  ounces,  valued  at  $986,289  in 
1913.  The  coal  production  in  1914  was  3,877,689 
short  tons,  valued  at  $6,230,871.  This  was  the 
greatest  coal  output  in  the  history  of  the  State. 
New  Mexico  was  the  only  one  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States  in  which  more  coal  was  mined 
in  1914  than  in  1913.  The  increase  of  168,823 
tons  in  quantity  and  $829,611  in  value  is  due  to 
the  greater  output  of  CkMilfax  and  Sante  Fe 
Counties.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral  pro- 
duction in  1914  was  $18,072,919,  compared  with 
$17,862,369. 

Transpobtation.  The  total  ridlway  mileage 
in  the  State  in  1913  was  3060.  There  was  no 
construction  in  1914  or  1916.  The  lines  having 
the  longest  mileage  are  the  Atchison,  Topeka, 
and  Santa  Fe,  1194;  the  El  Paso  and  South- 
western, 626;  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe  Coast  Line,  242;  and  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande,  217. 

Education.  The  figures  for  1913-14  are  the 
latest  available.  In  tiiat  year  there  were  102,- 
068  pupils  of  school  age,  of  whom  67,147  were 
enrolled  in  the  public,  elementary,  and  high 
schools;  42,823  was  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance. There  were  1692  teachers,  of  whom  631 
were  men,  and  1161  women.  The  average 
monthly  salary  of  women  teachers  was  $68.66, 
and  for  men  teachers  $62.39.  The  total  dis- 
bursements for  education  in  1914  amounted  to 
$1,346,402. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and>  correctional  institutions  include  the  Insane 
Asylum  at  Las  Vegas,  the  State  Penitentiary 
at  Santa  Fe,  Reform  School  at  Springer,  Miners' 
Hospital  at  Raton,  and'  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Asy- 
lum at  Santa  Fe. 

Politics  and  Government.  A  proposed 
workmen's  compensation  law  passed  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  was  defeated  in  the 
Senate. 

State  Government.  Governor,  William  C. 
McDonald;  Lieutenant-Governor,  E.  C.  de  Baca; 
Secretary  of  State,  Antonio  Lucero;  Treasurer, 
O.  N.  Marron;  Auditor,  William  G.  Sargent;  At- 
torney-General, Frank  W.  Clancy;  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  Alvin  N.  White. 

JXTDiciART.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Clarence  J.  Robert;  Associate  Justices,  Richard 
H.  Hanna,  and  Frank  W.  Parker. 

State  Legislature: 


Republicans    . 

.     16 
7 
2 
0 

.     "« 

HOU90 

29 

18 

1 
1 

Joint  BdIM 
44 
25 

ProffrewiTes   . 
Sc'CiAlisU     . . . 

8 

1 

Republican 

majority. 

15    . 

NEW  OSLBANB.    See  Hurricanes. 

NBW  SOUTH  WAIiES.  A  state  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia,  bounded  by  Queensland 
on  the  north,  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  east,  Vic- 
toriB.  on  the  south,  and  South  Australia  on  the 
west.  Estimated  area,  300,460  square  miles, 
equal  to  about  the  combined  area  of  Nevada, 
Utah,  and  Arizona,  which  is  300,636  square 
miles.  Population,  according  to  the  census  of 
April  3,  1011,  1,646,734,  exclusive  of  full-blooded 
aboriginals;  estimate  of  March  31,  1016,  1,867,- 
233  (065,001  males,  001,242  females).  The  cap- 
ital is  Sydney,  the  largest  city  of  Australia 
(population,  1011,  with  suburbs  620,503). 
Governor  in  1015,  Sir  Gerald  Strickland  (ap- 
pointed 1012).  Premier  and  Treasurer,  W.  A. 
Holman.    See  Australia. 

History.  In  January,  Kew  South  Wales  de- 
cided to  renew  £2,000,000  of  1005  4  per  cent  de- 
bentures into  4^  per  cent  five-year  bonds.  This 
renewal  was  made  in  London.  On  March  12th 
Premier  Holman  announced  changes  in  the  gov- 
ernment portfolios  of  public  works,  education 
and  local  government,  lands  and  agriculture, 
and  labor  and  mines.  Early  in  June  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  an  issue  of  £5,000,000  of 
4^  per  cent  7-  and  12-year  bonds  to  refund 
various  outstanding  treasury-bill  issues.  Of  this 
amount  only  about  £2,000,000  was  subscribed  by 
tiie  public  of  London,  the  rest  being  taken  up  by 
the  underwriters. 

NEW  TOBX.  Population.  The  population, 
according  to  the  State  census  in  1015  was  0,687,- 
744.    In  1010  the  population  was  0,113,614. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1014-15  were  as  follows: 


Com    1016 

1014 
Wheat     1915 

1014 
Oato    1015 

1014 
Bye     1015 

1014 
Barley    1016 

1914 
PoUtoea    ...1915 

1914 
Hay  1916 

1014 
Tobaeoo  ...  1915 

1914 


Aer»a04 

606,000 

560,000 

890,000 

860,000 

1,840.000 

1,276,000 

160,000 

129,000 

86,000 

76,000 

856.000 

867,000 

4,500.000 

4,658.000 

4,400 

4,600 


Prod.  Bu. 

24,200.000 

22,550,000 

9,750.000 

8.100,000 

54,270,000 

40,162,000 

2,806,000 

2,288,000 

2,720,000 

2,100.000 

22,010,000 

68,215,000 

a  5,850,000 

6,584,000 

•  6  5,280,000 

6,980,000 


$18,876,000 

18,716,000 

9,848.000 

8,748,000 

24,422.000 

20.488,000 

2,609,000 

2,082,000 

2,040,000 

1,491,000 

18,048,000 

28,416,000 

91.846,000 

81,626,000 

502.000 

718.000 


a  Tods,  h  Poanda. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1015,  horses  numbered  600,000  and 
615,000,  valued  at  $84,651,000  and  $87,330,000; 
mules  numbered  4000  and  4000,  valued  at  $502,- 
000  and  $608,000;  milch  cows  numbered  1,520,- 
000  and  1,500,000,  valued  at  $88,031,000  and 
$02,040,000;  other  cattle  numbered  030,000  and 
804,000,  valued  at  $25,250,000  and  $25,211,000; 
sheep  numbered  840,000  and  840,000,  valued  at 
$5,264,000  and  $4,024,000;  swine  numbered  700,- 
000  and  768,000,  valued  at  $0,428,000  and  $10,- 
082,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1015  and 
1014  was  3,478,000  and  3,464,000  pounds  respect- 
ively. 

Mineral  Producteion.  New  York  ranks  fifth 
among  the  States  in  the  production  of  iron  ore. 
There  were  mined  in  1014,  785,377  tons,  com- 
pared with  1,460,628  tons  in   1013.    The  mar- 


Digitized  by 


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NEW  TOBK 


467 


NEW  TOBK 


keted  value  of  the  product  in  1914  was  $1,992,- 
892,  compared  with  a  value  in  1913  of  $3,100,236. 
The  pig  iron  produced  amounted  to  1,367,676 
long  tons,  valued  at  $19,363,309,  compared  with 
1,967,449  tons,  valued  at  $30,203,673  in  1913. 
These  values  are  not  included  in  the  total  for  the 
State.  The  production  of  petroleum  in  the  State 
in  1914  was  938,974  barrels,  a  slight  decline  over 
the  production  of  1913,  which  was  948,191  bar- 
rels. The  value  was  $1,760,868,  compared  with 
a  value  of  $2,284,307  in  1913.  The  salt  pro- 
duced amoimted  to  10,389,314  barrels,  valued  at 
$2,824,733,  compared  with  10,780,614  barrels, 
valued  at  $2,866,187  in  1913.  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  production  in  the  State  in  1914 
was  $36,307,036,  compared  with  $41,709,002. 

Transportation.  The  total  mileage  of  rail- 
way track  in  the  State  on  June  30,  1916,  was 
8733.  There  were  built  during  the  year  9  miles 
of  first  main  track,  and  23  miles  of  second  track. 
The  total  mileage  of  electric  railways  was  2362. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  year  end- 
ing Dec.  30,  1916,  was  $42,077,000.  The  expend- 
itures were  $66,782,360.  There  was  a  balance  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $10,689,727,  leaving 
a  deficiency  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $2,710,176. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914  was  2,239,862.  The  enrollment  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  was  1,632,161.  The  average  daily  at- 
tendance was  1,233,074.  The  female  teachers 
numbered  43,817,  and  the  male  teachers  6326. 
The  total  expenditures  for  the  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $67,433,482.  No  important  legis- 
lation relating  to  education  was  passed  by  the 
Legislature  of  1916. 

Politics  and  Government.  Charles  S.  Whitr 
man  was  inaugurated  Grovemor  on  January  1st. 
His  inaugural  address  dealt  chiefiy  with  the 
growing  spirit  of  lawlessness,  and  the  wasteful- 
ness of  the  State  government.  The  Legislature 
on  January  28th  passed  a  bill  restoring  the 
court  of  claims  which  had  been  abolished.  The 
bill  provides  for  the  appointment  by  the  Gover- 
nor of  the  three  members  of  the  court  to  serve 
nine  years,  at  salaries  of  $8000,  instead  of  three 
commissioners  whose  terms  were  six  years,  and 
whose  salaries  were  $6000. 

On  February  24th  Governor  Whitman,  in  a 
special  message  to  the  Legislature,  declared  that 
a  direct  tax  U>  meet  State  obligations  amounting 
to  nearly  $19,000,000  must  be  levied.  He  recom- 
mended that  no  appropriation  bill  be  passed  un- 
til a  comprehensive  plan  for  raising  this  amount 
had  been  prepared. 

The  Court  of  Appeals  on  February  26th  up- 
held the  constitutionality  of  a  provision  of  the 
labor  law  which  prohibits  the  employment  of 
aliens  on  public  works.  The  Rapid  Transit  Sub- 
way Construction  Company,  which  has  contracts 
for  four  sections  of  ^e  new  subway,  in  New 
York  City,  notified  the  public  service  commis- 
sion on  Februarv  26th  that  on  account  of  this 
decision  it  would  be  necessary  to  suspend  work 
in  several  sections  of  the  subway.  Other  con- 
tractors on  the  subway  were  placed  in  similar 
positions,  because  of  the  enforcement  of  this  law 
which  had  been  long  dormant.  The  Legislature 
at  once  passed  a  measure  repealing  the  alien 
clause  in  the  labor  law.  Hearings  on  the  pro- 
posed minimum  wage  law  were  held  in  January 
and  February.  For  a  discussion  of  this  matter, 
see  Minimum  Wage. 

The  Senate  on  March  11th  passed  a  bill  pro- 
viding a  pension  for  widowed  mothers.    The  bill 


also  was  passed  by  the  assembly  on  March  24th. 
The  bill  calls  for  the  establishment  of  a  child 
welfare  board  in  each  of  the  counties  of  the 
State,  but  the  creation  of  this  board  is  permis- 
sive. The  object  of  this  bill  is  to  prevent  chil- 
dren from  being  separated  from  their  mothers 
by  being  sent  to  asylums.  This  bill  became  a 
law. 

A  bill  providing  for  State-wide  prohibition 
on  referendum  was  killed  in  the  assembly  on 
March  3rd  by  a  vote  of  64  to  49.  Ei^t  other 
bills  aimed  to  regulate  the  liquor  traffic  failed 
to  receive  consideration  in  the  Legislatiure.  The 
Legislature  passed  a  resolution  proposing  to  sub- 
mit the  question  of  woman  suffrage  to  the  voters 
of  the  State  at  the  November  Section. 

The  Court  of  Appeals  on  March  26th  upheld 
the  constitutionality  of  the  law,  passed  in  1913, 
prohibiting  work  for  women  in  factories  be- 
tween the  hours  of  10  at  night  and  6  in  the 
morning.  For  a  discussion  of  workmen's  com- 
pensation measures,  see  Workmen's  Compensa- 
tion. 

The  Constitutional  Convention  began  its  ses- 
sion on  April  6th  with  Elihu  Root  as  president. 
He  appointed  George  Wickersham,  former  United 
States  Attomey-Goieral,  chairman  of  the  judi- 
ciary committee^  and  Edgar  T.  Brackett  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  the  legislature.  Repub- 
licans, who  held  a  majority  at  the  convention, 
were  chosen  to  head  all  committees.  The  con- 
vention was  in  session  until  September  9th,  when 
it  was  prepared  to  lay  before  the  people  the 
amendments  proposed. 

The  two  important  questions  in  the  election  of 
November  2na  were  the  woman  suflTrage  amend- 
ment and  the  question  of  adopting  the  new  Con- 
stitution. The  latter  was  rejected  by  a  ma- 
jority of  470,000,  the  largest  vote  ever  given 
against  a  measure  in  a  State  election.  Many 
reasons  were  given  for  this  strong  sentiment 
against  the  new  Constitution,  none  of  which  sat- 
isfactorily explained  the  result.  There  had  been, 
it  is  true,  an  aggressive  campaign  against  it. 
The  charge  was  made  that  it  placed  great  po- 
litical power  in  the  hands  of  a  tew  people.  This 
and  other  criticisms  against  it  were  vigorously 
denied  by  Senator  Root  and  others.  It  is  prob- 
able that,  if  certain  sections  of  the  new  Consti- 
tution had  been  submitted  separately,  it  would 
have  been  carried.  It  is  evident  the  instrument, 
as  a  whole,  did  not  appeal  to  the  voters  of  tiie 
State.  The  woman  suffrage  amendment  was  de- 
feated by  nearly  200,000  votes  (see  Woman  Sur- 
FRAOE).  There  was  election  for  State  officers, 
the  most  important  chosen  being  sheriff  and  dis- 
trict attorney  of  New  York  County,  and  mayors 
in  several  cities.  In  New  York  City  the  Demo- 
crats were  goierally  successful.  The  district  at- 
torney of  Kings  County  was  the  only  ofiScial 
elected  by  the  Republicans.  The  Board  of  Al- 
dermen was  overwhelmingly  Democratic. 

New  York  City.  The  worst  accident  in  its 
history  of  ten  years'  operation  occurred  in  the 
subway  on  Janiuury  10th,  when  a  high  tension 
cable  in  the  conduit  between  60th  and  69th 
Streets  blew  out,  filling  the  subway  with  poison- 
ous gases  and  smoke.  Two  passengers  were 
killed,  and  172  injured.  An  attempt  to  wreck 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  by  the  explosion  of  two 
powerful  bombs  while  Mass  was  in  progress,  was 
prevented  by  remarkably  quick  work  on  the  part 
of  the  police.  The  bomb  thrower,  an  Italian, 
Frank  Abarna,  was  arrested,  and^  with  an  ac- 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


NEW  YORK 


408 


NEW  ZEALANB 


eomplioe,  Carmine  Carbone,  was  indicted  on 
March  3rd.  The  bail  was  fixed  at  $25,000  for 
each.  They  were  found  guilty,  on  April  I2th, 
and  received  aentences  of  from  6  to  12  years  each. 

On  January  12th  the  conviction  of  Joseph  Q. 
Cassidy,  former  Democratic  leader  of  Queens 
County,  for  accepting  a  bribe,  and  of  William 
Willett,  Jr.,  for  ofTermg  a  bribe  for  nomination 
to  the  Supreme  Court  was  upheld  by  the  Court 
of  Appeals.  Each  was  sentenced  to  a  term  in 
Sing  Sing  Prison. 

A  committee  appointed  by  the  Legislature  held 
public  hearings  durin?  the  first  months  of  the 
year  on  charges  of  dereliction  of  duty  on  the  part 
of  members  of  the  New  York  Public  Service  Com- 
mission. The  committee  reported  to  Governor 
Whitman  in  February  that  the  commissioners 
were  inefficient  in  the  performance  of  their  du- 
ties. Charges  based  on  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittee were  preferred  by  Governor  Whitman 
against  four  of  the  five  members  of  the  com- 
mission. The  hearing  was  held  on  these  charges 
by  the  Governor,  and  at  the  conclusion  he  found 
that  the  charges  were  not  sustained,  and  the  com- 
missioners were  retained  in  office.  On  March 
23rd  William  Hayward,  who  had  conducted  the 
examination  of  the  commissioners  for  the  legis- 
lative committee,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Public  Service  Conunission  of  the  first  district 
to  succeed  Milo  R.  Maltbie,  whose  term  had  ex- 
pired. Dynamite  was  set  off  in  the  Bronx  Bor- 
ough Hall  on  May  23rd,  and  a  portion  of  the 
building  was  wrecked.  A  bill  abolishing  cor- 
oners in  New  York  City  was  passed  by  the  Leg- 
islature and  was  signed  by  the  Governor.  The 
measure  permits  the  present  coroner  to  serve  out 
his  term,  and  provides  that  the  mayor  should 
appoint  a  first  medical  examiner  who  in  turn 
should  appoint  assistant  examiners,  and  other 
employees. 

The  Legislature  passed  a  measure  reorganizing 
the  children's  criminal  courts  of  the  city.  This 
bill  separates  the  children's  courts  from  all  con- 
nection with  crime,  by  establishing  a  separate 
children's  court  with  five  judges  at  its  head. 
These  judges  are  to  be  selected  from  the  present 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Special  Sessions. 

Buffalo.  The  city  of  Buffalo,  in  the  election 
of  November  2nd,  chose  four  city  commissioners 
under  the  commission  form  of  government  to 
take  office  on  January  1st.  Two  Republicans 
and  two  Democrats  were  chosen.  These  commis- 
sioners, with  the  mayor,  will  control  the  affairs 
of  the  city.  The  mayor's  continuance  in  office 
was  provided  for  in  the  commission  charter  bill. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Charles  S. 
Whitman;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Edward  Schoe- 
neck;  Secretary  of  State,  Francis  M.  Hugo; 
Comptroller,  Eugene  M.  Travis;  Treasurer, 
James  M.  Wells;  Attorney-General,  Egburt  £. 
Woodbury;  Commissioners  of  Education,  John 
H.  Finley,  Augustus  Downey,  Charles  Wheelock, 
Thomas  Finnegan. 

State  Legislature.  In  the  Legislature  of 
1015  there  were  34  Republicans  and  37  Demo- 
crats^ 

NEW  YOBX  AQUEDTTCT.     See  Aqxtedugt. 

NEW  TOBK  BAEQE  CANAL.     See  Canals. 

NEW  TOBK  CITT.  See  Architecture; 
City  Planning;  New  York,  section  New  York 
City. 

NEW  YOBK,  NEW  HAVEN,  AND  HABT- 
FOBD  BAILBOAD.    See  Railways. 

NEW  TOBK  UNIVEBSITT.    An  institu- 


tion for  higher  education  founded  in  New  York 
City  in  1831.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1015  was  6671. 
This  did  not  include  the  enrollment  in  the  extra- 
mural division,  which  is  about  2000.  There  were 
610  members  of  the  faculty.  In  1916,  Prof.  B. 
Babcock  was  appointed  a  professor  of  the  Ro- 
mance languages  and  literature,  and  Prof.  Chris- 
tian Gauss  was  appointed  professor  of  Romance 
languages  in  the  graduate  school.  The  univer- 
sity received,  during  the  year,  $260,000  from  the 
estate  of  Amos  F.  Eno.  The  productive  funds  at 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $1,393,805, 
and  the  income  to  about  $60,000.  The  library 
contains  123,655  volumes. 

NEW  ZEALAND,  Dominion  of.  Three  prin- 
cipal and  several  smaller  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific;  an  autonomous  Britisli  dependency. 
Capital,  Wellington. 

Abea  and  Population.  Area  of  North  Is- 
land, 44,468  square  miles  (563,729  inhabitants, 
census  of  April  2,  1911);  South  Island,  58,525 
square  miles  (444,120)  ;  Stewart  Island,  665 
(367);  total.  New  Zealand  proper,  103,658 
square  miles;  total  population  (including  262 
on  Chatham  and  Kermadec  islands),  1,008,468. 
Annexed  islands,  1903  square  miles  (12,340  in- 
habitants) ;  making  a  total  of  104,751  square 
miles,  and  1,021,066  inhabitants,  exclusive  of 
49,844  Maoris.  Total  population  with  Maoris, 
1,070,910.  Wellington  had  64,372  inhabitants 
(with  suburbs,  70,729)  ;  Auckland,  82,482  (102,- 
676);  Christchurch,  53,116  (80,193);  Dunedin, 
41,529    (64,237);    Invercargill,   12,782    (15,868). 

Pboductio.v.  The  area  of  land  under  occupa- 
tion in  1910-11  was  40,238,126  acres.  Area 
under  cereals  and  pulse,  1,015,822;  under  green 
crops,  713,682— a  total  of  1,729,504  acres  under 
crops.  In  sown  grasses  on  plowed  land,  5,000,- 
226  acres;  on  land  not  plowed,  9,214,515;  in  na- 
tive grass  and  unimproved  land,  23,972,236;  in 
fallow,  209,973;  in  plantations,  orchards,  and 
gardens,  110,892;  in  vineyards,  780.  Under 
wheat  (1910-11),  322,167  acres;  yield,  8,290,221 
bushels;  oat  crop,  10,118,917  bushels.  Live 
stock,  census  of  1911:  23,996,126  sheep  (19,826,- 
604  in  1891),  2,020,171  cattle  (831,831),  404,- 
284  horses  (211,040),  348,754  swine  (308,812), 
3,691,957  fowls  (1,790,070).  Of  the  foregoing, 
Maoris  owned  486,922  sheep,  61,300  cattle,  48,- 
222  horses,  and  33,290  swine.  Sheep  in  1916 
were  reported  to  number  24,824,394. 

In  the  table  below  will  be  found  the  acreage 
under  main  cereals  with  the  yield  for  two  years, 
and  the  yield  per  hectare  in  1913-14  (figures  for 
1914-16  are  subject  to  revision) : 


H€dtar99 


QuiiitQU 


0«. 


1918-14  1914-16    1918-14  1914-15       ha. 

Wheat    .   67,490     76,714     1.428.859  1.498.080     81.1 

Barley    .    12.959       7,425        278.486  185,861     21.1 

Oats    ...146,889  116,870     2,607,678  2,028,082     17.8 

Corn     ..     2.680       2,216          85,509  72,101     82.6 

PoUtoes    11,802       8,857     1,697,165  1,847,684  186.8 

The  wool  export  in  1910  was  204,368,967 
pounds  (value,  £8,308,410) ;  wool  production, 
1891,  111,637,646  pounds.  Frozen  meat  takes 
second  place  among  export  products,  the  amount 
shipped  in  1910  being  297,269,962  pounds  (value, 
£3,860,777),  as  compared  with  110,199,082 
pounds  in  1891.  In  addition,  frozen  fish  (£13,- 
220),  preserved  meat  (£146,629),  salt  meats 
(£15,855),  and  smoked  hams,  etc.  (£8876)  were 
also  exported  in  1910.    The  wool  export  for  1912 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


NEW  ZEALAND 


469 


NEW  ZEAIAND 


amounted  to  188,361,790  pounds,  valued  at  £7,- 
105,483  ( 1,772,344  pounds,  valued  at  £93,104  in 
1856).  Frozen  meat  shipped  in  1912,  2,573,238 
hundredweight,  valued  at  £3,909,569.  Wool  ex- 
ports, 1913,  186,533,036  pounds,  valued  at  £8,- 
057,620;  frozen  meat,  2,578,693  hundredweight, 
£4,449,933.    Dairy  products  also  are  exported. 

New  Zealand  possesses  great  natural  mineral 
resources.  To  Dec.  31,  1910,  gold  to  the  value 
of  £77,437,131  was  obtained;  silver  to  the  value 
of  £1,618,522;  coal,  £16,709,820.  Gold  produced 
in  1910,  478,288  ounces,  valued  at  £1,896,328; 
silver,  1,711,235  ounces,  £171^62;  coal,  2,197,362 
tons,  £1,219,737. 

Commerce,  etc.  On  account  of  the  great  war, 
the  export  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  is  prohib- 
ited. The  export  of  barley,  oats,  and  linseed  is 
permitted  only  to  British  ports.  By  order  in 
council  of  Nov.  2,  1914,  the  export  of  foodstuffs 
and  fodder  destined  to  foreign  ports  in  Europe, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  Black  Sea, 
other  than  those  of  France,  Russia  (excluding 
Baltic  ports),  Spain,  and  Portugal  has  been  pro- 
hibited since  the  above  date.  By  a  decree  of 
March  15,  1915,  the  export  of  oats,  except  under 
authority  from  the  minister  of  customs,  has  been 
prohibited.  By  an  order  of  April  1st  the  export 
of  wheat  and  flour  for  any  destination  has  been 
prohibited,  except  under  the  authority  of  the 
minister  of  customs,  and  also  of  barley  and  lin- 
seed under  the  same  conditions  for  any  destina- 
tion except  the  United  Kingdom  and  British  pos- 
sessions and  protectorates.  In  the  following 
table  are  shown  trade  and  finance  statistics  for 
comparative  years: 


and  the  Imperial  government  which  provides  for 
the  maintenance,  b^  the  British  admiralty  board, 
of  a  naval  force  in  Australasian  waters.  New 
Zealand  contributes  £40,000  annually.  Built  for 
the  Imperial  navy,  at  the  cost  of  the  dominion, 
was  the  armored  battle  cruiser  New  Zealand, 
laid  down  June  20,  1910,  launched  July  1,  1911, 
completed  early  in  1913,  and  started  on  her 
maiden  voyage  Feb.  6,  1913. 

Government.  A  Governor  (the  Earl  of  Liver- 
pool in  1915)  administers  the  country.  There  is 
an  executive  council,  a  legislative  council,  and  a 
house  of  representatives. 

HiSTOBT 

Pabliamentabt  Aftaibs.  Early  in  Decem- 
ber, 1914  (see  1914  Ybab  Book),  at  the  election 
held  in  New  Zealand,  38  seats  were  won  by  each 
of  the  two  parties  in  the  field — the  government 
and  the  Opposition.  In  the  Maori  elections  one 
day  later,  each  party  won  2  seats,  giving  each 
40  seats  in  the  new  Parliament,  and  to  neither  a 
majority.  The  necessity  of  a  subsequent  election 
in  Dunedin,  because  a  government  member  re- 
fused his  seat  on  the  ground  that  the  elections 
were  conducted  fraudulently,  gave  the  govern- 
ment two  extra  seats  and  thereby  a  small  ma- 
jority. In  the  election  of  the  Bay  of  Islands  on 
June  15th  the  government  won  another  seat, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  Opposition  protested 
two  seats.  The  government  retaliated  by  pro- 
testing two  members  of  the  Opposition.  None 
of  the  protests  was  accepted;  hence  the  govern- 
ment entered  the  Parliament,  which  was  opened 


Impt, 

1909-10    £16,674,719 

1910-11    17,061,588 

1911-12    19,545,879 

1912-13    20,976,574 

1918-14    22,288,802 


BxpB. 

Rw. 

£19,661,996 
22,180,209 
19,028,490 
21,770,681 
22.986,722 

£  9.288,917 
10.297,028 
11,082,544 
11.784,271 
12,229,661 

Expand, 

£  8,990.922 

9,848.106 

10,840,868 

11,082,088 

11.825,864 


Trade  figures  are  for  calendar,  and  finance  fig- 
ures for  fiscal  years.  The  gross  public  debt 
stood,  March  31,  1914,  at  £99,730,427;  accrued 
sinking  fund,  £3,063,992;  net  public  debt,  £91,- 
689,835.  Customs  revenue,  1913-14,  £3,426,744, 
not  including  duty  on  beer,  amounting  to  £127,- 
041.  Total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared,  1913- 
14,  3,438,792,  of  which  3,306,186  tons  British. 

Railways.  In  New  Zealand,  notwithstanding 
the  exceptional  circumstances  created  by  the  war, 
the  gross  receipts  from  the  railways  for  the 
year  ended  March  31,  1915,  were  the  highest  on 
record,  with  a  net  profit  of  £1,185,002,  an  in- 
crease of  £21,997  over-  that  of  1914.  The  grross 
earnings  increased  £62,129,  while  the  working 
expenses  advanced  £40,132.  The  comparative 
figures  are  given  below: 


Year $nd4d  J$ar  ended 

Mar.  81, 1914  Uar.^1, 1915 

Total  miles  open  for  traffic. .             2.868  2,966 

Capital  coat  of  open  lines  £.    82,865,087  84,188,825 

A\erage  coat  per  mile  <9e&  £          11,809  11,661 

Gross  earnings  £ 4,043,828  4,105,457 

Working  expenses  £ 2,880,328  2,920,465 

Net  earnings  £    1,168,005  1,185,002 

Working  expenses  to  earnings, 

per  cent   71.24  71.14 

Profit  to  capital  invested,  per 

cent   8.61  8.58 

Train  miles 9,819,268  9,888,420 

Navt.    New  Zealand  is  a  partv  to  the  agree- 
ment between  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia 


on  June  25th  by  Lord  Liverpool,  Governor,  with 
a  small  majority.  On  June  29th  the  ministry 
proposed  to  do  away  with  party  controversy  by 
established  a  Coalition  ministry.  The  Opposi- 
tion was  agreeable  to  doing  away  with  contro- 
versy during  the  progress  of  the  war,  but  refused 
the  offer  of  the  government  to  form  a  Coalition 
ministry.  On  July  28th  it  again  rejected  the 
final  proposals  of  the  government,  but  shortly 
after  this  time  it  reversed  its  decision,  and  on 
August  4th  the  prime  minister  announced  that  a 
Coalition  cabinet  would  be  effected,  each  party 
to  furnish  five  members.  In  the  new  cabinet 
which  was  formed  the  following  day,  Mr.  F.  W. 
Massey  retained  the  premiership,  while  Col.  J. 
Allen  was  raised  from  the  ministry  of  finance 
to  that  of  defense.  On  August  20th  Parliament 
reassembled  after  a  two  weeks'  adjournment. 
The  Coalition  ministry  was  well  received.  The 
budget  was  laid  before  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives on  August  26th  bv  Sir  Joseph  Ward,  min- 
ister of  finance.  This  budget  showed  a  revenue 
increase  of  £219,000  despite  the  war,  and  a  sur- 
plus on  hand  of  £72,000.  Additional  taxation  to 
the  extent  of  £2,000,000  a  year  was  proposed,  as 
well  as  an  inunediate  loan  of  the  same  amount 
to  meet  local  needs. 

Effects  of  the  Eubopeait  Wab.  New  Zea- 
land from  the  beginning  took  an  active  interest 
in  the  European  war,  £ing  one  of  the  most  en- 
thusiastic of  the  British  colonies.  In  February 
the  third  contingent  of  Maori  troops  left  the 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


NORTH  CABOUVA                     462  KOBTH  DAKOTA 

1914    amounted    to    6344    fine    ounces,    against  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C,  in  1893.    The  total  enroll- 

6117  ounces  in  1913.    The  value  of  the  gold  out-  ment  in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915 

put  in  1914  was  $131,141,  and  in  1913,  $126,448.  was    1127.    The    faculty    numbered    85.    There 

The  value  of  the  clay  products  in  1914  was  $1,-  were  no  notable  changes  in  the  membership  of 

460,790  and,  in  1913,  $1,614,406.    The  stone  pro-  the  faculty  during  the  year.    The  benefactions 

duced  was  valued  at  $1,407,671,  compared  with  include  $5000  for  the  Mill  Lecture  Fund,  $1000 

$1,212,501    in    1913.    The    total    value    of    the  for    a    Mill   Scholarship,   and   $26,000    for    the 

State's  mineral  production  in  1914  was  $3,519,>  Emerson  Athletic  Field.    The  productive  funds 

246,  compared  with  $3,739,696  in  1913.  during  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to  $185,- 

TsANSPOBTATioN.    The  railway  mileage  of  the  900,  and  the  annual  income  to  $14,644.    The  li- 

State  on  Jan.  1,  1913,  was  4799.  brary  contained  about  75,000  volumes. 

Education.    The    school    population    of    the  KOBTH  DAKOTA.     Population.    The  esti- 

State  for  1914^15  was  778,283,  of  whom  526,107  mated  population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915, 

were  white  and  253,276  colored.    The  enrollment  was    2,311,095.    The    population    in    1910    was 

of  white  children  was  409,728,  and  of  colored,  577,056. 

189,918.    The  average  dailv  attendance  of  white  Agbioultube.    The   acreage,    production,   and 

children   was  288,134,  and  of  colored  children,  value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by   the 

119,630.    There  were  13,255  teachers,  of  whom  United    States    Department    of    Agriculture    in 

10,082  were  white.     The  total  expenditures  for  1914-15  were  as  follows: 

school   purposes  were  $5,566,992.    The  Legisla-    

ture  of  1915  amended  the  school  laws  in  impor-  Awage        Prod.  Bu.          FoIim 

tant  details.     It  passed  a  State-wide  bond  act  for    Com  1916       700,000        9,800,ooo        6.566.000 

school  buildings,  and  increased  the  powers  and  «-.     ,        \l\i    aS22'222    i  if '222*222    ioS'J?5'222 

^»«;^.  r.«  4-i«»  Q^-Lf^  G».w.«:»4^^^^»»4>  Wheat     ..1915     8,850,000     161,970,000     182,214,000 

duties  of  the  State  Superintendent.  1914   j7,285.000      8i  592,000      82,408  000 

Finance.    The  report  of  the  State  Treasurer    Oau    1915    2.450,ooo      98.ooo.ooo      26,460.000 

for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Nov.  30,  1914,  shows  .,              JgJJ    ^•?i2*222      ^o'S2a'222      ^J?J1222 

f».^   ...^A^ln^o    #*«.   tl,^   vw.^SLl    ^4   ^K^R(\^(\*T      TT,-*     ^y*     ^^^^         180,000         2,700.000         2,188.000 

Uie  receipts  for  the  period  of  $5,150,107.     The  1914       isi.ooo        2,240,000        1.882.000 

disbursements  for  the  same  period  were  $4,980,-  Barley    ..1915    1,400,000      44,800,000      19,712.000 

305,  leaving  a  balance  at  the. end  of  the  year  of  „  ,  ^         Jgjf    1.450,000      28,275.000      12.J24.000 

ttiAOono    Ju:^u  :»»i»^^<.  -  u.i«»^«  «*  *i.^  k««;«  Potatoes    .1916          80,000         7,200,000         2,952,000 

$169,802,  which  includes  a  balance  at  the  begin-  1914         70,000        7,68oiooo        8  205  000 

ning  of  the  year  of  $337,678.  Hay    1916       440,000        «660.000        8!762.000 

Chabities    and    Corbections.    The    institu-  I9i*       400,000          680,000       8,016.000 

tions  under  the  control  of  the  State  include  Hos-  *  'T*****- 

pitals  at  Morgantown,  Raleigh,  and  Groldsboro,    * 

Epileptic  Colony,  School  for  the  Blind,  School  Live  Stock.    The  United  States  Department 

for  the  Colored  Blind  and  Deaf,  Soldiers'  Home,  of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 

the  State  Prison,  School  for  the  White  Deaf  at  and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  801,000  and 

Morgantown,  Jackson  Manual  Training  and  In-  785,000,  valued  at  $88,110,000  and  $86,350,000; 

dustrial  School  at  Concord,  Orphanage  for  White  mules  numbered  9000  and  8000,  valued  at  $1,- 

Children,  and  Orphanage  for  Colored  Children  at  116,000    and    $976,000;    milch    cows    numbered 

Oxford.  373,000  and  339,000,  valued  at  $21,261,000  and 

Politics  and  Govebnment.  The  House  on  $20,848,000;  other  cattle  numbered  577,000  and 
February  4th  killed  a  proposed  woman's  suffrage  515,000,  valued  at  $20,195,000  and  $18,540,000; 
amendment  by  a  vote  of  67  to  38.  Bills  designed  sheep  numbered  250,000  and  250,000,  valued  at 
to  bring  about  an  enforcement  of  the  law  against  $1,275,00  and  $1,125,000;  swine  numbered  706,- 
child  labor  also  failed  to  pass.  A  measure  for  000  and  642,000,  valued  at  $6,354,000  and  $7,- 
the  sale  of  liquor,  known  as  the  Anti-Jug  Act  676,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
passed  the  Legislature.  This  act  forbids  the  1914  was  1,677,000  and  1,620,000  pounds  respect- 
shipment  to  and  receipt  by  any  person  of  more  ively. 

than  one  quart  of  spiritous  liquor,  and  five  gal-  Mineral  Production.    The  output  of  coal  in 

Ions  of  malt  beverage  every  15  days.  the  State  increased  from  495,320  tons,  valued  at 

State  Government.  Governor,  Locke  Craig;  $756,652  in  1913  to  506,685  tons,  valued  at  $771,- 
Lieutenant-Governor,  E.  L.  Daughtridge;  Secre-  379  in  1914.  The  total  output  was  lignite  coal, 
tary  of  State,  J.  B.  Grimes;  Treasurer,  B.  R.  which  was  the  only  mineral  fuel  of  the  State. 
Lacy;  Auditor,  W.  P.  Wood;  Adjutant-General,  At  the  present  time  lignite  is  consumed  chiefly 
Lawrence  W.  Young;  Attorney-General,  T.  W.  for  domestic  purposes,  but  when  properly  han- 
Bickett;  Superintendent  of  Education,  J.  Y.  died  it  can  be  used  satisfactorily  as  a  boiler  fuel. 
Joyner;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  W.  A.  There  were  employed  in  the  coal  mines  in  the 
Graham;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  J.  R.  State,  in  1914,  568  men.  The  mines  were  en- 
Young — all  Democrats.  tirely   free   from   strikes,   suspensions,  or   lock- 

JuDiciARY.    Supreme    Court:     Chief    Justice,  outs.    The  total  value  of  all  mineral  products 

Walter  Clark;  Justices,  George  H.  Brown,  Wil-  for  1914  was  $1,063,540,  compared  with  $1,055,- 

liam  A.  Hoke,  William  R.  Allen,  P.  D.  Walker;  676  in  1913. 

Clerk,  J.  L.  Seawell.  Education.    The  total   school   population   in 

State  Legislature,  1915:  *''''  ®***%,^  ^i^A^oT" -IS^'^^*  *"  lOj^.  there 
! were  enrolled  148,021  with  an  average  daily  at- 

S«naf     Houte     Joint  BaUot  tendance   of    102,490.     Male   teachers   numbered 

I>emoerata    47            104            161  1300,  women  teachers,  6611.     The  total  expendi- 

Bepublicans    1                6               7  turos  for  the  vear  amounted  to  $6,611,648. 

ProgresaivM  J            _10           _12  FINANCE.     The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 

Democratic  majority  .  44  88  132  for  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to  $4,704,229. 
The  disbursements  for  the  same  period  amounted 

NOBTH    CABOLINAy    University    of.    A  to  $6,436,016,  leaving  a  balance  at  the  end  of  the 

State  institution  for  higher  education,  founded  fiscal  year  of  $901,629,  whi<^  includes  a  balance 


Digitized  by 


Google 


NOBTH  DAKOTA 


463 


KOBWAT 


at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $1,633,417.  All 
Btate  departments  in  1915  were  working  under 
the  budget  system. 

Chabtties  and  Ck>BBEcnoN8.  The  charities 
and  corrections  are  under  the  control  of  the 
State  and  include  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at 
Jamestown,  Institute  for  Feeble-minded  at  Graf- 
ton, Reform  School  at  Mandon,  School  for  the 
Blind  at  Bathgate,  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium  at 
Dunseith,  State  Penitentiary  at  Bismarck,  and 
School  for  the  Deaf  at  Devils  Lake.  The  Sol- 
diers' Home  at  Lisbon  is  not  under  the  State 
Board. 

Politics  and  GoyEBNicxxT.  The  L^slature 
on  March  6th  passed  a  measure  abolishing  capi- 
tal punishment,  and  it  was  signed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor. The  Senate  on  February  19th  recalled 
from  the  House  an  equal  suffrage  bill  which  had 
been  previously  passed  in  the  Senate.  The  bill 
passed  both  houses  in  1913.  No  further  action 
was  taken  on  the  bill  during  the  session. 

State  Government.  Governor,  L.  B.  Hanna; 
Lieutenant-Governor,  J.  H.  Fraine;  Secretary 
of  State,  Thomas  Hall;  Treasurer,  John  Steen; 
Auditor,  Carl  0.  Jorgenson;  Adjutant-General, 
Thomas  Tharaldson;  Attorney-General,  H.  J. 
Linde;  Superintendent  of  Education,  E.  J.  Tay- 
lor; Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Robert  F. 
Flint;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  W.  C.  Taylor 
— all  Republicans. 

JiTDiGiABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
B.  F.  Spalding;  Justices,  Charles  J.  Fisk,  E.  T. 
Burke,  E.  B.  Goss,  A.  A.  Bruce;  Clerk,  R.  D. 
Hoskins. 

State  Legislatube: 


RepublicAns    

Democrats 

Republican    majority 


SenaU   Houte   Joint  BaUot 
44         106  150 

6  6  11 


80 


100 


189 


KOBTH  DAKOTA,  Univebsftt  or.  A  State 
institution  for  hi«4ier  learning  founded  at  Grand 
Forks  in  1883.  The  tetal  enrollment  in  all  de- 
par  tmente  in  the  autumn  of  1015  was  831.  The 
faculty  numbered  93.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  productive  fimds  amounted 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  to  $1,700,000,  and 
the  income  to  about  $300,000.  The  institution 
is  supported  chiefly  by  legislative  appropriations. 
The  library  conte^ins  about  53,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  Frank  L.  MacVey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

KOBTHEAN  NIGEBLA.  See  Nigebia,  Col- 
ony AND  PBOTECTORATE  OF. 

KOBTHEBN    TEBBITOBT.    See   Austba- 

UA.  

NOBTHWESTEBN  TTNIVEB9ITY.  An  in- 
stitution for  higher  education  founded  in  1851 
at  Evanston,  lU.  Certain  of  the  departmente 
are  in  Chicago.  The  totel  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partmente on  Nov.  1,  1015,  was  4938.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  485.  During  the  year  the  uni- 
versity lost  by  death  George  Green  V.  Black, 
dean  of  the  dentel  school.  No  noteworthy  bene- 
factions were  received  during  the  year.  Ine  pro- 
ductive funds  amounted  to  about  $5,000,000. 
The  annual  income  amounted  to  $1,400,000.  The 
library  contains  approximately  200,000  volumes. 
The  president  is  A.  W.  Harris,  LL.D. 

NOBTHWEST  FBOVIKCES.  The  Canadian 
provinces  of  Manitoba,  Alberto,  and  Saskatehe- 


wan.  See  the  articles  under  these  titles;  see 
also  Canada. 

N0BTEWE8T  TEBBITOBIES.  See  Can- 
ada, Area  and  Population. 

NOBWAT.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of 
northern  Europe,  occupying  the  western  portion 
of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Christiania  is 
the  capitel. 

Abba  and  Population.  The  area  and  popula- 
tion {de  facto),  according  to  the  census  of  Dec. 
31,  1910,  are  given  below  by  amter  (prefectures) 
— first  the  land  area,  second  the  total  area,  in- 
cluding fresh  waters;  in  the  third  column  is 
given  the  totel  population,  and  in  the  last  the 
density  per  square  kilometer: 


AnU§r 

Sq.  km. 

8q.  km. 

Pop. 

D. 

Smaaleaene    . . 

8,869.51 

4,144.14 

150.690  88.9 

Akenhna      . . . 

4,908.11 

6.286.80 

129.828 

26.4 

Christiania 

16.82 

16.66 

242.860 

. ... 

Hedemarken    . 

26.288.19 

27.480.47 

188.686 

6.1 

Ohristiana 

24,180.62 

25,276.86> 

118.901 

4.9 

Bnskemd     . . . 
JarlsberiT     A 
Larvik 

14,016.78 

14,816.87 

128.868 

8.8 

2,244.68 

2.819.68 

108.888 

46.0 

BraUbwiT     •  •  • 

14.149.28 

16.189.00 

106,791 

7.6 

LiHter  ft 
Mandal     . . . 

8,772.22 

9,848.00 

71.272 

8.1 

6,881.17 

7.264.24 

77.287 

11.2 

Btavanger    . . . 

8,671.64 

9,147.16 

187.681 

15.9 

B^ndre  Bergen- 

bus     

16.104.61 

16.606.40 

141.618 

9.4 

Bergen     

18.08 

18.66 

76,888 

.. . 

Nordre-Bergen- 

has     

17.826.41 

18.481.61 

88,984 

5.0 

Romsdal     

14,691.06 

14.890.14 

148.109 

0.8 

B5ndre  Trondh- 

iem     

17.814.66 

18.612.87 

147.848 

8.8 

Nordre  Trondb- 

jem     

21.100.48 

22.496.14 

84,640 

4.0 

Nordland     ... 

87.178.84 

88.646.07 

161.106 

4.8 

Tromsd     

26,710.40 

26.246.06 

80.664 

8.1 

T'inmarken 

46.406.92 

47.580.84 

89,126 

0.8 

Total    

809,688.22*  822.908.82t  2,867,790 

7.6 

♦  110,649  sq 

1.  mUes.     1 124,676  tq.  milee. 

Of  the  above  totel  population,  1,123.160  were 
males,  and  1,234,630  were  females.  The  rural 
population  numbered  1,667,695,  and  the  urban, 
700,005.  The  totel  resident,  or  legal,  population 
(de  jure)  numbered  2,391,782  (1,155,673  males, 
1,236,100  females);  in  1900,  2,240,032;  in  1890, 
2,000,917.  Estimated  legal  population  at  the 
end  of  1912,  2,439,209. 

In  the  following  list  of  cities  the  de  facto  pop- 
ulation, according  to  the  1910  census,  is  given 
with  the  de  jure  population  in  parentheses: 
Christiania,  242,850  (241,834) ;  Bergen,  ^5,888 
(76,867);  Trondb  jem,  46,256  (45,336);  Ste- 
vanger,  36,621  (37,261);  Drammen,  24,937  (24,- 
895);  Fredrikstad,  15,481  (15,597);  Christian- 
sand,  15,408  (15,291);  Christiansund,  15,801 
(13,201);  Aalesund,  14,785  (13,858);  Skien,  12,- 
099  (11,856);  Fredrikshald,  12,023  (11,992); 
Sarpsborg,  10,018  (9846). 

Marriages  in  1910  and  1912  numbered  14,566 
and  14,797  respectively;  births,  61,461  and  61,- 
151;  deaths,  31,856  and  32,219;  emigrants,  18,- 
912  and  9105. 

The  majority  of  the  people  are  Lutherans 
(2,329,229  in  1910  belonging  to  the  stete  church 
and  16,287  to  the  Free  Lutheran  Church) ; 
Methodiste  and  Baptists  are  next  in  numbers 
(10,986  and  7659  respectively).  All  creeds  are 
tolerated.    Jesuito  are  debarred. 

Pboduction.  Only  about  one  thirtieth  of  the 
totel  area  is  cultivable;  about  one-third  is  under 
forest;  the  remainder  is  imcultivated  pasture, 
barren  teble-lands,  and  uninhabitable  mounteins. 


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VOBWAT 


Bxpt. 
80.8 

104.8 
26.7 
16.4 
84.8 
8.3 
20.1 
14.8 
16.1 
12.5 
11.1 
10.0 
66.6 

481.1 


The  eropB  raised  are  not  sulBcient  for  home  oon-  Countries  of  origin  and  destination  follow, 
sumption,  and  the  importati<»i  of  eereals  and  with  the  value  of  the  1913  trade  given  in  mil- 
meats  is  large.    Below  are  seen  areas  devoted  to  lions  of  kroner: 

main  crops  and  yield  for  two  years,  with  yield  

per  hectare  in  1013-14  (the  figures  for  1014-16  /m|M 

are  provisional)  :  Germany    176.8* 

__  u.  K 146.2 

H4eUw0s  QuiitUU  Qb,  Sweden    84.8 

1919-14  1914-15  1919-14    1914-15     ka.  ^     g       89  2 

Wheat    ...     5,024       5.024        78,180        78,180     14.6  l>enmeric"."  ■.■.'■.'.*.*.'.'.'.*.*.*.'!;!;  i!!!! '.  28!8 

Rye    15,168     15,168      266.420      266,420     17.5  NettierUnds    21.0 

Barley    . . .   86,182     86,182      664,178      664,178     16.6  Belcium    17.8 

OaU     100,105  100,105  1,868.640  1,868.640     12.4  Prance     11.7 

Potatoee  ..  42.021     6,080.611      166.8  Spain     4.6 

. Italy    8.8 

Live  stock   (1010)  on  farms:   167,714  horses,    othS'*^  280 

1,133,613  cattle,  1,398,383  sheep,  287,686  goats,  ^  -^ 

and  333,709  swine.    Reindeer    (1907),   142,623;        ''^^^    - 5»o» 

fowls,  1,391,347;  ducks,  8230;  geese,  9670;  tur-    

keys,  2961;  beehives,  20,223.  There  were  (1910)  Total  vessels  entered  at  Norwegian  ports  in 
742  cheese  and  condensed  milk  factories  and  1012,  11,059,  of  6,426,162  tons;  cleared,  10,971, 
creameries,  employing  1021  men  and  1710  of  6,379,888;  1913,  entered,  10,953,  of  6,766,035; 
women;  production  of  butter,  3,707,231  kilos,  cleared,  10,994,  of  5,772,603.  Vessels  entered  in 
and  of  cheese,  7,796,739  kilos.  Mineral  produc-  the  1910  trade.  12.083,  of  4,966,859  tons;  cleared, 
tion  is  increasing.  The  mines  employed  6246  11>773,  of  4,974,157.  The  merchant  marine  im- 
persons  in  1910,  and  5987  in  1911;  value  of  out-  eluded,  Jan.  1,  1913,  1106  sail,  of  632,989  tons  ; 
put  from  the  mines,  1911,  12,829,000  kroner.  At  »team  and  motor,  2126.  of  1.085,617  tons— a  to- 
the  end  of  1911  there  were  6077  industrial  ee-  tal  of  3232  vessels,  of  1.718,606  tons;  Jan.  1, 
tablishments,  employing  136,026  work  people  19H>  3200  vessels,  of  1,767,405  tons.  The  mer- 
and  779,840  horsepower.  Export  of  forest  pro-  chant  marine  included  Jan.  1,  1911,  3047  vessels, 
duce  (1910),  80,339,000  kroner  (wood  pulp,  39,-  of  1,526,156  tons  (steamers,  1842,  of  895,869). 
473,00i0).  Length  of  railway  in  operation  in  1911,  3085 

The  fisheries  products  are  important,  the  total  kilometers;  of  state  telegraph  lines,  11,013;  of 
catch  in  1910  being  valued  at  89,753,000  kroner,  wires,  21,127.  Total  length  of  railways  open  to 
Employed  in  the  cod  fisheries  in  1912  were  21,211  traffic  in  1913,  3097  kilometers;  1914,  3165  kilo- 
boats  and  94,281  fishermen.  Production  of  cod,  meters.  State  telegraph  lines  in  1914,  11,648 
00,303,000;  of  livers,  224,267  hectoliters;  of  roc,  kilometers,  with  23,039  kilometers  of  wire,  and 
55,198  hectoliters.  Total  value  of  output  of  the  1873  stations.  Telegraph  receipts  for  1913-14, 
cod  fisheries,  26,718,000  kroner.  Total  output  of  7,886,804  kroner;  expenditure,  6,514,966  kroner, 
the  herring  fisheries,  2,720,000  hectoliters,  valued  Post  offices  numbered  3640.  Postal  receipts  for 
at  12,502,000  kroner.  1913-14,     10,709,137;     expenditure,     10,474,161 

GoMHEBCB  AND  CJoMMUNiCATiONS.  By  royal  kroner, 
decree  of  Aug.  21,  1914,  the  export  of  cereals  and  I>uring  1915  the  state  railway  construction 
flour  has  been  prohibited.  Raw  cotton  may  not  in  Norway  was  progressing  rapidly,  although 
be  exported  since  May  23,  1915.  In  the  table  be-  «ome  of  the  most  important  works  were  some- 
low  are  seen  imports  and  exporU  for  three  years,  what  behind  the  schedule  time  originally  in- 
values  in  kroner  (the  par  value  of  the  krone  is  tended.  The  Doore  and  Rauma  railways  were 
26.799  cents) :  ^  hKve  been  completed  in  1917,  but  both  were 

behind  time.    Likewise  the  estimated  cost  had 

been  greatly  exceeded,  as  according  to  the  rail- 
way plan  of  1908,  lines  expected  to  cost  $13,- 
600,000  were  involving  actual  expenditures  of 
$23,200,000.  Furthermore,  alterations  and  fur- 
ther new  lines  which  had  been  decided  upon 
later  and  which  had  been  calculated  to  entail 
an  aggregate  expenditure  of  $9,400,000,  would  cost 
$2,700,000  more  than  had  been  originally  esti- 
mated. 

Finance.  The  unit  of  value  is  the  krone  (par 
value  26.799  cents).  In  the  table  below  is  given 
in  detail  the  budget  for  1913-14: 


Imports 
Exports 


1910  1919  1918 

420.228,800     660.804.100     600.804.000 

800.780.400     870,741.600     481.078.000 


Imports  and  exports,  in  millions  of  kroner: 

Imip$.  B9p». 

CoTMls    66.1  1.8 

CoL   prods    80.1  0.7 

Animsls     20.4  186.1 

PmlU,    etc 11.4  0.8 

Spirits     0.7  0.2 

Minersls    62.6  64.8 

Cosl.  ete 47.1  1.8 

IfoUls     88.6  18.8 

Hides,  etc    24.1  88.8 

Ysrns,   sto 14.6  1.0 

Wood     18.6  84.1 

Toztiiss     50.1  1.7 

ICstal  mfrs.    88.8  2.8 

Wood  mfrs 18.6  60.0 

Losthor  mfrs 2.7  0.2 

Paper,    etc 4.0  88.6 

Oils    40.0  17.8 

DrucB,   ete 8.7  0.6 

Vsrious     07.8  82.6 

ToUl  1018    600.0  481.1 

ToUl    1011     406.7  826.4 

ToUl  1000 886.6  264.8 

Tout  1006   812.8  218.0 

TbUl  1000   810.7  178.0 


fisvtniM  1000  kr, 

Finsnce*    101.048 

PubUc  works    40.760 

Instmctlon.  etc.    4,608 

Justice   2,027 

Agriculture    1,608 

From  loans   0,041 

Defense    807 

Commerce,  ete 640 

Foreign  sffalrs   66 

Various    102 

Tout    176,062 

*  Customs,  55,784,288  kroner ;  direct  tMces.  17,000,- 
068. 


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O 


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NOBWAY  405         NYASSALAND  FBOTECTOBATE 

E»p€ndUur0  looo  kr,  shown  that  the  Belridge  was  torpedoed  on  Feb- 
Pnblie  worki  t^'^f S  '^^'J  ^^^  ^7  •  German  submarine  which  mis- 
Finance  ".*.'.*.".**.'."/.*/.'.''.'.'.*.!;;;;!.'*.!*.!*.;;.*  txoll  ***®^  **  '^^  *"  enemy  ship.  Germany  deplored 
Instruction  ' .*       .' .' .' .* .*     .*.'.'.*!!!!!!     '.'.',','.'. '.  is.'ios  the  loss  and  offered  to  pay  full  damages,  such 

Justice,   etc 8.428  as  might  be  decided  upon  by  a  commission  of 

cSSmerSr  etc'. '  *. '. '. '. ".  *. '.  *.::::::":: ". litt  German  and  Norwegian  experts.     Germany  dis- 

Conncil  of  state  ',..'.     lises  claimed  responsibility,  however,  for  the  deatruc- 

Fp^^^^KJ  •ffairs  1,148  tion  of  the  steamer  America  in  the  North  Sea  on 

storthiS  .*.*::::::::;;::::;::;::::*:*:*:"    itl  ^*y  ^^'  ^  J""«  ^srd  m.  ihien,  the  Norwe- 

MisceUaneoas* ' '.              '. '. '. ". * '. '.   '. '. \ \  \ \ \  \\',',       240  fpan  foreign  minister,  expressed  the  hope  that 

_ Germany  would  take  steps  to  safeguard  neutral 

Ertwrdiii^  * : : : ;:;:::::::::::::::::;::: :    itl  8*>ipp»ng »» t^e  future,  m.  ihien  said  in  part : 

___^ ''Whatever  differences  of  opinion  may  exist  re- 

rpi.     *^  1         -x  1     *  XI.         X.       1  J  ux    X    J  garding   rights   under   international    law,   it   is 

The  total  capital  of  the  national  debt  stood,  niy  hope  that  the  German  government,  having 

?1^«**  ?*;A®i];?L^?^'*^^'®??.«''i?^''*'  June  30,  learned  through  experience  how  easily  mistakes 

1013   at  362,743,499  kroner  (148.30  per  capita),  are  made,  will  give  commanders  of  German  war- 

Of  the  latter  totel,  21,952  795  represente^^^  ahips   such    instructions   as   will   make   neutral 

temal.  and  340  790,704  the  «temal  debt.    On  shipping  safe."    This  speech  was  delivered  at  the 

June  30,  1914,  the  national  debt  was  357,394,462  opening  of  the  Norwegian   Storthing.    Late  in 

'^?B^^'      ^       _^.       ^    .  ,    ,   .  .    .,^,«.    ^^  Jwl.y   Sir   Edward   Grey,    British   secretary   for 

Navy.    The  active  fleet  included    (1913)    the  foreign  affairs,  expressed  regret  to  Norway  that 

following:     Four    cojisWefenw   vessels    (16,300  her  neutrality  had  been  violated  bv  the  Allies, 

^.«ll\^P'^''***^'?  (3500),  3  first-class  gunboats  especially  in  the  case  of  the  British   warship 

(3260),  8  serond-class  jrunboats   (2270),  2  tor-  which    had    made    captive    a    German    warship 

P^?'^A.^^;^I^!  ^^^J'  1  torpedo  dispatch  within   the  three-mile  limit  established   by   in- 

boat  (410),  10  first-class  torpedo  boats  (1020),  temational  law.    This  action  on  the  part  of  Sir 

^7  "®?^!if ■'^!**'v*^'P?^'' .^*."    ^i?t^l;x^  i^M^  Edward  Grey  pleased  the  Norwegians  and  was 

class  (30),  1  submarine  (200)— all  built.    Build-  acclaimed  by  the  press,  which  also  appealed  to 

ing:     Two  coast  defense  vessels,  1  torpedo-boat  the    government    to    demand    satisfaction    from 

destroyer,  4  submarines.    Personnel  of  the  navy,  Germany  for  the  torpedoing  of  several  Norwe- 

about  3400.           ^    ^.       ,    ,,             ..           ,  gian  ships.    On  September  9th  the  German  gov- 

GovEBNMENT.    The  King  is  the  executive,  act-  emment  offered  indemnity  for  the  sinking  on 

ing  through  a  Council  of  State,  whose  members  July  9th  of  the  steamer  8vein  Jarl,    On  October 

are  responsible  heads  of  departments.    The  leg-  eth  this  offer  was  accepted  by  the  Norwegian 

islative   body    is   the   representative   Storthing,  government. 

made  up  of  the  Lagthing  and  the  Odelsthing.  por  a  detailed  list  of  the  Norw^an  merchant- 

The  reigning  sovereijji  m   1916  was     Haakon  ^en   destroyed  or  captured,   see  Wab  op  the 

VII,  son  of  the  late  Kmg  Frederick  VHI  of  Den-  Nationb,  Vaval  Losses. 

mark.    The  heir-apparent  was  Prince  Olaf,  bom  Electionb,    In  elections  to  the  Lower  House 

July  2,  1903.  of  the  Storthing,  the  Liberal  Party  (the  Left) 

HiSTOBT  ^as  returned  triumphantly  with   77  members; 

the  Right  was  returned  with  only  22;  the  Social 

INTESNAL  AFFAps.    In  August  and  Septem-  Democrats,  with  19;  besides  four  independents, 

ber  a  grave  situation  arose  because  of  a  scarcity  NOBWEOIAN  LITEKATtTBE.    See  ScAW- 

of  food  and  the  unprecedented  high  Pnces  of  the  mnavian   Litobatube,  under   the   section   Nor- 

few   commodities   which   were   to   be   obtained,  y^^gi^f^ 

Norway  considered  seriously  following  the  lead  -M-z^TrA  an/>nrrA      n^      ^  ±^    -^r    'j.*       t*_ 

of  Denmark  in  commandeertag  all  brei&Btuff  ma-  ,  ^^^^°^4-.  ^%  «'  the  Maritime  Proy- 

terial.  and  forbidding  the  ^rtation  of  food  J,»'^/  "»«  Donunion  of  Canada.    The  area  » 

products.    The  advance  in  pri^  of  foods  waB  ?i'*28    square   milw;    the  .population,    at    the 

similar  to  the  advance  which  took  place  in  Swe-  "" ,  ^Jf'i'Vn  *^'^^?,-    p»P»*I|?'    H"'?'"' .  ''««' 

den,  but  was  higher  in  many  instances.    Meat  ^W}  l*'""  inhabitants.    The  province  »  ad- 

pri^  were  the  highest  ever  liown.    On  October  •"""*S'f  \  *  Lieutenant-GovOTnor,  who  is  ap- 

nth  women  voted  for  the  ilrst  time  in  Norwe-  ^oi^  for  five  years  by  the  Governor-General 

gian  elections.    A  bill  in  1907  gave  women  who  »'  Canada,  and  who  acta  through  a  responsible 

paid  taxes  the  right  to  vote,  but  it  was  not  f"^"*'T*    ~™«V  ..^he    l"*'.".!**!'?,  PO'^'f    " 

^til  1913  that  thi  Storthing  passed  a  law  per-  ▼"'ted  »•>  »  legislative  Council  of  21  «PPou>ted 

"^^"^^Z"^^  *"  '"^'  ''^"'•'"  "'  *"'  '^  ^^^-  '^eStSr  (^v^l^  ^91?  '^ 

X^^    TH.    EUROPI^AN    WAIL     L.f    te  ^^^''tj/^fj^i.^^^^^n    'lI'lB^P 

February    the    torpedoing    of    the    Norwegian  ?*S  f'   ""^  rST  ZVl"!!?,  '^"^^  "»   191«'   «• 

steamer    «<»j?iH    brought    stormy    protestalons  ^Ji^J-  :^  ^^^^^r 

from  the  newspapers  Mid  a  demand  ttiat  German  »OYBS,  Autod.    See  Litbbatubii,  Ekgubh 

goods  be  boycotted.    The  government  demanded  *"">  Ambbicaw,  Poetry. 

to  know  Germany's  reason  for  the  destruction  of  NTJTBITION.    See  Food  and  NTJTBmoH. 

Ijie  boat.    The  War  Insurance  Bureau  directed  WYABSAT.AWI)          FBOTBCTO&ATE.    A 

in  February  tiiat  all  ships  be  marked  with  the  British    protectorate    extending    from    German 

word  "Norge"  on  the  sides  and  carry  the  Nor-  East  Africa  to  Portuguese  East  Africa,  between 

wegian  colors.    The  action  of  Germany  in  de-  Rhodena  and  Lake  Nyassa,  and  having  an  area 

stroying  the  tank  steamer  Belridge  caused  Nor-  stated     at    39,801     square    miles.    Population 

way  to  protest  to  the  Oerman  government  and  to  (March  31,  1910),  070,430;  706  Europeans,  481 

demand    damages    amounting    to    $67,000.    In  Asiatics  (exclusive  of  Sikh  troops),  969,183  na- 

June  Germany  replied  th»t  an  investigation  Iiad  tives.    Population  estimated,   March   31,   1913, 

Digitized  by  VjOO 


le 


768  Europeans,  356  Asiatics,  1,020,637  natives. 
The  administrative  headquarters  are  at  Zomba; 
the  chief  town  is  Blantyre,  in  the  Shire  High- 
lands. The  cultivation  of  coffee  has  declined, 
that  of  cotton  increased,  8093  bales  of  400  pounds 
being  exported  in  1912-13,  6000  bales  in  1913-14. 
Tobacco  exported  in  1913-14,  3,763,014  pounds. 
Total  imports,  1913-14,  £189,210  (£199,710  in 
1910-11);  exports,  £200,734  (£168,911).  Local 
revenue  (1913-14),  £124,849;  expenditure,  £133,- 
106.  There  is  a  railway  (113  miles)  from 
Blantyre  to  Port  Herald;  its  extension  to  the 
Zambezi  has  been  undertaken.  Steamships  ply 
on  Lake  Nyassa  and  on  the  rivers  of  the  pro- 
tectorate. 

OATS.  The  climatic  conditions  prevailing 
during  the  growing  season  of  1916  were  in  most 
countries  generally  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
the  oats  crop  and  the  production  of  a  good 
yield.  According  to  an  estimate  by  the  Inter- 
national Institute  of  Agriculture  the  production 
of  oats  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  where  nearly 
98  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop  is  produced,  was 
about  4,869,000,000  bushels,  or  superior  to  all 
other  years.  This  estimate  was  based  on  official 
data  to  the  extent  of  69  per  cent,  while  for 
countries  not  furnishing  official  figures  the  yield 
for  1916  was  assumed  as  being  the  same  as  the 
average  yield  for  the  last  four  or  five  years. 
Taking  into  account  the  large  total  production 
and  considering  the  average  consumption  during 
the  past  five  years  as  a  basis  it  was  concluded 
that  the  1916  production  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere was  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of 
consumption  in  the  same  hemisphere  during 
1916-16. 

Nearly  one-half  the  1916  crop  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  was  produced  in  North  America. 
The  Canadian  crop  was  estimated  at  481,036,600 
bushels  from  11,366,600  acres,  a  high  average 
yield  per  acre  of  42.33  bushels,  ^e  United 
States,  as  reported  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, produced  1,640,362,000  bushels  on  40,- 
780,000  acres,  the  average  acre  yield  being  37.8 
bushels.  Based  on  the  farm  value  of  36.1  cents 
per  bushel  on  Dec.  1,  1916,  the  value  of  the  crop 
was  $666,569,000.  Neither  the  production,  the 
acreage,  nor  the  total  crop  value  had  ever  before 
been  reached.  As  pointed  out  in  the  report  of 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  exports  of  oats 
in  1916  as  compart  with  the  preceding  year  in- 
creased from  $1,000,000  to  $57,000,000,  or  from 
2,000,000  to  97,000,000  bushels,  about  8  per  cent 
of  the  crop.  This  increase  in  exports  apparently 
had  some  influence  on  prices,  as  the  average  price 
per  bushel  to  farmers  was  30  cents,  compared 
with  29  cents  the  preceding  year.  The  average 
annual  value  of  oats  carried  in  international 
trade  is  estimated  at  about  $102,000,000,  but  the 
War  of  the  Nations  in  Europe  continued  to  inter- 
fere with  commerce  and  trade,  and  thus  influ- 
enced the  movement  of  oats  and  of  other  cereals 
to  a  very  great  extent.  In  all  belligerent,  as 
well  as  many  neutral,  countries,  the  exportation 
of  oats  was  prohibited  in  order  to  protect  their 
food  and  feed  supplies. 

An  inquiry  regarding  the  production  and  use 
of  oat  straw  in  the  United  States,  made  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  indicated  an  average 
annual  production  of  41,824,000  tons,  of  which 
30,024,000  tons,  or  71.8  per  cent,  are  used  for 
feed,  1,606,000  tons,  or  3.6  per  cent,  are  burned, 
3,011,000  tons,  or  7.2  per  cent,  are  sold  off  the 
farm,  and  ^,928,000  tons,  or   7  per  cent,  are 


plowed  under.  It  was  found  that  of  oat  straw 
a  larger  percentage  than  of  any  other  straw  was 
used  for  feed.  T%e  average  value  was  estimated 
at  $4.67  per  ton,  or  a  value  of  $191,136,000  for 
the  total  oat  straw  production.  The  grain  and 
straw  production  of  the  oat  crop  of  the  United 
States  in  1916  represented  a  total  value  of  ap- 
proximately $746,706,000. 

OBEBUN  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  founded  at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  in 
1833.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  departments 
in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  1689.  The  faculty 
numbered  175.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  note- 
worthy benefactions  were  received.  The  produc- 
tive funds  amount  to  about  $2,700,000,  and  the 
annual  income  to  about  $125,000.  The  library 
contained  some  160,000  bound,  and  131,000  un- 
boxmd,  volumes.  The  president  is  Henry  C. 
King,  D.D. 

OBESITT.  A  new  method  of  dietetic  treat- 
ment for  the  reduction  of  fat  has  been  advo- 
cated, which  promises  to  be  much  more  efiicient 
and  controllable  than  the  methods  heretofore  in 
vogue.  This  consists  in  repeated  short  periods 
of  fasting  which  are  controlled  by  observing  the 
output  of  aceto-acetic  acid  and  other  substances 
which  characterize  the  condition  known  as  acid- 
osis. It  is  well  known  that  starvation  pro- 
longed over  a  period  of  more  than  a  few  days 
may  lead  to  such  unpleasant  symptoms  as  head- 
ache, nausea,  and  the  like,  which  are  immediately 
relieved  by  taking  even  a  very  small  quantity  of 
food.  Folin  and  Denis  applied  this  observation, 
interrupting  the  period  of  complete  starvation 
by  a  period  of  moderate  feeding,  just  sufficient  to 
eliminate  the  acetone  bodies  from  the  urine,  after 
which  the  fast  was  taken  up  again.  During  the 
second  period  acidosis  did  not  show  itself  until 
the  third  day  of  the  fast.  Another  period  of  low 
diet  succeeded,  and  a  third  fast  was  begun  five 
days  later.  Here  the  onset  of  acidosis  was  even 
more  delayed  than  during  the  second  fasting  pe- 
riod. These  results  apparently  indicate  tlut  a 
perfectly  safe  and  rapid  method  of  reducing  the 
weight  of  overfat  persons  is  by  a  series  of  re- 
peated fasts  of  increasing  lenglii,  determined  by 
the  amounts  of  ammonia  or  beta-oxybutyric  acid 
excreted. 

OBSEBVATOBIES.  See  Astbonomt,  Hiew 
Ohservatione. 

OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES.  In  connee 
tion  with  the  problem  of  industrial  accidents 
much  attention  has  been  given  in  recent  years 
to  diseases  connected  with  occupations.  It  has 
come  to  be  generally  recognized  that  such  dis- 
eases constitute  an  evil  of  the  same  class  as  in- 
dustrial injuries  and  that  provision  should  be 
made  against  them  by  the  same  methods.  Con- 
sequently detailed  studies  are  being  made  of 
the  diseases  peculiar  to  particular  industries, 
the  work  conditions  which  cause  them,  and  the 
means  of  reducing  their  frequency;  and  at  the 
same  time  workmen's  compensation  laws  are  in- 
cluding occupational  diseases  along  with  acci- 
dents as  constituting  a  basis  for  legal  claims. 

Legislation.  Rhode  Island  enacted  a  law  re- 
quiring every  physician  attending  a  person  be- 
lieved to  be  suffering  from  poisoning  by  lead, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  brass,  wood  alcohol,  mer- 
cury, or  other  compounds,  or  from  anthrax  or 
compressed  air  illness  or  any  other  disease  con- 
tracted as  the  result  of  his  industrial  employ- 
menty  to  report  the  lumie  mi  (l44r$0«  of  Wfi^ 


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O'DOVOVAK 


patient  and  his  employer,  the  occupation,  the  na- 
ture of  the  disease,  and  any  other  informati<»i 
required  by  the  State  Board  of  Health.  A  great 
many  States  passed  various  requirements  de- 
signed to  prevent  industrial  diseases.  Tlie  Colo- 
rado and  Montana  laws  in  a  broad  seneral  way 
required  employers  to  provide  safe  places  of  em- 
ployment in  accordance  with  rules  to  be  formu- 
lated by  newly  created  industrial  commissions. 
Illinois  required  that  processes  generating  poi- 
sonous gases  or  dust  should  be  earri^  on  in 
rooms  above  the  ground.  Minor  regulations 
were  enacted  in  other  States. 

New  Yobk  City.  One  of  the  most  important 
developments  in  the  investigation  and  treatment 
of  occupational  diseases  was  the  organization  by 
Dr.  Goldwater,  Commissioner  of  Health  of  New 
York  City,  of  a  clinic  for  occupational  diseases, 
under  the  title  of  Division  of  Industrial  Hygiene. 
Dr.  Louis  I.  Harris  was  placed  in  control,  and 
Mrs.  E.  H.  Harriman  paid  for  the  services  of  four 
physicians  to  assist  in  investigations.  In  addi- 
tion some  15  other  physicians  of  the  department 
cooperated.  This  division  secured  subjects  for 
examination  in  various  ways.  Under  the  sani- 
tary code  all  persons  handling  food  or  drink  are 
subject  to  examination;  various  industries  where 
irritating  dusts,  mercurial  or  other  poisons  exist, 
were  brought  into  line  either  by  approaching 
the  unions  where  the  trade  was  well  organized, 
or  by  approaching  the  employers  where  unor- 
ganized. The  first  extensive  investigation  was 
of  889  out  of  about  4100  persons  employed  in 
113  shops  in  the  manufacture  of  fur  garments, 
caps,  gloves,  and  felt  hats.  All  the  various  proc- 
esses were  carefully  analyzed  and  a  most  compre- 
hensive inquiry  made  into  the  effects  of  numer- 
ous special  conditions.  It  was  found  that  lung, 
throat,  and  nose  inflammations  were  very  fre- 
quent; that  anaemia  existed  in  67  cases;  that 
dcin  lesions  abounded;  that  tuberculosis  was  fre- 
quent; that  mercurial  poisoning  existed  in  40 
cases;  and  that  deafness  due  to  catarrh  result- 
ing from  dust  was  a  common  ailment.  This  was 
followed  by  the  publication  of  a  set  of  17  recom- 
mendations specifying  in  detail  the  rules  to  be 
followed  in  order  to  eliminate  faulty  conditions 
in  these  industries.  Similarly  the  division  in- 
vestigated and  issued  instructions  setting  forth 
the  precautions  necessary  for  printers  in  the 
safe-guarding  of  their  health. 

Another  notable  development  was  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Conference  Board  of  Physicians 
in  Industrial  Practice  for  the  purpose  of  "co- 
operative effort  in  introducing  into  industrial 
establishments  the  most  effective  measures  for 
the  treatment  of  injuries  or  ailments  of  em- 
ployees;  for  promoting  sanitary  conditions  in 
workshops;  and  for  prevention  of  industrial  dis- 
eases." Dr.  John  J.  Morehead  of  New  York  City 
was  chosen  chairman  and  Mr.  M.  W.  Alexander, 
West  Lynn,  Mass.,  executive  secretary. 

Gbeat  Britain.  A  departmental  conunittee 
appointed  in  1911  to  investigate  the  dangers  to 
health  of  house  paints  containing  lead  reported 
May  5,  1915.  It  recommended  the  prohibition 
of  the  importation,  sale,  or  use  of  any  paint 
material  containinff  more  than  5  per  cent  of  its 
dry  weight  of  a  soluble  lead  compound.  Excep- 
tion is  made  of  artists'  colors;  and  three  years 
for  readjustment  of  industry  is  allowed.  Ex- 
tensive inquiries  were  made  into  the  scope  and 
variety  of  lead  poisoning.  It  was  found  that 
Austria,   Germany,   Holland,   Belgium,   France, 


and  Switzerland  had  already  dealt  with  the  prob- 
lem. The  committee  stated  that  two  modes  of 
handling  the  situation  were  available,  either 
regulation  by  a  strict  industrial  code,  or  com- 
plete prohibition.  The  objections  to  regulation 
were  its  inadequacy,  the  difficulty  of  prohibiting 
dry  rubbing  down,  the  cost  of  complying  with 
necessary  precautionary  measures,  and  impossi- 
bility of  full  enforcement.  The  committee  found 
that  leadless  paints  are  already  in  extensive  use 
for  interiors,  and  that  zinc-oxide  paints  are  sat- 
isfactory for  exterior  work. 

BuiuiAU  OF  Labos  Statistics.  The  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  is  one  of  a 
multitude  of  agencies  gathering  information  in 
this  field.  It  publishes  a  series  of  bulletins  en- 
titled Industnal  Aooidents  and  Hygiene.  In 
this  list  the  following  bulletins  refer  to  occupa- 
tional diseases:  "L^d  Poisoning  in  Potteries, 
Tile  Works,  and  Porcelain  Enameled  Sanitary 
Ware  Factories"  (Bull.  No.  104);  "Hygiene  of 
the  Painters'  Trade"  (Bull.  No.  120);  "Dangers 
to  Workers  from  Dusts  and  Fumes,  and  Methods 
of  Protection"  (Bull.  No.  127) ;  "Lead  Poisoning 
in  the  Smelting  and  Refining  of  Lead"  (Bull.  No. 
141 ) ;  "Lead  Poisoning  in  the  Manufacture  of 
Storage  Batteries"  (Bull.  No.  165);  "Industrial 
Poisons  Used  in  the  Rubber  Industry"  (Biill.  No. 
179).  The  result  of  these  investigations,  as  of 
others,  has  been  to  show  that  scarcely  any  in- 
dustry is  free  from  the  peculiar  hazards  repre- 
sented by  poison,  dust,  fumes,  gases,  or  working 
conditions  which  result  in  disease  or  the  under- 
mining of  the  physical  constitution.  In  conse- 
quence Federal  workmen's  compensation  laws 
which  were  before  Congress  during  1913-15  in- 
cluded occupational  diseases  equally  with  in- 
dustrial accidents. 

Ohio.  The  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health  issued 
a  report  on  "Industrial  Health  Hazards  and  Oc- 
cupational Diseases,"  which  was  the  result  of  a 
two-year  investigation  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
E.  R.  Hayhurst,  who  conducted  a  similar  survey 
in  Illinois  in  1910.  Nearly  every  industry  is  de- 
scribed in  all  respects  in  which  it  affects  health, 
including  light,  ventilation,  cleanliness,  injurious 
dusts  and  gases,  unguarded  machinery,  fatigue 
from  great  exertion  or  from  speed  or  monotony, 
and  wages.  This  was  believed  to  be  the  most 
thorough  inquiry  in  the  subject  made  by  any 
American  State. 

OCEAK  FBEIOHT.    See  Shippino. 

O'DONOVAH,  Jeremiah.  An  Irish  patriot, 
better  known  as  O'Donovan  Rossa,  died  June 
29,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  1831  at  Rossa-Car- 
bery.  County  Cork,  Ireland.  His  father  was  of  a 
Rossa  or  "Red"  branch  of  the  family,  so  called. 
His  parents  were  poor,  and  he  received  little 
early  education.  As  a  boy  he  spoke  Gaelic,  but 
learned  English  in  young  manhood,  and  educated 
himself  to  a  great  ext^t.  During  the  famine 
times  in  the  40's  his  family  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, leaving  him  in  the  care  of  relatives.  He  es- 
tablished a  grocery  business,  and  was  appointed 
an  official  to  assist  in  local  relief,  under  the  Eng- 
lish poor  law  system.  Even  as  early  as  this  he 
had  become  an  uncompromising  patriot.  In  1856 
he  joined  the  Phoenix  Society,  which  was  formed 
as  a  literary  organization,  but  acquired  new 
characteristics  when  James  Stephens  came  from 
Paris  and  b^gan  secretly  to  organize  the  original 
revolutionary  brotherhood.  The  Phoenix  Society 
became  a  revolutionary  society  and  O'Donovan 
was  one  of  its  most  active  workers.    The  new 


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OHIO 


spirit  spread  all  over  Cork  and  Kerry  comities. 
In  1858  the  government,  becoming  alarmed  at  its 
increased  strength,  arrested  O'Donovan  and  sev- 
eral  other  leaders.  They  were  kept  in  jail  for 
six  months,  and,  on  a  plea  of  guilty,  by  an  ar- 
rangement with  the  crown  prosecutor,  they  were 
released.  In  1862  O'Donovan  removed  to  New 
York,  and  set  up  a  saloon.  This,  however, 
proved  a  failure.  He  did  much  to  advance  the 
Fenian  cause,  then  becoming  active  in  Ireland 
and  America.  He  returned  to  Ireland  and  be- 
came business  manager  of  a  Fenian  organ.  The 
Irish  People.  Through  this  paper  bitter  attacks 
were  made  on  the  English.  On  Sept.  16,  1865, 
the  police  raided  the  printing  shop  where  the 
paper  was  published,  destroying  the  press,  and 
placing  the  manager  and  the  entire  staff  in  jail. 
O'Donovan,  held  on  the  charge  of  treason-felony, 
attracted  wide  attention.  Refusing  tilie  services 
of  counsel,  because  he  considered  his  conviction 
a  certainty,  he  conducted  his  own  case,  and  was 
duly  convicted.  He  was  sentenced  to  penal  servi- 
tude for  life.  He  at  once  began  a  deliberate 
campaign  against  prison  discipline,  and  was  re- 
moved from  prison  to  prison  in  an  endeavor  to 
break  his  spirit,  but  without  success.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  attracting  such  notoriety  by  his 
troubles  that  the  government  included  him  in  a 
general  amnesty  in  1871.  Several  years  after 
his  release,  he  started  the  so-called  Fenian  skir- 
mishing fund.  In  1871  he  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and  became  a  naturalized  citizen. 
He  was  a  Republican  candidate  for  the  State 
Senate  in  New  York  against  William  M.  Tweed, 
but  was  defeated.  Even  in  his  later  life  he  was 
a  storm  centre.  He  was  shot  by  an  English 
woman  in  New  York  City,  and  carried  the  bullet 
in  his  shoulder  until  his  death.  He  published  a 
paper  called  The  United  Irishman,  in  which  he 
carried  on  a  bitter  campaign  against  the  British 
government.  At  the  expiration  of  his  banish- 
ment of  20  years,  he  returned  to  Ireland  for  a 
brief  period.  The  declining  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  New  Brighton,  Staten  Island. 

OFFICE   BUTLDINOS.     See   Abchitectubb. 

OHIO.  Population.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  6,088,627. 
The  population  in  1010  was  4,767,121. 

Agbiculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1014-15  were  as  follows: 


Aereoif* 

Prod,  Bu. 

Value 

Corn      . . 

...1915 

8,760.000 

166,040,000  $87,882,000 

1914 

8.660,000 

142,716,000 

87,056,000 

Wheat     . 

...1916 

1,980,000 

40,194,000 

41.802.000 

1914 

1,876,000 

86.688.000 

88.866.000 

OaU    ... 

...1916 

1.688,000 

69,008.000 

28,841.000 

1914 

1,660,000 

60,825,000 

22,646  000 

Bye     ... 

...1916 

100,000 

1,760,000 

1.462,000 

1914 

95,000 

1,616.000 

1.808,000 

Barley     . 

...1916 

80,000 

980.000 

602.000 

1914 

86,000 

876,000 

516.000 

Pototoea 

...1916 

168,000 

12.646.000 

8,782.000 

1914 

150,000 

14.260.000 

7.662.000 

Hay     ... 

...1916 

2,812,000 

04,049,000 

61.422.000 

1914 

2,812,000 

8.178,000 

42.685.000 

Tobacco 

...1916 

98.700 

&84.880.000 

7.690.000 

1914 

86.800 

78.120,000 

6.876.000 

a  Tons. 

h  Pounds. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1015,  horses  numbered  901,000  and 
910,000,  valued  at  $104,510,000  and  $116,480,- 
000;  mules  numbered  26,000  and  24,000,  valued 


at  $3,094,000  and  $3,048,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 022,000  and  895,000,  valued  at  $51,632,000 
and  $53,700,000;  other  cattle  numbered  872,000 
and  838,000,  valued  at  $29,473,000  and  $28,995,- 
000;  sheep  numbered  3,067,000  and  3,263,000, 
valued  at  $16,562,000  and  $15,336,000;  swine 
numbered  3,713,000  and  3,640,000,  valued  at  $33,- 
417,000  and  $40,768,000.  The  production  of 
wool  in  1915  and  1914  was  13,844,000  and  14,- 
350,000  pounds  respectively. 

Mineral  Pbodugtion.  The  total  production 
of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914  was  18,843.116  short 
tons,  with  a  value  of  $21,250,642.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  practically  all  the  employees  in  the 
mines  were  on  strike  from  AptW  to  July  the 
production  fell  off  heavily — ^nearly  50  per  cent 
as  compared  with  1913.  The  number  of  idle 
days  caused  by  strikes  reached  the  enormous  to- 
tal of  6,452,762  days:  in  other  words  40.557  men 
were  out  of  employ  for  an  average  of  159  days. 
The  strike  was  caused  by  the  question  whether 
wages  should  be  paid  according  to  the  output  of 
run-on-mines,  as  provided  by  the  act  of  the  Leg- 
islature, a  law  which  was  bitterly  opposed  by 
coal  operators. 

As  has  been  a  rule  in  recent  years  the  produc- 
tion of  petroleum  in  1914  showed  a  decline.  The 
output  was  8,536,362  barrels,  compared  with 
8,781,468  barrels  in  1913.  Nearly  half  the  out- 
put was  derived  from  the  Lima  field  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State,  and  the  remainder 
from  the  Appalachian  province  in  the  southeast- 
ern part.  The  value  of  the  oil  produced  in  1914 
was  $13,372,729,  compared  with  a  value  of  $17,- 
538,452  in  1913.  Pig  iron  (not  included  in  total 
of  State)  had  a  production  amounting  to  5,226,- 
925  long  tons,  valued  at  $70,331,114  compared 
with  6,913,961  tons,  valued  at  $103,824,517.  The 
value  of  Ohio's  clay  products  in  1914  was  $37,- 
166.768  and  in  1*913,  $38,388,296.  The  total 
value  of  the  State's  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $101,661,384,   compared   with   $121,795,892. 

Transpobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  June  30,  1914,  was  9147. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
August,  1914,  was  1,274,242.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  public  schools  was  895,167.  The 
average  daily  attendance  was  720,440.  There 
were  30,358  teachers,  of  whom  22,173  were  fe- 
males, and  8185  were  males.  The  average  yearly 
salary  paid  to  teachers  was  $527.  The  total  ex- 
penditures for  school  purposes  were  $36,455,334. 

Finance.  The  total  revenues  in  the  State  for 
the  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  were  $20,544,139. 
and  the  disbursements  were  $18,345,251.  There 
was  a  balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of 
$5,535,698,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $7,734,- 
995.    The  State  has  no  bonded  debt. 

Chabities  and  Ck>BBEcnoNB.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control  of 
the  State  Board  of  Charities  include  the  Athens 
State  Hospital,  Cleveland  State  Hospital,  Co- 
lumbus State  Hospital,  Dayton  State  Hospital, 
Longview  Hospital,  Massillon  State  Hospital, 
Toledo  State  Hospital,  Ohio  Hospital  for  Epilep- 
tics, the  Madison  Home,  Ohio  Soldiers'  and  Sail- 
ors' Home,  State  School  for  the  Blind,  State 
School  for  the  Deaf,  Institution  for  Feeble- 
minded, State  Sanatorium,  State  Penitentiary, 
State  Reformatory,  Boys'  Industrial  School, 
Girls'  Industrial  School,  and  the  Lima  State 
Hospital.  The  Reformatory  for  Women  is  now 
under  construction. 

PouTiGS  AKP  QovEBNHKNT.    In  the  elecUons 


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OHIO 


469 


OKLAHOMA 


of  November  2nd,  mayors  were  elected  in  Cleve- 
land, Gincinnatiy  Toledo,  and  other  dtiea.  The 
Republicans  of  Cleveland  and  Cincinnati  elected 
their  candidates  for  mayor,  and  in  Toledo 
Charles  F.  Milroy,  Progressive,  was  chosen. 
The  most  important  issue  in  the  dection  was  the 
question  of  prohibition.  A  constitutional  amend- 
ment which  would  have  absolutely  forbidden  the 
sale  or  manufacture  of  alcoholic  beverages  was 
submitted  to  the  voters.  The  opponents  suh- 
mitted  counter  proposals  under  an  initiative  and 
referendum  law,  and  a  further  provision  which 
would  prevent  the  submission  of  any  constitu- 
tional amendment  more  than  twice  in  six  years. 
State- wide  prohibition  was  rejected  by  a  ma- 
jority of  66,412. 

Frank  B.  Willis  was  inaugurated  Qovemor  of 
the  State  on  January  Uth.  His  inaugural  ad- 
dress promised  retrenchment  in  the  State  admin- 
istration. In  his  first  message  to  Uie  Legisla- 
ture sent  on  January  12th  he  recommended  de- 
centralization of  the  taxing  and  saloon  licensing 
systems,  and  advocated  placing  the  issues  of  sa- 
loon licenses  in  the  hands  of  county  oflSeials  al- 
ready elected,  instead  of  appointing  boards.  He 
recommended  also  that  the  mi^Timmn  death 
award  under  the  workmen's  compensation  be  in- 
creased, and  that  a  system  of  registration  and 
voting  by  mail  be  established. 

Floods  in  the  State  on  July  16th  and  iOth  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  five  persons,  injuries  to 
several,  and  the  damage  of  $2,000,000,000  worth 
of  property.  Hundreds  of  acres  of  land  were  un- 
der water.  At  Lima,  where  three  lives  were  lost, 
more  than  300  homes  were  submerged,  and  a 
large  area  of  land  was  flooded.  Great  damage 
was  done  also  at  Koiton,  Mount  Vernon,  and 
Lancaster. 

State  Govbbnment.  Governor,  Frank  B.  Wil- 
lis, Republican;  Lieutenant-Governor,  John  H. 
Arnold,  Republican;  Secretary  of  State,  Charles 
Q.  Hildebrant,  Republican;  Treasurer,  Rudolph 
W.  Archer,  Republican;  Auditor,  A.  V.  Donahey, 
Democrat;  Attorney-General,  Edward  B.  Turner, 
Democrat;  Adjutant-General,  Benjamin  W. 
Hough,  Republican;  Commissioner  of  Insurance, 
Frank  Taggart>  Republican;  Superintendent  of 
Education,  Frank  W.  Miller,  Democrat;  Secre- 
tary State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Renick  W. 
Dunlap. 

JuDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Hugh  L.  Nichols;  Associate  Justices,  Thomas  A. 
Jones,  Edward  S.  Matthias,  James  G.  Johnson, 
Maurice  H.  Donahue,  0.  W.  Newman,  R.  M.  Wan- 
amaker ;  Clerk,  Frank  McKean. 

State  Legislatube: 

3€nat0  Bou»4  Joint  Battoi 

Republicans    20         72  92 

Democrats 

Progressives    


18 


60 

1 


68 

1 


Republican  majority 


21 


28 


OHIO   BIVEB   CANALS.    See   Canals. 

OHIO  STATE  TTNIVEBSITY.  An  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  at  Columbus, 
Ohio,  in  1870.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  5451. 
The  faculty  numbered  481.  There  were  no  not- 
able changes  in  the  faculty  during  the  year.  The 
university  received  as  a  gift  the  property  of  the 
Sterling  Medical  College,  valued  at  $250,000. 
The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  amounted  to  $908,000,  and  the  total  income 


to  $1,466,000.  The  library  contained  about  150,- 
000  volumes. 

OHIO  TTNIVEBSITT.  A  State  institution 
for  higher  education  founded  at  Athens,  Ohio, 
in  1804.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1140.  The  to- 
tal enrollment  for  the  college  year  1914-15  was 
4317.  The  faculty  numbered  41,  with  55  as- 
sistant professors  and  instructors.  There  were 
no  important  changes  in  the  membership  of  the 
faculty  during  the  year.  The  university  received 
gifts  from  Andrew  Carnegie  amounting  to  about 
$325,000.  The  annual  mcome  was  $350,000. 
The  university  is  supported  chiefly  hj  legislative 
appropriations.  The  library  contained  about 
47,000  volumes. 

OHIO  WESLEYAK  tJNIVSBSITY.  An  in- 
stitution for  higher  education  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  at 
Delaware,  Ohio,  in  1842.  The  total  number  of 
students  enrolled  in  the  various  departments  in 
the  autumn  of  1915  was  1173.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 76.  In  1015  new  departments  of  education 
and  home  economics  were  opened,  and  the  teach- 
ing force  in  psychology,  education,  history,  so- 
ciology, and  government  was  strengthened.  The 
total  value  of  the  gifts  received  durins  the  year 
amounted  to  $25,800.  The  productive  funds 
amounted  to  $1,030,000,  and  the  annual  income 
to  about  $145,000.  The  library  contains  68,600 
volumes.    The  president  is  Herbert  Welch,  D.D. 

OHii  Cbudb.    See  Pstboleum. 

OKLAHOMA.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
5,088,627.  The  population  in  1910  was  1,657,- 
155. 

Aqbicultubb.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  foUows: 


AerMV« 

1915 

4.200,000 

1914 

4,000,000 

t  1915 

8,160,000 

1914 

2.626,000 

1915 

1,400,000 

1914 

1,100,000 

1916 

6,000 

1914 

e,ooo 

r      1915 

8.000 

1914 

7,000 

«s  ...1915 

85,000 

1914 

82,000 

1915 

460,000 

1914 

460,000 

I  ....1915 

1,950,000 

1914 

2,847,000 

Com 

Wheat 

Gate 

Rye 

Barley 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Cotton 

a  Tons,     h  Bales. 


Prod.Bu, 

128,900,000 

60,000,000 

86,640,000 

47,976,000 

87,800,000 

80.260,000 

81,000 

96,000 

212,000 

176,000 

2,976,000 

2,240,000 

al,068,000 

608,000 

b  680,000 

1,262,000 


$66,994,000 

82,000,000 

82.621,000 

44,187.000 

18,280,000 

12,402.000 

62,000 

91,000 

106,000 

98,000 

2,499.000 

2.016.000 

6,926.000 

4,018.000 

84.060.000 

89,277.000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  743,000  and 
758,000,  valued  at  $63,155,000  and  $61,398,000; 
mules  numbered  282,000  and  269,000,  valued  at 
$27,636,000  and  $25,824,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 519,000  and  494,000,  valued  at  $28,545,000 
and  $25,688,000;  other  cattle  numbered  1,186,000 
and  1,119,000,  valued  at  $44,949,000  and  $39,- 
613,000;  sheep  numbered  95,000  and  76,000,  val- 
ued at  $475,000  and  $319,000;  swine  numbered 
1,491,000  and  1,420,000,  valued  at  $10,735,000 
and  $11,644,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  411,000  and  490,000  pounds 
respectively. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  Oklahoma  ranks  sec- 
ond among  the  States  in  the  production  of  petro- 


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OKLAHOMA 


470 


OLD  AGE  PENSIONS 


leum.  There  were  produced  in  1914  73,631,724 
barrels,  compared  with  63,579,384  barrels  in 
1913.  The  total  value  of  the  production  in  1914 
was  $57,253,187,  compared  with  $59,581,948. 
During  the  year  8292  wells  were  completed,  of 
which  6410  produced  oil. 

The  coal  produced*  in  1914  wts  3,988,613  short 
tons,  valued  at  $8,204,015.  This  was  a  decrease 
of  over  4  per  cent  in  quantity,  and  about  4  per 
cent  in  value  in  the  production  of  1913,  and  was 
due  to  the  displacement  of  coal  by  petroleum 
and  gas  as  a  fuel,  following  the  remarkable  in- 
crease of  oil  production  in  Oklahoma  and  Texas. 
There  were  employed  in  the  coal  mines  of  the 
State  8078  men.  There  were  31  fatal  accidents 
during  the  year.  The  total  value  of  the  State's 
mineral  production  in  1914  was  $78,744,747, 
compared  with  $80,168,820. 

Transpobtation.  The  total  mileage  of  rail- 
ways in  the  State  in  1915  was  6456.  The  roads 
having  the  longest  mileage  are  the  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco,  1497;  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific,  1326;  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fe,  850. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  in  1914  was  587,134.  The  enrollment 
on  June  30,  1914,  was  496,908.  The  average 
daily  attendance  was  322,117.  The  male  teachers 
numbered  3214,  and  female,  7604.  The  expendi- 
tures for  the  schools  in  that  year  were  $7,879,906. 

Chabities  and  CoBBEcnoNS.  The  State  penal 
and  charitable  institutions  are  Oklahoma  State 
Orphans'  Home  at  Pryor,  Confederate  Home  at 
Ardmore,  Hospital  for  Insane  at  Vinita,  Hospi- 
tal for  Insane  at  Supply,  Hospital  for  Insane  at 
Norman,  School  for  Blind  at  Muskogee,  Institute 
for  Feeble-minded  at  Enid,  State  Training  School 
for  Boys  at  Pauls  Valley,  School  for  I^af  and 
Dumb  at  Sulphur,  Industrial  School  for  Girls  at 
Chickasha,  Industrial  School  for  Deaf,  Blind, 
and  Colored  Orphans  at  Taft,  Training  School 
for  N^gro  Boys  at  McAlester,  School  for  Way- 
ward Incorrigible  Girls  at  Oklahoma  City,  State 
Penitentiary  at  McAlester,  and  State  Reforma- 
tory at  Granite.  The  total  expenditures  for  the 
mamtenance  of  these  in  1915  were  $1,073,664. 
The  Legislatiu'e  of  1915  enacted  a  widows'  and 
orphans'  pension  law.  It  also  enacted  measures 
providing  for  the  pensioning  of  Confederate  sol- 
diers and  sailors. 

Politics  and  Govicbnment.  On  June  21st, 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  declared  un- 
constitutional the  ''grandfather"  clause  in  the 
Constitution  which  disfranchised  a  large  per- 
centage of  negroes. 

State  Govebnment.  Governor,  R.  L.  Wil- 
liams; Lieutenant-Governor,  M.  £.  Trapp;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  J.  L.  Lyon ;  State  Auditor,  E.  B. 
Howard;  Attorney-General,  S.  P.  Freeling;  State 
Treasurer,  W.  L.  Alexander;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  R.  H.  Wilson;  Commissioner 
of  Charities  and  Corrections,  William  D.  Mat- 
thews.   They  are  all  Democrats. 

JuDiciABY.  Supreme  Court:  John  B.  Turner, 
Summers  Hardy,  Matthew  J.  Kane,  J.  F.  Sharp, 
and  G.  A.  Brown. 

State  Legislatube: 

SenatB  House  Joint  SaUot 

DemocraU     88         77  115 

Republicans    5         17  22 

SocialiBta     1  4  5 

Democratic  majority   ....     82         66  88 


OLD  AaS  PENSIONS.  The  developments  in 
the  movement  for  the  establishment  of  old  age 
pension  systems  in  1915  were  not  striking. 
There  was  continued  discussion  in  the  UnitS 
States  concerning  the  establishment  of  some  sort 
of  g^eral  system  patterned  after  those  in  force 
in  England,  Germany,  France,  or  the  Australian 
Commonwealth,  but  the  developments  were  solely 
in  the  field  of  retirement  allowances  for  public 
employees,  or  for  corporation  employees.  Thns 
in  six  cities  and  towns  of  Massachusetts,  the 
question  of  granting  retirement  pensions  to  civil 
employees  appeared  on  the  ballot  in  the  State 
election  in  December.  The  inmiediate  question 
was  whether  the  l^slative  representatives 
should  be  instructed  to  support  an  old  age  pen- 
sion measure.  The  answer  was  a  vigorous  af- 
firmative— ^the  percentages  voting  for  it  being: 
Cambridge,  81;  Brockton,  87;  Lawrence,  79; 
Methuen,  75;  Abington,  77;  Whitman,  83. 

The  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce  went  on 
record  as  opposed  to  any  extensions  of  non-con- 
tributory public  pensions.  A  committee  of  the 
chamber  reported  that  there  are  about  200,000 
people  in  Massachusetts  over  65.  If  70  per  cent 
qualified  to  receive  the  pension,  as  was  the  case 
when  it  was  established  in  England,  it  would 
mean  an  expenditure  of  $5,000,(K)0  a  year  from 
public  funds.  Based  on  the  present  assessed  val- 
uation of  $9,000,000,000,  this  would  mean  an  in- 
crease of  approximately  60  cents  a  thousand  in 
the  local  tcuc  rate. 

The  inauguration  of  retirement  systems  for 
their  employees  has  been  a  notable  feature  of 
the  development  of  the  industrial  organization 
of  large  firms  in  the  United  States  during  the 
past  few  years.  Such  systems  are  now  found 
in  all  the  principal  railway  companies  and  the 
better  established  industrial  concerns.  The  Win- 
chester Repeating  Arms  Company  instituted  such 
a  system  in  July,  1915,  for  about  12,000  persons. 
After  working  for  the  company  30  years  a  male 
employee  may  be  retired  upon  request  at  55 
years.  A  woman  working  30  years  may  be  re- 
tired at  50  upon  her  request.  The  company  at 
its  discretion  may  retire  and  place  on  the  pen- 
sion list  any  employee  60  years  of  age,  who  has 
worked  for  the  company  25  years,  or  any  female 
employee  of  55  yefurs,  who  has  worked  for  a 
similar  period.  The  amount  of  the  pension  is  to 
be  based  on  the  employee's  average  annual  pay 
during  five  years  immediately  preceding  retire- 
ment, but  no  pension  is  to  be  less  than  $20  a 
month. 

A  bulletin  was  issued  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  system  containing  the  names  of  57  men 
who  had  been  placed  upon  the  company's  pen- 
sion list.  Altogether  8881  had  been  put  on  the 
pension  roll,  of  whom  4467  were  living.  Since 
the  roll  of  honor  and  retirement  plan  was  es- 
tablished, Jan.  1,  1900,  the  system  has  paid  out 
nearly  $11,500,000  in  pensions. 

Canada.  In  Canada  the  government  carries 
out  a  plan  wherebv  individuals  may  provide  an- 
nuities for  their  later  years.  The  expenses  of 
administration  are  borne  by  the  state,  and  in 
addition  the  premiums  are  calculated  on  the 
basis  of  a  rate  of  interest  slightly  higher  than 
the  normal  market  rate,  thus  giving  another  in- 
direct contribution  from  the  government.  There 
is  no  direct  contribution  by  the  government 
From  Sept.  1,  1908,  to  March  31,  1915,  3700  an- 
nuity contracts  were  written  under  the  govern- 
ment   plan.    This    system^    however,    does    not 


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OLD  AaB  PENSIONS 


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OBEOON 


reach  the  laborer  nor  the  artisan  in  large  num- 
bers, attracting  persons  of  moderate  income,  such 
as  clerks  and  school  teachers.  A  change  in  the 
method  of  propaganda  in  1911  from  lecturing  to 
advertising  resulted  in  a  great  decrease  in  the 
number  of  applicants,  a  result  attributed  by 
many  to  the  advertising  method  now  used. 

Australia.  Under  the  Invalid  and  Old  Age 
Pensions  Act  of  Australia,  1909,  there  were  on 
June  30,  1915,  111,309  pensioners,  of  whom  five- 
sixths  were  old  age  and  one-sixth  invalid  pen- 
sioners, to  whom  a  total  of  $13,097,000  was 
paid.  The  average  pension  per  two  week  period 
was  about  $4.75,  the  same  as  in  1914.  Ad- 
ministrative expenses  were  1.77  per  cent  of  the 
total  payments  made,  or  a  fraction  of  1  per 
cent  less  than  previously. 

France.  Old  age  and  invalidity  pension  acts 
were  passed  in  France,  1880,  1898,  and  1910. 
On  Jan.  1,  1914,  the  number  in  receipt  of  pen- 
sions was  362,876;  they  received  an  average  an- 
nual pension  of  $25.48.  Compared  with  five 
years  previous  there  was  an  increase  of  only 
56,100  in  the  number  of  pensioners,  and  of  20 
cents  only  in  the  average  annual  compensation. 

OMAN.  An  independent  Mohammedan  state 
in  Southeastern  Arabia.  Estimated  area,  82,- 
000  square  miles;  estimated  population,  500,000. 
The  capital  is  Muscat;  its  population,  including 
that  of  the  adjacent  Muttra,  is  about  25,000. 
Imports  in  1912-13,  6,953,363  rupees,  and  ex- 
ports, 4,522,163  rupees;  in  1913-14,  6,116,520 
rupees  and  4,073,044  rupees.  Chief  imports  in 
1913-14:  rice,  1,984,654  rupees;  piece  goods, 
832,300;  coffee,  890,150;  twist  and  yarn,  321,- 
790;  arms  and  ammunition,  202,902.  Chief  ex- 
ports in  1913-14:  dates,  1,508,676  rupees;  fish, 
113,608;  cotton  goods,  204,200;  limes,  90,275. 
These  figures  are  only  for  sea-borne  trade;  in  ad- 
dition, there  is  a  large  unrecorded  caravan  trade 
with  the  interior.  Reigning  Sultan,  Se3ryid  Ti- 
mar  bin  Faisal,  who  was  bom  in  1886  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Seyyid  Faisal  bin  Turki,  on 
Oct.  5,  1913.  British  consul  and  political 
agent  in  1915,  Lieut-Col.  R.  A.  £.  Benn,  C.  I.  £. 

ONTARIO.  A  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  The  area  is  407,262  square  miles;  the 
population  (1911),  2,627,292.  (See  Canada, 
section  Area  and  Population.)  The  capital  is 
Toronto,  the  second  largest  city  in  the  Dominion, 
having,  in  1911,  376,538  inhabitants.  Ontario 
is  administered  by  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  who 
is  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  Canada,  and  who  acts  through  a  re- 
sponsible executive  council.  The  Legislative- 
Assembly  consists  of  a  single  chamber  of  106 
members  popularly  elected  for  four  years.  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor in  1915,  Lieut.-Col.  Sir  John  S. 
Hendrie,  appointed  Sept.  26,  1914.  Premier,  W. 
H.  Hearst.     See  Canada. 

OPERA.    See  Music. 

OPTIONAL  GHABTEBS.  See  Municipal 
Government,  section  so  entitled. 

OPTOPHONE.     See  Phonopticon. 

ORANGE  FBEE  STATE.  A  province  of  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  since  the  formation  of 
the  Union,  May  31,  1910.  The  area  is  50,389 
square  miles,  nearly  equivalent  to  the  combined 
area  of  New  York  and  Rhode  Island,  which  is 
50,450  square  miles.  The  population  at  the  1911 
census  was  528,174,  of  whom  whites  numbered 
175,189.  The  capital  is  Bloemfontein,  which  had 
in  1911  26,925  inhabitants,  of  whom  14,720 
white.    Adherents  of  the  Dutch  Reform  Church 


in  1911  numbered  175,311;  Wesleyans,  88,867; 
Anglicans,  42,401;  Presbyterians,  7649;  Congre- 
gationalists,  8368.  Persons  recorded  as  of  no  re- 
ligion, 173,336,  of  whom  173,192  native  and  other 
colored.  There  are  reported  691  public  and  211 
aided  private  schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  over 
30,000  pupils.  Stock  raising  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, though  the  production  of  grain  is  in- 
creasing, especially  in  the  eastern  districts.  In 
1913,  the  number  of  sheep  was  10,060,063,  and 
goats,  616,113,  as  compared  with  10,443,922  and 
804,254  in  1912;  horses  in  1911  numbered  220,- 
725,  and  cattle,  1,286,234. 

ORCHESTRAS.    See  Music. 

ORDNANCE.    See   Militabt   Pbogbess. 

ORDUNA,  The.  See  Naval  Pbogbess,  Naval 
Operations  in  1915, 

OREOON.  Population.  The  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  809,- 
490.     The  population  in  1910  was  672,765. 

Aobicultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-15  were  as  follows: 


Corn     1916 

1914 
Wheat    1915 

1914 
Oats     1915 

1914 
Bye    1915 

1914 
Barley      1915 

1914 
Potatoea     1915 

1914 
Hay    1916 

1914 
aTona. 


Aereaff4 

33,000 

22,000 

900,000 

799,000 

865,000 

64,000 

28,000 

21,000 

180,000 

122,000 

48.000 

49.000 

850,000 

868,000 


Prod.  Bu. 

1,155,000 

660,000 

20.025,000 

16.604,000 

16,060,000 

12,740.000 

414,000 

886,000 

4.680.000 

8,660.000 

5,520.000 

4.758,000 

al.870,000 

1,716,000 


YtUue 

947,000 

641,000 

16,821.000 

16.986,000 

5,942.000 

6,788,000 

878.000 

886.000 

2,902.000 

2.288.000 

8,812.000 

2,852.000 

17,765,000 

16,787,000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  295,000  and 
304,000,  valued  at  $26,256,000  and  $27,360,000; 
mules  numbered  10,000  and  10,000,  valued  at 
$930,000  and  $960,000;  milch  cows  numbered 
216,000  and  210,000,  valued  at  $11,880,000  and 
$13,355,000;  other  cattle  numbered  563,000  and 
503,000,  valued  at  $17,807,000  and  $18,269,000; 
sheep  numbered  2,563,000  and  2,663,000,  valued 
at  $13,328,000  and  $11,534,000;  swine  numbered 
396,000  and  360,000,  valued  at  $2,812,000  and 
$3,420,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  15,763,000  and  16,600,000  pounds  re- 
spectively. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  The  total  production 
of  gold  in  1914  was  $1,691,461,  compared  with 
$1,627,710  in  1913.  The  mined  production  of 
silver  in  1914  was  142,542  ounces,  a  decrease  of 
36,484  ounces  over  1913. 

The  coal  production  in  the  State  in  1914  was 
51,558  short  tons,  valued  at  $143,556,  an  increase 
of  5445  tons  compared  with  the  output  of  1013. 
It  was  the  largest  production  since  1910.  Coal 
has  never  been  one  of  the  important  productions 
of  the  State,  and  during  the  last  years  it  has 
decreased  because  of  the  larger  increase  in  the 
production  of  petroleum  in  California,  and  in  its 
use  as  fuel,  'ihe  value  of  the  total  mineral  pro- 
duction in  1914  was  $3,331,132,  compared  with 
$3,563,919. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  length  of  railway 
main  line  in  the  State  on  June  30,  1914,  was 
2039.  In  addition  there  were  999  miles  of 
branches  and  spurs.    The  railways  having  the 


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longest  mileage  are  the  Oregon-Waahingtoii  Rail- 
way and  Navigation  Line,  537 ;  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific,  436;  and  the  Oregon  Tramp  Line,  166. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
1914  was  202,389.  The  total  enrollment  in  the 
public  schools  was  133,819,  with  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  115,205.  The  total  number 
of  teachers  was  5751,  of  whom  4650  were  fe- 
males, and  1101  males.  The  total  expenditures 
for  educational  purposes  were  ^7,199,471. 

Charities  and  Ck)RBECTiONS.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  the  Oregon 
State  Hospital,  the  Oregon  State  Penitentiary, 
the  State  Institution  for  the  Feeble-minded,  Ore- 
gon State  Training  School,  Oregon  State  Tuber- 
culosis Hospital,  Oregon  State  School  for  the 
Blind,  Oregon  SUte  School  for  the  Deaf,  all  at 
Salem,  the  Eastern  Oregon  State  Hospital  at 
Pendelton,  and  the  Or^on  State  Soldiers'  HcMne 
at  Roseburg. 

Politics  and  Govebnicent.  At  a  special  elec- 
tion held  on  January  20th,  Miss  Katheryn  Clark, 
Democrat,  was  elected  State  Senator,  defeating 
two  men  opponents.  Miss  Clark  had  been  pre- 
viously appointed  to  fill  a  vacancy  by  Crovemor 
West.  She  was  the  first  woman  elected  to  the 
Oregon  Senate.  The  Senate  on  February  3rd 
passed  a  bill  repealing  capital  punishment.  This 
was  to  conform  to  the  constitutional  amendment, 
which  was  adopted  in  the  general  election  in 
November,  1914. 

A  resolution  providing  for  a  constitutional 
amendment  making  it  unlawful  for  aliens  to  own 
land  in  the  State  was  defeated  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  on  February  4th  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote.  Another  bill  providing  for  the 
submission  to  the  voters  of  an  amen&ient  re- 
pealing a  constitutional  provision  giving  white 
foreigners  the  same  rights  with  regard  to  prop- 
ertv  as  native  bom  citizens  was  also  defeated. 

In  accordance  with  the  vote  of  the  people  in 
November,  1914,  the  Lower  House  of  the  Legisla- 
ture on  February  4th  passed  by  a  vote  of  58  to 
2  a  bill  prohibiting  the  sale  or  manufacture  of 
liquor  within  the  State  except  for  sacramental 
purposes.  By  the  measure  physicians  are  per- 
mitted to  adfminister  liquor  personally,  and  the 
importation  of  two  quarts  monthly  is  allowed 
to  individuals  for  private  consumption.  The  bill 
was  also  passed  by  the  Senate,  and  was  signed 
by  the  Qovemor.  It  becomes  effective  Jan.  1, 
1916. 

The  House  on  February  1st  passed  a  measure 
providing  for  the  permanent  registration  of  vot- 
ers, and  containing  provisions  which  amount  to 
compulsory  voting.  Under  these  provisions  the 
clerks  are  requir^  to  keep  a  card  index  system, 
for  registered  voters.  When  once  a  person  reg- 
isters the  record  becomes  permanent.  County 
clerks  are  required  to  remove  any  person's  name 
from  the  registration  list  who  has  not  voted 
within  two  years.  A  measure  was  passed  for- 
bidding discrimination  between  male  and  female 
public  school  teachers  in  the  payment  of  salaries. 

On  March  29th  the  Oregon  and  California 
Railroad  Company  petitioned  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  to  reverse  the  decision  of 
the  Federal  District  Court,  which  forfeited  the 
railroad's  title  to  2,300,000  acres  of  land  esti- 
mated to  be  worth  $50,000,000.  The  forfeiture 
was  claimed  by  the  government  because  of  a 
clause  in  the  grant  requiring  the  railroad  to  sell 
the  land  to  ''actual  settlers"  at  not  more  than 
$2.50   an   acre.    The   counsel   for   the   railroad 


claimed  that  all  rights  of  the  United  States  to 
forfeit  had  been  lost  by  inaction  on  the  part  of 
the  government.  The  Supreme  Court  on  June 
21st,  enjoined  the  railroad  company  from  selling 
the  undisposed  portion  of  its  land  grant.  The 
sale  to  "actual  settlers"  in  168  acre  tracts  at 
$2.50  an  acre  is  permitted  under  the  decision, 
after  suitable  legislation  has  been  enacted  by 
Congress.  The  court  refused  to  forfeit  the  lands 
to  the  government  on  account  of  the  c<»npany's 
failure  to  comply  with  the  provisions  as  to  prices 
and  settlement,  and  also  denied  the  i^pplication 
of  "actual  settlers"  who  have  settled  on  the  land 
without  permission  of  the  railroads,  and  of  ap- 
plicants for  entry,  to  have  the  property  declared 
a  trust  in  their  behalf. 

The  Sunday  closing  law  of  the  State  which  had 
been  on  the  statute  books  for  many  years  with- 
out an^  effort  beinff  made  to  enforce  it,  was  de- 
clared invalid  on  November  6th,  on  the  ground 
that  it  specified  that  certain  lines  of  business 
should  not  be  conducted  on  the  "Lord's  Day." 
The  court  held  this  to  be  religious  discrimination. 

State  Goveknmxnt.  Governor,  James  Withy- 
combe,  Republican;  Auditor  and  Secretary  of 
State,  Benjamin  W.  Olcott,  Republican;  State 
Treasurer,  Thomas  B.  Kay,  Republican;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  J.  A.  Churchill, 
Republican;  Adjutant-General,  George  A.  White; 
Attorney-General,  George  M.  Brown,  Republican; 
Commissioner  of  Insurance,  Harvey  Wells. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Frank  A.  Moore;  Justices,  Robert  Eakin,  Thomas 
A.  McBride,  Henry  J.  Bean,  George  H.  Burnett, 
Lawrence  T.  Harris,  and  Henry  L.  Benson; 
Clerk,  J.  C.  Moreland. 

State  Legislatuiub: 

84fuU€  Howt  Joint  BaUot 

Republicans    28         56  84 

Demoerats     2  4  6 

Republican  majority    26         52  78 

OBEGONy  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  at  Eugene,  Oreg., 
in  1876.  There  were  enrolled  in  the  fall  of  1916, 
in  the  department  of  liberal  arts,  786;  in  the 
summer  school,  183;  in  the  school  of  medicine, 
81;  in  the  school  of  music,  139;  and  in  the 
correspondence  study  school,  442.  The  faculty 
numbered  119.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during  tiie 
year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  re- 
ceived. The  university  is  supported  almost  en- 
tirely by  legislative  appropriations.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  amounted  to  $201,098.  The  li- 
brary contained  approximately  60,000  volumes. 

OBGANIC  GHEMISTB7.    See  Chemistbt. 

OBION  NEBULA.     See  Astronomy. 

0BNITH0L007.  In  the  United  Statea  and 
Canada,  the  agitation  for  bird  protection  has 
been  continued,  and  the  Legislatures  in  40  States 
passed  240  new  laws  relating  to  this  subject. 
Only  in  Arizona,  Georgia,  and  Nebraska  was  no 
action  taken.  On  Jan.  1,  1915,  a  law  prohibit- 
ing the  importation  of  wild  bird  skins  for  com- 
mercial purposes  went  into  effect  over  the  whole 
of  Canada.  In  England  Bird  Notes  and  Nevou 
reported  gratifying  progress  in  bird  protection, 
mentioning  specifically  the  resulting  increase  in 
the  number  of  skua  colonies  on  the  Shetland  Is- 
lands. The  Dutch  colonies  on  the  Malav  Penin- 
sula have  prohibited  the  shooting  of  we  rarer 


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OBOYA  nSVBB 


birds  of  paradise,  the  onlv  ones  not  now  pro- 
tected being  the  lesser  bird  of  paradise,  the 
twelve  wired  bird  of  paradise,  and  the  rifle 
bird.  In  England  the  war  prevented  the  final 
passage  of  a  plumage  prohibition  bill  through 
Parliament. 

The  Audubon  Society  reported  a  distribution 
of  6,000,000  pamphlets  and  leaflets,  and  an  ex- 
penditure for  the  society  for  the  year  of  $90,- 
000.  Mr.  H.  K.  Job  is  in  charge  of  a  new  de- 
partment on  applied  ornithology,  whose  aim  is 
to  instruct  the  public  in  methods  of  attracting 
wild  birds  and  raising  game  birds. 

As  reported  in  the  Ykab  Book  for  1914,  the 
last  known  livinff  passenger  pigeon  died  in  Sep- 
tember, 1914.  It  was  sent  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  where  it  was  studied  by  Sehufelt, 
who  has  published  detailed  descriptions  and  pho- 
tomphs  of  its  anatomy  in  the  Auk. 

The  33rd  meeting  of  the  American  Ornitholog- 
ical Union  was  held  in  San  Francisco,  May  17th 
to  20th,  1916. 

In  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
Strong  republished  some  observations  previously 
noted  in  the  Auk  on  the  habits  of  the  herring 
gulls  in  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan.  The 
species  is  gregarious,  though  there  are  frequent 
quarrels  among  the  birds,  and  other  birds  are 
not  disturbed  when  nestingon  small  islands  also 
occupied  by  the  gulls.  They  choose  breeding 
places  on  islands  inaccessible  to  man,  though  in 
hunting  food  they  are  often  found  near  htmian 
habitations.  They  rarely  breed  before  they  are 
three  years  old.  The  young  are  fed  on  food  re- 
gurgitated on  the  ground,  and  thus  may  be  fed 
by  oirds  other  than  their  own  parents.  The 
gulls  are  omnivorous,  though  they  prefer  fresh 
meat,  eating  spoiled  meat  only  when  driven  to  it 
by  hunger.  They  do  not  dive  to  any  extent,  and 
never  plunge  into  the  water  as  do  the  terns. 
They  do  much  bathing  in  warm  weather,  but 
very  little  in  cold.  Hearing  and  vision  are  both 
good,  and  vision  is  good  at  night.  Strong 
thought  he  could  distinguish  between  ''chal- 
lenge" and  "alarm"  calls. 

Cooke  in  the  Tear  Book  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  discussed  the  question  of  the  rap- 
idly approaching;  extermination  of  the  shore 
birds  of  the  United  States  and  laid  the  blame 
largely  on  the  insufiSciency  of  the  United  States 
laws  relating  to  spring  shooting.  In  addition 
to  this,  their  winter  homes  in  the  Argentine  are 
destroyed  by  the  clearing  of  the  land,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  limits  their 
feeding  grounds.  Most  shore  birds  nest  near 
the  Arctic  and  winter  as  near  the  Antarctic  as 
they  can  flnd  suitable  feeding  grounds.  The  two 
most  important  to  the  sportsmen  are  Wilson's 
snipe  and  the  woodcock.  These  are  indifferent 
as  far  as  agriculture  is  concerned,  and  hence 
are  of  chief  value  to  sportsmen,  but  by  reason 
of  injudicious  shooting  the  wookcock  especially 
have  been  largely  exterminated.  Sportsmen 
themselves  are  arguing  for  a  closed  season  to  ex- 
tend over  several  years.  The  woodcock  does  not 
migrate  so  far  south  as  some  other  shore  birds 
but  is  found  in  large  numb^s  in  the  southern 
United  States,  where  it  is  especially  liable  to  be 
exterminated  by  "game  hogs." 

According  to  Cooke,  a  number  of  shore  birds 
migrate  from  Alaska  to  Hawaii  at  a  single  flight, 
in  most  cases  doing  this  in  one  night,  though 
the  Pacific  golden  plover  probably  takes  48 
hours.    It  was  estimated  that  less  than  two 


ounces  of  fuel  in  the  form  of  fat  is  used  up  in 
this  process  and  Cooke  estimated  that  to  be 
equally  efficient  a  1000  pound  aSroplane  should 
fly  20  miles  on  one  gallon  of  gasolene.  The  Es- 
kimo curlew  formerly  occurred  in  enormous 
flocks,  breeding  in  the  northern  part  of  Canada 
and  wintering  in  Southern  Argentina  and  North- 
em  Patagonia.  They  are  now  nearly  extermi- 
nated owing  to  hunting  in  Argentina  and  in 
Texas  and  Kansas  on  their  migrations;  and  to 
the  fact  that  their  breeding  grounds  are  being 
used  for  apiculture.  The  only  way  to  prevent 
extermination  is  the  adoption  of  Federal  laws 
prohibiting  spring  shooting. 

Willet  stated  that  in  Alaska  the  tufted  puf- 
fin will  dive  after  herring  used  as  bait  by  fisher- 
men, even  going  down  15  fathoms  after  it.  The 
spread  of  the  chestnut  blight  in  the  eastern 
United  States  is  largely  laid  to  the  carrying 
of  spores  by  birds,  especially  the  downy  wood- 
pecker and  brown  creeper. 

A  second  list  of  birds  prepared  by  the  British 
Ornithological  Union  appeared  in  1915.  Col- 
linge,  writing  on  British  birds,  insisted  that  in 
estimating  whether  a  given  species  is  injurious 
or  beneficial  one  must  secure  information  con- 
cerning its  food  throughout  the  year.  Most 
birds  are  carnivorous  during  the  time  when  they 
are  feeding  their  young,  and  this  is  decidedly 
beneficial  to  the  farmers.  He  thinks  that  the 
wood  pigeon  is  the  worst  pest  with  which  the 
English  farmer  has  to  contend.  On  four  British 
lighthouses  bird  perches  have  been  provided. 

Beal  reported  on  the  habits  of  robins  and  blue- 
birds in  the  United  States.  Robins  may  some- 
times clean  out  an  entire  cherry  crop  before  the 
fruit  is  ripe  enough  for  human  use,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia do  much  damage  to  the  olive  crop.  Beal 
thought  that  they  do  this  only  when  there  is  an 
insufficient  supply  of  wild  fruits  to  meet  their 
needs.  Bluebirds  eat  insects  almost  entirely, 
and  sometimes  do  harm  by  eating  predaceous 
beetles.        

O'BOTTBKEy  Jebehiah.  American  architect, 
died  April  23,  1916.  He  was  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  in  1833,  and  was  a  monber  of  a  family 
long  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the  Irish  cap- 
ital. He  was  educated  in  the  Christian  Brothers' 
School  and  studied  architecture  in  the  Oovern- 
ment  School  of  Design.  In  1850  he  removed 
from  Ireland,  and  settled  in  Newark,  N.  J.  For 
several  years  he  was  employed  in  drawing  plans 
for  buildings,  and  later  went  into  business  for 
himself.  He  designed  the  Church  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception  in  Camden,  several  churches  in 
Newark,  and  Seton  Hall  College  in  South  Or- 
ange. In  1893  he  was  appointed  supervising 
architect  for  the  Treasury  Department  of  the 
United  States  government.  He  supervised  the 
building  of  many  important  post  offices  and 
other  public  buildings. 

OBOTA  FEVEB,  or  Oabbion's  Disease.  This 
disorder  was  studied  by  Strong,  Tyzzer,  and  Sel- 
lards,  of  the  Harvard  School  of  Tropical  Medi- 
cine, wl^o  found  it  prevalent  in  the  deeply  cleft 
valleys  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes,  at  altitudes  of  2500  to  8000  feet.  They 
suspect  it  occurs  in  other  tropical  countries.  It 
has,  like  malaria,  seasonal  prevalence,  favoring 
the  period  from  January  to  April,  and  particu- 
larly toward  the  end  of  a  warm  rainy  season. 
The  disease  is  characterized  by  a  fever  of  gen- 
erally irregular  course,  rapid  and  pernicious  an- 
aemia, prostration,  and,  in  from  30  to  75  per  cent 


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of  the  cases,  death  in  three  or  four  weeks. 
Diarrhoea  frequently  occurs.  Restlessness,  in- 
somnia, and  delirium  may  develop.  In  cases 
complicated  with  verruga,  an  eruption  appears. 
The  most  striking  feature  is  the  change  in  the 
blood,  since  the  rS  blood  cells  are  invaded  by  the 
parasite  which  causes  the  disease,  in  the  autiiors' 
opinion,  the  Bartonella  baoiUiformis.  Ckmsult 
Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Associationy 
March  6,  1915. 

OSBOBNB,  THOKAS  M.  See  Penology, 
Oahome  and  Bing  Sing, 

OSTBIGH  PSATHEBS.    See  Agbicultubb. 

PAHANO.  A  state  (the  easternmost)  of  the 
Federated  Malay  States  (q.v.).  Tin  and  gold 
are  mined;  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry.  A 
line  of  railway  from  Qemas  in  the  Negri  Sembi- 
Ian  to  Kuala  Semantan  in  Central  Pahang  (70 
miles)  was  completed  in  June,  1911,  and  is  being 
extended  to  the  Kelantan  frontier.  Roads  are 
in  process  of  construction.  Kuala  Lipis,  209 
miles  upstream  from  the  mouth  of  the  Pahang 
River,  is  the  administrative  headquarters.  The 
native  Sultan,  Mahmud  bin  Almerhum,  resides  at 
Pekan  and  is  advised  by  a  British  resident,  who 
in  1915  was  Mr.  E.  T.  Brewster. 

FAINTINa  AND  SOULPTUBE.  The  war 
in  Europe  will  doubtless  have  a  significant  ef- 
fect on  tiie  American  art  world.  As  yet  develop- 
ments are  slight,  but  there  are  unmistakable 
signs  of  changes  that  are  likely  ultimately  to 
prove  very  important  factors  in  the  development 
of  painting  and  sculpture  in  the  United  States. 
Dealers  who  formerly  conducted  their  opera- 
tions in  London  and  Paris,  with  only  a  casual 
and  superficial  attention  to  the  American  mar- 
ket, are  now  makin^r  their  headquarters  in  New 
York.  Many  American  artists,  who  have  lived 
for  years  abroad,  are  returning  to  their  native 
land,  adding  their  work  to  the  volume  already 
produced  here,  and  a  considerable  number  of  for- 
eign artists,  unable  to  weather  the  storm  in  Eu- 
rope, are  tsiking  refuge  in  America. 

To  a  certain  extent  this  increased  importance 
of  America  in  art  may  be  temporary,  but  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  so  marked  a  movement 
will  have  a  considerable  permanent  effect. 
American  collections  are  rapidly  growing  in 
numbers  and  importance,  both  the  collections  of 
modem  art  and  of  old  masters. 

El  Obeoo  and  Goya  Exhibition.  A  signifi- 
cant demonstration  of  how  necessary  a  knowl- 
edge of  American  collections  is  becoming  to  stu- 
dents of  the  painting  of  the  past,  was  given  in 
the  Loan  Exhibition  of  pictures  by  El  Greco  and 
Goya,  which  took  place  in  January,  1915,  for 
the  benefit  of  war  sufferers.  Only  in  Toledo  and 
Madrid  could  be  found  so  important  a  group  of 
examples  of  the  art  of  El  Greco.  Among  them 
were  included  the  portrait  of  Cardinal  Don  Fer- 
nando Nifio  de  Guevara,  "View  of  Toledo,"  por- 
trait of  Anstagi,  San  Martin  and  Virgin  with 
Saints  from  the  Church  of  San  Jos6  in  Toledo, 
"Christ  Cleansing  the  Temple,"  and  "Christ  on 
the  Moxmt  of  Olives."  It  was  a  revelation  to 
see  together  so  many  splendid  El  Grecos  all  be- 
longing to  American  collectors. 

The  pictures  by  Goya,  though  numerous  and 
excellent,  were  not  as  thoroughly  representative 
of  his  genius  as  those  by  the  greater  master,  but 
there  were  some  very  fine  examples  among  his 

E>rtraits,   notably   "Countess  de  Altamira  and 
aughter,"  "The  Conde  de  Teba,"  and  "The  Little 
Lady."    Various  collectors  contributed  to  this 


extraordinary  exhibiti<m  which  was  one  of  the 
great  events  of  the  year  and  immensely  appre- 
ciated, especially  by  artists. 

Since  El  Greco  is  the  "old  master"  of  the  mod- 
ems, it  was  perhaps  fitting  that  the  exhibition 
of  his  work  should  happen  to  be  followed  by  that 
of  one  of  their  contemporary  prophets,  namely 
Henri  Matisse.  The  display,  which  did  not  show 
Matisse  at  his  best,  was  of  interest  chiefly  in 
that  it  indicated,  in  a  somewhat  different  fackhion 
and  more  fully  than  had  been  done  formerly,  to 
the  New  York  public,  one  of  the  sources  of  those 
innovations  in  painting  which  had  mystified 
them  in  the  followers  of  Matisse,  whose  work 
they  had  already  seen.  Other  phases  of  the 
modem  movement,  as  manifested  in  present 
day  French  art,  were  shown  from  time  to 
time  in  group  exhibitions  throughout  the  win- 
ter. 

Abghitbctubal  League  Exhibit.  The  first 
large  g^ieral  exhibition  of  the  year  was  that  of 
the  Architectural  League.  This  event  of  annual 
recurrence  is  the  most  important  opportunity 
offered  to  the  public  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  at- 
tainments of  the  American  architect  and  the  art- 
ists most  closely  affiliated  with  him.  The  Pan- 
ama-Pacific and  the  Panama-California  exposi- 
tions at  San  Francisco  and  San  Diego  respec- 
tively, being  the  largest  recent  undertakings  in 
which  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects  have 
cooperated  on  a  comprehensive  decorative  scale, 
naturally  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  exhi- 
bition. 

Designs  for  these  buildings  were  shown,  as 
well  as  sketches  for  decorative  compositions,  by 
Robert  Reid,  William  Dodge,  Edward  Simmons, 
and  Frank  Vincent  Dumond,  while  a  section  of 
Robert  Aitken's  "Fountain  of  Earth"  was  one  of 
the  exhibits  to  prove  that  the  part  played  by 
the  sculptors  in  the  adornment  of  the  Exposition 
would  be  fully  as  prominent  as  that  played  by 
the  painters.  It  did  in  fact  turn  out  to  be  more 
so.  A  portion  of  a  simply  designed  and  very 
beautiful  fountain  by  Edith  Woodman  Bur- 
roughs was  one  of  the  best  things  in  the  exhibi- 
tion, and  there  were  in  fact  many  other  items 
by  a  good  proportion  of  the  sculptors  who  have 
made  a  name  for  themselves  in  America.  Many 
eminent  architects  showed  records,  of  a  kind 
necessarily  more  or  less  unsatisfying,  of  their 
achievonents,  and  there  were  a  great  number  of 
decorative  works  of  all  sorts  having  about  the 
same  general  interest  as  those  which  are  shown 
every  year  in  this  particular  exhibition.  A  room 
was  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  men  from  the 
American  Academy  at  Rome,  illustrating  the 
manner  in  which  they  carried  out  the  difficult 
problems  prescribed  for  them. 

Pennsylvania  Academt.  The  Pennsylvania 
Academy  was  the  next  important  organization  to 
take  the  field,  its  110th  exhibition  being  opened 
to  the  public  in  Philadelphia  early  in  ^bruary. 
As  is  naturally  the  case  in  an  exhibition  where 
the  majority  of  the  pictures  are  invited,  a  large 
number  of  works  appeared  which  had  been  seen 
before,  either  in  other  general  exhibitions  or  in 
smaller  groups. 

The  sculpture  prize  was  awarded  to  Albin  Po- 
lasek  for  a  small  bronze  called  "Aspiration," 
beautifully  designed  and  modeled  with  large  sim- 
plicity of  form.  Other  exceptional  works  of 
sculpture  were  by  Emil  Zettler,  and  Albert  Laes- 
sle.  Charles  Hopkinson  won  the  portrait  prize, 
and  others  to  receive  honors  were  Carroll  Tyson, 


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Charles  Hawthorne,  William  Paxton,  and  Ger- 
trude Lambert. 

Practically  all  the  artists  of  established  repu- 
tation throughout  the  country  were  represented, 
as  well  as  many  others  whose  names  are  less 
generally  familiar.  Among  the  artists  whose 
reputations,  now  in  the  making,  were  increased 
by  the  work  which  they  contributed  to  this  occa- 
sion, may  be  mentioned  Arthur  B.  Carles,  Waldo 
Pierce,  Harry  Berlin,  and  Joseph  Sachs.  Pic- 
tures which  helped  to  establish  the  standard  of 
the  exhibition  were  by  Thomas  Eakins  (a  painter 
who  late  in  life  is  receiving  the  appreciation 
merited  by  his  undaunted  sincerity),  Qeorge  Bel- 
lows, Robert  Henri,  Hayley  Lever,  Alden  Weir, 
Frank  Benson,  Paul  Dougherty,  Emil  Carlsen, 
George  deForrest  Brush,  William  Chase,  Cecilia 
Beaux,  Maurice  Prendergast,  William  Glackens, 
Elmer  Schofield,  Ernest  Lawson,  Childe  Hassam, 
and  Frederick  Frieseke. 

National  Academy  Exhibit.  Following  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  came  the  Spring  Exhibi- 
tion of  the  National  Academy  in  New  York.  An 
exceptionally  large  number  of  pictures  were 
shown,  and  the  arrangement,  though  crowded, 
was  homogeneous,  for  tiie  new'  school  men  were 
debarred  even  more  rigidly  than  usual.  Prac- 
tically no  painting  of  iSie  experimental  sort  was 
allowed  to  disturb  the  quiescent  aspect  of  the 
walls.  The  Saltus  medal  was  given  to  Abbott 
Thayer  for  one  of  his  winged  figures.  Eugene 
Speicher  won  the  first  Hallgarten  prize,  and 
Randall  Davey  the  second  Hallgarten  prize,  while 
the  portrait  prize  went  to  Douglas  Yolk.  The  In- 
ness  gold  medal  was  awarded  to  Joseph  Pearson. 

Association  of  Amebican  Paintebs  and 
ScuLPTOBS.  This  organization,  which  three 
years  ago  promised  great  things,  has  unfortu- 
nately dwindled  into  a  state  of  pretty  complete 
inactivity  owing  to  internal  dissension.  A  rem- 
nant of  it,  whose  most  infiuential  member  is  Ar- 
thur B.  Davies,  held  an  exhibition  in  a  dealer's 
gallery  in  March.  This  was  not  without  inter- 
esting features,  but  was  notable  chiefly  as  defi- 
nitely marking  the  end  of  the  broad  and  catholic 
policy  which  belonged  to  the  organization  when 
it  first  came  into  being. 

Degas  Exhibit.  On  April  6th  an  exception- 
ally good  loan  exhibition  was  opened  for  the 
benefit  of  the  campaign  for  woman  suffrage. 
This  exhibition  was  made  up  of  paintings  and 
pastels  by  Edgar  Degas  and  Mary  Cassatt, 
largely  from  the  collection  of  Mrs.  H.  O.  Have- 
meyer.  It  was  an  occasion  that  lovers  of  paint- 
ing were  glad  to  take  advantage  of,  as  oppor- 
tunities to  see  the  work  of  Degas  are  by  no 
means  frequent,  practically  all  of  his  pictures 
in  this  country  being  in  the  hands  of  private 
collectors.  While  Miss  Cassatt's  work  is  more 
accessible  she  is  not  a  general  exhibitor.  Exam- 
ples of  the  work  of  both  artists,  representing  all 
the  stages  of  their  long  and  distinguished  ca- 
reers, were  shown,  and  the  reason  for  the  high 
position  which  both  have  won  in  nineteenth  cen- 
tury art  was  made  more  clear  than  ever  before 
in  America.  At  the  same  time,  with  the  work 
of  these  two  notable  moderns,  was  exhibited  a 
smaller  group,  also  from  private  collections,  of 
pictures  by  old  masters  including  Vermeer,  de 
Hooch,  Holbein,  Coello,  Bronzino,  Rembrandt, 
and  Rubens. 

The  motive  that  guided  the  arrangement  of 
the  gallery  of  old  masters  beside  the  one  occu- 
pied by  Degas  and  Mary  Cassatt  involved  an  in- 


teresting and  too  little  tried  experiment.  The 
old  masters,  or  at  least  some  of  them,  were  chosen 
to  show  the  sources  of  the  two  modems,  and 
to  ahow  their  connection  with  the  general  tradi- 
tion of  painting.  And  for  those  people,  consti- 
tutionally and  tiresomely  inclined  to  think  of 
modem  painting  as  necessarily  something  sec- 
ondary to  any  examples  of  the  older  masters,  it 
was  a  healthy  thing  to  see  for  themselves  two 
modems  who  stood  up  so  strongly  and  in  some 
cases  outshone  their  predecessors. 

Blakeslee  Sale.  A  large  dealer's  collection 
of  old  pictures  was  dispersed  in  the  Blakeslee 
sale  which  took  place  in  April.  It  was  by  no 
means  a  collection  of  masterpieces,  being  made 
up  largely  of  first  rate  examples  of  second  rate 
artists,  and  second  rate  examples  of  first  rate 
artists;  but  there  was  an  ample  supply  of  the 
sort  of  canvases  that  architects  frequently  find 
useful  to  complete  the  decorative  scheme  of  a 
handsome  room. 

A  very  large  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  elab- 
orately authenticated  as  the  work  of  Rubens,  and 
showing  some  of  his  characteristics,  was  a  prom- 
inent item,  and  there  were  works  attributed  to 
Bol,  Metzu,  Van  Orley,  Titian,  and  a  number  of 
the  lesser  Italian  masters.  A  group  of  Spanish 
pictures  included  specimens  of  Coello,  Mazo, 
Goya,  and  Murillo,  and  there  were  a  great  num- 
ber of  portraits  of  the  eighteenth  century,  both 
of  the  English  and  the  French  school. 

Panama  Exposition  Exhibits.  Two  events 
which  mark  1915  as  distinct  from  other  recent 
years,  were  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  which 
took  place  in  San  Francisco,  and  the  Panama- 
California  Exposition,  which  took  place  in  San 
Diego.  At  the  latter  the  use  of  sculpture  for  the 
ornament  of  the  buildings  was  entirely  elimi- 
nated and  the  collection  of  paintings  was  com- 
paratively small,  consisting  mainly  of  paintings 
by  Robert  Henri  and  others  in  sympathy  with 
his  ideals.  The  aim  of  the  San  Diego  exposition 
was  to  exploit  local  tradition,  while  the  Panama- 
Pacific  was  international  in  scope. 

In  the  general  arrangement  of  the  San  Fran- 
cisco exposition  works  of  sculpture  played  a  very 
prominent  part,  many  pieces  appearing  to  good 
advantage  placed  in  the  open  against  a  back- 
ground of  foliage.  One  of  the  most  conspicu- 
ously placed  works  of  sculpture  was  Hermon 
MacNeiFs  "Adventurous  Bowman,"  which  sur- 
mounted the  striking  Column  of  Progress.  At 
the  base  of  the  same  column  appear^  Isidore 
Konti's  has  reliefs.  Nude  figures  by  Adolphe 
Weinman  and  four  groups  by  Paul  Manship 
adorned  the  Court  of  the  Universe,  and  a  "Vic- 
tory," by  Evelyn  Longman,  was  to  be  found  in 
the  Court  of  the  Four  Seasons. 

"The  End  of  the  Trail,"  by  Fraser,  was  placed 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Court  of  Palms,  and  foun- 
tain figures  were  contributed  by  Putnam,  Aitken, 
and  the  late  Edith  Woodman  Burroughs.  Of  the 
American  sculpture  shown  in  the  Palace  of  Fine 
Arts,  most  of  the  pieces  were  already  well  known, 
and  the  foreign  nations  were  represented  by 
works  of  sculpture  not  only  in  the  Palace  of  Fine 
Arts,  but  in  the  separate  national  pavilions. 
Among  the  French  sculptors  who  contributed  ex- 
amples of  their  work  were  Rodin,  Bartholom4, 
Bourdelle,  Dalou,  Merci4,  and  Besnard.  The 
Italian  list  included  Dazzi,  Nicolini,  Luppi,  and 
Ferrari.  Other  countries  represented  were  Hol- 
land, Norway,  and  Argentina. 

The  artists  who  received  important  commis- 


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FAHAHA 


gions  for  the  mural  decorations  were  William 
deL.  Dodge,  Frank  Brangwyn,  Edward  Simmons, 
Robert  Reid,  and  Childe  Haasam. 

The  Palace  of  Fine  Arts  contained  over  a  hun- 
dred rooms  in  which  were  exhibited  American 
paintings  as  well  as  many  examples  of  European 
art.  Some  critics  found  the  American  division 
disappointing,  the  hanging  and  arrangement  of 
the  pictures  being  less  satisfactory  than  in  some 
of  the  foreign  collections.  But  the  truth  is  that 
there  were  difl3culties  due  to  the  war  which  re- 
sulted in  a  compulsory  crowding  of  native  work, 
as  more  foreign  work  arrived  wan  had  been  ex- 
pected  after  the  war  had  started. 

To  a  number  of  deceased  painters  the  tribute 
of  separate  rooms  or  walls  was  accorded,  among 
them  being  Homer,  Abbey,  Whistler,  LaFarge, 
Twachtman,  and  Kobinson.  The  living  painters 
chosen  to  receive  similar  honors  were  Sargent, 
Chase,  Melchers,  Duveneck,  Hassam,  Weir,  Red- 
field,  and  Tarbell.  Others  whose  work  played  a 
prominent  part  were  Frieseke,  Gushing,  Griffin, 
Bohm,  Lever,  and  Tucker. 

The  French  exhibit  of  painting  was  divided  be- 
tween the  French  pavilion,  where  pictures  were 
shown  by  Manet,  Besnard,  Carritee,  Puvis  de 
Chevannes,  Degas,  Fantin-Latour,  Moreau,  Carin, 
Renoir,  Gkiuguin,  Ozanne,  and  Toulouse-Lau- 
trec, and  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts,  where  hung 
works  by  Blanche,  Cottet,  Dauchez,  Roll,  Maurice 
Denis,  Le  Sidaner,  Simon,  Signac,  and  Vallotton. 

The  Italian  contribution  was  somewhat  incom- 
plete, but  included  pictures  by  Mancini,  Inno- 
cent!, Tito,  Mentessi,  Emma  Giardi,  and  Lionne. 

The  Scandinavian  division  exploited  painting 
of  the  advanced  and  independent  type,  as  well  as 
the  more  conservative.  A  whole  room  was  al- 
lotted to  Fjaestad,  and  the  art  of  Bruno  Liljefori 
was  also  illustrated  by  a  considerable  number  of 
works.  Other  Scandinavian  painters  repre- 
sented, either  in  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts  or  in 
their  respective  official  pavilions,  were  Strand- 
berg,  Osslund,  Anna  Boberg,  Bergman,  Krohg, 
Munch,  Thaulow,  Lund,  Hammer,  Exner,  Roed, 
Ottesen,  Hansen,  Balsgaard,  Kyhn,  Petersen,  and 
Christiansen. 

The  collection  of  Dutch  painting  was  unpre- 
tentious in  character  and  contained  no  eccentrici- 
ties, displaying  the  work  of  Blommers,  Breitner, 
Witsen,  Isaac  Israels,  Van  Mastenbrodc,  and 
Wolter. 

Spain  did  not  officially  participate,  but  there 
were  a  few  pictures  sent  from  Portugal.  Other 
countries  which  were  represented  were  Hungary, 
Argentina,  Cuba,  Uruguay,  and  the  Philippines. 

Chicago  Abt  Institute  Exhibit.  Owing  to 
the  exhibition  of  foreign  work  at  San  Francisco, 
the  Carnegie  Institute  at  Pittsburgh  did  not  hold 
its  regular  annual  international  exhibition  in 
1915. 

But  the  28th  annual  exhibition  of  American 
painting  and  sculpture  took  place  as  usual  at 
the  Chicago  Art  Institute.  Alden  Weir's  beau- 
tiful portrait,  "The  Palm-Leaf  Fan,"  deservedly 
won  the  Potter  Palmer  prize,  and  other  awards 
went  to  Joseph  Pearson,  George  Bellows,  and 
W.  Victor  Higgins.  An  honorable  mention  waa 
given  to  Chester  Beach  for  his  "Unveiling  of 
Dawn,"  one  of  the  leading  contributions  to  the 
comparatively  small  group  of  sculpture.  Over 
350  paintings  were  shown,  representing  in  char- 
acteristic fashion  the  art  of  Frederick  Bartlett, 
one  of  the  most  talented  of  the  Chicago  painters, 
Benson,   Beal,   Mary   Cassatt,   Ralph   Clarkson, 


Davies,  Hassam,  and  many  others  whose  works 
very  often  go  the  rounds  of  the  large  exhibitions, 
appearing  in  each  one  in  turn — ^to  such  an  extent 
in  fact  uiat  sometimes  more  than  50  per  cent 
of  the  work  shown  in  any  one  exhibition  will  al- 
ready be  familiar  through  its  previous  appear- 
ance in  other  exhibitions. 

Other  Events.  One  of  the  important  small 
exhibitions  of  the  fall  season  was  a  group  of 
paintings  by  Van  Gogh  which,  considering  the 
limitation  in  numbers,  was  quite  remarkably 
representative,  and  was  in  consequence  a  matter 
of  great  interest  to  the  more  modem  painters. 
And  the  most  important  exhibition  of  the  late 
season  took  place  at  tiie  same  time  and  consisted 
of  a  very  remarkable  group  of  paintings  by 
Renoir,  supplemented  by  a  number  of  fine  Mo- 
nets. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  so  many  artists  now 
live  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  number  of 
pictures  submitted  to  the  winter  exhibition  of 
the  National  Academy  was  unprecedented.  Four 
or  five  times  as  many  pictures  were  rejected  as 
were  accepted.  The  artists  who  won  prizes  were 
Garber,  Beaux,  Dougherty,  Hawthorne,  and  Paul 
Herzel.  But  much  the  most  interesting  paint- 
ings from  the  painter's  point  of  view  were  those 
shown  by  Glackens,  Lawson,  Prendergast,  Charles 
Reiffel,  and  a  few  others  who  brought  a  fresh 
note  with  them  to  raise  the  level  of  mere  effi- 
ciency which  characterizes  so  much  of  the  work 
of  the  men  who  exhibit  year  after  year  at  the 
Academy. 

One  of  the  sculptors  whose  work  showed  above 
the  general  standard  of  the  sculpture  department 
was  Edith  Woodman  Burroughs,  whose  death 
occurred  in  December.  Her  death  is  a  very  real 
loss  to  American  art,  as  she  was  an  artist  of 
distinct  achievement.  An  artist  who  was  widely 
known  as  an  active  and  hard  working  official  as 
well  as  through  his  suave  method  of  painting, 
John  Alexander,  also  died  this  year.  Two  fa- 
mous collectors  died  this  year.  Sir  William  Van 
Home  and  P.  A.  B.  Widener. 

PAHAKA.  A  republic  situated  between 
Costa  Rica  and  Colombia.  The  city  of  Panama 
is  the  capital. 

Area,  and  Population.  The  estimated  area 
of  the  republic  is  87,480  square  kilometers  (33,- 
776  square  miles),  an  area  slightly  larger  than 
the  combined  area  of  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island, 
which  is  33,384  square  miles.  Panama's  area 
will  be  somewhat  reduced  if  the  Costa  Rican 
boundary  is  delimited  in  accordance  with  ^e 
decision  (announced  in  1014)  of  Chief  Justice 
White  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  to 
whom  the  boundary  dispute  had  been  submitted. 
The  population  is  nrobably  about  375,000  (ex- 
clusive of  the  Canal  Zone).  The  population  of 
the  city  of  Panama  was  estimated  m  1916  at 
60,000,  and  of  Col6n  at  30,000.  Other  impor- 
tant towns  are  David  and  Bocas  del  Toro.  The 
Canal  Zone,  which  is  American  territory,  ex- 
tends to  a  width  of  five  miles  on  either  side 
the  middle  of  the  Panama  Canal,  but  does  not 
include  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Col6n.  In 
1916  it  was  reported,  but  erroneously,  that  the 
name  of  Canal  Zone  was  changed  to  Panama 
Canal.  The  independence  of  Panama  was  rec- 
ognized by  Colombia  in  a  treaty  with  the  United 
States  signed  April  6,  1914,  and  ratified  by 
Colombia  in  1914,  though  up  to  the  end  of  1915 
it  had  not  been  ratified  by  the  United  States. 


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The  reported  number  of  public  Bchools  main- 
tained by  the  government  was  364,  with  14,611 
pupils.  The  National  Institute,  for  secondary 
and  special  instruction,  was  opened  in  the  city 
of  Panama. 

PnoDUcnoN,  GoMMEttcs,  ETC.  Panama  is  a 
fertile  country,  but  only  a  small  part  of  it  is 
under  cultivation.  The  principal  crop  is  ba- 
nanas. Other  products  of  some  importance  are 
com,  sugar  cane,  cacao,  yams,  rice,  ooffcK,  to- 
bacco, coconuts,  and  rubber.  The  forests  con- 
tain some  mahogany  and  other  valuable  woods. 
Mining  and  manufacturing  are  unimportant. 

Imports  (exclusive  of  non-dutiable  supplies 
for  the  Panama  Canal)  and  exports  have  been 
valued  as  follows: 

1910  1911  1919  1919 

Imps.  .$10,066,994  $9,896,988  $9,871,617  $11,897,000 
Exps..      1,769,880     2,868,426     2,064,648       6,888,027 

By  far  the  largest  article  of  export  is  ba- 
nanas. Classified  exports  in  1912  were:  vege- 
table products,  $1,829,336;  animal  produ<%s, 
$229,245;  mineral  products,  $6066.  Foreifln 
trade  is  largely  with  the  United  States,  the 
United  Kingdom  being  second. 

The  city  of  Panama  has  rail  connection  with 
Col6n,  48  miles;  this  is  the  Panama  Railwav, 
owned  by  the  United  States.  A  new  railway  m 
the  Province  of  Chiriqui  was  under  construction 
during  the  year  and  was  to  be  completed  in  May, 
1916.  The  new  line  has  a  total  length  of  62 
miles,  extending  from  the  Pacific  port  of  Pedre- 
gal,  300  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Panama,  up 
to  the  head  of  the  Caldera  Valley  at  the  foot  of 
the  Chiriqui  volcano.  In  a  distance  of  33  miles 
from  the  sea  coast  the  railway  attains  an  ele- 
vation of  4500  feet  with  correspondingly  high 
grades.  The  heavy  precipitation  durins  the 
rainy  season  made  the  construction  of  culverts, 
bridging,  and  drainage,  as  well  as  the  roadbed, 
very  costly.  The  track  is  36-inch  gauge  and  the 
total  cost  of  the  line  was  to  be  about  $1,760,000. 
In  the  region  around  Bocas  del  Toro,  light  rail- 
ways, chiefiy  for  the  banana  industry,  aggregate 
upwards  of  150  miles.  Telegraph  and  post  offices 
number  about  40  and  100,  respectively. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  balboa, 
equivalent  to  the  American  dollar.  Revenue 
and  expenditure  in  1911  amounted  to  $3,366,470 
and  $3,359,588  respectively.  For  the  two-year 
fiscal  period  1913-14,  the  budcet  balanced  at 
$7,682,428;  for  the  following  two-year  period, 
$10,622,000.  Early  in  1915  Panama's  first  for- 
eign loan,  of  $3,000,000,  was  negotiated  in  New 
York;  the  proceiads  were  to  be  used  for  railway 
construction.  In  the  autiunn  of  1015  a  loan  of 
$1,200,000  was  authorized. 

QoTEBNMENT.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  the  National  Assembly,  a  single  chamber  of 
33  members  elected  b^  direct  vote  for  four 
years.  The  President  is  elected  for  four  years 
by  direct  vote  and  is  ineligible  for  the  succeed- 
ing term.  There  are  three  designates,  elected 
by  the  Assembly  to  succeed,  in  order,  to  the 
presidency  in  case  of  vacancy.  President  for  the 
term  ending  Oct.  1,  1916,  Belisario  Porras. 
Each  of  the  provinces  is  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor appointed  by  the  President. 

HiSTOBT.  Early  in  January,  1915,  announce- 
ment was  made  that  Panama  had  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  award  made  by  Chief  Justice  White  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  the  arbitra- 


tion of  the  dispute  over  the  boundary  between 
Panama  and  Costa  Rica.  After  approving  the 
budget  {9upra)  and  passing  the  bill  empower- 
ing the  Executive  to  deport  obnoxious  foreign- 
ers (see  Ybab  Book  for  1914),  the  National 
Assembly  adjourned,  Feb.  24,  1916.  The  insufiA- 
eiency  of  the  revenues  to  cover  the  expenditures 
contemplated  under  the  new  budget,  especially 
since  any  increase  of  import  duties  was  certain 
to  encounter  opposition  in  the  United  States, 
was  r^arded  as  <me  of  the  most  serious  prob- 
lems confronting  the  eovemment.  Another  cause 
of  anxiety  arose  in  April,  when  Corporal  Lang- 
d<m,  of  the  United  States  coast  artillery,  was 
killed  at  Col6n  by  the  native  police.  Subse- 
quently another  American  soldier  was  killed  in 
a  street  fight  in  Panama.  The  negligence  of  the 
authorities  in  Panama  in  bringing  the  assailants 
of  the  Americans  to  justice  evoked  a  strenuous 
protest  from  the  United  States.  Public  senti- 
meat  in  Panama,  according  to  current  reports, 
bitterly  opposed  what  appeared  to  be  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  interfere 
with  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the  police 
system  of  Panama;  nevertheless,  in  September, 
the  Government  of  Panama  promised  to  give  tiie 
United  States  full  satisfaction,  and  instituted  a 
judicial  investigation  of  the  two  cases.  Consult 
also  Panama  Canal;  United  States. 

PANAMA-CALIVOBHIA  EZPOSITIOK. 
See  Abchitectube;  and  ExFOsmoNS. 

PANAMA  CANAL.  In  the  annual  report  of 
Gen.  Georffe  W.  Goethals,  Governor  of  the  Pan- 
ama CaniU,  dated  Aug.  2,  1915,  and  covering 
operations  up  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  June 
30,  1915,  it  was  stated  that  the  total  amount 
expended  for  the  canal,  including  the  balance  of 
appropriations  still  on  hand  and  available  for 
work  now  in  progress,  was  $357,436,048,  from 
which  should  be  deducted  receipts  from  the  sale 
of  construction  material  and  equipment,  and  the 
value  of  buildings  and  plans  transferred  to  the 
United  States  army  and  the  Alaskan  Railway 
Conunission  without  charge,  and  various  pay- 
ments made  to  the  Republic  of  Panama  for  mu- 
nicipal work  in  Panama  and  Col6n.  Of  the 
$394,399,149  appropriated  bv  Congress  to  June 
30,  1915,  General  Goethals,  In  his  report,  states 
that  $14,689,873  was  spent  on  fortifications; 
$750,000  to  cover  three  annual  payments  to  the 
Republic  of  Panama;  $6,440,000  for  the  oper- 
ation of  the  civil  government  of  the  Canal  ^ne 
for  the  fiscal  year  1916;  $4,289,159  for  the  oper- 
ation and  maintenance  of  the  canal  to  the  end 
of  the  fiscal  year  1915,  while  stock  on  hand  ag- 
gregated $2,225,000,  leaving  $365,999,116  appro- 
priated for  the  actual  construction  of  the  canal 
and  its  adjuncts.  Two  million  dollars  of  this 
was  invested  in  colliers,  and  $6,563,067  was  re- 
turned to  the  Treasury  Department  up  to  tiie 
close  of  the  fiscal  year  1915. 

According  to  the  report,  the  current  expenses 
charged  to  operation  and  maintenance  of  the 
canal  during  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to 
$4,112,550.48,  while  $160,608.52  had  been  charged 
during  the  previous  year,  a  total  of  $4,289,159. 
Tolls  collected  for  vessels  passing  through  the 
canal  during  the  year  amounted  to  $4,343,383.69; 
tolls  for  the  prior  year  amounted  to  $14,618.68; 
a  total  of  $4,358,002.37  to  June  30,  1915. 

The  report  states:  "The  excess  of  tolls  col- 
lected over  the  current  charges  for  the  year  was 
$214,833.21,  and  for  the  entire  period  to  June  30, 
1915,  the  excess  was  $68,843.37.    This,  however, 


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does  not  represent  the  actual  financial  condition, 
for  the  attorney-general  decided  that  the  maxi- 
mum tolls  collectible  on  any  vessel  is  the  amount 
derived  from  the  net  registered  tonnage  under 
United  States  measurement  rules,  at  $1.25  per 
net  ton,  so  that  large  refunds  will  have  to  be 
made,  as  the  difference  between  the  amount  col- 
lected under  the  Panama  Canal  rules  and  the 
amount  properly  collectible  under  the  law  has 
been  found  to  exceed  $1000  in  the  case  of  sev- 
eral vessels,  and  it  is  roughly  estimated  that 
the  total  refunds  may  aggregate  $400,000,  which 
will  show  an  excess  of  operating  expenses  over 
collections.  Refunds  cannot  be  made,  however, 
until  Congress  makes  an  appropriation  therefor, 
as  the  amounts  collected  as  tolls  were  recovered 
into  the  Treasury  as  miscellaneous  receipts. 
With  the  refunds  the  expenses  would  therefore 
exceed  the  receipts. 

''The  number  of  lockages  made  at  Gatun  dur- 
ing the  year  was  1216,  of  which  1066  were  for 
commercial  vessels;  at  Pedro  Miguel,  1260  lock- 
ages were  performed,  of  which  1085  were  for 
commercial  vessels;  and  at  Miraflores  there  were 
1236  operations,  of  which  1085  were  for  commer- 
cial vessels." 

Lines  Using  Canal.  One  of  the  features  that 
stood  out  prominently  in  the  operation  of  the 
Panama  Canal  during  its  first  fiscal  year  was 
the  fact  that  it  had  developed  an  all-water  trans- 
continental traffic  in  many  commodities  which 
formerly  could  not  be  carried  by  all-rail  or 
mixed  water  and  rail  routes,  such  as  lumber. 
In  the  second  place,  it  had  increased  the  regular 
traffic  of  the  Panama  steamship  lines  by  coast- 
to-coast  cargoes,  with  the  result  that  the  compe- 
tition was  being  felt  by  the  railways,  and  these, 
notably  the  Southern  Pacific,  applied  to  the  In- 
testate Commerce  Commission  for  permission 
to  reduce  transcontinental  rates  both  for  all-rail 
and  for  mixed  water  and  rail  lines. 

In  the  first  fiscal  year  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
the  bulk  of  the  westbound  freight  to  California 
was  engaged  by  the  following  lines:  the  Ameri- 
can-Hawaiian Steamship  Company,  with  a  fleet 
of  about  25  steamers;  the  Luckenbach  Steamship 
Company,  with  a  fleet  of  from  12  to  15  vessels; 
and  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Steamship  Company 
(of  W.  R.  Grace  k  Company),  with  7  or  8  steam- 
ers. In  the  12  months  ended  June  30,  1915, 
these  vessels  carried  in  the  aggregate  92.77  per 
cent  of  the  cargo  of  westbound  freight  from  the 
Atlantic  ports  to  California.  The  vessels  of 
these  lines  had  a  gross  tonnage  of  538,699  tons, 
as  compared  with  a  total  tonnage  of  the  smaller 
lines  of  42,081. 

Amonff  the  other  lines  using  the  Panama  Ca- 
nal regularly  were  the  Harrison  Line,  operating 
vessels  in  approximately  monthly  service  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Pacific  ports  of  the 
Unit^  States  and  Canada,  in  connection  with  a 
direct  line  to  and  from  Glasgow;  the  East  Asi- 
atic Company,  with  a  monthly  service  from 
Copenhagen  to  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada;  and  the  Maple  Leaf  Line,  from  New 
York  to  Vancouver,  then  to  San  Francisco,  and 
from  that  port  to  Europe,  returning  to  New 
York,  with  vessels  sailing  about  every  six  weeks. 

Between  Europe  and  South  America  regular 
lines  were  maintained  by  the  East  Asiatic  Com- 
pany, between  Copenhagen  and  Valparaiso  and 
intermediate  ports;  by  the  Pacific  Steam  Navi- 
gation Company;  and  the  Royal  Mail  Steam 
Packet  Company,  from  Great  Britain  through 


the  West  Indies  as  far  as  Valparaiso,  affording 
a  fortnightly  service.  From  the  United  States 
to  South  America,  the  Merchants'  Line,  of  W. 
R.  Grace  &.  Company,  had  sailings  between  New 
York  and  Chile  once  a  month ;  and  the  New  York 
and  South  American  Line  operated  approxi- 
mately a  fortnightly  service  over  the  same  route. 
The  regular  lines  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Far  East  were  operated  with  more  or  less 
irregularity,  but  those  in  regular  service  were 
the  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  to  Japanese  ports  and 
Vladivostok;  the  American  and  Manchurian 
Line  (EUerman  and  Bucknall  Lines)  between 
New  York  and  Vladivostok;  the  American- Aus- 
tralian Line  (also  a  branch  of  the  Ellerman  and 
Bucknall  Lines)  from  New  York  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand;  a  joint  service  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Oriental  Line,  Barber  Line,  Shewan, 
Tomes  and  Company,  and  the  Indra  Line,  from 
New  York  direct  to  Vladivostok;  the  Prince 
Line  from  New  York  to  the  Far  East;  and  the 
United  States  and  Australia  Steamship  Com- 
pany. 

LocKAOES.  General  €k>ethals  stated  in  his  re- 
port that  the  average  time  for  locking  vessels 
through  the  three  locks  at  Gatun  was  65  min- 
utes; through  the  single  lock  at  Pedro  Miguel, 
25  minutes;  and  through  the  two  locks  at  Mira- 
flor^,  45  minutes.  Four  towing  locomotives 
were  generally  attached  to  the  ships,  though 
eight  are  employed  for  the  largest  battleship. 
Tandem  lockages  with  two  ships  in  the  same 
chamber  at  the  same  time  had  been  made  but 
were  limited  by  the  number  of  towing  locomo- 
tives available.  Parallel  lockages  were  made 
only  in  emergencies. 

Watbb  Supply.  The  experience  of  the  dry 
season  of  1915  indicated  that  the  need  for  anxi- 
ety over  the  risk  of  an  inadequate  water  supply 
for  the  canal,  which  was  displayed  during  the 
earlier  days  of  the  project,  was  indeed  remote. 
The  rainfall  on  the  surface  of  Gatun  Lake  dur- 
ing the  dry  season  practically  equaled  the  loss  by 
evaporation.  It  was  found  that  instead  of  being 
obliged  to  lower  the  level  of  the  lake  during  the 
dry  season  to  supply  water  for  lockages,  enough 
water  was  wasted  over  the  spillway  during  the 
freshets  of  February  9th,  10th,  and  11th,  and 
April  3rd  and  4th  alone  to  have  raised  the  lake 
level  2.95  feet.  The  water-supply  situation  of 
the  dry  season  of  1915  was  summarized  in  tabu- 
lar form  as  follows: 


MWion 
Ou.Ft. 

Total  yield  of  Gatun  Lake  watershed 48,924 

Evaporation  from  lake  aorface 9.427 

Used  for  hydro-electrie  power 8,812 

t^Bed  in  making  088  lockages  and  teeta 8,724 

Ufted  for  municipal  purposes  and  by  suction 

dredges     270 

lioakage   176 

Wasted  at  the  spillway 28,264 

Balboa  Dbt  Dock.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
the  new  dry  dock  at  Balboa  was  nearly  ready  for 
use.  This  dock,  which  is  excavated  in  rock,  is 
lid  feet  in  width  at  the  entrance,  and  1044  feet 
long  from  the  mitre  sill  to  the  head.  The  mitre 
and  caisson  sills  are  39.5  feet  below  mean  sea 
level.  The  dock  contains,  with  the  tide  at  mean 
sea  level,  5,265,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  dock  are  a  pair  of  steel  mitre 
gates  identical  with  the  Panama  lock  gates,  ex- 
cept that  the  bearing  surfaces  at  the  mitre  and 


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quoin  ends  are  of  green-heart  instead  of  nickel 
steel.  The  first  gate  was  hung  on  November 
27th,  and  the  second  gate  was  practically  com- 
pleted at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Dkedoino.  In  addition  to  digging  away  the 
slides,  the  dredging  diyision  was  at  work  at  both 
terminals  of  the  canal.  At  the  Pacific  end,  642,- 
000  cubic  yards  was  dredged  between  deep  water 
in  Panama  Bay  and  the  Pacific  entrance,  and 
about  2,800,000  cubic  yards  was  dredged  from 
the  Balboa  inner  harbor.  At  the  Atlantic  termi- 
nal 750,000  cubic  yards  was  dredged  from  the 
Cristobal  approach  pier  channel,  and  265,000 
cubic  yards  of  coral  rock  was  excavated. 

Gaboobs  and  Tolls.  The  use  of  the  Panama 
Canal  reached  a  maximum  in  July,  1015,  when 
170  vessels  passed  through  and  the  cargo  car- 
ried amounted  to  705,460  tons,  exceeding  the 
shipments  during  any  previous  month.  The  tolls 
and  earnings  were  greater  than  during  any  pre- 
ceding month  since  the  canal  was  opened  to  the 
public.  Vessels  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
numbered  03,  and  carried  316,773  tons  of  cargo. 
Those  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  numbered 
77  and  carried  388,606  tons  of  cargo. 

The  British  vessels  outnumbered  those  of  any 
other  nation  during  July,  amounting  to  76,  and 
exceeding  the  number  of  American  ships  by  21. 
The  ships  of  other  nations  were:  Swedish,  8; 
Japanese  and  Norwegian,  7  each;  Danish,  6; 
Chilean,  4;  Peruvian,  3;  Honduran,  2;  Argen- 
tine, Dutch,  and  French,  1  each.  The  tolls  col- 
lected on  vessels  passing  through  the  canal  dur- 
ing July  amounted  to  $573,365.67 ;  including  the 
regidar  tolls  on  vessels  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, which  were  not  collected,  the  gross 
earnings  in  the  month  were  $606,578.77. 

The  principal  commodities  passing  through 
the  canal  during  July  were  cement,  coal,  coke, 
copper,  cotton,  ^^eral  cargo,  lumber,  manufac- 
tured goods  of  iron  and  steel,  machinery,  rail- 
road material,  nitrates,  crude  oil,  refined  petro- 
leum, sugar,  tin,  wire  fencing,  wool  and  zinc 
concentrates.  Of  these,  nitrates  of  soda  were  the 
largest  by  a  considerable  degree.  While  the 
above  items  apply  to  but  a  single  month,  yet  they 
can  be  considered  typical  of  Uie  year's  business. 

According  to  the  Canal  Record,  a  total  of  6,- 
706,015  tons  of  cargo  was  carried  through  the 
Panama  Canal  up  to  September  18th,  when  the 
canal  was  closed  by  slides.  This  was  at  the 
average  rate  of  406,808  tons  a  month,  or  16,318 
tons  a  day.  From  the  time  the  canal  was  opened 
on  Aug.  15,  1014,  until  closed,  a  total  of  $5,- 
754,673  was  collected  in  tolls.  The  traffic 
through  the  canal  by  months  since  Aug.  15,  1014, 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table: 


During  the  first  year  of  operation,  ending 
Aug.  14,  1015,  the  canal  passed  a  total  of  1317 
ocean-going  vessels  with  an  aggregate  net  ton- 
nage, Panama  Canal  measurement,  of  4,506,644, 
an  average  of  3400  net  tons  per  vessel.  The  tolls 
earned  were  $5,216,140.  In  comparison,  the  traf- 
fic through  the  Suez  Canal  for  the  calendar  year 
1014  is  of  interest,  being  4802  vessels  of  10,- 
400,405  net  tons.  The  total  receipts  were  125,- 
121,237  francs,  equivalent  (at  10.3  cents  per 
franc)  to  $24,148,300.  There  was  naturally  a 
considerable  falling  oft  in  the  Suez  Canal  traffic 
in  1014  on  account  of  the  war,  but  the  traffic 
was,  however,  about  four  and  one-half  times  as 
great  as  that  through  the  Panama  Canal. 

An  interesting  situation  was  developed  during 
the  year  when,  as  stated  above,  it  was  realized 
that  the  rules  for  vessel  measurement,  adopted 
by  Presidential  proclamation,  were  not  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law,  and  the  protest  was  made 
that  tolls  collected  in  excess  of  legal  authority 
should  be  refunded.  These  rules  were  drafted 
by  Dr.  Emory  R.  Johnson,  and  were  supposed  to 
conform  strictly  to  the  law  as  enacted.  General 
Goethals,  in  his  report,  says:  "Much  to  our 
chagrin  and  humiliation,  we  learned  that  Dr. 
Johnson  was  aware  of  the  discrepancy,  notwith- 
standing which  he  presented  his  rules  of  meas- 
urement and  rates  of  tolls  for  promulgation  to 
the  shipping  interests  of  the  world.  Confusion 
has  been  the  order  of  the  day  in  consequence.^' 
In  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  providing  for  the 
refund  of  the  illegal  charges  which  must  wait 
until  a  Congressional  appropriation,  the  law  as 
it  stood  involved  the  assessment  of  vessels  on 
their  net  registered  tonnage,  which  could  be 
varied  by  rulings  and  decisions  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Navigation.  These  rules  as  applied 
were  said  to  cause  discrimination  against  Ajner- 
ican  ships  in  favor  of  foreign  ships. 

Slides.  The  important  event  of  the  year  at 
the  Panama  Canal  was  its  closing  on  September 
18th  by  great  slides  at  Culebra,  which  involved 
some  10,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material  and  re- 
quired to  be  dredged  out.  This  closing  of  the 
canal  was  a  very  serious  matter,  particularly  in 
view  of  the  demand  for  shipments  to  the  Far 
East,  with  the  conditions  of  oceanic  shipping 
seriously  affected  by  the  war  in  Europe,  and  the 
threatened  closing  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The  ob- 
struction of  traffic  held  up  at  the  Isthmus  83 
ships  with  vast  cargoes  and  involved  a  delay 
that  meant  great  financial  losses  in  view  of  the 
scarcity  of  shipping  and  the  need  of  prompt 
shipments.  Some  of  the  lines  with  ships  on 
either  side,  of  course,  were  able  to  transship 
via  the  Panama  Bailroad.    These  slides  were  not 


AilarUiePaeifie 
Omrffo 

Month                                          VoMda  tont 

Auguat    1914    18  40.106 

September    27  141,762 

October 44  168.069 

November     64  206.510 

December 48  •  179.285 

January.    1915    44  208.082 

February    89  150,987 

March     57  217,447 

April    59  287.884 

May    67  246.584 

June     88  820,619 

July    98  816,778 

August    89  249,119 

September    49  181,380 

Total 761  2,878,007 


Paeifle-AtUmtie 

Total 

Cargo 

Oarffo 

VMseU 

tont 

FeMtfIt 

ton$ 

11 

62,178 

24 

111,284 

80 

180,276 

67 

822,088 

40 

258.288 

84 

421.867 

88 

242,291 

92 

448,801 

57 

271,219 

100 

450,464 

54 

240.925 

98 

449,007 

58 

276,078 

92 

427,065 

80 

417,610 

187 

686,057 

60 

265.457 

119 

522.841 

75 

882,174 

142 

578,708 

60 

282.561 

148 

608,180 

77 

888.696 

170 

705,469 

72 

826,218 

161 

676.887 

51 

274,987 

100 

466.817 

758 

8.888.908 

1,519 

6.706.915 

Digitized  by 

GOOQ 

le 


PANAMA  OANAL 


480 


PAH-AMBBICAH  00HOSB88 


a  new  feature  of  the  canal.  They  were  incident 
to  the  geological  formation  of  the  ground  and 
were  encountered  during  the  construction,  and 
even  during  the  operations  of  the  French  Com- 
pany at  Cucaracha.  The  sliding  began  early  and 
continued  until  1912,  when  for  a  time  there  was 
no  further  trouble  at  this  point.  Before  the 
great  slide  of  September  18th,  three  minor  slides 
had  interrupts  traffic,  the  canal  having  been 
closed  from  Oct.  14  to  20,  and  Oct.  31  to  Nov.  4, 
1014;  and  from  March  4  to  10,  1915. 

The  breaks  at  the  Culebra  Cut  first  occurred 
in  1907,  and  followed  intermittently  ever  since. 
The  great  slide  began  in  1914  on  the  east  bank 
north  of  Gold  Hill,  but  until  August,  1915, 
dredges  were  able  to  keep  up  with  the  move- 
ment and  to  keep  the  canal  dear.  On  Septem- 
ber 18th  a  disastrous  slide  occurred  at  Gaillard 
Cut  on  the  east  bank  just  north  of  Gold  Hill, 
directly  opposite  the  village  of  Culebra,  which 
put  the  canal  out  of  conunission,  and  prevented 
ito  use  for  the  remainder  of  the  year,  except  for 
the  passage  of  a  few  small  vessels  on  December 
20th.  These  ships  were  all  less  than  20  feet 
draft  and  their  passing  through  did  not  indicate 
the  restoration  of  a  condition  of  navigation  or 
indicate  when  such  would  be  esteblished  defi- 
nitely. 

The  Panama  Railway,  whose  facilities  were 
taxed  during  the  time  the  canal  was  closed  to 
all  traffic,  was  temporarily  buried  by  an  earth 
slide  about  2  miles  north  of  Pedro  Miguel  on 
October  31st,  which  involved  about  200  feet  of 
track,  and  closed  the  road  to  traffic  This  slide 
was  caused  bv  unusually  heavy  rains.  The 
changed  conditions  on  the  Isthmus  made  neces- 
sary a  readjustment  of  freight  rates. 

FuTUBB  Dbbdgino.  On  Oct.  26,  1915,  when 
General  Goethals  submitted  a  very  full  report 
on  the  slides,  he  steted  that  an  estimated 
amount  of  7,000,000  cubic  yards  would  have  to 
be  removed  before  the  slides  were  entirely  done 
away  with,  but  under  certein  conditions  this 
amount  might  reach  13,000,000  cubic  yards,  with 
a  probable  correct  estimate  between  the  two  lim- 
its of  about  10,000,000.  On  October  6th,  General 
€k)ethals  stated  that  the  length  of  the  channel 
that  was  blocked  was  1300  feet,  and  bv  suitable 
dredginff  this  had  been  reduced  to  700  feet  at  the 
time  of  nis  report,  but  even  then  it  was  impossi- 
ble to  break  through  the  closure  at  one  point 
which  was  then  about  100  feet  in  length.  The 
work  of  dredging  on  these  slides  was  being 
prosecuted  witii  the  greatest  vigor,  being  car- 
ried on  even  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  and  the 
engineering  staff  made  a  constant  record  of  the 
progress  and  the  change  of  conditions. 

Ae  excavation  of  the  Culebra  slides  proceeded 
at  the  rate  of  about  250,000  cubic  yards  per 
week,  and  in  October  the  total  amount  taken 
from  the  slides  was  872,952  cubic  yards.  Else- 
where in  Gaillard  Cut  about  200,000  cubic  yards 
was  excavated,  making  the  total  excavation  for 
the  month  1,079,663  cubic  yards,  a  yardage  that 
later  was  increased  to  1,250,000.  A  new  15-yard 
dipper  dredge,  Ca$oadas,  was  hastily  assembled 
and  completed  on  October  30th,  starting  to  work 
on  October  31st.  While  there  was  rapid  prog- 
ress with  the  dredging  it  was  not  completed  at 
the  end  of  the  year  sufficiently  to  reopen  the 
canal  to  traffic  except  for  the  passage  of  the  few 
small  vessels  on  December  20th,  already  no- 
ticed. 

OoMiassiDK.    At  the  request  of  President  Wil- 


son, the  Nati<mal  Academy  of  Sci^ice  designated 
a  scittitific  commission  to  investigate  the  subject 
of  slides  on  the  Panama  Canal  and  to  make  a  re- 
port to  the  President  concerning  them.  The 
members  of  the  commission  were:  Charles  R. 
Van  Hise,  president  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin; Brig.-Gen.  Henry  L.  Abbot,  U.  S.  A.  ret., 
hydraulic  engineer,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.;  John 
C.  Branner,  president  of  Leland  Stanford,  Jr., 
University;  Whitman  Cross,  of  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
lofi:ical  Survey;  John  F.  Havford,  director  of  the 
college  of  engineering,  Noruwestem  University; 
Harry  F.  Reid,  professor  of  geoloK?  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University;  Dr.  Charles  D.  Walcott, 
proident  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution;  RoUa 
C.  Carpenter,  professor  of  experimental  engineer- 
ing, Cornell  University;  Artiiur  P.  Davis,  chief 
engineer  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service;  and  John  R. 
Freeman,  consulting  hydraulic  engineer,  of 
Providence,  R.  I.  The  commission  sailed  for  the 
Canal  Zone  late  in  the  year,  arriving  on  De- 
cember 19th,  and  conducted  an  examination  of 
the  slides,  investigating  the  geological  forma- 
tions and  the  attendant  circumstances. 

Bibliography.  Am<mg  the  many  reports,  vol- 
umes, and  articles  dealing  with  the  Panama  Ca- 
nal in  the  technical  and  general  press,  menti<m 
may  be  made  of  the  Conttrveiion  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  by  William  L.  Sibert,  brigadier-general, 
U.  S.  A.,  division  engineer,  Panama  Canal,  1907- 
14,  and  John  F.  Stevens,  diief  engineer,  1005-07. 
Valuable  papers  on  the  Panama  Canal  were  also 
presented  before  the  International  Engineering 
Congress  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition  and 
were  published  in  the  record  of  that  meeting. 

FA!nAMA  expositions.  See  Exposi- 
tions; and  Painting  and  Sculpture. 

PANAMA-PACIFIC  EXPOSITION  ABT 
EXHIBITION.    See  Painting  and  Sculpture. 

PAN-AMEBICAN  FINANCIAL  CONFEE- 
ENCE.  See  Brazil,  Hitiory,  Relations  with  the 
United  States, 

PAN-AMEBICAN  SCIENTIFIO  CON- 
OBESS.  This  congress,  which  was  the  second 
of  the  sort  to  be  held,  convened  in  Washington 
on  December  27th.  There  were  present  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  scientiste,  educators, 
and  publiciste  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the 
Central  and  South  American  stetes.  Eduardo 
Snares,  the  ambassador  of  Chile,  was  president 
of  the  congress.  The  discussions  at  the  confer- 
ence included  practically  every  subject  in  the 
range  of  human  activities.  Its  purpose  was  the 
correlating  and  exchanging  of  new  views,  where 
they  had  Pan-American  bearing,  in  science,  art, 
and  the  conduct  of  human  affairs  generally,  with 
the  aim  of  furthering  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  scientific  discussions  began  on  December 
28th,  with  the  semi-formal  openings  of  the  nine 
main  sections  of  the  congress,  'fiiese  sections, 
on  December  29th,  divided  into  45  sub-sections, 
each  with  ite  special  topics.  From  that  time  to 
ite  end,  the  congress  consisted  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  separate  meetings.  At  the  congress  there 
were  present  more  than  650  members  of  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  leading  colleges  and  universities, 
and  more  than  350  scientific  and  commercial 
bodies  were  represented.  On  December  28th, 
Elihu  Boot  delivered  a  noteble  address  urging 
the  protection  of  the  weak  nations  against  the 
strong  by  the  adoption  of  international  rules  of 
right  conduct.  He  urged  that  a  moral  code  be 
formulated  for  adoption  by  the  world.    The  ses- 


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PAN-AMEBICAK  COKGESSS 


481 


PAPEB 


Rions  of  the  Congress  were  to  continue  into  Jan- 
uary, 1916.    See  Sociology. 

PANCALISM.    See  Philosophy,  Metaphynca. 

FAPENy  Capt.  Franz  von.  See  United 
States  and  the  War. 

PAPEB.  The  paper  industry  in  1915  was  in 
a  condition  of  considerable  uncertainty,  as  vari- 
ous elements  due  to  the  war,  world  politics,  and 
economics,  not  to  mention  local  influences,  not 
only  brought  important  changes  of  conditions, 
but  boded  uncertainty  for  the  immediate  future. 
The  American  industry  in  particular,  which  had 
been  seriously  affected  by  the  tariff,  suffered  from 
increased  prices  for  raw  materials,  especially 
chemicals  and  coloring  matters.  It  was  feared 
that  possible  embargoes  in  Europe,  especially  in 
the  Scandinavian  countries,  might  change  the 
situation  at  any  time,  while  the  cutting  off  of 
raw  materials  and  chemicals  made  curtailment 
of  certain  classes  of  stock  necessary.  American 
exports  of  paper  continued  at  about  the  same 
rate  in  1916  as  in  1914  and  1913,  the  figures  for 
10  months,  available  when  the  Yeae  Book  went 
to  press,  showing  a  striking  similarity.  The 
imports  of  paper  and  paper  materials  were  about 
normal,  ana  went  back  to  what  they  were  before 
the  tariff  was  reduced,  permitting  access  for  raw 
materials  to  American  markets. 

One  estimate  of  the  paper  business  in  1915 
was  made  of  $64,634,000,  as  compared  with  $58,- 
758,000  in  1914.  There  was  a  revival  of  the 
box  board  trade  and  a  general  increase  in  prices, 
which  customers  were  disposed  to  meet.  The 
total  newsprint  for  1915  was  estimated  at  1,- 
640,000  tons,  or  an  increase  of  36,000  tons  over 
1914.  American  paper  manufacturers  were  par- 
ticularly concern^  with  dumping  policies  and 
means  for  counteracting  this  that  might  be  de- 
veloped by  Congress.  In  many  cases  paper  and 
pulp  men  were  hardly  satisfied  with  the  tariff 
treatment  received  at  the  hands  of  the  National 
Legislature,  and  thev  were  vitally  concerned 
witii  steps  that  would  be  taken  in  the  business 
crisis  that  might  develop  after  the  war. 

One  of  the  largest  new  plants  proposed  was  at 
Bryant,  Mich.,  where  it  was  decided  to  erect  a 
mill  and  machinery  costing  about  $450,000,  an 
important  feature  of  which  would  be  two  154- 
inch  Fourdrinier  machines,  one  154-inch  Four- 
drinier  machine  having  been  installed  by  this 
company  about  five  years  previously.  The  addi- 
tion would  give  them  a  very  large  equipment. 

The  paper  laboratory  at  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards, Washington,  was  busy  during  the  year 
both  with  its  extensive  routine  testing  and  with 
the  development  of  methods  for  testing  and  de- 
termining standards  and  qualities  of  paper. 
One  investigation  of  interest  was  to  find  some 
way  of  ascertaining  the  permanence  of  paper, 
about  which  little  positive  information  is  avail- 
able. The  recovery  of  waste  paper  and  the  use 
of  domestic  casein  were  also  subjects  of  in- 
quiry at  the  Bureau,  and  various  other  re- 
searches were  under  way  in  charge  of  the  head 
of  the  laboratory,  Mr.  F.  C.  Clark.  The  pro- 
posal to  establish  a  casein  industry  in  the  Mid- 
dle West  in  the  extensive  dairy  districts  was 
welcomed  by  paper  manufacturers,  as  consider- 
able of  this  material  is  used  in  paper  making, 
as  well  as  in  artificial  ivory,  buttons,  piano  keys, 
and  similar  work.  Particularly,  this  would  be 
favorable  to  the  manufacturers  of  Wisconsin,  as 
their  mills  were  in  proximity  to  grazing  districts 
where  it  was  proposed  to  build  such  plants. 

T.  B.— 16 


Durins  the  year  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture published  a  bulletin  showing  that  large 
quantities  of  flax  straw  annually  are  destroyed 
that  possess  paper  making  possibilities  never 
before  realized.  Flax  is  raised  extensively  in 
the  Middle  West  for  its  seed,  from  which  lin- 
seed oil  is  manufactured,  with  an  annual  crop 
amounting  to  20,000,000  bushels  of  seei,  valued 
at  approximately  $33,000,000.  This  crop  also 
yields  approximately  1,600,000  tons  of  straw, 
but  of  this  amount  only  about  200,000  tons  are 
put  to  profitable  use,  though  the  remainder  pos- 
sesses paper  making  possibilities  equal  to  the 
annual  production  of  wrapping  paper,  and  more 
than  double  the  annual  production  of  writing 
paper  in  the  United  States.  The  sale  of  this 
substance  would  yield  the  farmers  an  added  an- 
nual income  of  about  $5,000,000,  and  would 
add  materially  to  the  importance  of  the  flax 
crop.  The  domestic  flax  tow  can  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  fibre  counter  boards  which  are 
now  used  largely  in  shoe  factories. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  there  was  a 
shortage  of  pulp  wood  in  the  United  States,  and 
large  supplies  of  pulp  wood  and  pulp  were  im- 
ported from  Canada.  Naturally  the  Canadian 
mills  were  very  busy,  and  thev  were  expecting 
increased  calls  for  their  product  from  Great 
Britain  in  view  of  the  war  condition. 

During  the  year  the  paper  industry  in  Great 
Britain  had  its  imcertainties  though  the  mills 
were  supplied  with  orders  in  excess  of  jtiieir  fa- 
cilities for  execution,  due  principally  to  lack  of 
labor.  There  was  an  increase  in  prices  and  cost 
of  production,  which,  however,  did  not  affect  the 
demand  to  any  marked  degree,  lliere  was  a  de- 
crease of  material  exported  from  Great  Britain, 
while  imports  were  invoiced  at  higher  prices. 
An  increase  of  prices  for  raw  materials  im- 
ported, and  the  cuttins  off  of  the  supplies  of 
chemicals,  also  had  their  effect.  Though  foreign 
competition  was  omitted,  the  exports  were  light. 
In  Germany  certain  paper  mills  were  actively 
engaged  in  making  cellulose  for  explosives,  and 
while  the  activity  of  these  mills  restricted  the 
product,  yet  their  return  to  the  manufacture  of 
paper  at  the  close  of  the  year  was  a  considera- 
tion of  economic  importance.  Pulp  wood  in  Ger- 
many during  the  year  was  in  increased  demand, 
but  notwithstanding  this  fact  enough  was  avail- 
able, though  little  could  be  said  as  to  the  out- 
look for  the  future.  In  certain  of  the  occupied 
districts  of  Russia  raw  material  was  available 
and  was  being  considered  as  a  possible  source  of 
supply. 

As  a  result  of  a  discussion  in  Austria  of  the 
more  extended  uses  of  paper,  and  possible  uses 
of  paper  as  a  substitute  for  cloth,  which  wag 

Eublished  late  in  1914,  in  1915  an  exhibition  was 
eld  of  paper  substitutes  in  which  some  50  ex- 
hibitors were  represented,  and  while  the  exhi- 
bition was  only  open  for  five  days,  it  attracted 
considerable  attention,  and  some  20,000  persons 
were  in  attendance.  The  use  of  paper  for  cloth- 
ing aroused  particular  interest,  and  numbers  of 
paper  socks  were  sold  and  distributed,  while 
cellulose  wadding,  which  had  been  employed  as  a 
surgical  dressing,  especially  in  the  medical  serv- 
ices of  the  Teutonic  allies,  began  to  fiind  exten- 
sive application  for  linings  of  quilts,  coats,  and 
similar  purposes.  While  the  use  of  paper  as  a 
protective  coating  for  the  body  was  not  novel, 
as  paper  vests  had  been  on  the  market  for  some 
years,   yet  it  was  found   that  paper   cuttings 


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PAPEB 


482 


PABAGUAY 


could  be  used  for  this  purpose  when  placed  be- 
tween linings,  and  also  for  filling  bolsters,  pil- 
lows, and  feather  beds,  as  they  were  superior 
hygienically,  and,  of  course,  were  available  for 
the  poorer  classes.  Roll  paper  was  used  as  a 
substitute  for  sheets,  and  more  particularly  as 
an  underlay  for  sheets,  protecting  the  cloth  and 
the  mattress,  as  well  as  diminishing  wear. 
See  also  Chemistry,  Industrial,  Paper-Mak- 
ing. 

PAPUA,  Territory  of.  Formerly  British 
New  Guinea.  The  southeastern  part  of  the  Is- 
land of  New  Guinea,  forming  with  numerous 
small  islands  lying  mostly  to  the  southeast,  a 
dependency  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 
The  area  of  the  dependency  is  stated  at  90,540 
square  miles.  The  native  population  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  250,000  to  400,000. 
Population,  June  30,  1914:  Europeans,  1186; 
colored  (other  than  Papuan),  3934.  Port 
Moresby  is  the  capital.  The  local  industries  are 
not  numerous,  but  they  are  becoming  more  di- 
versified. The  soil  is  favorable  to  agriculture. 
On  March  31,  1914,  plantations  aggregated  42,- 
291  acres.  There  were  29,030  acres  under  coco- 
nuts, 6606  under  rubber,  and  3110  under  sisal 
hemp.  About  350,000  acres  are  estimated  to  be 
under  native-owned  coconuts;  a  British  ordi- 
nance obliges  the  natives  to  plant  coconuts  for 
food  supply. 

Gold  mining  is  an  important  industry,  and 
copper  mining  shows  rapid  increase.  Imports 
and  exports  in  1912-13,  £218,323  and  £128,016; 
in  1913-14,  £212,134  and  £123,140.  Exports  of 
copper  ore  in  the  two  years,  £18,997  and  £19,733. 
The  gold  output  was  valued  at  £62,112  in  1911, 
£64,116  in  1912,  and  £41,422  in  the  year  1913-14. 
Other  exports  are  pearls  (£9284  in  1912-13) » 
copra,  sandalwood,  rubber,  etc.  Tonnage  en- 
tered and  cleared  at  the  ports  in  1913-14,  358,- 
506.  Local  revenue  and  expenditure  in  1912-13, 
£48,356  and  £85,170;  in  1913-14,  £54,703  and 
£81,095. 

PASAOTJAY.  A  South  American  republic, 
bounded  by  Bolivia,  Brazil,  and  Argentina.  The 
capital  is  Asuncion. 

Area,  Population,  etc.  Paraguay  proper, 
lying  between  the  Paraguay  and  Upper  Paran& 
rivers,  has  an  estimated  area  of  253,100  square 
kilometers,  slightly  smaller  than  the  State  of 
Wyoming.  The  republic  claims  a  nearly  equal 
area  in  the  Chaco  region,  between  the  Paraguay 
and  Pilcomayo  rivers;  this  territory  is  also 
claimed  by  Bolivia.  The  disputed  territory  has 
a  very  sparse  population.  The  population  of 
Paraguay  proper  is  not  definitely  known.  It  has 
been  estimated  at  800,000,  but  some  observers 
believe  this  figure  is  too  large.  The  people  are 
largely  a  mixture  of  Spanish,  Guarani,  and  negro, 
but 'there  are  many  persons  of  pure,  or  nearly 
pure,  Guarani  blood.  Estimated  population  of 
the  larger  towns:  Asuncion,  84,000;  Villa  Rica, 
30,000;  Concepcidn,  25,000;  Carap<^^&  and 
Luque,  each  15,000.  There  are  few  immigrants 
— 1440  are  reported  for  1913. 

Elementary  instruction  is  free  and  nominally 
compulsory.  The  number  of  elementary  schools 
in  1914  is  reported  at  1124,  with  an  enrollment  of 
68,937  pupils— 39,930  males  and  28,987  females. 
The  average  attendance  was  57,431 — 33,275  for 
males  and  24,156  for  females.  There  are  three 
national  colleges  (secondary  schools)— K)ne  at 
Asundfin,  with  37  teachers  and  645  students; 
one  at  Villa  Rica,  with  7  teachers  and  68  stu- 


dents ;  and  one  at  Villa  del  Pilar,  with  6  teach- 
ers and  77  students. 

Production  and  Commerce.  The  country  ia 
suited  to  the  cultivation  of  many  tropical  and  all 
subtropical  products.  The  principal  crops  are 
yerba  mat^,  corn,  beans,  tobacco,  alfalfa,  manioc, 
and  various  fruits,  especially  oranges.  Cotton 
and  sugar  cane  also  are  grown.  Grazing  is  an 
important  industry,  but  might  be  conaiderably 
developed.  The  number  of  cattle  is  estimated  at 
about  4,000,000.  There  is  little  mining  or  manu- 
facturing. 

Values  of  imports  and  exports  have  been  re- 
ported as  follows,  in  thousands  of  pesos  (peso 
=  96.47  cents) : 


Imports 
Exports  . . , 

1909 

...8788 

....6187 

1910     1911 
6248     6479 
4786     4829 

191% 
5288 
4211 

191Z 
8120 
5681 

5149 
45S4 

The  leading  imports  are  cotton  goods,  food- 
stuffs, and  hardware.  For  1912  the  principal 
exports  were:  hides,  1,082,646  pesos;  woods. 
877,037;  yerba  mat4,  500,998;  tobacco.  442,400: 
fresh  fruits,  1,283,962.  The  imports  have  been 
chiefly  from  Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
More  than  half  the  exports  are  to  Argentina. 

Ck>MMUNicATioN8.  In  1913  the  length  of  rail 
way  in  operation  was  468  kilometers  (291  miles). 
Asuncion  has  rail  connection  with  Encamacidn 
(376  kilometers,  or  234  miles),  on  the  Upper 
Paranfl.  From  Encarnacidn  trains  are  ferried  to 
the  Argentine  town  of  Posadas.  From  Borja. 
a  little  south  of  Villa  Rica,  a  branch  line  is  un- 
der construction,  ultimately  to  reach  a  point  od 
the  Upper  Paranft  opposite  the  Brazilian  tovn 
of  Iguasstl.  There  are  about  2500  miles  of  tele- 
graph line  and  385  post  offices. 

Finance.  The  peso  gold  as  a  money  of  ac- 
count is  equivalent  to  96.47  cents.  No  gold. 
however,  is  in  circulation,  and  the  paper  peso 
is  current  at  about  5  cents.  In  1913  the  reve- 
nue amounted  to  1,508,143  pesos  gold  and  44, 
062,013  pesos  paper;  in  1914,  694,178  gold  and 
41,315,527  paper.  Paraguayan  budgets  seem  to 
have  little  relation  to  the  eventual  revenue  and 
expenditure.  For  1915,  the  estimated  revenue 
was  1,951,200  pesos  gold  and  20,643,600  pe9C» 
paper;  estimated  expenditure,  603,805  gold  and 
50^499,410  paper.  Import  duties  form  the  larg- 
est item  01  revenue. 

The  outstanding  foreign  debt,  as  reported  for 
Dec.  31,  1914,  £719,350;  internal  debt,  March  31. 
1914,  £1,080,535  (including  65,000,000  pes<^ 
paper  in  circulation). 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  ^^ 
executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  President, 
who,  with  a  Vice-President,  is  elected  for  fonr 
years  by  indirect  vote.  There  is  a  Legiskiture  of 
two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Senators  number  13  and  are  elected 
for  six  years  by  direct  vote;  deputies,  26,  for 
four  years.  President  for  the  term  ending  Au^ 
16,  1916,  Eduardo  Schaerer;  Vice-President, 
Pedro  Bobadilla. 

HiSTOBT.  Colonel  Escobar,  minister  of  var 
in  the  cabinet,  resigned  his  portfolio  in  Januarj 
as  a  protest  against  the  reductions  effected  by 
President  Schaerer  in  the  expenditures  of  the 
army  department.  Later  in  the  same  mootl 
Colonel  Escobar  instigated  a  revolt  against  tbe 
government,  and  actually  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  President,  and  confining  him  in  the  t4rrack$ 
at  A8unci6n.    The  government  police,  however, 


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with  the  aid  of  the  gunboat  Conatiiuoi&n,  speed- 
ily quelled  the  revolt,  forced  the  mutineers  to 
surrender,  and  released  the  President.  More 
than  75  rebels  were  killed  in  the  skirmish;  the 
remainder  either  surrendered  or  took  refuge  in 
the  Brazilian  and  Uruguayan  legations.  As  a 
result  of  the  serious  derangement  of  commerce 
and  finance  by  the  war  in  Europe,  the  Para- 
guayan Congress  was  convoked  in  extraordinary 
session  in  June  to  extend  the  moratorium  which 
had  been  declared  in  August,  1914,  and  would 
have  expired  on  Aug.  31,  1916.  By  the  new 
Moratorium  Act,  obligations  falling  due  between 
Aug.  14,  1914,  and  March  31,  1915,  were  ex- 
tended 290  days.  Exceptions  were  made  in  re- 
spect of  obli^tions  arising  from  non-interest- 
bearing  deposits,  bank  deposits  made  after  Aug. 
14,  1914,  interest  earned  from  July,  1914,  wages 
and  salaries,  and  other  obligations  contracted 
since  the  promulgation  of  the  law.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  year  the  Radical  party  began  its 
campaign  for  the  elections  of  1916;  Sefior  Man- 
uel Gondra,  it  was  stated,  was  proposed  as  the 
Radical  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  Dr. 
Manuel  Franco  for  the  vice-presidency. 

During  1915  the  Senate  of  Paraguay  approved, 
with  some  slight  modifications,  the  concession 
granted  to  the  firm  of  Guggiari,  Goana  and  Com- 
pany for  the  construction  and  operation  of  a 
railway  from  HorquetA,  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  republic,  a  point  already  in  railway  commu- 
nication with  Concepcidn,  a  city  on  the  Para- 
guay River,  to  Pedro  Juan  Caballero,  on  the 
JBrazilian  frontier. 

PARASITES.     See  Entomoix)OT,  passim, 

PABCEL  POST.  See  United  States,  Post 
Office. 

PABX  COLIiEQE.  A  co-educational  liberal 
arts  college  at  Parkville,  Mo.,  founded  on  May 
12,  1876,  by  Rev.  Dr.  John  A.  McAfee  (died 
1890),  its  first  president,  and  Col.  George  F. 
Park  (died  1890),  who  gave  the  first  land  and 
buildings  for  its  occupancy  and  for  whom  it  was 
named.  The  college  is  unique  among  American 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  that  the  school 
is  managed  almost  wholly  on  a  cooperative  basis 
whereby  the  students,  by  their  own  earnings,  pay 
most  of  their  own  expenses.  Among  the  indus- 
tries carried  on  there,  under  the  supervision  of 
superintendents,  are  a  dairy,  an  orchard,  truck 
garden,  farm,  canning  factory,  electric  light 
plant,  water  works,  laundry,  bakery,  and  heating 
plant.  In  addition,  the  students  do  all  the 
work  of  taking  care  of  the  college  grounds  and 
buildings.  The  women  students  do  the  college 
clerical  and  library  work,  and  prepare  and  serve 
the  meals  in  the  college  dining-rooms.  The  total 
enrollment  in  both  college  and  preparatory  de- 
partments at  the  opening  of  the  fall  session  in 
1915  was  412  students,  and  the  teaching  staff 
consists  of  24  members.  The  college  owns  1100 
acres  of  land,  and  its  buildings,  which,  for  the 
most  part,  were  built  bv  student  labor,  include 
a  Carnegie  Library  (ffift  of  Andrew  Carnegie); 
Copley  Hall  (gift  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William 
Thaw,  Pittsburgh);  McCormick  Chapel  (gift  of 
Mrs.  Xettie  McCormick,  Chicago) ;  and  Oiarles 
Smith  Scott  Astronomical  Observatory,  and  Wa- 
verly  Hospital  (gifts  of  Antiiony  Dey,  New 
York).  The  college  equipment  is  worth  $105,- 
984,  and  the  invested  funds  amount  to  more 
than  $500,000.  In  1915  Rev.  Dr.  Frederick  W. 
Hawley  was  installed  as  the  new  president  of  the 
college.    There  are  943  alumni. 


PAKKEB,  Sib  Ghaebt.  See  Litebatubs, 
Engush  and  Amebican,  Fiction. 

PABKEB,  Joseph  Benson.  American  rear 
admiral,  retired,  died  Oct.  21,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1841,  and  graduated 
from  Dickinson  College  in  1860.  He  studied 
medicine  at  the  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  Col- 
lege in  New  York  City.  In  1863  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  surgeon  in  the  United  States 
navy.  He  advanced  through  various  ranks  to 
that  of  medical  director  and  retired  with  the 
rank  of  rear  admiral  in  1903.  He  served  in  sev- 
eral stations,  and  in  various  navy  yards  and  hos- 
pitals. He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the 
Loyal  Leffion. 

PABS0N8,  John  Edwabd.  American  lawyer, 
died  Jan.  16,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  New  York 
City  in  1829,  and  in  1848  graduated  from  New 
York  University.  After  four  years  of  law  study 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1852.  Two  years 
later  he  formed  a  partnership  with  Lorenzo  B. 
Shepard,  and  in  1857  the  firm  was  changed  to 
Mann  and  Parsons.  The  firm  of  Parsons,  Shep- 
ard and  Ogden  was  organized  in  1880,  and  was 
reorganized  in  1902.  Within  a  few  years  of  his 
active  practice  Mr.  Parsons  became  one  of  the 
most  prominent  lawyers  in  New  York  City.  He 
was  identified  with  much  important  litigation. 
Through  his  work  in  connection  with  the  Ameri- 
can Sugar  Refining  Company,  the  so-called 
''sugar  trust,"  he  became  widely  known.  He 
was  a  close  friend  and  adviser  of  Henry  Have- 
meyer,  president  of  that  company,  and  he  served 
as  its  legal  adviser  from  its  incorporation  in  1891 
until  1910.  The  American  Sugar  Refining  Com- 
pany was  organized  to  take  over  the  controlling 
interests  in  several  large  sugar  concerns.  Tts 
right  to  do  this  was  attacked  by  the  government 
under  the  Sherman  law,  and  was  defended  by 
Mr.  Parsons,  who  imdertook  to  show  that  the 
action  of  the  sugar  company  contemplated  no 
restraint  of  trade.  He  won  in  all  points,  and  on 
Jan.  21,  1895,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
aflSrmed  the  decision  of  the  lower  courts  in  his 
favor.  Following  this,  the  sphere  of  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sugar  corporation  under  the  advice 
of  Mr.  Parsons  extended  rapidly  until  1908-09, 
when  extensive  frauds  in  the  weighing  of  sugar 
were  discovered,  and  the  company  was  obliged 
to  make  restitution  to  the  government.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  investigation  of  the  company's  af- 
fairs which  foUowra  these  disclosures,  the  offi- 
cials of  the  company,  including  Mr.  Parsons, 
were  indicted  for  conspiracy  to  establish  a  mo- 
nopoly. The  indictment  was  returned  on  July  1, 
1909,  and  six  months  later  Mr.  Parsons  handed 
in  his  resignation  as  counsel  for  the  company. 
His  trial  began  on  Juhr  1,  1912.  He  was  at  that 
time  83  years  old.  The  trial  resulted  in  a  dis- 
agreement, and  was  not  retried.  In  addition  to 
his  legal  work,  Mr.  Parsons  was  active  in  reli- 
gious and  philanthropic  activities,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  board  of  directors  and  an  official 
in  many  hospitals,  and  social  and  educational 
societies. 

PA8C0ITE.     See  Minebaloqt. 

PATENTS.  During  1914  and  1915  acts  were 
passed  by  Parliament  which  empowered  the 
British  Board  of  Trade  to  confer  upon  Brit- 
ish subjects  the  right  to  manufacture  articles 
under  patents  which  had  been  granted  previ- 
ously in  favor  of  residents  of  Germany,  Austria, 
or  Hungary.  The  law  did  not  apply  to  a  patent 
which  had  been  granted  to  a  non-enemy  proprle- 


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tor.  In  <me  caae  where  a  British  firm  had 
held  a  license  to  sell  a  German  machine  prior 
to  the  war  the  comptroller-general  of  patents 
issued  a  license  to  the  applicants  in  which  the 
licensees  agreed  to  pay  die  patentees  a  royalty 
of  2%  per  cent  during  the  existence  of  the 
license. 

PAYEBy  Julius  von.  Austrian  explorer  and 
painter,  died  Aug.  31,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Bohemia  in  1842,  and  after  receiving  a  military 
education  was  attached  to  the  general  staff.  A 
survey  of  some  of  the  most  difficult  regions  of 
the  Alps  was  made  under  his  direction.  In  1872 
he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Austrian  expe- 
dition to  the  North  Pole,  which  discovered  Frnnz 
Josef  Land.  On  his  return  he  retired  from 
military  service,  and  devoted  his  time  to  paint- 
ing. He  was  awarded  many  gold  medals  for 
paintings  of  Arctic  subjects. 

PATSON,  W.  F.  See  Litebatube,  English 
AND  American,  Fiction. 

PEABOBY  mJSETJM.  During  1915  the 
museum  continued  active  work  in  various  fields. 
Dr.  £.  A.  Hooton,  curator  of  somatology,  spent 
the  summer  in  archieological  work  in  the  Canary 
Islands  in  the  interest  of  the  African  depart- 
ment of  the  museum.  An  archieological  recon- 
naissance was  made  of  the  Island  of  Teneriffe, 
man^  plundered  graves  of  the  Guanches  (the 
original  inhabitants)  being  investigated,  and 
several  undisturbed  burial  places  discovered. 
The  work  was  prematurely  stopped  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Spanish  provincial  government, 
instigated  by  an  article  which  appeared  in  a 
local  newspaper  of  anti* American  tendencies.  A 
portion  of  the  collections  which  had  been  made 
were  seized.  Active  work  thus  being  stopped, 
the  remainder  of  the  season  was  spent  in  study- 
ing the  Ouanche  collection  in  the  Museum  of 
Swta  Cruz  de  Tenerife.  More  than  450  un- 
studied crania  were  measured,  and  objects  of 
Guanche  art  and  industry  were  photographed. 
It  is  hoped  that  permission  will  be  obtained  from 
the  central  ^vernment  before  the  summer  of 
1916  to  contmue  the  work  and  to  recover  the 
collections  already  made. 

Dr.  A.  V.  Kidder,  curator  of  North  American 
archieology,  prepared  an  exhaustive  paper  upon 
the  pottery  of  New  Mexico,  basing  his  studies 
upon  the  collections  in  the  museum.  He  ob- 
tained leave  of  absoice  to  direct  the  extensive 
excavations  undertaken  at  the  Pueblo  of  Pecos 
by  the  Department  of  Archeology  of  Phillips 
i^dover  Academy. 

In  September,  Oric  Bates,  curator  of  African 
archeology  and  ethnology,  left  on  an  expedition 
to  Marsa  Matruh,  the  Libyan  Desert,  and  per- 
haps Abyssinia,  and  it  is  expected  that  Dr.  F.  H. 
Stems,  associate  in  anthropology  in  tiie  mu- 
seum, will  leave  for  archseological  investigations 
under  Bates's  direction.  It  may  be  not^  that 
in  connection  with  the  work  under  the  charge  of 
Curator  Bates,  the  faculty  of  the  museum  has 
approved  the  plans  proposed  by  him  for  a  new 
series  of  publications  dealing  with  African  sub- 
jects. There  are  now  in  preparation  for  the 
new  series  a  Nubian  grammar  by  G.  W.  Murray; 
a  report  by  Dr.  G.  A.  Reisner  on  the  excavations 
at  Kerma;  a  report  on  a  collection  of  crania 
from  Siwaix  Oasis  by  Dr.  D.  E.  Derry  of  Lon- 
don University;  and  a  volume  of  miscellaneous 
papers  by  various  hands. 

S.  J.  Guernsey,  assistant  curator  of  archie- 
ology  and  ethnology,  spent  five  weeks  in  the  field 


during  the  summer  in  Marsh  Pass  in  Northwest- 
ern Arizona.  The  main  object  of  his  expedition 
was  the  excavation  of  a  cave  discovered  and 
partly  explored  by  Dr.  Kidder  in  1914.  This 
work  was  successfully  carried  out,  and  two  other 
similar  caves  and  a  small  cemetery  were  also 
excavated.  Preliminary  plans  were  made  of  two 
cliff  houses,  and  a  large  number  of  photographs 
were  taken.  The  collections  obtained  from  the 
season's  work  are  of  much  interest,  and  include 
not  onlv  material  of  types  not  previously  rep- 
resented in  the  museum,  but  also  many  speci- 
mens which  are  unique  in  the  ardisology 
of  the  Southwest.  Guernsey  was  assisted  in 
the  field  work  by  Dr.  R.  G.  Fuller,  assistant 
in  anthropology  in  19ia-14,  and  by  J.  W.  Ed- 
wards. 

Dr.  R.  E.  Merwin  was  in  charge  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  Expedition  for  the  season  of  1914- 
15,  as  he  had  been  during  the  previous  year. 
He  was  assisted  in  the  work  of  the  expedition 
by  A.  W.  Carpenter,  Harvard  Fellow  in  Central 
American  Research.  After  a  preliminary  trip 
to  Santa  Rita,  in  Northern  British  Honduras, 
exploration  was  carried  on  in  the  Peten  district 
of  Guatemala  in  the  vicinity  of  Yokonal,  about 
45  miles  southwest  of  Benque  Viejo.  Three  new 
sites  were  found  in  this  area.  The  last  half  of 
the  season  was  spent  in  exploring  the  coastal 
region  southwest  of  Belize.  A  large  group  of 
ruins,  comprising  about  36  structures,  was  found 
on  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  north  of  Punto  Gorda. 
Maps,  plans,  and  photographs  were  obtained, 
and  three  interesting  carved  stones  were  brought 
back  to  the  museum.  Carpenter  spent  some  time 
during  the  summer  in  the  investigation  of  an 
Ojibwa  village  site  on  the  Shiawassee  River  in 
the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan.  He  was 
able  to  obtain  a  small  collection  of  crania  and 
other  objects,  together  with  ethnological  infor- 
mation gathered  from  the  surviving  Indians,  and 
obtained  a  larj^e  amount  of  historical  data  in 
regard  to  the  site  and  its  former  inhabitants,  by 
research  in  the  State  archives. 

Dr.  F.  H.  Stems  continued,  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1915,  his  archieological  explorations  in 
the  Missouri  Valley,  and  despite  most  unfavor- 
able weather  conditions,  obtained  excellent  re- 
sults. Further  study  was  made  of  the  stratified 
site  in  Cass  County,  Neb.,  discovered  in  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  excavations  were  carried  on  at 
several  old  Kansas  village  sites  in  Kansas,  and 
in  Pawnee  village  sites  in  Nebraska. 

Ernest  Volk  continued  the  work  in  the  Dela- 
ware Valley  which  he  has  been  carrying  on  for 
more  than  25  years.  During  the  spring  Volk 
made  a  short  stay  in  Cambridge  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  some  of  his  colled;ions. 

PEACE.    See  International  Peace  and  Ab- 

BITBATION. 

PEAT.  See  Chemistbt,  Industrial,  Utiliza- 
tion of  Peat, 

PELLAGRA.  This  disease  seems  to  be  on  an 
increase  in  certain  Southern  States.  According 
to  a  bulletin  recently  issued  by  the  Mississippi 
State  Board  of  Health,  there  were  10,954  cases 
reported  in  1914,  as  against  6991  in  1913,  al- 
though part  of  this  increase  is  thought  to  be  due 
to  more  careful  reporting  and  recognition  of  the 
disease.  There  were  1192  deaths  in  1914,  as 
against  795  in  1913.  The  most  notable  work 
undertaken  as  to  the  control  and  etiology  of 
pellagra  was  that  by  Goldberger,  of  the  United 
States  Public  Health  Service,  who  holds  that 


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pellagra  it  not  a  oommunicable  disease,  that  it 
is  dependent  on  faulty  nutrition,  and  that  pel- 
lagra does  not  develop  in  those  who  consume  a 
well  balanced  and  varied  diet.  Goldberger  and 
his  associates  have  succeeded  in  producing  pel- 
lagra experimentally  in  a  group  of  human  be- 
ings, and  further  reCnformd  their  theory  by 
curing  and  preventing  the  malady  among  three 
groups  of  persons,  in  widely  separated  localities, 
by  dietary  measures  alone.  The  first  of  these 
experiments  was  undertaken  at  two  orphanages 
in  Southern  Mississippi,  during  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1916.  One  of  these  institutions  had 
79  cases  of  pellagra  among  its  200  inmates,  the 
other  130  cases  among  220  inmates.  The  diet  of 
inmates  of  both  of  these  institutions  was  sup- 
plemented by  increasing  the  amount  of  fresh 
animal  and  vegetable  protein  foods.  After  14 
months'  observation  it  was  shown  that  with  re- 
form in  diet  there  was  recurrence  in  only  one 
case,  and  no  new  cases  developed  subsequently. 
In  the  second  experiment,  beginning  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1914  in  the  Georgia  State  Sanatorium, 
about  40  white  and  colored  insane  adults  who 
had  had  pellagra  were  placed  in  separate  wards 
and  given  a  supplemented  diet  similar  to  that 
described  above.  None  of  the  patients  developed 
their  usual  recurrence  during  tne  following  year, 
1916,  whereas  during  the  same  period  16  of  32 
control  female  pellagrins  living  under  similar 
conditions,  excepting  for  diet,  developed  recur- 
rences. Goldberger  and  Wheeler,  in  order  to  test 
further  the  relation  of  diet  to  pellagra,  under- 
took to  produce  the  disease  among  convicts  who 
volunteered  for  the  purpose  on  the  promise  of  a 
pardon.  There  were  12  volunteers,  besides  70 
controls.  There  had  been  no  previous  history  of 
pellagra  at  this  camp.  A  preliminary  observa- 
tion of  two  months  without  change  of  diet 
showed  that  these  convicts  were  free  from  pel- 
lagra. They  were  then  placed  upon  a  special 
diet,  consisting  of  biscuits,  grits,  rice,  fried 
mush,  brown  gravy,  sweet  potatoes,  cabbage,  col- 
lards,  and  cane  sugar,  equivalent  to  3.32  pounds 
per  man  per  day,  and  having  a  caloric  value  of 
2.962  per  man  per  day.  No  vegetable  fats  en- 
tered into  the  aiet.  Of  the  11  volunteers  who 
completed  the  experiment,  six  developed  pellagra, 
showing  skin  lesions  and  nervous  and  gastro-in- 
testinal  symptoms.  These  experiments  seem  to 
demonstrate  that  pellagra  is  a  disease  of  nutri- 
tion, but  they  do  not  incriminate  any  single 
article  of  food,  and  it  is  not  thought  likely  tiiat 
any  particular  article  will  be  found  responsi- 
ble. 

A  statistician  of  the  United  States  Public 
Health  Service  made  a  study  of  the  prevalence  of 
pellagra  and  its  possible  relation  to  a  rise  in  the 
cost  of  food.  His  investigation  leads  him  to  con- 
clude that  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  certain 
foods  is  responsible  for  the  increase  of  the  dis- 
ease in  certain  Southern  States,  particularly 
those  in  which  cotton  mills  employ  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  wage  earners.  The  diet  of  poor 
Southern  families  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  Northern  families,  and  the  proportion  of  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  is  notably  greater  among  the 
Southern  families.  This  condition  had  been  in- 
tensified since  1907  on  account  of  industrial  de- 
pression. Wa^es  have  gone  down,  whereas  the 
retail  prices  of  food  have  increased,  being  at  least 
40  per  cent  higher  for  proteins  than  for  carbo- 
hvdrates  and  fats.  Pellagra  may  be  a  deficiency 
disease  like  beriberi  and  scurvy. 


Many  new  remedies  for  pellagra  have  been 
tried,  but  without  wide  or  convincing  evidences 
of  their  usefulness.  Among  other  interesting 
procedures  antoserotherapy  has  been  used  by 
Palmer  and  Secor  of  Texas,  who  reported  very 
flattering  results.  Their  technic  is  very  simple. 
A  small  piece  of  cantharides  plaster  is  smeared 
with  olive  oil  and  placed  on  the  chest  at  bed 
time;  by  morning  a  blister  will  have  developed. 
The  plaster  is  now  simply  lifted  at  one  comer,  a 
hypodermic  needle  introduced  into  the  blister, 
and  1  c.  c.  of  serum  withdrawn  and  immediately 
injected  into  the  arm.  A  larger  dose  than  this 
seems  to  aggravate  the  symptoms.  One  c.  c. 
given  once  a  week  seems  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults. 

Attempts  to  find  a  specific  organism  still  con- 
tinue. Sanders  in  1914  with^'ew  the  spinal 
fiuid  from  a  pellagrin  who  had  just  died  from  pel- 
lagra, exhibiting  marked  cerebral  symptoms. 
Part  of  the  fiuid  was  incubated  and  another  part 
examined.  From  both  specimens  a  similar  or- 
ganism was  isolated  which  was  kept  alive  by 
cultivation  on  blood  serum.  From  another  case 
of  pellagra  showing  marked  skin  lesions,  Sanders 
obtoined  the  same  organism,  and  kept  it  growing 
on  a  special  medium  consisting  of  saturatea 
com  meal  and  agar  bouillon  rendered  faintly 
acid  with  hydrochloric  acid.  From  this  case  he 
also  obtained  the  organism  from  the  spleen.  A 
large  number  of  fecal  smears  from  pellagrins  in 
the  diarrh<Bal  stafires  of  the  disease,  also  showed 
large  numbers  of  the  same  highly  motile  and 
characteristic  organism. 

FENANG.  One  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
(q.v.). 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Popxtlation.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916, 
was  8,383,992.  The  population  in  1910  was 
7,666,111. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1914-16  were  as  follows: 


Tahu 

$40,964,000 

45,890,000 

25,680.000 

24,697,000 

19,061,000 

16,417.000 

4,148,000 

4,188.000 

177,000 

187,000 

15,120.000 

16.821.000 

67,704,000 

68,200.000 

8.000,000 

4,080,000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  I,  1916,  horses  numbered  602,000  and 
696,000,  valued  at  $74,648,000  and  $79,864,000; 
mules  numbered  47,000  and  46,000,  valued  at 
$6,439,000  and  $6,632,000;  milch  cows  numbered 
971,000  and  943,000,  valued  at  $64,862,000  and 
$66,108,000;  other  cattle  numbered  657,000  and 
638,000,  valued  at  $17,806,000  and  $18,693,000; 
sheep  numbered  866,000  and  831,000,  valued  at 
$4,794,000  and  $4,404,000;  swine  numbered  1,- 
210,000  and  1,186,000,  valued  at  $12,684,000  and 
$16,011,000.    The   production   of  wool   in   1916 


Acreage 

Prod.  Btt. 

CJorn    . . . 

...1916 

1,620,000 

68,520,000 

1914 

1,468,000 

62.178,000 

Wheat  . . 

...1015 

1,880,000 

24,606,000 

1914 

1,812,000 

28,747,000 

Oota    ... 

...1915 

1,140.000 

48.820,000 

1914 

1,078.000 

82,190.000 

Bye    

...1015 

274,000 

4,982,000 

1914 

260.000 

6,040.000 

Barley     .. 

...1916 

8,000 

286,000 

1914 

7.000 

196.000 

Pototoei    , 

...1016 

280,000 

20,160.000 

1914 

268,000 

28.140.000 

Hay 

...1915 

8,100,000 

a  4,840,000 

1914 

8,141,000 

4.020.000 

Tobaeco  . 

...1916 

81,400  ft  42.890.000 

1914 

88,100 

47,996,000 

a  Tone. 

ft  Pounds. 

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FEHH8YLVANIA 


and  I9I4  was  3,069,000  and  4,030,000  pounds,  re- 
spectively. 

MiNEaiAL  Production.  The  total  production 
of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914  was  238,804,801 
short  tons,  valued  at  $347,187,695.  The  produc- 
tion of  both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  was 
less  than  in  1913,  but  owing  to  the  fact  tiiat  an- 
thracite no  longer  enters  to  any  extent  into  Uie 
manufacturing  industries,  it  was  not  so  seriously 
affected  by  the  industrial  depression  of  1914  as 
was  the  bituminous  output.  The  aggregate  pro- 
duction of  anthracite  and  bituminous  in  1913 
amounted  to  265,306,139  short  tons,  Valued  at 
$388,220,933.  The  output  of  anthracite  in  1914, 
notwithstanding  the  decrease,  was,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  1913,  the  largest  ever  obtained.  The 
output  of  bituminous  coal  in  1914  was  exceeded 
in  the  years  1907,  1910,  1912,  and  1913.  The  to- 
tal number  of  men  employed  in  the  coal  mines  in 
the  State  during  the  year  was  the  largest  on 
record.  They  numbered  363,880.  There  were 
during  the  year  595  fatal  accidents  in  the  an- 
thracite mines  in  the  State,  and  402  in  the  bitu- 
minous mines.  The  coke  produced  in  1914 
amounted  to  20,258,393  short  tons,  valued  at 
$42,447,886. 

The  output  of  petroleum  in  1914  amounted  to 
8,807,335  barrels,  an  increase  of  352,033  barrels 
over  the  production  of  1913.  This  notable  in- 
crease, coming  from  a  State  whose  oil  production 
previous  to  1913  had  shown  a  fairly  steady  de- 
cline for  13  years,  is  worthy  of  mention,  for  it 
was  accomplished  without  the  discovery  of  new 
pools  within  the  productive  area.  The  market 
price  was  an  average  of  $1.90  per  barrel,  except 
for  1913,  when  the  average  price  was  $2.14. 
This  price  exceeded  that  received  for  the  State 
product  in  any  single  year  since  1877.  The 
value  of  oil  amounted  to  $15,673,822.  This  total 
exceeds  the  increase  of  any  single  year's  output 
since  1908.  '  The  value  of  the  total  mineral  pro- 
duction in  1914  was  $452,374,085,  compared  with 
$506,341,809. 

T&ANSPOBTATioN.  The  total  railway  mileage 
within  the  State  in  1914  was  13,603. 

Education.  The  total  number  of  pupils  in 
the  State  on  July  5,  1915,  was  1,461,937.  There 
were  in  daily  attendance  in  the  schools,  1,166,- 
513.  The  total  number  of  teachers  was  41,283, 
of  these  32,366  female,  and  8917  male,  teachers. 
The  total  expenditure  for  school  purposes  in 
1915  was  $58,414,225.  The  Legislature  of  1916 
created  a  bureau  of  vocational  education  in  the 
Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Nov.  30,  1914,  showed 
a  balance  on  Dec.  1,  1913,  of  $6,765,491.  The 
total  receipts  were  $31,391,725,  and  the  expendi- 
tures, $31,578,111,  leaving  a  balance  in  the  treas- 
ury on  Nov.  30,  1914,  of  $7,427,208. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  State  char- 
itable and  correctional  institutions  include  the 
State  Institution  for  the  Feeble-minded  of  West- 
em  Pennsylvania  at  Polk ;  State  Hospital  for  the 
Criminal  and  Insane  at  Fairview;  Homeopathic 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  AUentown; 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Danville;  Penn- 
sylvania State  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Harrisburg; 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Norristown; 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Warren;  State 
Asylum  for  the  Chronic  Insane  at  Wernerville; 
Home  for  the  Training  in  Speech  of  Deaf  Chil- 
dren at  Philadelphia;  Pennsylvania  Oral  School 
at  Scranton;  Eastern  Penitentiary  at  Philadel- 


phia; Western  Penitentiary  at  Pittsburg; 
Pennsylvania  Industrial  Reformatory  at  Hunt- 
ington; Pennsylvania  Reform  School  at  Mor- 
ganza;  and  Pennsylvania  Soldiers'  and  Sailors' 
Home  at  Erie. 

Politics  and  Government.  Martin  6.  Brum- 
baugh was  inaugurated  Governor  on  January 
19th.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  urged  the 
passage  of  a  local  option  law.  The  Legislature 
passed  a  resolution  providing  for  the  submission 
of  a  woman  suffrage  amendment  in  the  November 
election.  This  resolution  had  already  passed 
the  Legislature  of  1915.  The  Legislature  passed 
in  May  a  bill  providing  for  a  51  hour  week,  and 
not  more  than  9  hours  of  labor  in  one  day  for 
children  under  16.  Where  a  school  is  provided 
by  the  educational  authorities,  8  of  the  51  hours 
must  be  spent  in  school  unless  the  child  is  16 
years  of  age.  The  bill  also  prohibited  night 
work  by  children;  regulated  street  trades;  and 
ruled  against  the  employment  of  minors  as  mes- 
sengers after  0  p.m.  The  bill  attracted  unusual 
attention  because  more  children  under  16  years 
are  employed  in  Pennsylvania  than  in  any  other 
State.  The  glass  factories  and  textile  industries 
in  which  many  children  are  employed  are  espe- 
cially dangerous.  These  industries  made  a 
strong  effort  to  have  the  bill  amended.  The  Leg- 
islature also  passed  a  workmen's  compensation 
measure.  The  act  was  elective,  but  with  a  pro- 
vision that  the  people  should  vote  in  November 
on  a  constitutional  amendment  permitting  the 
Legislature  to  make  it  compulsory.  The  meas- 
ure also  created  a  State  insurance  fund.  Do- 
mestics and  agricultural  laborers  are  exempt. 
In  the  election  held  on  November  2nd  the  woman 
suffrage  amendment  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of 
356,000  for,  to  400,000  against.  See  WoifAN 
Suffrage. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Martin  G. 
Brumbaugh,  Republican;  Lieutenant-Governor, 
Frank  B.  McClain,  Republican;  Secretary  of  the 
Commonwealth,  Cyrus  E.  Wood,  Republican; 
Treasurer,  Robert  K.  Young,  Progressive;  Audi- 
tor-General, A.  W.  Powell,  Progressive;  Adju- 
tant-General, Thomas  J.  Stewart,  Republican; 
Attorney-General,  Francis  S.  Brown,  Republi- 
can ;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  N.  C. 
Schaeffer,  Democrat;  Insurance  Commissioner, 
Charles  Johnson,  Republican;  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  Charles  E.  Patton,  Republican. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
J.  Hay  Brown;  Associate  Justices,  William  P. 
Potter,  John  Stewart,  Robert  von  Moschzisker, 
S.  L.  Mestrezat,  Robert  S.  Frazer,  and  one  va- 
cancy; Prothonotary,  Middle  District,  William 
Pearson  (Harrisburg) ;  Prothonotary,  Western 
District,  George  Pearson   (Pittsburgh). 

State  Legislature: 


Senate 
RepnblicAiis    88 


Democrats 


11 


House 

Joint  BatM 

164 

202 

41 

62 

Bepubliean   majority..     27 


128 


150 


PENNSYLVANIA,  Univeesity  or.  The  to- 
tal enrollment  in  all  departments  of  the  uni- 
versity was  6332.  The  instructors  numbered 
560.  The  university  was  brought  into  promi- 
nence as  a  result  of  the  dismissal  from  the  fac- 
ulty of  Prof.  Scott  Nearing  on  January  17th,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  nuule  speeches  of  a  rad- 
ical nature,  which  made  him  no  longer  useful  as 


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487 


PENOLOGY 


a  member  of  the  taenlty.  Much  was  published  in 
defense  and  in  criticism  of  this  action.  On  Sep- 
tember 28th,  1500  students  of  the  university 
signed  a  petition  asking  the  trustees  to  recall 
Dr.  Hearing,  but  the  board  of  trustees  refused 
to  reconsider  their  action.  (See  Univbbsities 
AND  Colleges,  Academic  Freedom,)  The  uni- 
versity received  no  noteworthy  benefactions  dur- 
ing the  year.  The  library  contained  some  450,- 
OCd  volumes.  The  president  was  Edgar  F. 
Smith.  Ph.D. 

PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE.  An 
institution  for  higher  education  founded  at  State 
College,  Pennsylvania,  in  1855.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  3326.  The 
faculty  numbered  285.  During  the  year  Dr.  T. 
C.  Blaisdell,  president  of  Alma  College,  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  the  school  of  Liberal  arts;  Prof. 
R.  L.  Sackett,  of  Purdue  University,  became  dean 
of  the  school  of  engineering.  No  noteworthy 
benefactions  were  received  during  the  year.  The 
productive  funds  of  the  college  in  1915  amounted 
to  $567,000,  and  the  income  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1915,  was  $947,309.  The  library  con- 
tained 54,275  volumes. 

PENOLOGY.  The  attitude  of  society  toward 
those  of  its  members  who  violate  its  laws  is 
rapidly  undergoing  a  revolutionary  transforma- 
tion. The  old  theory  that  the  law-breaker  was 
wholly  responsible  for  his  acts,  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  revengeful  and  punitive  measures  in  so- 
ciety's treatment  of  him.  The  theory  of  indi- 
vidual responsibility  led  logically  to  the  theory 
of  retribution,  that  is,  that  society  must  adopt 
measures  of  getting  even  with  the  law-breaker. 
The  newer  point  of  view  emphasizes  the  respon- 
sibility of  society  for  the  existence  of  the  crim- 
inally minded.  This  change  of  view  is  only  one 
phase  of  the  growing  sense  of  social  solidarity 
and  of  general  responsibility  for  whatever  con- 
sequences naturally  follow  from  those  conditions 
which  society  permits  to  exist,  but  is  also  due  to 
biological  and  psychological  studies  of  criminals 
themselves.  Thus  on  &e  sociological  side  it  is 
found  that  the  criminal  is  largely  a  product  of 
vicious  social  conditions;  on  the  biological  side 
it  is  found  that  the  criminal  suffers  from  de- 
fective heredity;  while  the  pqrchiatrist  finds 
that  the  criminal  class  is  verv  largely  feeble- 
minded or  sub-normal  in  mental  capacity.  As  a 
result  expert  opinion  strongly  demands  that  the 
criminal  should  be  treated  as  an  individual  and 
his  treatment  adapted  to  his  special  condition. 

Among  the  scientific  investigations  of  crim- 
inals one  of  the  most  notable  is  that  of  Dr. 
Charles  Goring  of  London,  who  completed  an  in- 
vestigation of  some  3000  convicts  in  English 
prisons.  His  conclusions  were:  the  hereditary 
nature  of  criminality  is  clearly  established;  the 
influence  of  the  social  environment  is  extremely 
small;  and  mental  deficiency  is  probably  the 
chief  cause  of  delinquency.  Similar  results  were 
obtained  by  the  extensive  work  of  Dr.  Henry  H. 
Goddard  of  the  Vineland  Training  School.  An 
opposing  view,  however,  is  taken  oy  those  who 
lay  special  stress  upon  environmental  factors  of 
prison  reform.  The  new  attitude  is  producing 
marked  chants  in  prison  methods.  The  dark 
cell  and  physical  punishment  are  being  abolished 
in  favor  of  rewards  for  good  behavior  and  a  de- 
privation of  privileges  for  breaches  of  discipline. 
Likewise  head  shaving,  prison  stripes,  the  lock 
step,  and  various  other  personal  humiliations  are 
disappearing.    More  and  more  convicts  are  sen- 


tenced for  indefinite  periods;  and  prison  ofilcials 
are  paroling  convicts  who  have  shown  themselves 
worthy  of  restoration  to  normal  social  relations. 
There  has  also  been  a  tremendous  change  in  the 
methods  of  convict  labor,  as  noted  in  the  para- 
graph on  Legislation  below.  During  the  year 
North  Carolina  made  marked  improvement  in 
the  conditions  of  its  convict  camps;  Arizona  in- 
troduced an  honor  system  with  construction 
work  in  the  open  air,  with  plenty  of  good  food 
and  wholesome  surroundings.  Numerous  States 
have  introduced  the  custom  of  paying  prisoners 
a  small  wage  which  is  either  accumulated  for 
tiiem  until  their  discharge  or  sent  to  their  de- 
pendents. Along  with  this  wide-spread  reform  of 
prison  methods  has  developed  opposition  to  capi- 
tal punishment.  Laws  abolishing  capital  punish- 
ment were  passed  in  1915  in  North  and  South 
Dakota,  while  similar  bills  were  introduced  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Illinois,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Arkansas.  An  anti-capital  punishment  so- 
ciety was  organized  in  New  York.  See  also  Mil- 
itary Pboobess  for  military  penology. 

OSBOBNE  AND  SiNO  SiNG.  Among  the  most 
notable  prison  reform  movements  was  that  led 
by  Thomas  M.  Osborne,  warden  of  Sing  Sing 
Prison.  In  his  view,  punishment  does  not  re- 
form, while  the  aim  of  the  prison  should  be  to 
make  every  man  capable  of  living  an  honest  and 
useful  life.  Since  criminality  is  fundamentally 
a  disease  the  prisoner  should  be  kept  in  prison 
until  sufficiently  cured.  He  advocates  methods 
of  training  which  will  encourage  honesty  and  up- 
rightness, and  develop  in  the  criminal  a  healthy 
mind  and  body  and  a  sense  of  responsibility.  He 
consequently  extended  the  honor  system  so  as  to 
include  the  idea  of  self-government.  A  founda- 
tion for  all  good  prison  work  was  laid  by  devel- 
oping a  spirit  of  co5peration  among  the  prison- 
ers. The  abolition  of  brutal  treatment  resulted 
in  an  atmosphere  of  confidence  in  place  of  one  of 
suspicion.  This  was  followed  by  allowing  the 
prisoners  to  regulate  conditions  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent through  their  own  Mutual  Welfare  League. 
To  the  Lei^e  all  privileges  were  given,  and  the 
League  as  an  organization  became  responsible  for 
the  good  conduct  of  its  members.  Each  viola- 
tion became  an  offense  against  the  League,  pun- 
ishable by  its  duly  constituted  officers  through 
judicial  procedure.  Thus  the  loyalty  of  a  man 
to  his  friends,  to  the  "gang,"  was  brought  to  the 
aid  of  prison  authorities.  Mr.  Osborne's  funda- 
mental principles  are:  (1)  The  law  must  decree 
not  punishment,  but  temporary  exile  until  the 
offender  has  proved  by  his  conduct  that  he  is  fit 
to  return.  (2)  Society  must  brand  no  man  as 
a  criminal,  but  aim  solely  to  reform  the  mental 
conditions  of  the  individual  who  committed  the 
criminal  act.  (3)  The  prison  must  be  an  insti- 
tution where  every  inmate  shall  have  the  largest 
practicable  amount  of  individual  freedom  be- 
cause "it  is  liberty  alone  that  fits  men  for 
liberty." 

Among  the  results  claimed  for  Osborne's 
methods  were:  improved  mental  and  physical 
condition  of  the  prison  population;  a  reduction 
in  the  number  of  escapes;  a  reversal  of  the  atti- 
tude of  prisoners  toward  escapes;  an  increase  in 
the  productivity  of  prison  labor;  a  reduction  of 
30  per  cent  in  insanity;  a  reduction  in  the  use  of 
drugs.  There  had  been  formed  a  Imitting  class 
with  300;  a  shorthand  class  with  50;  a  class  in 
industrial  drawinp^  with  30.  Moreover,  various 
groups   engaged   in   the   study  of  music,   tele- 


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graphy,  clay  modeling,  and  foreign  languages. 
Athletic  contests  created  a  wholesome  mental  at- 
titude. 

Almost  from  the  first  there  had  been  decided 
opposition  to  some  of  Warden  Osborne's  methods. 
Tliis  was  shown  in  various  controversies  with 
Superintendent  of  Prisons  John  B.  Riley.  In 
November  the  Westchester  County  Grand  Jury 
began  an  investigation  of  the  situation  at  Sing 
Sing.  Late  in  December  Mr.  Osborne  was  in- 
dicted upon  two  counts  for  perjury,  and  for  mis- 
management on  six  different  counts.  In  the  in- 
dictment for  mismanagement  he  was  accused  of 
absenting  himself  from  the  prison  on  an  average 
of  three  days  a  week  since  Dec.  1,  1914;  of  fail- 
ure to  report  felonies  committed  in  the  prison; 
of  permitting  various  persons  to  visit  Charles 
Becker  while  he  was  awaiting  his  end  in  the 
Death  House ;  of  allowing  "cerUiin  unworthy  and 
unfit  inmates  of  Sing  Sing  Prison  to  control  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  discipline  and 
police  of  said  prison/'  causing  confusion  and 
making  discipline  difficult;  of  permitting  38  as- 
saults by  inmates  upon  their  fellows;  and  he 
was  accused  of  immorality.  The  indictment  for 
perjury  was  due  to  testimony  alleged  to  have 
been  given  by  Osborne  to  Dr.  Diedling  of  the 
Prison  Commission  that  there  were  no  more 
serious  cases  in  the  prison  wherein  morals  were 
affected,  a  statement  said  to  be  untrue.  Mr.  Os- 
borne said  the  indictment  was  the  result  of  "cor- 
rupt political  conspiracy"  and  the  action  of  dis- 
gruntled inmates  of  the  prison.  He  said,  ''Be- 
cause I  have  run  Sing  Sing  Prison  with  business 
honesty  and  efficiencv  I  have  made  myself  hated 
by  the  corrupt  political  elements  that  have  long 
utilized  the  prison  for  their  own  foul  purposes." 
On  December  31st  Mr.  Osborne  signed  a  request 
for  leave  of  absence,  and  Prof.  George  W.  Kirch- 
wey,  a  personal  friend  of  Osborne's,  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  prison. 

The  American  Prison  Association  met  in 
California  in  October.  The  most  striking  fea- 
ture of  the  programme  was  the  attention  given 
to  the  relation  of  mental  defectiveness  to  prob- 
lems of  crime  and  penology.  The  necessity  for 
careful  psychological  studies  was  urged.  There 
was  an  absence  of  the  extreme  emphasis  hitherto 
laid  upon  heredity;  instead,  there  were  consid- 
ered both  hereditary  and  environmental  factors 
which  may  contribute  to  criminalistic  tendencies 
and  habits.  The  honor  ^stem  was  advocated, 
doubt  arising  about  its  efficacy  in  regard  to  the 
mental  defective  and  habitual  criminal.  Papers 
were  also  read  on  the  parole  system,  and  the 
problems  of  managing  industrial  schools  for 
boys. 

Legislation.  In  Various  States,  Much  at- 
tention has  been  given  in  recent  years  by  State 
Legislatures  to  the  establishment  of  better  con- 
ditions for  convict  labor.  During  1916  18  States 
enacted  laws  with  reference  to  employment  of 
such  labor  on  highways;  the  only  States  not  per- 
mitting such  labor  are  Maryland,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Rhode  Island.  Several  States  pro- 
vided for  the  preparation  of  road  materials  at 
prison  camps  and  on'  State  farms.  Oklahoma 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a  steel  plant  for 
the  production  of  bridge  and  building  shapes. 
Montana  provided  for  a  referendum  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  construction  of  a  binding  twine  fac- 
tory; while  Oregon  provided  for  the  erection  of 
a  flax  mill,  and  Missouri  established  a  binding 
twine  plant  at  the  penitentiary.    Numerous  pro- 


visions for  wage  allowances  to  convicts  were 
made,  some  States  granting  pay  for  over-time 
and  others  allowing  extra  pay  or  extra  good 
time  for  convicts  employed  outside  the  prison. 
Such  pay  may  go  to  the  support  of  dependents 
or  be  retained  for  the  use  of  the  convict  when 
free.  Various  States,  especially  in  the  West  and 
Middle  West,  prescribed  the  State  account,  State 
use,  or  public  works  and  ways  systems  with  the 
special  requirement  that  competition  with  free 
labor  be  avoided  and  that  special  effort  be  made 
to  teach  useful  trades  and  callings,  and  develop 
the  intellectual  and  moral  capacity  of  prisoners. 

The  Pennsylvania  law  was  especially  compre- 
hensive. It  established  a  prison-labor  commis- 
sion with  authority  to  install  machinery  for 
carrying  on  various  industries.  The  manufac- 
ture and  production  of  supplies  for  State  and 
county  institutions  was  provided  for;  also  the 
manufacture  of  building  material  for  the  con- 
struction or  repair  of  State  institutions.  The 
law  contemplated  also  the  preparation  of  crushed 
stone,  brick,  tile,  culvert  pipe,  and  other  ma- 
terial suitable  for  road-building  and  drainage. 
Convicts  are  to  be  credited  with  waffes  at  the 
rate  of  from  10  cents  to  50  cents  per  day,  wages 
to  depend  not  merely  on  the  character  of  the 
work,  but  upon  the  willingness,  industry,  and 
conduct  of  the  prisoner.  Three  quarters  of  such 
wages  are  to  be  sent  to  dependents,  or  all  of  it 
at  the  prisoner's  request.  In  the  absence  of  de- 
pendents earnings  accumulate  to  the  credit  of 
the  prisoner  and  are  to  be  paid  to  him  in  install- 
ments, one-third  on  discharge,  one-third  in  three 
months,  and  the  remainder  in  six  months.  Con- 
victs employed  on  the  public  highways  will  re- 
ceive 25  cents  per  day. 

Chicago.  A  new  Crime  Commission  was  ap- 
pointed in  Chicago  as  a  result  of  the  report  of 
the  City  Council  Committee  on  Crime  of  which 
Prof.  Charles  E.  Merriam  was  chairman.  Two 
aspects  of  the  problem  were  brought  out.  (I) 
Professional  criminals  escape  the  penalties  of  the 
law  and  prey  upon  society  at  will.  (2)  Jails 
and  prisons  of  Chicago  are  filled  with  petty  crim- 
inals and  victims  of  poverty,  oftentimes  people 
not  guilty  of  crime  at  all.  It  was  shown  that 
out  of  109,764  persons  arrested  in  a  single  year, 
less  than  10  per  cent  are  arrested  on  felony 
charges,  40  per  cent  are  fined,  2  per  cent  are  held 
for  Sie  grand  jury,  1  per  cent  are  sentenced  to 
the  county  jail,  and  1.8  per  cent  are  sentenced 
to  the  House  of  Correction,  leaving  a  large  per- 
centage of  people  who  have  been  subjected  to 
hardship  by  needless  arrests.  It  was  shown  that 
these  injustices  fall  largely  upon  the  poor,  and 
tliat  the  well-to-do  are  not  arrested  for  trivial 
offenses.  In  an  investigation  of  14,709  prisoners 
in  the  House  of  Correction,  12,124,  or  82  per  cent, 
were  there  because  they  were  unable  to  pay  their 
fines. 

Missouri.  A  special  committee  of  the  State 
Senate  made  its  report  to  the  General  Assembly 
on  Penitentiary  Reform.  The  purpose  of  the 
committee  was  to  report  the  advisability  of  abol- 
ishing the  contract  labor  system.  Among  its 
recommendations  were  the  following:  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  private  contract  system;  the  inde- 
terminate sentence  except  for  murder,  treason, 
rape,  arson,  and  robbery;  creation  of  a  separate 
reformatory  for  juvenile  offenders ;  segregation  of 
diseased  prisoners;  provision  of  opportimity  for 
prisoners  to  earn  money;  the  education  of  all 
prisoners;  a  non-partisan  and  non-sectarian  ad- 


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PEHAK 


ministrative  board;  the  purchase  of  four  farms 
of  640  or  1280  acres  each  and  the  use  of  prison- 
ers thereon  and  in  brick-making  and  road-build- 
ing; the  substitution  of  the  electric  chair  for  the 
scaffold;  and  the  promotion  of  factory  enter- 
prises at  the  penal  institutions. 

In  Congress.  For  a  number  of  years  the  Na- 
tional Committee  on  Prisons  and  Prison  Labor 
has  advocated  the  enactment  of  what  is  known 
as  the  Booher-Hughes  Bill  for  the  control  of 
Federal  prisons.  The  law  is  primarily  due  to 
the  effort  to  control  the  shipment  of  convict- 
made  goods  in  interstate  commerce.  Such  ship- 
ment can  be  prevented  only  by  Congress,  so  that 
while  any  State  may  prevent  competition  be- 
tween its  own  convict  labor  and  its  free  labor,  it 
cannot  prevent  the  competition  of  goods  made  by 
convicts  in  other  States.  This  bill  has  passed 
the  House  four  times  and  was  reported  favorably 
by  the  Senate  Committee  in  1915.  It  provides 
for  a  Commissioner  of  Prisons  to  be  appointed 
by  the  President  and  Senate,  and  to  have  charge 
of  the  administration,  housing,  and  social  hy- 
giene of  prisoners,  the  educational  methods  for 
their  rehabilitation,  and  systems  of  pardon  and 
parole.  It  was  pointed  out  that  in  addition  to 
the  2000  prisoners  in  the  Federal  penitentiaries 
at  Atlanta,  Leavenworth,  and  McNeil's  Island, 
there  were  more  than  lOOb  other  Federal  prison- 
ers in  the  Federal  jails  at  Fort  Smith,  Guthrie, 
and  in  Alaska,  and  in  State,  county,  and  city 
prisons  of  the  country. 

BiBLioo&APHY.  American  Prison  Association, 
Proceedings  of  the  Annual  (19HJ  Congress  at 
8t,  Paul;  Chicago,  Report  of  the  City  Council 
Committee  on  Crime;  J.  Weidensall,  Mentality  of 
the  Criminal  Woman;  H.  H.  Goddard,  The  Im- 
becile Criminal,  an  Analysis  of  Three  Remark- 
able Murder  Cases;  Wm.  and  M.  T.  Healy,  Path- 
ological Lying,  Accusation,  and  Svnndling;  Kay- 
mond  B.  Fosdick,  European  Police  Systems; 
William  Healy,  The  Individual  Delinquent, 

PENSIONS.    See  Old  Age  Pensions. 

PENSIONS  FOB  MOTHEBS.  In  1912  a 
movement  was  begun  for  the  establishment  of 
pensions  for  widows  or  mothers  with  minor  chil- 
dren. Ihe  prime  purpose  of  this  movement  was 
to  make  it  possible  for  needy  mothers  to  retain 
control  of  their  own  children.  Pensions  were 
thus  advocaled  as  an  alternative  to  outdoor  re- 
lief by  either  public  or  private  charity,  or  to  the 
segregation  of  the  children  in  public  or  private 
children's  homes  and  asylums.  The  immediate 
urgency  of  such  legislation  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  advance  of  child  labor  restrictions,  pre- 
venting the  employment  of  children  of  12  to  16 
years,  who  previously  had  been  able  to  contribute 
something  to  the  budgets  of  families  of  the  poor. 
Moreover,  it  was  argued  and  generally  agreed 
that  the  peculiar  interest  of  the  mother  guar- 
antees better  care  for  children  than  can  be  se- 
cured by  any  other  arrangement.  Five  States 
enacted  mothers'  pension  laws  in  1912,  and  12 
additional  States  and  2  cities  in  1913.  No  new 
laws  were  enacted  in  1914;  but  in  1915  3  new 
States  were  added  to  the  list,  2  others  amended 
their  laws,  and  1  authorized  inquiry.  States 
having  mothers'  pension  laws  at  the  close  of  1915 
were:  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  South  Dakota,  Utah, 
Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

In  1915  legislation  on  the  subject  was  enacted 


in  Florida,  Nebraska,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Washington,  and  Wyoming.  Florida  authorized 
a  commission  of  inquiry.  Nebraska  revised  her 
act  along  administrative  lines.  New  York  pro- 
vided pensions  for  needy  widows  with  children 
under  16  years  of  age  to  the  amount  of  about  $11 
per  month  for  each  child.  In  North  Dakota  the 
law  made  provision  for  children  up  to  the  age  of 
14  years,  the  monthly  allowance  not  to  exceed 
$15  per  month  for  each  child.  The  Washington 
statute  threw  restrictions  about  the  administra- 
tion of  the  law,  while  in  Wyoming  dependent 
widows  were  given  assistance  to  the  amount  of 
$20  for  one  child  under  14,  and  $10  additional 
for  each  additional  child  under  that  age. 

Much  of  the  legislation  on  this  subject  has 
aroused  active  criticism  because  of  its  hasty  and 
ill-considered  nature.  A  general  survey  of  the 
considerable  bodv  of  laws  shows  that  titie  move- 
ment has  spread  with  remarkable  rapidity  and 
has  resulted  in  a  great  variety  of  legislative  en- 
actments. In  this  respect  it  probably  is  not, 
however,  essentiallv  different  from  the  legisla- 
tion on  any  new  subject  considered  by  the  50  leg- 
islative bodies  of  the  country.  In  its  original 
form  the  proposal  was  to  give  pensions  to  wid- 
ows with  minor  children,  and  in  this  form  it  was 
actually  begun  by  the  Justice  in  the  Juvenile 
Court  m  Kansas  City  in  1911.  But  the  classes 
of  beneficiaries  were  gradually  increased  so  as  to 
include  in  some  States  mothers  of  minor  chil- 
dren with  husbands  in  prison  or  in  insane  hos- 
pitals; or  mothers  of  minor  children  whose  hus- 
bands had  deserted  them;  or  even  any  women 
with  minor  children  in  need  of  aid.  Indeed  the 
idea  has  been  stretched  so  as  to  include  any  fam- 
ily needing  aid  regardless  of  whether  the  father 
or  guardian  is  at  hand.  Similar  variation  is 
shown  in  the  amounts  granted.  Thus  the  pen- 
sions per  month  for  the  first  child  range  from 
$6.25  to  $15;  and  for  each  additional  child,  from 
$5  to  $15.  While  the  age  limit  of  the  children 
for  whom  pensions  may  be  allowed  is  usually  14 
years,  in  some  States  it  is  15,  16,  or  even  18. 

While,  therefore,  the  great  sweep  of  the  move- 
ment has  shown  that  the  proposal  has  met  with 
popular  approval  in  this  country,  nevertheless 
there  is  considerable  apprehension  lest  more 
harm  than  good  may  be  done.  In  behalf  of  the 
proposal  it  is  argued  that  mothers  can  care  best 
for  their  own  children;  that  the  future  welfare 
of  the  children  requires  that  they  be  reared 
under  normal  conditions;  and  that  other  forms 
of  aid  are  spasmodic  and  unreliable.  Against 
the  proposal  it  is  argued  that  pensions  from  the 
public  treasury  will  lessen  parental  responsi- 
bility; will  lessen  family  ties;  will  reduce  self- 
respect;  and  will  result  in  racial  deterioration 
by  encouraging  the  multiplication  of  the  less  able 
stocks. 

PEAAK.  A  state  (the  most  northerly)  of  the 
Federated  Malay  States  (q.v.).  Tin  was  dis- 
covered in  Larut  about  1850,  and  the  mines  have 
become  the  chief  source  of  wealth  in  the  country. 
The  principal  mining  districts  are  Larut,  Kinta, 
Batang,  Padang,  and  Klian  Intan.  In  1913  the 
export  of  tin  and  tin  ore  was  43,967  piculs, 
valued  at  49,744,768  Straits  Settlements  dollars. 
Rubber  is  an  important  product.  Rice  and  co- 
conuts are  extensively  grown. 

The  state  is  traversed  by  the  main  line  of  rail- 
way from  Penang.  Taiping  is  the  government 
headquarters,  Ipoh  the  commercial  centre.  The 
chief  port  is  Teluk  Anson.    The  Sultan,  Sir  Idris 


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FBBSIA 


Mersid-el  Attzam  Shah,  ia  the  native  ruler,  aided 
by  a  British  resident  adviser,  who  in  1916  was 
Mr.  R.  G.  Watson. 

PEBIM.     A  dependency  of  Aden  (q.v.). 

PEBISCOPES.  See  Militabt  Pboobess,  Eu- 
ropean War, 

PESBYy  Enoch  Wood.  American  artist  and 
public  official,  died  Dec.  15,  1916.  He  was  born 
in  Boston,  in  1831,  and  in  1852  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  studied  in  Paris  until  1856,  when  he 
was  appointed  consul  at  Venice.  In  this  posi- 
tion he  served  for  two  years  and  then  returned 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
art.  He  painted  portraits  of  many  important 
persons  before  the  war.  He  also  painted  a  por- 
trait of  General  Grant.  During  his  trip  through 
the  West  he  painted  a  portrait  of  Brigham 
Young,  and  other  Mormon  leaders.  In  1866  he 
settled  in  New  York,  and  was  afterwards  elected 
to  the  National  Academy.  Among  other  well 
known  paintings  are  the  "Contraband  of  Peace," 
"The  Lost  Art,"  "The  Clock  Doctor,"  "Saturday 
Afternoon,"  "The  Sower,"  and  the  ^'Helping 
Hand."  Mr.  Periy  established  the  free  art 
school  in  Cooper  Union,  and  was  active  in  hav- 
ing land  in  Central  Park  set  aside  for  a  museum. 

PEBSIA.  A  constitutional  Asiatic  monarchy 
extending  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of 
Oman.    Capital,  Teheran. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  area  is  estimated 
at  1,645,000  square  kilometers  (635,135  square 
miles).  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  imknown, 
but  a  conmionly  accepted  figure  is  9,000,000,  of 
whom  about  2,500,000  are  nomads.  Population 
of  Teheran,  about  280,000;  Tabriz,  200,000;  Me- 
shed, 130,000;  Ispahan,  70,000;  Kerman,  60,000; 
Yezd,  45,000;  Resht,  42,000.  The  great  majority 
of  the  people  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiah 
sect.  Persia  is  for  the  most  part  an  infertile 
plateau,  mountain-bound  on  three  sides.  A  salt 
desert  occupies  the  central  and  eastern  portions. 
The  Karun  is  the  only  navigable  river.  To  the 
north  and  west  are  heavy  forests. 

The  population  is  given  over  to  misery  and 
poverty  by  an  incompetent  and  extravagant  gov- 
ernment; and  foreign  greed  has  greatly  added  to 
the  burdens  of  the  oppressed. 

Production  and  Commerce.  The  agricultural 
products  include  cereals,  cotton,  sugar,  opium, 
and  tobacco.  The  country  possesses  valuable  min- 
eral resources — petroleum,  coal,  iron,  copper,  and 
lead;  but  exploitation  on  a  considerable  com- 
mercial scale  is  hindered  by  lack  of  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Silk  and  carpets  are  manufac- 
tured. The  chief  products  for  export,  together 
with  the  imports  for  consmnption,  are  shown  in 
the  table  below,  with  values  in  the  1912-13  trade 
in  thoiisands  of  kr&ns: 


JmjtorU  1000  Kr, 

Cottoni    186.910 

Sugar    188.679 

Tea    40,978 

Gold      and      ailver 

ban  and  coins. .   17,108 

Petroleum    10.841 

Cotton  yarn    18,680 

Flour     22,475 

Woolens    16.815 

Indiffo.  etc 2,295 

Haberdashery    ....   10,100 

Rice     6,802 

Spices    8,694 

Wool    8.268 

Animals    1.466 

Matches    8.166 

Silks    6,427 

Tin,  line,  and  lead       1.726 


Bxport$  1000  Kr. 

Fruits    47.467 

Carpets    60.392 

Cotton    98.848 

Fish     8.246 

Bice    42.809 

Gold  A  silver  coins  27.428 

Gums    18,902 

Opium   84.916 

Wool    11.800 

Cocoons 11.766 

Skins 12,676 

Animals 8.886 

Silk  stuffs 6.689 

Cottons    2,160 

Hides     11,869 

Sflk    1,792 

Wheat  and  barley  .     8,819 
Pearls    8.640 


JmporU  1000  Kr.   ExporU  1000  Kr. 

Tobacco    8,098   Woolens     2,866 

Copper  and  nickel.  2,606   Drugs    8,688 

Iron    and   steel    . .  4.749  Timber 1.096 

Mfrd.  iron  A  steel.  6.918   Tobacco 2,487 

Timber    8.447   Dyes    1.820 

Silkworm  eggs   . . .  2.607    Eggs    1,299 

In  1910-11  the  import  of  cottons  was  valued 
at  139,076,000  krftns;  sugar,  120,596,000;  silver, 
42,467,000";  tea,  24,822,000;  cotton  yarn,  11,145,- 
000;  woolens,  9,725,000;  iron  manufactures, 
7,061,000;  petroleum,  6,998,000.  For  the  same 
year  the  export  of  raw  cotton  was  valued  at  70,- 
380,000  krAns;  fruits,  62,507,000;  carpets,  46,- 
693,000;  rice,  29,210,000;  hides  and  skins,  21,- 
349,000;  silk  and  cocoons,  17,601,000;  opium, 
13,170,000;  gums,  11,950,000;  wool,  10,483,- 
000. 

The  trade  by  countries  in  1912-13  is  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  krAns: 

Imps.  Sxpt. 

Bussia     828,980  800,878 

U.   K 86,882  84,828 

Brit.    Ind 66,799  22.270 

Turkey     28.889  87.927 

Germany     21,888  2.928 

France     11,031  4,829 

Aus.Hung    8.042  607 

Belgium    7.929  408 

AfgWn    4.860  2.448 

lUly    2,738  8,004 

Oman    1,047  7,878 

China    789  8,474 

U.    S 947  6,875 

Other     2,481  2,876 

1912-18  667.676  486.888 

1910-11  484,508  875.427 

1909-10  442,428  871,526 

1908-09  872,484  826,207 

Vessels  entered  at  Persian  Gulf  ports  in  the 
1910-11  trade,  4492,  of  1,443,838  tons  (1096  of 
1,151,822  tons,  British) ;  at  Caspian  ports  (all 
Russian),  2755,  of  718,765  tons.  In  the  1912-13 
trade,  the  tonnage  entered  at  Persian  Gulf  ports 
was  1,927,207  (1,549,921  British);  at  Caspian 
ports,  762,617. 

Trade  is  carried  on  over  the  great  caravan 
routes.  These  are  infested  with  brigands,  with 
whom  the  Persian  government  is  powerless  to 
deal  adequately,  and  the  danger  and  imcertainty 
incident  to  transportation  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  British 
traders  in  the  south  and  Russian  traders  in  the 
north. 

Finance  and  Govebnicent.  The  customs  of- 
fice, as  well  as  the  post  office,  has  been  managed 
since  1900  by  Europeans,  native  officials  being 
represented  as  dishonest  and  oppressive.  The 
revenue  (about  half  of  which  is  derived  from 
taxes  levied  in  kind  or  in  cash  upon  the  laboring 
classes)  fluctuates  between  70,000,000  and  100,- 
000,000  krflns;  no  statement  of  expenditure  can 
be  made,  except  that  it  regularly  exceeds  the 
revenue.  The  Russian  debt  of  1900  amounts  to 
22,600,000  rubles  at  5  per  cent,  payable  in  76 
years  and  guaranteed  upon  the  customs  receipts 
other  than  those  of  the  Province  of  Fars  and  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  ports;  debt  of  1902,  10,000,000 
rubles  at  6  per  cent;  debt  of  1913,  2,000,000 
rubles  at  7  per  cent.  British  loans  of  1910  and 
1911,  £2,676,181  at  6  per  cent;  loans  of  1912, 
1913,  and  1914,  £490,000  at  7  per  cent.  Float- 
ing debt,  104,870,000  krAns;  annuities,  14,000,- 
000  krAns.  The  exchange  value  of  the  krAn  is 
about  8.76  cents. 


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Persia  is  a  constitiitional  monarchy,  heredi- 
tary in  the  Shiah  dynasty  of  the  Kajars  since 
1794.  The  country  is  divided  into  33  provinces 
administered  by  Governors-General  appointed  by 
the  Shidi,  but  the  nomad  tribes  are  ruled  by 
their  own  chiefs,  so  far  recognized  by  the  central 
government  as  to  be  held  responsible  for  the  col- 
lection of  revenue.  Persia  became  a  party  in 
1912  to  the  Anglo-Russian  Ck)nvention  of  Aug. 
31,  1907,  by  which  each  of  the  two  contending 
powers  agreed  to  confine  its  political  and  com- 
mercial operations  to  definite  regions  not  over- 
lapping; Persia  agreed  to  respect  these  rights 
and  to  reorganize  her  army  to  suit  the  two 
powers.  The  Mejliss  (a  national  assembly  pro- 
vided for  in  the  constitution  of  June,  1909)  was 
dissolvMl  in  December,  1911,  and  no  elections 
were  afterwards  held  until  the  summer  of  1914. 
Ruling  sovereign,  Ahmed  Shah  Kajar  (born 
1898),  son  and  successor  of  Mohammed  Ali  Shah, 
who  abdicated  July  16,  1909.  There  was  a  re- 
gency imtil  the  coronation  of  Ahmed  Shah,  July 
21,  1914. 

HiSTOftT.  Although  officially  Persia  remained 
neutral  in  the  war,  Persian  territory,  particu- 
larly in  the  extreme  northwest,  was  regarded 
both  by  the  Russians  and  by  the  Turks  as  a 
legitimate  theatre  of  war.  The  military  opera- 
tions on  Persian  soil  are  described  in  the  article 
on  the  Wab  or  the  Nations  (q.v.) ;  in  this  place, 
however,  it  should  be  noted  that  not  only  was 
the  Persian  Province  of  Azerbaijan  devastated 
by  successive  Russian  and  Turkish  invasions,  but 
furthermore  the  Kurdish  tribesmen  in  North- 
western Persia,  taking  advantage  of  the  Persian 
government's  inability  either  to  resist  invasion 
or  to  maintain  order,  and  possibly  encouraged  by 
their  Mohammedan  co-religionists  in  Turkey,  in- 
stituted a  systematic  massacre  of  the  Armenian 
and  Nestorian  Christians  in  the  Province  of 
Azerbaijan.  The  condition  of  the  region  about 
Lake  Urumiah  became  so  appaUing  that  in 
March  the  American  and  British  consuls  at  Ta- 
briz appealed  to  the  Russian  forces  to  intervene 
and  protect  American  missionaries.  (For  the 
corresponding  massacres  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  con- 
sult Turkey,  History,  Armenian  Atrooitiea,) 
By  the  end  of  April  between  80  and  40  thousand 
Armenian  and  other  Christians  had  fled  from 
Azerbaijan;  many  hundreds  had  been  massacred; 
and  thousands  had  died  as  a  result  of  unsanitary 
conditions.  Throughout  the  year  a  strong  in- 
fluence was  exerted  in  Persia  by  German  and 
Turkish  propagandists.  The  German  diplomatic 
representative.  Prince  Henry  of  Renss,  labored 
indefatigably  to  combat  the  influence  of  Great 
Britain  and  Russia.  Mohammedan  tribesmen 
were  incited  to  revolt.  The  Persian  gendarmerie 
proved  disloyal.  Kum  and  Hamadan  became 
centres  of  militant  pro-Germanism.  The  Shah 
was  only  with  difficulty  dissuaded  from  abandon- 
ing his  capital.  On  November  Idth,  however, 
the  Entente  ministers  succeeded  in  inducing 
young  Ahmed  Shah  to  remain  in  Teheran,  where, 
as  a  glance  at  the  map  will  demonstrate,  he 
would  be  under  Russian  influence,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, after  the  Russian  armies  had  reestablished 
their  military  predominance  in  Northern  and 
Northwestern  Persia,  he  was  persuaded  to  dis- 
miss his  pro-German  premier,  Mohammed  Ala 
Khan,  and  to  appoint  a  pro-Ally  cabinet,  with 
Prince  Firman  Firma  as  premier. 

Consult  also  article  War  of  the  Nations,  pae- 


FEBTJ.  A  South  American  republic,  between 
Ecuador  and  Chile.    Capital,  Lima. 

Area,  Popuuition,  etc.  Unsettled  boundaries 
involving  many  thousands  of  square  miles  render 
impossible  a  definite  statement  of  Peru's  area. 
If  certain  lines  be  taken  as  the  probable  final 
boimdaries,  an  estimate  of  1,769,804  square  kilo- 
meters (683,335  square  miles)  is  reached.  An- 
other estimate  is  1,833,916  square  kilometers 
(708,075  square  miles).  A  population  estimate 
of  1913  was  6,800,000,  but  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  this  figure  is  much  too  high.  Prob- 
ably more  than  one-half  of  the  people  are  In- 
dians; most  of  the  remainder  are  mestizos.  The 
estimated  population  of  Lima  is  about  150,000; 
Arequipa,  35,000;  Callao,  34,500;  Cuzoo,  30,000; 
Ayacucho  and  Iquitos,  20,000  each. 

lUiteraev  is  general.  Elementary  instruction 
is  nominally  but  not  actually  compulsory.  In 
1913  the  reported  number  of  public  schools  was 
2253,  with  about  150,000  pupils.  There  are  27 
national  colleges,  a  few  ouier  secondary  schools 
and  private  schools  of  various  grades,  and  several 
institutions  for  special  instruction.  There  are 
four  universities,  at  Lima,  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and 
Trujillo. 

PsoDircnoN  aitd  Comiobrgb.  The  leading 
crops  are  sugar  eane  and  cotton.  Large  quan- 
tities of  rubber  are  gathered  in  the  northeast. 
Other  products  of  some  importance  are  coffee, 
rice,  com,  wheat,  cacao,  and  tobacco.  Li  1913: 
the  mineral  output  of  Peru  was  valued  at  £4,494,- 
806.  Coal  amounted  to  £1,999,250.  The  silver 
output  was  299,132  kilos,  valued  at  £1,131,150. 
The  copper  output  increased  from  26,970  metric 
tons  in  1912  to  27,776  tons  in  1913.  The  pe- 
troleum output  was  233,600  tons  in  1912  and 
276,147  in  1913. 

Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as  fol- 
lows, in  Ubras  ( libra  =  pound  sterling,  or 
$4.86656) : 

1910  1911  1919  1919  1914 

Imports: 
4,980,697    6,488.M7    6,167,686    6,088,777    4.827,980 

Bzporti: 
7,074,076     7,416,028    9,488.581    9,187,780    8.767,790 

Some  of  the  principal  classified  imports  in 
1913  were  as  follows:  metals  and  manufactures 
thereof,  £725,633;  cotton  textiles  and  manufac- 
tures, £688,360;  tools,  ships'  stores,  machinery, 
and  vehicles,  £923,203;  wood  and  manufactures, 
£377,236;  coal,  earth,  stone,  earthenware,  glass- 
ware, etc.,  £510,(^6;  comestibles  and  condiments, 
£752,686;  wool  and  manufactures,  £302,233; 
medicines  and  pharmaceutical  products,  £212,046. 

Leading  exports  in  1913:  cotton,  £1,424,229; 
sugar,  £1,380,261;  rubber,  £815,814;  alpaca, 
£323,370;  hides,  £191,231;  sheep  wool,  £163,933; 
llama  wool,  £161,291;  copper  and  silver  bars, 
£1,536,157;  benzine,  £542,242;  lead  and  silver 
ore,  £337,850;  petroleum,  £331,862;  copper  and 
silver  ore,  £325,410;  gold  ore,  £156,776;  guano, 
£150,120;  silver  sulphide,  £70,074. 

Imports  and  exports  by  principal  countries  in 
thousands  of  libras: 


JmporU  ExpotU 

1919      1918  1919      1919 

United    Kingdom    1,199     1,599  2,617     8,408 

United  atates    1,106     1,755  2,088     8.088 

Germany     821     1,066  508        610 

France    269        280  772        822 

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Imports  Bxportt 

1912      1918  1919      1918 

lUljr    254        254  1            2 

Bdciom    245        884  106        249 

Ohib   196        288  896     1,244 

GoMMTTNiOATiONB.  As  in  other  South  Amer- 
ican countries,  transportation  facilities  are  very 
inadequate,  but  efforts  are  being  made  toward 
road  construction  and  improvement.  The  len|^h 
of  railway  in  operation  in  1912  was  2766  kilo- 
meters (1719  miles).  Telegraphs  in  1914:  317 
offices,  with  15,000  kilometers  of  line  and  126,- 
350  kilometers  of  wire.  There  is  a  system  of 
wireless  telegraphy.  Post  offices  in  1914,  781; 
receipts  £686,814,  expenses  £659,604. 

The  Central  Railway  of  Peru  is  said  to  cross 
the  Andes  Mountains  at  the  highest  point 
reached  by  any  standard  gau^  railroad  in  the 
world,  one  short  branch  reaching  an  altitude  of 
15,586  feet,  which  is  higher  than  Moimt  Blanc, 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps. 

FiNANCB.  Gold  is  the  standard  of  value  in 
Peru.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  libra,  equivalent 
to  the  pound  sterling  ($4.86666).  Revenue  and 
expenditure  in  1912,  £3,425,543  and  £3,493,629; 
in  1913,  £3,417,974  and  £3,313,396.  The  budget 
for  1916  placed  the  estimated  revenue  at  £2,847,- 
276  and  the  estimated  expenditure  at  £2,973,471. 
Customs  form  the  largest  item  of  revenue.  The 
larger  estimated  disbursements  for  1916  are,  by 
de^urtments:  finance,  £997,172;  agriculture, 
£480,761;  interior,  £476,733;  war  and  marine, 
£724,191.  The  foreign  debt  is  stated  at  £5,392,- 
468;  internal  debt,  £2,660,646,  besides  £471,355 
without  interest. 

QovBBNMBNT.  Under  the  constitution  the  ex- 
ecutive authority  is  vested  in  a  President  who^  is 
elected  by  direct  vote  for  four  years  and  is  in- 
eligible for  the  succeeding  term.  He  is  assisted 
by  a  cabinet  of  six  ministers.  There  is  a  Con- 
gress of  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Senators  (52  in  number) 
and  representatives  (116)  are  elected  by  direct 
vote  for  six  years. 

On  Aug.  10,  1916,  the  Congress  elected  Job6 
Pardo  President  to  succeed  the  provisional  Presi- 
dent, Col.  O.  R.  Benavides.  Pardo  was  inaugu- 
rated on  Aug.  18  for  the  four  year  term.  First 
Vice-President,  Ricardo  Bentfn;  second  Vice- 
President,  M.  Melit6n. 

HiSTOBT 

BiLLiNOHUBST  ExiLED.  Ex-Prcsident  Guil- 
lermo  Billinghurst,  who  was  exiled  from  Peru, 
after  having  been  deposed  by  Col.  Oscar  Bena- 
vides, was  ordered  on  January  8th  to  leave  Chile, 
where  he  had  endeavored  to  find  refuge,  within 
eight  days.  At  the  same  time  Dr.  Augusto  Du- 
rand,  the  Peruvian  Liberal  leader,  was  ordered 
to  leave  Chilean  soil.  The  former  President, 
however,  did  not  leave  Chile.  He  was  taken  ill, 
and  on  January  28th  he  died  at  Iquique.  On 
the  same  day  Fernando  Qazzani,  who  had  re- 
signed from  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  on 
the  previous  day,  was  shot  and  dangerously 
wounded  in  a  duel  with  Juan  Durand,  brother  of 
the  Liberal  leader.  The  dispute  arose  out  of  the 
action  of  Gazzani  in  suggesting  to  the  Chilean 
government  that  the  two  deposed  leaders  be 
asked  to  leave  the  coimtry.  On  the  19th  of  Jan- 
uary the  Peruvian  Senate  in  secret  session  de- 
cided to  reduce  the  size  of  the  army  and  suspend 
the  amortization  of  public  debts  during  the  Eu- 


ropean war.  A  wedc  later  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties authorized  the  loan  of  3,600,000  soU  ($1,- 
680,000).  The  President  immediately  issued  a 
call  to  Congress  to  convene  to  approve  this  loan 
as  well  as  the  bud|^et.  The  financial  discussion 
brought  about  a  crisis  on  February  14,  with  the 
result  that  the  cabinet  resigned  in  a  body.  The 
new  cabinet  appointed  by  the  President  on  Feb- 
ruary 20th  consisted  of  Sefior  Solon  Polo,  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs;  Colonel  Abrill,  minister 
of  marine  and  war;  Sefior  Victor  Benavides, 
minister  of  government;  Sefior  Placido  Jimfnez, 
minister  of  justice;  Sefior  Enrique  Oyanguren, 
minister  of  finance;  Sefior  Francisco  Alayza 
Noel,  minister  of  public  works.  The  arbitra- 
tion treaty  with  the  United  States,  drawn  up  on 
July  14,  1914,  was  signed  at  Lima  on  March  6th 
bv  Sefior  Solon  Polo,  Peruvian  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  and  Benton  McMillin,  American 
minister  to  Peru. 

Pbesidenct  of  Jost  Paboo.  On  May  18th 
Sefior  Don  Josd  Pardo  was  reelected  President  of 
Peru  by  a  large  majority.  The  elections  were 
the  quietest  ever  held  in  the  republic.  Sefior 
Pardo  had  been  President  in  1904  and  had  then 
been  made  minister  to  France,  a  position  which 
he  held  imtil  1914.  CoL  Oscar  Benavides,  pro- 
visional President  of  the  republic,  resigned  his 
office  on  August  18th  and  Pardo  became  Presi- 
dent. His  new  cabinet  consisted  of  Sefiores  En- 
rique de  la  Riva  Agfiero,  minister  of  foreign 
affairs;  Dr.  Luis  Julio  Men6ndez,  minister  of 
interior;  Aurelio  Garcia  Lastres,  minister  of 
finance;  Wenceslao  Valera,  minister  of  justice; 
Col.  Benjamin  Puenta,  minister  of  war;  Dr. 
Belisario  Sosa,  minister  of  public  works. 

Lboiblation.  In  October  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, after  an  acrimonious  debate,  ap- 
proved a  constitutional  amendment  granting  re- 
ligious freedom  to  all  denominations.  As  the 
result  of  petitions  against  the  amendment,  and 
in  deference  to  the  overwhelming  sentiment  of 
his  cabinet.  President  Pardo  withheld  his  signa- 
ture from  the  amendment,  and  returned  the  bill 
to  Congress  for  reconsideration.  On  November 
12th,  consequently,  the  two  houses  of  Congress 
met  in  joint  session,  and  formally  promulgated 
the  religious  liberty  amendment.  Crowds  in  the 
streets  vehemently  protested  against  the  action 
of  the  Legislature,  and  Father  Dfaz,  a  deputy 
who  during  the  joint  session  had  dramatically 
exhibited  his  opposition  to  the  amendment  by 
seizing  and  tearing  the  document  to  shreds,  was 
hailed  as  the  champion  of  religion.  In  Novem- 
ber the  Congress  also  passed  a  Mineral  Export 
Tax  Bill,  levying  an  export  duty  of  25  cents  per 
ton  on  petroleum,  and  $3.76  per  ton  on  copper, 
with  a  provision  that  in  case  the  price  of  copper 
in  London  should  exceed  $325  per  ton,  the  tax 
should  be  increased  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  on  $5. 

International  Relations.  An  arbitration 
treaty  with  the  United  States,  drawn  up  on  July 
14,  1914,  was  signed  at  Lima,  March  5,  1915,  by 
Sefior  Solon  Polo,  Peruvian  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  Mr.  Benton  McMillin,  American 
minister  to  Peru.  On  July  9th  Peru  and  Ecua- 
dor strengthened  their  relations  by  establishing 
an  international  parcel  post  between  the  two 
countries.  Exchange  stations  were  organized  in 
Lima  and  Guayaquil.  This  was  one  of  the  first 
of  many  efforts  made  to  bring  about  a  closer 
spirit  of  relationship  between  uie  Pan-American 
republics. 

PBTIT  MAL.    See  Epilepsy. 


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PBTBOLEtTH.  The  production  of  petroleum 
in  the  United  States  in  1914  was  290,312,535 
barrels.  Of  this  quantity  205,762,535  barrels 
were  either  marketed  or  were  utilized  directly  in 
field  development,  and  24,550,000  barrels  were 
placed  in  storage  to  meet  further  requirements. 
The  marketed  production  in  1914  considerably 
exceeded  that  in  1913,  when  it  reached  a  total  of 
248,446,230  barrels.  The  total  value  of  the  out- 
put in  1914,  however,  was  considerably  less  than 
in  1913,  and  in  respective  figures  were  $214,125,- 
215  and  $237,121,388.  The  average  price  per 
barrel  in  1914  was  $.806,  as  compared  with 
$i)54  in  1913.  No  important  changes  were 
made  in  the  rank  of  oil  producing  States  in  1914, 
although  the  annual  output  of  i3ie  Gushing  Pool 
in  Oklahoma  made  that  State  a  strong  competi- 
tor for  first  place,  which  was,  however,  retained 
by  California,  by  a  margin  of  about  10,000,000 
barrels.  Wyoming  showed  the  greatest  relative 
increase  in  1914,  exceeding  its  output  in  1913  by 
nearly  48  per  cent.  It  failed,  however,  to  gain 
a  rank  above  nine.  The  greatest  relative  de- 
cline took  place  in  West  Virginia,  which  recorded 
a  decrease  of  16  per  cent  below  the  output  of 
1913.  See  also  Chbmistbt,  Industbial;  and 
Gboloot. 

The  following  table  shows  the  output  and  its 
value  in  the  several  States  in  1913-14: 


lands.  Agriculture  is  taught  in  the  schools  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
The  agricultural  conditions  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  Jime  30,  1914,  were  notable  chiefiy  for 
increases  in  the  exports  of  agricultural  produc- 
tions, particularly  sugar  and  hemp,  although  the 
European  war  seriously  affected  the  latter  in- 
dustiy,  and  the  exports  of  fibre  fell  off  heavily 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year.  The  quan- 
tity of  copra  shipped  increased  considerably  over 
the  previous  year,   but  owing  to  much  lower 

£  rices  in  value  was  one  and  one-half  million  dol- 
irs  less  than  in  1913.  The  sugar  cane  exported  to 
the  United  States  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1915,  amounted  to  326,842,296  pounds,  valued 
at  $7,511,126.  This  was  a  remarkable  increase 
over  the  exports  of  1914,  which  were  116,749,211 
pounds,  valued  at  $2,553,601.  The  manila  hemp 
exported  to  the  United  States  in  1915  was  valued 
at  $9,161,729,  compared  with  $9,713,695  in  1914. 
The  government  has  made  liberal  appropriations 
for  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture  for  irrigation  pro- 
jects, and  for  money  to  be  loaned  by  the  agri- 
cultural bank,  and  for  yearly  loans  amounting 
to  2,000,000  pesos  annually  to  the  sugar  produc- 
ing farmers  in  certain  provinces. 

Commerce.  The  total  value  of  the  commerce 
during  the  fiscal  year  1914  was  about  $4,000,000 
below  that  of  the  previous  year.    The  decline. 


TOTAL   QUANTITY  AND  VALUB   OF  MARKETED  PRODUCTION  OF  PETROLEUM  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  THE  AVERAOE  PRICE  PER  BARREL  IN  1018  AND  1014.  BT  STATES,  IN  BARRELS 


StaU 


QunntUy 


Al 

CalifoniU    97, 


,788.1 


525 


Colorado 188.700 

Illinois    28,808,800 

Indiana    056,005 

Kanaas 2,875.020 

Kentucky 624,668 

Louisiana 12,408.828 

Michigan     (a) 

Mitaonri     (aS 

New    Mexico     (a) 

New   York    048,101 

Ohio     8,781,468 

Oklahoma     68,570,884 

Pennsylvania     7,017.802 

Texas     15,000,478 

West   Virginia    11,667.200 

Wyoming 2,406,522 

Other  SUtes    M0.848 


192S 


Av€raff4 
pries 


Talus  per 


145.700,400 

174,770 

80,071,010 

1,270.226 

2,248.288 

675,748 

12,255,081 

(a) 

2,284,807 
17,588,452 
50,581,048 
10,600,50^ 
14.675,508 
28,828,814 

1,187,282 
h  10,268 


bmrra 

10.467 

.026 

1.206 

1.887 

.047 

1.288 

.081 


2.400 
1.007 

.087 
2.487 

.078 
2.402 

.408 
1.777 


State 


Quantity 


Alaska    (a) 

California    00.775,827 

Colorado 222.778 

Illinois    21.010.740 

Indiana    1,885,456 

Kansas     8,108,585 

Kentucky    502.441 

Louisiana     14,800,485 

Michigan     

Missouri     

New  Mexico    

New  York   088,074 

Ohio     8,586.852 

Oklahoma     78,681,724 

Pennsylvania     8,170,885 

Texas    20.068,184 

West  Virginia 0,680,088 

Wyoming   8,560.875 

Other    States e  7,702 


\l\ 


1914 


Value 


(«) 
$48,066,006 
200.804 
25,426,170 
1.548.042 
2,488,074 
408,556 
12.886.807 
(a) 
(a) 


Average 

priee 

per 

barrel 

$0,482 
.002 
1.160 
1.150 
.784 
.002 
.001 


1.760,868 
18,872,720 
57,258,187 
15.578.822 
14.042.848 
18,468,540 

1,670,102 
e  14,201 


1.875 
1.567 

.778 
1.006 

.745 
1.008 

.472 
1.884 


Total 


a  Included  in  other  States, 
Michigan,  and  Missouri. 


248.446.280     287,121,888         .954  Total    265.762.585     214,125,215         .806 

h  Includea  Alaska.  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  New  Mexico,     c  Includes  Alaska. 


PHABUACYy  SoHooLS  of.  See  Universities 
AND  Colleges. 

PHELPS/ Thomas  Stowell.  American  rear 
admiral,  retired,  died  Nov.  3,  1916.  He  waa 
bom  in  Portsmouth,  Va.,  in  1848,  and  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1869. 
He  was  promoted  through  the  various  grades  and 
became  rear  admiral  in  1899.  He  served  in  all 
the  naval  stations,  and  on  various  vessels,  and 
took  part  in  the  Spanish-American  War.  From 
1907-10  he  was  commandant  at  the  Mare  Island 
Navy  Yard.  He  retired  from  active  service  in 
1910. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  Population.  The 
last  census  of  the  Philippines  was  taken  in  1903. 
The  population  on  that  date  was  8,265,348. 

Agbicitltusb.  The  Bureau  of  Agriculture  has 
directed  its  efforts  for  several  years  toward  the 
improvement  of  agrienltiiral  conditions  in  the  Is- 


due  chiefly  to  the  European  war,  was  in  tiie  im- 
port trade.  The  value  of  the  exports  increased 
approximately  $1,000,000.  The  United  States 
purchased  nearly  one-half  of  the  exports  from 
the  Islands,  and  to  America  were  sent  about  one- 
half  of  the  imports.  For  the  flscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1915,  the  shipments  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Philippines  amounted  to  $24,755,- 
320,  compared  with  $27,304,687  in  1914.  Ship- 
ments to  the  United  States  from  the  Philippine 
Islands  in  1915  amounted  to  $24,020,169,  com- 
pared with  $18,162,312  in  1914.  Manila  hemp  is 
the  most  important  export  in  point  of  value. 
There  were  exported  of  this,  50,587  tons,  valued 
at  $9,161,729.  Sugar  cane  ranks  next  in  im- 
portance. The  fruits  and  nuts,  and  copra  ex- 
ported in  1915  amounted  to  $2,145,743,  compared 
with  $1,479,468  in  1914. 
Mineral  Pboduotion.    There  were  produced 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


PHIUPPIVB  ISIiANDS 


494 


FHTTiTiTPB 


in  the  gold  mines  of  the  Islands,  in  1914,  gold 
valued  at  $1,174,633,  compared  with  the  value  of 
$868,362  in  1913.  About  $610,000  was  produced 
by  the  quartz  mines  of  the  Arroroy  district  <m 
the  Island  of  Masbete.  Placer  mines  in  the  Ga- 
marines  Province  of  Southeastern  Luzon  pro- 
duced about  $515,000.  The  production  of  silver 
in  1914  was  10,300  ounces.  This  was  recovered 
from  gold  bullion  refined. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  Dec.  31,  1914,  including  transfers 
from  sinking  funds,  and  supplies  brought  into 
account,  amounted  to  $16,789,654.  This  includes 
a  balance  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  $4,982,- 
994.  The  total  expenditures  for  the  year 
amounted  to  $12,530,626,  leaving  a  surplus  of 
cash  of  $308,491,  of  supplies,  $2,603,346,  and  sur- 
plus in  other  forms  of  $1,347,290.  The  bonded 
indebtedness  of  the  government,  including  the  in- 
debtedness of  the  cities  of  Manila  and  Gebu, 
amounted  to  $16,125,000.  The  total  silver  coin- 
age in  1914  amounted  to  50,315,073  pesos 

Education.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1915, 
was  610,519,  and  tiie  average  daily  attendance 
was  441,742.  Sixty-five  American  teachers  were 
appointed  in  1914.  All  other  vacancies  were 
filled  by  the  appointment  of  Filipinos.  There 
was  at  the  end  of  the  year  232  Filipinos  and  196 
Americans  engaged  as  supervising,  industrial,  or 
general  teachers,  and  the  total  teaching  force 
was  composed  of  539  Americans  and  9306  Fili- 
pinos, a  total  of  9845.  The  work  of  industrial 
instruction  was  extended  during  the  year,  and  at 
its  close  in  addition  to  806  students  in  the  school 
of  arts  and  trade,  there  were  106  American  and 
726  Filipino  industrial  teachers  engaged  in  the 
schools  throughout  the  Islands.  The  attendance 
in  the  college  department  of  the  University  of 
Philippines  at  Manila  reached  1164  in  1914,  and 
that  of  the  normal  schools,  1833,  the  arts  and 
trade  school,  806,  and  the  school  of  household 
industries,  146.  The  expenditure  for  school  pur- 
poses in  1914  was  3,868,401  pesos. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  During  1914  the 
principal  activities  of  the  Bureau  of  Health 
were:  its  campaign  against  soil  pollution;  for 
pure  water  supplies  for  towns  and  villages;  and 
against  a  threatened  epidemic  of  cholera.  Chol- 
era appeared  at  Manila  in  July,  and  shortly 
after  in  separated  points  of  Luzon.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  it  was  almost  entirely  stamped  out. 
In  addition  to  the  general  hospital  at  Manila, 
the  Bureau  of  Health  maintains  three  first-class 
and  four  smaller  hospitals  in  provincial  towns, 
also  three  hospitals  and  47  dispensaries  in  the 
departments  at  Mindanao  and  Sulu.  Vaccina- 
tion and  municipal  sanitation  are  being  rapidly 
carried  on  in  that  department. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  only  railway  construc- 
tion during  1914  was  the  extension  of  the  lines 
of  the  Manila  Railroad  Company  in  Luzon. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  transfer  of 
the  government  of  the  Moro  Province,  now 
known  as  the  Department  of  Mindanao  and  Sulu, 
from  military  to  civil  control  has  been  followed 
by  excellent  results.  Peace  and  order  prevailed 
in  the  department  throughout  the  year.  In 
order  to  accomplish  the  complete  unification  of 
the  people  of  the  Moro  Province  with  other  in- 
habitants of  the  Archipelago,  the  policy  has  been 
adopted  of  extending  to  the  department  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  the  Islands,  and  the  general  forms 
of  government  followed  in  other  provinces,  sub- 


ject to  such  limitations  for  the  time  being  as  are 
made  necessary  by  special  local  conditions. 

A  bill  providing  for  the  government  of  the 
Philippines,  which  was  introduced  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  on  July  11,  1914,  did  not  re- 
ceive action  during  that  session  of  Congress.  It 
was  reintroduced  during  the  following  session, 
but  did  not  reach  a  vote  prior  to  the  end  of  the 
63rd  Congress  on  March  4,  1915. 

There  were  no  serious  disturbances  in  1915. 
Ricarte,-  an  exile  who  had  carried  on  a  propa- 
ganda of  revolt  for  some  time,  was  arrested  on 
April  3rd  at  Shanghai,  charged  with  instigating 
trouble  in  the  neighborhood  of  Manila.  Twelve 
participants  in  an  uprising  which  took  place  on 
Christmas  eve  in  1914  in  the  vicinity  of  ManiUt 
were  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  various 
terms  of  imprisonment  in  May,  1915. 

OrviCEBS.  There  were  no  changes  in  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Philippine  Commission  or  Supreme 
Court  in  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1915.  The 
Commission  was  composed  of:  Governor-Gen- 
eral and  President  of  the  Commission,  Francis 
Burton  Harrison;  Vice-Governor  and  Secretary 
of  Public  Instruction,  Henderson  S.  Martin; 
Secretary  of  Finance  and  Justice,  Victorino 
Mapa;  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police,  Clin- 
ton L.  Riggs;  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Winfred 
T.  Denison;  members,  Rafael  Palma,  Vicente 
Singson  Encamaei6n,  Jaime  C.  de  Veyra,  and 
Vicente  IluBtre. 

PHILLIPS,  Andrew  Wheeleb.  American 
educator  and  mathematician,  died  Jan.  20,  1915. 
He  was  bom  at  Griswold,  Conn.,  in  1844.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  in  1873  with  post-graduate 
studies  at  that  university,  taking  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.  in  1877.  In  the  same  year  he  became  tu- 
tor in  mathematics  at  Yale;  he  was  made  as- 
sistant prof  essor  in  1881,  and  full  professor  in 
1891.  From  1895-1911  he  was  dean  of  the  grad- 
uate school.  He  retired  in  the  latter  year  as 
professor  emeritus.  He  was  joint  author  of 
many  text  books  on  mathematics,  including, 
Tranacendenial  Curves  (1875);  Oraphic  Algebra 
(1882) ;  The  Elements  of  Geometry  (1896) ;  the 
Orbit  of  Biciffs  Comet  (1880) ;  and  he  edited 
the  ConneotiGui  Almanao  from  1882  to  1893. 

PHILLIPS,  Stephen.  An  English  poet,  bom 
at  Somertown,  near  Oxford,  on  July  28,  1868. 
and  died  on  Dec.  9,  1915.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Stratford  and  Peterborough  grammar 
schools,  studied  for  the  civil  service,  and  at- 
tended Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  in  1886.  In 
1887  he  joined  F.  R.  Benson's  company  of 
Shakespearean  players,  in  the  rOles  of  Brutus, 
lago,  Prospero,  and  the  Ghost  in  Hamlet,  For 
a  time  he  was  a  tutor  to  Wolffram  and  Need- 
ham's  classes  for  armv  candidates.  About  1890 
he  definitely  adopted  literature  as  a  profession, 
and  in  that  year  published,  with  three  other 
authOTS,  a  book  of  verse  entitled  Primavera, 
Then  followed  a  blank  verse  rhapsody,  Bremus 
(1894),  which  won  the  praise  of  the  reviewers. 
His  Christ  m  Hades,  and  Other  Poems  (1896; 
4th  ed.,  1897),  and  Poem«  (1897;  13th  ed., 
1902),  which  was  awarded  a  prize  of  100  guineas 
by  the  London  Academy  as  the  best  verse  of 
the  year,  established  his  reputation  among  the 
yotmger  poets  of  the  day.  The  poem  "Mar- 
pessa''  in  the  latter  volume  was  considered  par- 
ticularly noteworthy.  Phillips  then  wrote  a 
tragedy  in  blank  verse,  Paolo  and  Franoesca 
(1899;  4th  ed.,  1900),  for  George  Alexander  of 
St.  James's  Theatre,  and  another  tragedy,  Herod 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PHTTJiTPS 


405 


FHILOLOOT 


(1000),  for  Beerbohm  Tree.  In  1002  appeared 
a  dramatic  poem,  Ulyssea.  During  this  period 
(1807-1002)  Phillips  enjoyed  a  eonsiderable 
vogue,  but  his  attonpt  to  bring  back  poetry  on 
the  English  stage  was  not  entirely  successful 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  dramatic  critic.  His 
subsequent  poetry  included:  The  Sin  of  David 
(1004);  Nero  (1006);  New  Poems  (1007);  The 
Laet  Heir  (1006),  a  drama;  Pietro  of  Sietima 
(1010);  The  New  Infemo  (1010);  The  King 
(1012);  loU  (1013);  Lffriee  and  Dramae 
(1013);  Panama,  and  Other  Poems  (1015); 
Armageddon  (1015),  a  war  play.  During  his 
later  years  Phillips  edited  the  Poetry  Reoietc^ 
the  journal  of  the  Poetry  Society.  Consult 
William  Archer,  Poets  of  the  Younger  OenerO' 
tion  (New  York,  1002),  and  E.  E.  Hale,  Jr., 
Dramatists  of  To-day  (New  York,  1005;  6th  ed., 
1011).  See  also  Drama,  Amerxoan  and  Eng- 
lish; and  Literature,  English  and  American, 
Poetry. 

PHILOLOOY,  Classical.  No  complete  ac- 
count of  classical  philology  in  1015  can  be  given 
at  the  present  time.  The  great  war  in  Europe 
interrupted  the  publication  of  periodicals  and 
books;  further,  as  the  result  of  disturbed  busi- 
ness and  postal  conditions,  books  and  periodicals 
actually  published  have  been  slow  in  arriving  in 
the  United  States.  In  the  present  account, 
therefore,  greater  stress  than  usual  will  be  laid 
on  American  work,  and  some  books  and  articles 
of  1014,  passed  over  last  year,  will  be  considered. 

To  the  Loeh  Classical  Library  (see  Year  Books 
fou  1011,  1012,  1013,  1014)  were  added  transla- 
tions of  Pindar  (all  the  Odes,  with  the  principal 
fragments),  by  J.  £.  Sandys;  Hesiod,  the  Ho- 
meric Hymns,  and  the  Homerica  (in  one  vol- 
ume), by  H.  G.  Evelyn- White;  Procopius  (the 
first  of  six  volumes),  by  H.  B.  Dewing;  Plutarch, 
Lives  (the  first  two  of  ten  volumes),  by  B.  Per- 
rin;  Xenophon,  Cyropasdia  (second  and  conclud- 
ing volume),  by  W.  Miller;  Ovid,  Heroides  and 
A  mores,  by  G.  Showerman;  CsBsar,  Civil  War, 
by  A.  O.  Peskett;  Dio  Cassius  (the  third  of  ten 
volumes),  by  E.  Cary;  Apuleius,  The  Oolden 
Ass,  W.  Adlington's  rendering,  revised  by  S. 
Gaselee;  Luoian  (the  second  of  eight  volumes), 
by  A.  M.  Harmon;  Pliny,  L6**er»,  W.  Melmoth's 
rendering,  revised  by  W.  M.  Hutchinson.  To 
the  Oxford  Library  of  Translations  (see  Year 
Books  for  1011,  1012,  1013,  1014)  were  added 
versions  of  Aristotle,  De  Mundo,  by  E.  S.  Fors- 
ter,  De  Spiritu,  by  J.  F.  Dobson,  Ethica  Eudemia, 
by  T.  Solomon;  of  Epictetus,  Discourses  and 
Manual,  by  P.  E.  Matheson;  and  of  Sidonius, 
Letters,  in  two  volumes,  by  0.  M.  Dalton.     Im- 

Jortant,  too,  is  a  translation,  in  America,  of 
ordanes,  Oothica,  by  C.  C.  Mierow. 
The  results  of  research  in  classical  fields  by 
American  scholars  appear,  for  the  most  part,  in 
the  periodicals,  in  articles  of  varying  length, 
often  displaying  wide  erudition  and  mvolving 
much  labor,  ra&er  than  in  books. 

In  vol.  zxzvi  of  the  American  Journal  of 
Philology,  a  periodical  edited  since  its  inception 
in  1870  bv  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  were  publiehed 
"Words  of  Speaking  and  Saying  in  the  Indo- 
European  Languages,"  C.  D.  Buck  (a  valuable 
study  of  the  semantic  development  in  various 
Indo-European  languages  of  such  words  as  say, 
speak,  word,  language,  etc.) ;  "C»sar,  Cicero, 
and  Ferrero,  II,"  E.  G.  Sihler  (a  severe  arraign- 
ment of  G.  Ferrero's  Greatness  and  Decline  of 
Rome) ;  "A  Witticism  of  Asinius  Pollio,"  G.  L. 


Hendrickson  (a  fresh  attempt  to  interpret  the 
meaning  of  the  charge  of  "Patavinitas"  brought 
by  Asinius  PoUio,  the  versatile  Roman  writer, 
against  his  younger  contemporary,  the  famous 
historian  Livy) ;  "Catullus  as-  an  Elegist,"  A. 
L.  Wheeler  (a  demonstration'  that  Catullus  was 
a  real  pioneer  in  Roman  elegy,  laying  the 
foundations  and  in  many  respects  clearly  indi- 
cating the  lines  which  his  successors  were  to 
follow,  and  that  Catullus's  indebtedness  to  the 
Greeks  is  mainly  in  the  sphere  of  form,  not  of 
content) ;  "Menander's  Epitrepontes,"  F.  G.  Al- 
linson  (a  revision  of  the  text  of  this  play,  re- 
covered only  a  few  years  ago,  with  the  aid  of  a 
newly  discovered  Gxyrhynchus  fragment) ;  'The 
Trojan  War  Again,"  B.  0.  Foster  (a  discussion 
of  a  view  propounded  by  the  Dutch  scholar  Van 
Leeuwen,  that  the  Iliad  tells  the  story  of  what 
happened  a  few  weeks  after  the  Achnans  landed 
to  attack  Troy,  not,  as  has  been  commonly  held, 
the  stor^  of  the  tenth  year  of  the  war,  and  that 
the  Trojan  War  was,  in  reality,  a  short  war) ; 
"The  Fatalism  of  the  Greeks,"  Abby  Leach  (an 
attack  on  the  current  opinion  that  the  Greeks 
were  fatalists) ;  "Quintus  Curtius  Rufus,"  R.  B. 
Steele  (an  argument  that  this  Roman  author 
wrote  during  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus) ;  "Studies  in  the  Financial  Ad- 
ministration of  Athens,"  A.  C.  Johnson.  The 
reviews  in  this  journal  are  often  important  con- 
tributions to  the  general  subject  treated  by  the 
book  under  review.  So,  in  vol.  xxxvi,  we  may 
note  reviews  of  R.  Ktihner,  Ausfiihrliche  Cfram- 
matik  der  Lateinischen  Sprache  (second  edition, 
by  Fr.  Holzweissig  and  C.  Stegmann),  by  E.  B. 
Lease;  of  W.  P.  Auistard,  The  Piscatory  Eclogues 
of  Jacopo  Bannazaro,  by  E.  K.  Rand;  of  A. 
Busse,  Socrates,  by  W.  A.  Heidel;  of  C.  Robert, 
(Edipus,  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve;  of  Valeton,  De 
Iliadis  Fontibus  et  Compositione,  by  G.  M.  Boil- 
ing. In  the  department  of  this  periodical  known 
as  "Brief  Mention,"  B.  L.  Gildersleeve  makes, 
in  every  number,  noteworthy  contributions,  over 
a  wide  range,  to  classical  philology,  especially 
in  his  comments  on  various  books  and  on  matters 
of  syntax.  In  this  periodical  are  given  also  ab- 
stracts of  important  German  classical  periodi- 
cals, e.g.  of  Philologus,  bv  G.  D.  Kellogg;  of 
Rheinisches  Museum  fur  PhUologie,  by  C.  W.  E. 
Miller  and  W.  P.  Mustard;  of  Rumania,  by  G.  C. 
Keidel;  of  Hermes,  by  H.  C.  Ebeling;  and  of 
Qlotta,  by  F.  Edserton.  On  pages  483-487  may 
be  found  a  valuable  index  of  all  the  contributions 
on  the  subject  of  Greek  and  Latin  syntax  made 
to  this  joiumal,  since  its  inception  in  1870,  by 
B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

From  Classical  Philology,  edited  by  Paul 
Shorey,  may  be  noted  "Perjury  before  Athenian 
Arbitrators,"  G.  M.  Calhoun;  "The  Tradition  of 
Pliny's  Letters,"  E.  T.  Merrill  (a  sketch  of  the 
tradition  of  Pliny's  Letters  down  to  the  era  of 
the  early  printed  editions) ;  "The  Historical  In- 
finitive, III:  Imitation  and  Decline,"  J.  J. 
Schlicher;  "The  Modern  Note  in  Seneca's  Let- 
ters," R.  M.  Gummere;  "The  Oneness  of  the 
Homeric  Language,"  A.  Shewan;  "Textual  Prob- 
lems in  Aristotle's  Meteorology,"  F.  H.  Fobes; 
"Some  Sources  of  Comic  Effect  in  Petronius," 
K.  Preston;  "Horace,  Catullus,  and  Tigellius," 
B.  L.  Ullman;  "Medieval  Versions  of  Aristotle's 
Meteorology,"  F.  H.  Fobes;  "The  Colonizing  Pol- 
icy of  the  Romans  from  123  to  31  B.C.,"  F.  F. 
Abbott;  "The  Four  Senates  of  the  B<Botians,"  R. 
J.  Bonner;   "The  Significance  of  the  Wing-En- 


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trances  in  Boman  Comedy,"  Eleanor  F.  Bambo. 

In  vol.  xlv  of  The  Tranaactions  of  the  Ameri- 
can  Philological  Aeeociation  we  find,  amon? 
other  papers,  the  following:  "The  Year  of 
Oflpsar's  Birth,"  M.  E.  I>eutsch:  "Apra^ODolis, 
Tsland-home  of  Ancient  Jjotus  Eaters,"  W.  B. 
McDaniel  (the  author  identifies  Apragopolis, 
mentioned  by  Suetonius.  Aumistus  98,  with  the 
island  of  Monacone:  he  holds  that  Monacone  was, 
in  Augustus's  time,  far  larger  than  it  is  now: 
it  has  sunk  in  the  last  1800  years,  even  as  has 
the  neighboring  island  of  Capri) ;  "Notes  on 
Suetonius,"  J.  C.  Bolfe;  "Sentence  and  Word," 
L.  Bloomfield;  "The  Thank-offerine  and  Greek 
Beligious  Thought,"  J.  W.  Hewitt;  "Horace, 
Bermones,  I,  1,"  C.  Knapp;  "Greek  Bhetorical 
Terminology  in  Puttenham's  The  Arte  of  Eng- 
lish Poeeie,"  L.  Van  Hook;  "Bhetorical  Studies 
in  the  Arbitration  Scene  of  Menander's  Epitre- 
pontes,"  J.  W.  Cohoon. 

From  The  Classical  Journal,  vols,  x-xi,  we 
name  "The  Influence  of  Festival  Arrangements 
utx>n  the  Drama  of  the  Greeks,"  B.  C.  Flickinger ; 
"Xenophon's  Comrades  in  Arms,"  B.  J.  Bonner; 
"Thoughts  on  the  Beliability  of  Classical  Writ- 
ers, with  Especial  Beference  to  the  Size  of  the 
Armv  of  Xerxes,"  J.  A.  Scott;  "The  Ancient  Ap- 
preciation of  Mountain  Scenery,"  W.  W.  Hyde; 
"Some  Glimpses  of  the  Baetian  Limes."  Kath- 
arine Allen.  From  The  Classical  Weekly,  vols, 
viii-ix,  the  following  must  be  named:  'The 
Prosecution  of  Sextus  Bosicus,"  and  "The  Prose- 
cution of  Milo,"  B.  W.  Husband:  "The  Pastoral 
Ancient  and  Modem,"  W.  P.  Mustard;  "The 
Tassing*  of  the  Sequence  of  Tenses,"  B.  G.  Kent; 
"Quotations  from  Greek  Literature  in  Becently 
Published  Inscriptions,"  K.  K.  Smith;  "An 
Analysis  of  Cicero,  Cato  Maior,**  C.  Knapp 
(pages  177-178,  186-186) ;  reviews  of  C.  E.  Ben- 
nett, The  Spntaa  of  Early  Latin,  vol.  ii — The 
Cases,  by  A.  L.  Wheeler:  of  A.  W.  Pickard-Cam- 
bridge,  Demosthenes  and  the  Last  Days  of  Greek 
Freedom,  by  C.  D.  Adams:  of  T.  B.  Holmes, 
C.  luia  CcBsaris  Commentarii  Rentm  in  Gallia 
Gestanim,  by  G.  Lodge;  of  F.  M.  Com  ford,  The 
Origin  of  Attic  Comedy,  by  B.  C.  Flickinser. 

In  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology, 
vol.  xxvi,  appeared  "Quo  Modo  Aristophanes 
Bem  Temporalem  in  Fabulis  Suis  Tractaverit," 
O.  J.  Todd  (a  discussion  of  the  unity  of  time  in 
Aristophanes) ;  "The  Boman  Magistri  in  the 
Civil  and  Military  Service  of  the  Empire,"  A.  E. 
B.  Boak;  "Notes  on  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Cen- 
turies," G.  W.  Bobinson. 

Mention  may  be  made  here  of  the  classical  ma- 
terial in  the  revised  edition  (second)  of  The 
New  International  ENCTCLOPiEDiA.  The  very 
wide  array  of  articles  in  this  work  in  all  the 
various  departments  of  classical  philology  has 
.  been  carefully  revised  by  CHiarles  Knapp.  In 
1914-16  16  volumes  of  this  revised  edition  ap- 
peared. 

In  the  seventh  paragraph  of  last  year's  arti- 
cle reference  was  made  to  several  works  which 
aim  to  give  control  of  publications  in  the  field 
of  classical  philology.  A  glance  at  any  of  these 
works  published  since  Jan.  1,  1916,  will  show 
how  grievously  the  great  war  in  Europe  has 
interfered  with  scholarly  work  in  classical  phil- 
ology and  with  efforts  to  keep  abreast  of  such 
work  and  to  appraise  it.  It  may  be  noted  here 
that  The  American  Historical  Review  publishes 
some  reviews  of  books  in  the  field  of  ancient  his- 
tory, and  gives  in  each  quarterly  number  a  brief 


list  of  important  books  and  articles  in  that  de- 
partment. The  American  Journal  of  Philology 
and  The  Classical  Review  give  in  each  issue  a 
list  of  recent  classical  books. 

In  the  field  of  inscriptions  mention  may  be 
made  of  Therese  Stem,  "Zur  Formenlehre'  der 
Prieniechen  Inschriften,"  published  in  Glotta, 
vol.  vi,  an  elaborate  paper;  H.  Collitz  and  0. 
Hoffmann,  Sammlunq  der  Griechischen  Dialekt- 
Inschriften,  parts  of  vols,  iii  and  iv;  E.  Bfisch, 
Grammatik  der  Delphischen  Inschriften.  vol.  i, 
Lautlehre;  Inscriptiones  Chracce,  ad  Res  Ro- 
manas  Pertinentes,  vol.  iv,  edited  by  B.  Cagnat 
and  G.  Lafaye;  "Inscriptions  from  Locris"  (in 
Greece),  W.  A.  Oldfather:  "Inscriptions  from 
the  Acropolis  of  Halas"  (in  Locris,  Greece), 
Hetty  Goldman  (the  last  two  papers  appeared  in 
77i«  American  Journal  of  Archasology) ,  Befer- 
ence should  be  made  also  to  Buggiero's  Dizio- 
nario  Epigrafico  di  antichitd  Romana,  which  has 
reached  the  letter  H,  and  gains  added  impor- 
tance from  the  unfortunate  interruption  by  death 
of  G.  N.  Olcott's  Thesaurus  Lingu<e  Latincs  Epi- 
graphics  (see  Year  Book  for  1911).  A  detailed 
account  of  the  latest  important  finds  in  inscrip- 
tions, Greek  and  Boman,  mav  be  found  in  The 
Yearns  Work  in  Classical  Studies  (see  Year 
Book  for  1914). 

In  the  field  of  palspography  American  scholars 
are  rapidiv  making  their  mark.  Here  belong  the 
great  work  of  E.  A.  Loew,  The  Beneventan  Script 
(see  the  Year  Book  for  1914) ;  Roman  Cursive 
Writing,  H.  B.  Van  Hoesen;  The  Manuscript 
Tradition  of  the  Historia  Augusta,  Susan  H. 
Ballou;  and  the  edition  of  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus,  C.  U.  Clark  (see  the  Year  Book  for  1910). 
An  important  work  by  an  English  scholar  is 
Votas  LatincB,  W.  M.  Lindsay  (an  account  of 
abbreviation  in  Latin  manuscripts  of  the  early 
minuscule  period,  i.e.  from  about  700-860  a.d.). 
Mention  should  be  made  also  of  the  Oxyrynchus 
Papyri,  Part  X  (see  The  Yearns  Work  in  Classi- 
cal Studies,  9,  39-40,  and  The  Classical  Review, 
29,  6(MJ1),  and  Part  XI;  Die  altesten  Latein- 
ischen  und  Griechischen  Papyri  Wiens,  C.  Wesse- 
ley;  Papyri  Greci  e  Latini,  vol.  iii  (published  at 
Florence) ;  Papyri  Greco-Egizi,  puhhlicati  dalla 
R.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  vol.  iii,  edited  by  D. 
Comparetti  and  G.  Vitelli  (this  volume  gives 
"documenti  e  testi  letterarii  doll*  Etft  romana  e 
bizantina")  ;  Indew  to  Facsimiles  in  the  Palceo- 
graphical  Society  Publications  (Princeton),  L. 
B.  Dean;  A  Collotype  Reproduction  of  .  .  ,  the 
Codem  Traguriensis,  which  contains  the  Cena 
Trimalchionis  of  Petronius,  etc.,  G.  Gaselee  (re- 
viewed by  B.  V.  D.  Magoflin  in  American  Journal 
of  Philology  36.  213-216) ;  Codices  Graeci  et 
Latini  phototypice  depicti  duce  .  .  .  Scatone  de 
Vries  (vol.  xix  of  the  great  series  of  facsimiles 
published  by  A.  W.  Sijthoff,  at  Leyden:  it  gives 
"Ciceronis  Operum  Philosophicorum  Codex  Lei- 
densis  Vossianus  Lat.  Fol.  84") ;  Verdtfentlich- 
ungen  aus  der  Papyrussammlung  zur  Aunchen, 
I,  Byzantinische  Papyri,  by  A.  Heisenberg  and 
L.  Wenger;  T.  W.  Allen,  "Manuscripts  of  Strabo 
at  Paris  and  Eton,"  in  The  Classical  Quarterly. 

In  the  field  of  philosophy  and  religion  we  may 
note  that  A.  W.  Ck)ok*s  important  work,  Zeus, 
A  Study  in  Ancient  Religion,  vol.  i,  Zeu^,  the 
God  of  the  Bright  Sky  (see  Year  Book  for 
1914)  has  won,  in  the  main,  favorable  comment 
from  the  reviewers:  see,  e.g.,  A.  W.  Pickard- 
Cambridge  in  The  Classical  Review,  29.  80-^6, 
and  B.  W.  Tukey  in  The  American  Journal  of 


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Philology^  36.  469-461.  For  a  good  reriew,  by 
R.  B.  English,  of  J.  Burnet,  Cheek  Philosophy, 
Part  I:  Tholes  to  Plato,  a  book  named  last  year, 
see  The  Classical  Weekly,  9.  91-96.  To  be  men- 
tioned also  are  Henri  Graillot,  Le  Culte  de 
Cyh^le,  m^re  des  dieua,  d  Rome  et  dans  VEmpire 
Rofnain,  a  large  work;  an  article  in  Hermes,  by 
6.  Wissowa,  ''Die  rOmischen  Btaatspriestertttmer 
Altlateiniseher  (}emeindekulte"  (an  examination 
of  the  sacra  of  Alba  Longa,  Cabum,  Gienina, 
Lanuvium,  Tusculum,  etc.,  under  Roman  rule) ; 
S.  Eitrem,  Opferritus  und  Voropfer  der  Oriechen 
und  Rdmer  (published  at  Christiania).  Voliune 
V  of  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Oriechischen  und 
R6m4schen  Mythologie  made  progress;  the  work 
has  now  reached  the  letter  T. 

W.  M.  Lindsay's  useful  book,  A  Short  His- 
torical Latin  Orammar,  reached  a  second  edi- 
tion. F.  Sommer's  standard  work,  Handbuch 
der  Lateinisohen  Laut-  und  Formenlehre,  reached 
in  parts  a  second,  in  parts  a  third  edition.  A 
notice  by  ^.  H.  Sturtevant  of  this  work  and  of 
the  supplementary  volume,  Kritische  Erlauter- 
ungen,  to  which  Sommer  relegates  the  discussion 
of  moot  questions,  will  appear  in  The  Classical 
Weekly,  vol.  ix.  The  third  part  was  published 
of  Forschungen  zur  Oriechischen  und  Latein- 
ischen  Orammatik,  edited  by  P.  Kretschmer  and 
W.  KroU;  this  part  deals  with  the  use  of  the 
subjunctive  and  the  optative  in  principal  clauses 
in  the  Greek  dialects.  We  may  note  also  J. 
Samuelsson,  "Die  Lateinischen  Verba  auf  -tilftre 
(-Ilftre)";  H.  Bergfeld,  "Das  Wesen  der  Latein- 
ischen Betonung,"  and  G.  Jachmann,  "Zur  Alt- 
lateinischen  Prosodie,"  a  discussion  of  bacchiac 
and  cretic  rh3rthms  in  early  Latin.  The  last 
three  articles  appeared  in  Olotta,  vol.  vii. 
Glotta,  vol.  vi.  No.  4,  was  taken  up  entirely 
with  "Literaturbericht  fttr  das  Jahr  1912,"  a 
conspectus  of  the  books  and  articles  published  in 
1912  in  the  fields  of  Greek  and  Latin  grammar, 
lexicography,  prosody,  meter,  linguistics,  and 
allied  subjects.  To  be  named  also  are  8.  Feist, 
Kultur,  Ausbreitung  und  Herkunft  der  Indo- 
Oermanen  (1913),  the  most  important  work  re- 
cently published  on  the  Indo-€krmanio  peoples; 
in  1914  the  same  author  published  Indo-Qer- 
manen  und  Oermanen.  In  paragraph  6  above, 
reference  was  made  to  a  paper  in  The  American 
Journal  of  Philology,  on  "Sentence  and  Word/' 
by  a  young  American  scholar,  L.  Bloomfteld; 
here  we  must  name  a  book  by  the  same  author, 
The  Study  of  Language. 

In  1914  Th.  Zielinski,  well  known  for  his 
epoch-making  studies  in  the  rhythm  of  Latin 
prose,  completed  his  great  task  by  publishing 
"Der  Constructive  Rh^hmus  in  Cicero's  Reden: 
Der  Oratorischen  Rhythmik  Zweiter  Teil,"  a 
work  forming  Supplement-Band  XIII  to  the  pe- 
riodical called  Philologus,  In  The  Classical 
Quarterly,  A.  W.  de  Groot  published  "Methodo- 
logical Investigations  into  the  Rhythm  of  Greek 
Prose." 

At  the  end  of  1913  appeared  the  first  volume 
of  an  important  new  annual,  Indogermanisches 
Jahrhuch,  designed  as  an  annual  review  and  bib- 
liography of  work  in  Indo-Germanic  compara- 
tive philology.  It  contained  separate  bibliogra- 
phies for  each  group  of  the  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages, for  comparative  philology  in  general, 
and,  finally,  special  articles  on  the  new  languages 
brought  to  light  by  researches  in  Turkestui. 

In  the  field  of  lexicography  little  can  be  re- 
ported now.    Reference  was  made  above  to  Rug- 


giero's  Dizionario  Epigrafico,  and  to  Roscher's 
Lexikon  der  Oriechischen  und  Romischen  Myth- 
ologie, as  progressing  slowly.  In  1914  appeared 
Part  12  of  Emile  Boisacq's  great  work,  Diction'' 
naire  Stymologigue  de  la  Langue  Grecque,  cov- 
ering trKdfivot  to  riff(rap€S,  Important,  too,  is  Chr. 
Favre,  Thesaurus  Verhorum  qua  in  Titulis 
lonicis  leguntur  cum  Herodoteo  Sermone  Com- 
paratus. 

In  the  field  of  ancient  history  much  valuable 
work  has  been  done.  A  most  important  book, 
published  in  England  in  1913,  in  America  in 
1914,  is  E.  H.  Minus's  Scythians  and  Greeks,  a 
survey  of  ancient  history  and  archceology  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  Euxme  from  the  Danube  to 
the  Caucasus.  The  numismatic  sections  in  this 
work  give  a  compendious  account  of  the  coin- 
age of  the  Hellenic  settlements  round  the  north 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  and  their  various  off- 
shoots. The  Columbia  University  Press  pub- 
lished W.  B.  Fleming's  The  History  of  Tyre,  and 
Hellenic  Civilization,  by  G.  W.  Botsford  and  £. 
G.  Sihler,  with  contributions  by  W.  L.  Wester- 
mann,  Charles  J.  Ogden,  and  others  (the  book 
forms  the  opening  volume  of  a  very  extensive 
work,  Records  of  Civilization:  Sources  and 
Studies,  edited  by  J.  T.  Shotwell,  and  gives  a 
translation  of  various  ancient  documents  valu- 
able for  the  light  they  throw  on  the  civilization 
of  the  Greeks).  Mention  must  be  made  of  Jean 
Juster,  Les  juifs  dans  VEmpire  Romavn; 
Cavaignao,  Histoire  de  Vantiquiti,  vol.  iii,  cov- 
ering the  history  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Judaea 
in  the  period  330-107  B.C.;  A.  Bouch^-Leclercq, 
Histoire  des  Seleucides  (363-^4  B.C.),  Part  2; 
Ren6  Dussaud,  Les  civilizations  prihilleniques 
dans  le  hassin  de  la  mer  lS!g4e,  2nd  edition 
(reviewed  by  W.  Miller  in  Classical  Philology, 
10.  460-462) ;  H.  R.  Hall,  JEgean  Archceology 
(in  1913  the  same  author  published  The  An- 
cient History  of  the  Near  East) ;  F.  Sartiaux, 
La  guerre  de  Troie  et  les  origines  pr^historiques 
de  la  question  d? Orient;  C.  N.  Rados,  Les 
guerres  nUdiques:  la  bataille  de  Salamine.  In 
the  last  days  of  1916  appeared  a  most  interest- 
ing book.  Homer  and  History,  by  Walter  Leaf, 
the  well  known  English  banker  and  classical 
scholar,  giving  the  N.  W.  Harris  lectures  which 
Dr.  Leaf  was  to  deliver,  in  the  fall  of  1914,  at 
Northwestern  University,  but  which  his  duties, 
as  member  of  a  committee  to  finance  the  British 
Empire  in  the  great  war  in  Europe,  prevented 
him  from  delivering. 

In  Roman  history  and  allied  fields  we  may 
notice  M.  Mayer,  Apulien  vor  und  wdhrend  der 
HHlenisirung ;  £.  Pais,  Storia  critica  di  Roma 
durante  i  primi  cinque  secoli  (this  deals  with 
the  early  Republic,  the  decemviral  legislation, 
the  wars  against  the  ^qui,  the  Volsci,  and  the 
Etruscans) ;  id.,  Ricerche  sulla  storia  e  sul 
diritto  pubblico  di  Roma  (five  of  the  studies  in 
this  volume  deal  with  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables);  J.  Toutain,  "AntiquiMs  Romaines, 
1913-1914,"  and  C.  L^crivain,  "Antiquitfis 
Latines,  Publications  Etrangferes,  1913-1915" 
(the  last  two  articles  appeared  in  the  Revue 
Bistorique)',  W.  H.  Schoff,  The  Parthian  Sta- 
tions of  Isidore  of  Charam  (a  study  of  the  over- 
land trade  route  in  the  first  century  B.C.  between 
the  Levant  and  India,  Section  3  of  the  graphic 
history  of  commerce,  published  by  the  Commer- 
cial Musemn  of  Philadelphia).  This  section 
gives  the  Greek  text,  a  translation,  and  a  com- 
mentary.   Section  2  of  this  work  is  the  Periplus 


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of  the  Bryihrwan  Sea,  translated  by  the  same 
author  (see  the  Teab  Book  for  1912,  page  532) ; 
Franz  Leifer,  Die  Einheii  dea  Qevoaligedanhee  in 
R6mi9cken  Siaaitrecht:  ein  Beiirag  zur  Oe- 
seJUchie  dea  Oeffentlichen  Reehta  (an  argument 
that  the  Romans  of  the  Republic  had  a  definite 
idea  of  the  unity  of  the  imperium) ;  P.  Fraccaro, 
Studi  atUV  etd  dei  Oraochi;  C.  Lanzani,  Mario  e 
8Ula,  Storia  della  democrazia  negli  anni  87^2 
av,  Oriato;  G.  B.  Coleman,  Conataniine  the  Oreat 
and  Chriatianiiy:  Three  Phaaea:  The  Hiaiorical, 
the  Legendary,  and  the  Spurioua,  To  be  named 
also  are  M.  Camille  Jullian,  Hiatoire  de  la  Oaule, 
vol.  iv  (dealing  with  **Le  Gouyemement  de 
Rome");  W.  A.  Oldfather  and  H.  V.  Canter, 
'The  Defeat  of  Varus  and  the  German  Frontier 
Policy  of  Augustus,"  in  the  Univeraity  of  Jlli- 
noia  Studiea  in  the  Social  Sciencea,  vol.  iv;  F. 
Haverfield,  The  Romanization  of  Roman  Britain, 
3rd  ed.;  id.,  Roman  Britain  in  1914;  B.  £.  Ham- 
mond, Bodiea  Politic  and  Their  Oovemmenta, 

The  important  work  of  J.  H.  Lipsius,  Daa 
Attiache  Recht  und  Rechtaverfahren,  was  com- 
pleted by  the  publication  of  the  concluding  por- 
tion of  vol.  iii.  Published  in  1914,  but  obtained 
only  with  difficulty  in  1916,  were  Pauly-Wis- 
sowa-Kroll,  Real-Encyclopadie  der  Claaaiachen 
Altertumatoiaaenachaft,  Siehzehnter  Halhhand 
(covering  'TSyaia"  to  "Imperator"),  and  Zweiter 
Reihe,  Erate  Halhhand  (covering  "Ra"  to  "Ry- 
ton") ;  for  a  notice  of  these  volumes  see  R.  H. 
Tukey  in  The  Olaaaical  Weekly  9.  70-71. 

In  the  field  of  Greek  and  liitin  literature,  we 
must  mention  W.  Ridgeway,  The  Dramaa  and 
Dramatic  Dancea  of  Non-European  Racea  in  Spe- 
cial Reference  to  the  Origin  of  Greek  Tragedy 
(a  sequel  to  the  same  author's  Origin  of  Trag- 
edy, and  intended  to  give  support  to  the  theory 
of  the  origin  of  Greek  tragedy  advanced  in  the 
earlier  work) ;  M.  S.  Dimsdale,  A  Hiatory  of 
Latin  Literature  (useful,  because  it  covers  both 
prose  and  verse  down  to  the  time  of  Rutilius 
Numatianus,  but  marred  by  various  blemishes) ; 
H.  Peter,  Veterum  Hiatoricorum  Romanorum 
Relliquias,  vol.  i,  2nd  ed.  (a  valuable  discussion 
of  the  earlier  Roman  historians,  whose  works 
are  known  to  us  only  in  fragments:  tiie  first 
edition  was  published  in  1870).  In  the  second 
edition  appeared,  too,  A.  £.  Zimmem,  The  Greek 
Commonwealth,  and  R.  W.  Livingstone,  TT^e 
Greek  Qenvua  and  Ita  Meaning  to  Ua.  We  may 
note  also  J.  J.  Chapman,  Greek  Geniua  and  Other 
Eaaaya  (the  title  essay  takes  issue,  in  an  inter- 
esting way,  with  Gilbert  Murray's  versions  of 
Euripides,  and  the  ideas  that  underlie  them) ; 
Mrs.  Arthur  Strong,  Apotheoaia  and  After  Life; 
W.  Scott,  The  Laat  Sihylline  Oracle  of  Alex- 
andria; Fr.  Buecheler,  Kleine  Schrifte,  vol.  i. 
Important  to  the  classical  student  and  to  the 
general  reader  both  is  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  Short 
Hiatory  of  Claaaical  Scholarahip  (a  condensation 
and  revision,  in  one  volume,  of  the  author's 
larger  work,  in  three  volumes,  A  Hiatory  of  Claa- 
aical Scholarahip,  1906-08). 

Books  or  articles  dealing  more  particularly 
with  individual  authors,  Greek  or  Roman,  are 
Ulrich  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorf,  Aeachyli 
TragtadioB  (text  edition);  id.,  Aiachyloa,  Inter- 
pretationen;  H.  E.  Butler  and  A.  S.  Owen,  anno- 
tated edition,  the  first  in  English,  of  Apuleius, 
Apologia;  F.  Calonghi,  ''The  Prologue  of  the 
'Metamorphoses'  of  Apuleius,"  in  Riviata  di  Fil- 
ologia  e  d'latruzione  Claaaica  (a  minute  examina- 
tion of  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Metamorpho- 


aea:  the  author  holds  that  in  this  chapter  there 
are  two  speakers;   he  refuses  also  to  identify 
Lucius,  the  hero  ol  the  tale,  with  Apuleius  him- 
self) ;  J.  L.  Heiberg,  text  of  Archime^  Open 
Omnia,  vol.  iii ;  L.  L.  Forman,  annotated  edition 
of  Aristophanes,  Clauda;  J.  W.  White,  elaborate 
edition  of  the  Scholia  on  the  Avea  of  Amto- 
phanea;  H.  Richards,  "Aristotelia,"  in  The  Clam- 
eal  Review;  H.  Meusel,  a  new  annotated  edition 
of  Cesar,  De  Bello  GaUico  I-IV  (a  very  valuable 
work,  technically  the  17th  edition  of  Fr.  Rraner 
and  W.  Dittenberger,  De  Bello  Oallico,  Part  1)\ 
E.  Norden,  Enniua  und  Vergiliua  (the  book  con- 
tains "Kriegsbilder  aus  Roms  Grosser  Zeit''): 
L.  Havet,  Notea  Critiguea  aur  le  texte  de  Fatut; 
R.  Foerster,  text  of  Lihanii  Opera  Omnia,  vol. 
viii ;  S.  Sudhaus,  Menanderatudien;  L.  Cohn  and 
P.  Wendland,  text  of  Philonia  Alexandri  Opera, 
vol.  vi;   Th.  Bergk,  Poet<B  Lyrici  Graeci,  vols. 
ii  and  iit,  new  impression;  H.  W.  Garrod,  "Notes 
on  the  'Naturales  Qusstiones'  of  Seneca,"  in  The 
Claaaical  Quarterly;  C.  Robert,  (Edipua  (a  work 
on  Sophocles,  discussed  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  in 
American   Journal    of    Philology) ;    G.   E.  K. 
Braunholtz,  "The  Nationality  of  Vergil,"  in  The 
Claaaical  Review  (an  argument,  based  on  a  study 
of  Vergil's  own  name  and  the  names  of  other 
members  of  his  family,  against  the  view  that 
Vergil  was  of  Oltic  origin).    Useful  to  students 
of  Roman  comedy    (Plautus  and  Terence  espe- 
cially)   is  C.  Knapp,  "The  Roman  Theater,"  in 
Art  and  ArchoBology. 

PHILOLOGT,  MoDEBN.  It  was  indicated  in 
these  columns  last  year  that  there  were  pros- 
pects of  a  decided  change  in  philological  method 
during  the  course  of  the  next  few  years.  This 
development,  so  important  for  the  evolution  of 
the  science,  has  been  almost  completely  cheeked 
by  the  intensity  of  the  war.  Probably  no  field 
of  human  knowledge  has  a  greater  number  of 
names  on  the  casualty  lists  than  philology*  whose 
losses  have  been  appalling.  As  nearly  all  of 
these  men  belong  to  the  younger  generation 
which  was  expected  to  effect  this  revolution,  we 
are  now  beginning  to  ask  ourselves  if  this  move 
ment  is  not  destined  to  imdergo  entire  arreet- 
ment  of  development.  The  probabilities  are, 
however,  that,  though  retarded  for  the  moment 
the  revolution,  when  it  does  take  place,  will  be 
all  the  more  rapid  and  radical. 

Besides  the  points  mentioned  in  our  article  of 
last  year,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  there  will  also 
be  some  effort  toward  a  thorough  systematiza 
tion  of  the  productions  of  candidates  for  the 
doctorate.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  war  the 
supply  of  German  doctoral  dissertations  seemed 
inexhaustible.  They  were  not  only  decidedly  in- 
ferior in  quality  to  those  accepted  some  3D  years 
ago  by  the  same  institutions,  but  some  might  be 
considered  as  trivial,  and  would  certainly  not 
be  accepted  in  any  leading  American  university. 
Furthermore,  there  seems  to  have  been  no  effort 
of  any  consequence  to  sift  out  and  utilize  what- 
ever data  were  contained  in  them.  After  the 
c«)Ssation  of  hostilities  Germany  will  no  doubt 
retrieve  herself  from  the  scholarly  point  of  view, 
and  may  possibly  recover  the  doctoral  disserta 
tion  from  the  pit  of  ludicrous  mediaeval  scholas- 
ticism into  which  it  has  fallen  of  late  years. 
Then  and  only  then  will  the  Carman  Ph.D.  re- 
sume the  high  esteem  which  it  has  completely 
lost. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1914  some  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  the  preparation  of  the  article 


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on  Modem  Philology  because  the  last  numbors 
of  many  of  the  most  important  European  philo- 
logical reviews  had  not  yet  reached  this  country. 
The  same  is  also  true  of  the  present  year,  so 
that  this  bibliographical  r^sum^  comprises  titles 
which  reached  us  too  late  for  insertion  in  1914, 
and  those  of  1915  as  late  as  the  early  autumn. 
Whenever  no  date  is  given,  it  is  to  be  understood 
that  the  work  was  issued  in  1916. 

Among  the  works  of  a  more  or  less  general 
character  which  have  recently  appeared,  probably 
the  most  important  is  the  new  edition  of 
Wundt's  V6lkerpsychologie  (Leipzig)  which  con- 
tains Eine  Unierauohung  der  Eniwicklungsgesetze 
von  Sprache,  Mythus  und  Sitie,  Sandfeld-Jen- 
sen's  Die  Sprachwiasensehaft  (Leipzig)  is  a  use- 
ful work,  as  is  also  ^VS^Uuner's  Bpraehlemung  vnd 
SprachtDigaenschaft  (ib.,  1914).  Bally's  pam- 
phlet, Ferdinand  de  8a/ussure  (Geneva),  gives  a 
very  succinct  and  comprehensive  account  of  the 
actual  state  of  linguistic  studies,  while  Broens 
discusses  the  relative  value  of  the  leading 
theories  of  some  15  years  ago  in  his  Daraiel- 
lung  und  WUrdigung  des  aprachphiloaaphischen 
Oegensatzea  zwiachen  Paul,  Wundi,  und  Marty 
(Bonn).  Other  works  of  importance  are  Steyrer, 
Der  Vraprung  und  daa  Wachaium  der  Bprache 
der  indogermaniacher  Europder  { 2nd  ed.,  Vienna, 
1914) ;  and  Kappert,  Paychologie  dea  neuaprach- 
lichen  Unterrichta  (Leipzig). 

Outside  the  Indo-European  field,  but  of  par- 
ticular interest  to  Americans,  is  Sinclair's  in- 
teresting compilation  of  gypsy  words  under  the 
title  American- Ramani  Vocabulary  (New  York). 
On  the  American  Indian  languages  we  have  re- 
ceived three  important  pamphlets  by  E.  Sapir, 
entitled  Sketch  of  the  Social  Organization  of  the 
"S^aaa  River  Indiana;  Abnormal  Typea  of  Speech 
in  Nootka;  and  Noun  Reduplication  in  Conuw, 
a  Saliah  Language  of  Vancouver  I  aland  (Ot- 
tawa). McLaren's  Conciae  Kaffir-Engliah  Dic- 
tionary (New  York)  is  a  very  useful  work. 

Sanskrit.  The  most  important  contribution 
to  this  field  is  without  doubt  Risley's  Peoplea  of 
India  (2nd  ed.,  London),  especially  valuable  for 
the  history  of  caste.  Rapson's  Ancient  India 
(Cambridge,  1914),  and  L.  D.  Bamett's  Antiqui- 
tiea  of  India  (London,  1913),  a  very  useful  work, 
should  not  be  overlooked.  Noteworthy  contribu- 
tions to  the  history  of  Indian  religion  are  Olden- 
berg,  Die  Lehre  der  Upaniahaden  und  die  An- 
fange  dea  Buddhiamua  (Gottingen) ;  Farquhar's 
Religioua  Movementa  in  India  (New  York) ; 
Macnicol,  Indian  Theiam  (London)  from  the 
Vedic  to  the  Mohammedan  period;  and  Mrs.  S. 
Stevenson,  Tlie  Heart  of  Jainiam  (ib.).  J.  H. 
Woods,  The  Yoga-Syatem  of  PataHjali  (Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1914)  is  a  translation  of  a  philo- 
sophical work  well  known  to  Indianists,  while 
Strangways,  The  Muaio  of  Hindoatan  (Oxford, 
1914)  consists  of  selections  of  native  music. 
Other  works  worthy  of  note  are  S.  S.  Thera's 
edition  of  the  Dhammapada  (London,  1914) ;  D. 
Chandra  Sen's  Vaga  Sahitya  Perichaya,  or  Typi- 
cal Selectiona  from  Old  Bengali  Literature  (2 
vols.,  Calcutta,  1914);  Khuddaka-Patha,  a  Pali 
text  edited  by  Helmer  Smith  (London).  In 
this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  Malay 
text  Hikayat  Pelandok,  edited  by  O.  T.  Dussek 
(Singapore). 

Slavic.  Among  the  few  works  of  importance 
that  have  appears  in  this  field  we  may  note  F. 
Sommer's  Die  indogermaniachen  id-  und  io- 
StUmme  im  Bdltiachen  (Leipzig,  1914) ;  Agrell, 


Zur  Erkldrung  der  aerhokroatiachen  Bndung  -A 
beim  Oenitiv  Plural  (ib.) ;  the  first  part  of 
O.  Leskien's  Orammatik  der  aerbokroatiachen 
Bprache  (Heidelberg,  1914) ;  and  Marak's  use- 
ful little  Deutach'kroatiachea  und  Kroatiach- 
deutachea  Wdrterbuch  (Vienna).  In  Russian 
we  have  the  following  two  manuals  of  especial 
value  to  the  beginner:  Friedrichs,  Kurzgefaaate 
ayatematiache  Orammatik  der  ruaaiachen  Sprache 
(Berlin),  and  W.  Loewenthal,  Lehrbuch  der 
ruaaiachen  Sprache  (Leipzig).  Of  interest  to 
the  philologist  is  Stur's  Die  alawiachen  Sprache- 
lemente  in  den  Ortanamen  der  deutach-^ter- 
reichiachen  Alpenl&nder  (Vienna,  1914). 

Celtic.  Through  oversight  we  failed  to  call 
attention  last  year  to  A.  Morel-Fatio's  Notice 
aur  la  vie  et  lea  travauo9  de  M,  d^Arboia  de  Ju- 
bainviUe  (Nogent-le-Rotrou,  1913),  which  con- 
tains a  full  account  of  the  long  and  very  active 
life  of  this  eminent  pioneer  in  the  field  of  Celtic 
studies.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  to  this  dis- 
tinguished scholar  fell  the  honor  of  occupying 
the  first  chair  in  Celtic  created  in  a  continental 
university — that  of  the  CoU^  de  France. 
D'Arbois's  reputation  is  firmly  established  by 
his  work  in  the  literature,  laws,  and  social  cus- 
toms of  the  ancient  Celts.  The  most  important 
contributi<Mi  to  the  field  of  Celtic  research  is  the 
new  edition  of  Dottin's  excellent  Manuel  pour 
aervir  d  V4tude  de  Vantiquit4  celtigue  (Paris), 
a  most  serviceable  work  for  the  neophite  as  well 
as  the  adept.  Dr.  J.  Gwinn's  Book  of  Armagh 
(Dublin,  1913),  and  Parry-Williams's  Some 
Pointa  of  Similarity  in  the  Phonology  of  WeUh 
and  Breton  (Paris,  1913)  should  have  been  noted 
last  year.  In  (Gaelic  Scotch  we  have  D.  Mac- 
lean's Typographia  Sooto-OadeUca,  or  Booka 
printed  in  the  Gaelic  of  Scotland  from  1567  to 
1914  (iBdinburgh),  a  valuable  bibliography,  and 
A.  Carmichael's  Deirdre  and  the  Lay  of  the  Chil- 
dren of  Uiane  (Paisley,  1914),  consisting  of  ver- 
sions, with  translation,  collected  in  the  Island 
of  Barra.  Of  interest  to  the  student  of  the 
Welsh  saga  is  Dostal-Winkler's  Der  Heimat  der 
Oralaage,  vom  Standpunkte  der  Volkerpaycholo- 
gie  und  vergleichenden  Mythenforachung  (Krem- 
sier),  begun  in  1914  and  of  which  the  second 
part  has  just  appeared.  To  the  same  line  belong 
J.  M.  Clark's  Legenda  of  King  Arthur  (Lon- 
don);  Gaede,  Die  Bearbeitungen  von  Chreatiena 
Erec  und  die  Mabinogionfrage  (Mttnster) ;  Pas- 
serini,  II  Romanzo  di  Triatano  e  laotta  ricoatuito 
(Milan).  In  Breton  a  useful  work  for  the  folk- 
lorist  is  Cadic,  Contea  et  L4gendea  de  Bretagne 
(Paris),  of  which  the  11th  series  was  issued. 

Gebmanigs.  Few  general  works  of  impor- 
tance have  appeared  in  this  field  of  researdi  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  year  1916.  Among  those 
deserving  of  mention,  however,  are  the  follow- 
ing: Kossinna,  Die  deutache  Vorgeachichte 
(2nd  ed.,  Wttrzburg,  1914) ;  W.  Fischer,  Die 
deutache  Sprache  von  heute  (Leipzig,  1914) ;  the 
8th  ed.  of  the  Btymologiachea  Worterbuch  of 
Kluge,  begun  in  1914,  was  completed  (Strass- 
burg) ;  L.  Schmidt,  Geachichte  der  deutachen 
St&mme  bia  zum  Auagange  der  Volkertoanderung 
(2nd  part,  Berlin) ;  and  the  second  volume  of  the 
Realleofikon  der  germaniachen  Altertumakunde, 
under  the  editorship  of  Hoops,  was  at  last  fin- 
ished. Works  of  a  more  special  nature  treat 
rather  of  syntax,  as  for  example,  Hastenpfitig, 
Daa  Diminutiv  in  der  deutachen  Original-litera- 
tur  dea  12,  und  IS,  Jahrhunderta  (Marburg, 
1914) ;  Erdmer,  Die  Pr&poaitionen  in  der  hoch- 


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deuischen  Oenesit  und  Ewodu9  (Leipzig,  1914) ; 
Rhein,  Miaed  Preterites  in  German  (Gdttinf^en) ; 
F.  Baumann,  Die  Adfektivdbetrakta  im  dlteren 
Weetgermanischen  (Freiburi;:,  1914);  N.  J. 
Clark,  Beitrage  zur  Oeachichte  der  periphrae- 
tiechen  Konjugation  im  Hoch4eut8chen  (Heidel- 
burg,  1914) ;  Helms,  Der  germanische  Allitera- 
tionsvers  und  aeine  Vorgeechichte  (MQnster, 
1914) ;  H.  Kaumann,  Kurze  historische  Syntax 
der  deutachen  Spracke  (Strassburg) ;  Guericke, 
Die  Enttoickelung  dee  dlthochdeutachen  Partici- 
piume  unter  dem  Einflueee  dee  Lateiniechen 
(Konigsberg) ;  Lucas,  Dae  Adfektiv  bei  Ulrich 
von  Lichtenetein  (Greifswald) ;  Schwentner, 
Eine  eprachgeechichtliche  Unterauchung  Uher 
den  Oehrauch  und  die  Bedeutung  der  dltger' 
maniachen  Farbenheafeichnungen  (Gottingen) ; 
KrQer,  Der  Bindevokal  und  aeine  Fuge  im 
aehu>achen  deutachen  Praeteritum  bia  1150  (Ber- 
lin, 1914) ;  Giese,  Unterauchungen  Uber  doe  Ver- 
haltnia  von  Luthera  Spracke  zur  Wittenberger 
Druckeraprache  (Halle) ;  GrQninger,  Die  Beto- 
nung  der  MitteUilbe  in  dreiailbigen  Wortem 
(Freiburg,  1914) ;  Krl^ning,  Die  beiordnenden 
adveraativen  Konjunktionen  dea  Neuhooh- 
deutachen  (Giessen) ;  and  A.  Wolf,  Daa  Prfifix 
'utf-'  im  gotiachen  und  im  deutachen  Verbum 
(Breslau).  Dialects,  however,  claimed  the  at- 
tention of  the  Germans  for  the  most  part.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  is  about  the  only 
field  in  Germanic  philology  which  has  not  been 
thoroughly  studied.  As  texts  of  the  old  Ger- 
manic dialects  are  very  limited  in  number,  it  was 
not  long  before  scholars  had  studied  them  from 
every  point  of  view.  Though  the  number  of 
German  dialects  is  very  large,  we  can  easily  fore- 
see the  time  when  they  too  will  be  exhausted. 
Possibly  then  German  scholars  will  attempt  to 
coordinate  this  inchoate  mass  of  material,  and 
may  be  able  to  deduct  some  principles  of  value. 
In  the  extensive  list  of  dialect  studies,  consist- 
ing mainly  of  dissertations,  the  following  may 
be  noted:  F.  Wilhelm,  Nordbayriache  Urkunden 
(Munich,  1914) ;  Altrichter,  Die  Dorfnamen  in 
der  Iglaner  Sprachinael  (Iglau,  1914) ;  Halter, 
Die  deutache  Sprache  im  Elaaa  auf  hiatoriacher 
Orundlage  (Jena,  1914);  Brand,  Studie  zur 
Didlektgeographie  dea  Hochatiftea  Paderbom 
(Munich,  1914) ;  Kopperschmidt,  Die  Sprache 
der  Hildeaheimer  Urkunden  (Marburg,  1914) ; 
Reichert,  Lautlehre  der  Mundart  von  Monckzell 
(Freiburg,  1914) ;  M.  Martin,  Die  franzdaiachen 
WSrter  im  Rheinheaaiachen  (Giessen,  1914) ; 
Semrau,  Die  Mundart  von  Koachneiderei  (Bres- 
lau) ;  Wrede,  Deutache  DitUektgeographie,  con- 
taining several  studies  on  the  Rhine  dialects; 
Freiling,  Stttdien  zur  Dialektgeographie  dea 
heaaiachen  Odenwaldea  (Marburg,  1914) ;  Hack- 
ler,  Der  Konaonantiamua  der  Wittgenatevner 
Mundart  (Giessen,  1914);  Hausenklas,  Oram- 
matik  der  nordxceatbdhmiachen  Mundart 
(Prague,  1914);  Martin,  Unterauchungen  zur 
rhein-moaelfrdnkiachen  Dialektgrenze  (Marburg, 
1914) ;  Schmid,  Die  Mundart  dea  Amtea  Entle- 
buch  im  Kanton  Luzem  (Frauenfeld)  ;  H.  Sie* 
vers.  Die  Mundart  der  Stapelholmer  (Marburg, 
1914) ;  Hodler,  Beitrage  zur  Wortbildung  im 
Bemdeutachen  (Bern);  Reis,  Die  deutache  Mun- 
dartdichtung  (Berlin);  Mornau,  Lautlehre  der 
deutachen  Mundart  von  Szeghegy  in  Siidungam 
(Budapest) ;  Hommer,  Studien  zur  Dialektge- 
ographie dea  WeateruHjUdea  (Marburg) ;  Kroh, 
Beitrage  zur  naaaauiachen  Dialektgeographie 
(ib.);    Wenker,    Daa    rheimache    Piatt    (ib.); 


Lobbes,  Uordberisohe  Dialektgeographie  (ib.) ; 
Neuse,  Studien  zur  niederrheiniac^ien  Dia- 
lektgeographie (ib.) ;  Ehrhardt,  Die  achw&biache 
Kolonie  in  Weatpreuaaen  (ib.) ;  Frflhe,  Unter- 
auchungen Uber  den  Wortaehatz  achweizeriacher 
SchriftateUer  dea  18.  und  19.  JdhrhunderU 
(Freiburg) ;  Niblett,  Orammatik  der  OanabrUck- 
iachen  Mundart  (Munich) ;  and  Eiiselmann,  Der 
Vokaliamua  der  Mundarien  im  Oebiete  um  Ru- 
dolatadt  unter  Zugrundelegung  der  Mundart  von 
Kirchhaael  (Jena).  Among  the  various  lexicog- 
raphies we  should  note  first  of  all  the  great 
Deutachea  Wdrterbuch,  originally  begun  by 
Grimm,  of  which  parts  of  vols,  iv,  x,  xi,  and  xvi 
were  issued  (Leipzig).  The  fourth  volume  of 
H.  Fischer's  Schw&btachea  Wdrterbuch^  going  as 
far  as  the  word  Nutzung^  was  completed  (TObin- 
gen).  Jellinghaus's  edition  of  Fdrstemann's 
Altdeutachea  Namenbuch  (Bonn)  has  attained 
the  17th  lAeferung  of  the  second  volume.  The 
8chu)eizeriachea  Idiottkon^  Wdrterbuch  der 
aehweizer-deutachen  Sprache,  edited  by  a  num- 
ber of  scholars,  has  almost  reached  the  end  of 
vol.  viii  (Frauenfeld).  Other  dictionaries  of  a 
less  pretentious  nature  are  the  Deutachea  Rechta- 
todrterbuch,  of  which  the  first  lAeferung  as  far 
as  the  word  ablegen  was  issued  at  Weimar; 
Duben,  Kleinea  Wdrterbiieh  der  deutachen  Recht- 
achreibung,  edited  by  A.  C.  Schmidt  (Leipzig) ; 
W.  James,  Wdrterbuch  der  engliachen  und 
deutachen  Sprache  (44th  ed.,  ib.) ;  Bflchmann, 
OeflUgelte  Worte,  edited  by  Heichen  (Berlin); 
and  two  amusingly  chauvinistic  works  entitled 
Loa  vom  FremdwortI  Kleinea  Verdeutaehunga- 
Wdrterbuch,  edited  by  Eichhom  (Emmishofen) ; 
and  Dasel,  Verdeutachungen:  Wdrterbuch  fura 
tdgliche  Leben  (Braunschweig).  E.  Sapir's 
Votea  on  Judeo-Oerman  Phonology  (Philadel- 
phia) is  of  great  importance  for  the  study  of 
Yiddish  in  America.  During  the  past  few  years 
the  attention  of  scholars  has  been  drawn  more 
and  more  toward  semasiology,  or  the  develop- 
ment of  meanings  of  words.  This  very  impor- 
tant branch  of  leaminflr>  which  opens  new  vistas 
of  the  greatest  possibility,  was  founded  by  the 
distinguished  French  scholar  Michel  Br4al,  whose 
death  occurred  during  the  past  year.  Among 
the  works  belonging  to  this  domain  are  Schwabe, 
Semantic  Development  of  Worda  for  Eating  and 
Drinking  in  Germanic  (Chicago) ;  Hadlich,  Zur 
Theorie  dea  aprachlichen  Bedeutungawandela 
(Halle) ;  Sperber,  Studien  zur  Bedeutungaent- 
wicklung  der  Prdpoaition  "Uber*'  (Upsala) ; 
Tschinkel,  Der  Bedeutungawandel  im  Deutachen 
(Vienna,  1914) ;  Waag,  Bedeutungaentwicklung 
unaerea  Wortachatzea  (3rd  ed.,  Lahr). 

In  Low  German,  we  note  Haupt,  Unterauchun- 
gen zur  niederdeutachen  Dietrichaage  (Berlin, 
1914) ;  Hanenberg,  Studien  zur  neuen  Dialekt- 
geographie zunachen  Nymegen  und  Urdingen 
(Marburg) ;  and  Meier,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnia 
dea  Niederdeutachen  (Mttnster).  In  Frisian,  the 
only  important  work  is  Sipma's  Phonology  and 
Grammar  of  Modem  Weat  Friaian  (London, 
1914). 

Dutch.  The  great  Woordenboek  der  Tfeder- 
landache  Taal,  which  has  been  in  publication  for 
a  number  of  years  under  the  editorship  of  the 
leading  scholars  of  Holland,  did  not  cease  publi- 
cation during  the  past  year.  Parts  of  vols,  iii, 
vii,  xii,  and  xiii  made  their  appearance  (The 
Hague).  De  Vries,  Studien  over  faerdache  Bal- 
laden  (Haarlem)  is  a  useful  study. 

Scandinavian.    The  most  important  contri- 


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bution  to  the  Norse-Icelandic  section  of  this  field 
of  research  is  the  Lewieon  poetioum  aniigwB 
lingtuB  aeptentriondlis:  Ordbog  over  det  nordish- 
Ulandake  Skjaldetprog,  edited  by  Egilsson  and 
Finnur  Jtosson,  of  which  the  second  haefte  ap- 
peared last  year  (Copenhagen).  The  latter 
editor  also  continued  the  publication  of  the  sec- 
ond volume  of  Den  norek-ielandske  Skjaldedigt' 
ning  (ib.).  Attention  should  also  be  called  to 
Blackley's  translation  of  Friihiofe  Saga  (New 
York,  1914).  Other  works  in  Norse-Icelandic 
are  Nordal,  Orkneffiinga  Baga  (Copenhagen),  of 
which  the  secmid  haefte  was  published;  Bugge 
and  Olsen,  Norgea  Jndekrifier  med  de  aeOre 
Runer  ( Christiania,  1914);  Pipping,  TUl  fra- 
gen  om  '1-*  ooH  'n-'ljudene  kvalitet  i  de  nordieka 
Bprigen  (Helsingfors,  1914) ;  Gering,  Glosear  Sfu 
den  Liedem  der  Edda  (4th  ed.,  Paderbom) ;  and 
Torp,  Nynorak  Etymologiek  Ordbok  (Oiristi- 
ania)  which  has  reached  the  letter  F.  Brondun- 
Nielsen's  Sproglig  ForfaiterheetemfneUe  (Copen- 
hagen, 1914)  is  devoted  to  the  Danish  language 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  Swedish,  part  of 
volume  seven  of  Noreen's  Vart  SprSk,  a  compen- 
dious Modem  Swedish  Grammar,  was  issued 
(Lund).  Among  the  studies  relating  to  the 
early  language  the  most  important  are  Sahl- 
SjOros,  Studier  6ver  fomv&atgdtieka  Lagteater 
(Helsingfors,  1914) ;  Brieskom,  Kanelistil  i 
fomevenskan  (Skara;  1914) ;  Friesen,  Orundror 
gen  av  det  sveneka  Sprakete  Hiatoria  (Upsala, 
1914);  id.,  Fomeveneka  Paradigm  (ib.,  1914); 
id.,  Nami^t  JMcSping  ( JOnkOping) ;  Beckman, 
Principfr&gor  i  evensk  Sprikkietoria  (Helsing- 
fors, 1914);  and  Brieskom,  Bidrag  tiU  den 
eveneka  namnhietarien  (Upsala),  which  treats 
of  medieval  names.  Other  works  of  interest  are 
Auerbach,  Svenek-Tyek  Ordbok  (Stockholm); 
Bergroth,  Vara  Prof)ineidt49mer  (Borga);  Elm- 
quist,  Swedish  Phonology  (Chi<»go) ;  and  Ben- 
son, Old  Norse  Element  in  Swedish  Romanticism 
(New  York,  1914).  The  Svenska  Studier  tUldg^ 
node  Oustaf  Cederschidld  (Lund,  1914)  contains 
many  articles  of  philological  import. 

English.  The  contributions  to  English  phil- 
ology have  been  less  numerous  than  usual.  No 
works  of  great  consequence  appeared,  though 
there  is  much  that  is  useful  in  one  way  or  an- 
other. For  example,  EinenkeFs  Historische  eng- 
lische  Syntaa  (Strassburg)  gives  a  good  outline 
of  the  history  of  the  subject.  The  11th  edition 
of  Zupitza's  Alt'  kimI  Mitteienglishches  Uebungs- 
huoh,  edited  by  J.  Schipper  ( Vienna  and  Leipzig ) , 
will  be  welcomed  by  German-speakinff  students 
among  whom  this  is  a  favorite  text.  Other  rai- 
eral  works  of  importance  are  Wyld's  Short  ais- 
tory  of  English  (London,  1914) ;  F.  H.  Vizetdly, 
Essentials  of  English  Speech  and  Literature 
(New  York).  The  following  contributions  to 
Anglo-Saxon  deserve  mention:  J.  R.  C.  Hall, 
Beowulf  (Cambridge,  1914),  consisting  of  a  met- 
rical translation  into  Modem  English;  Beowulf, 
angelsdchsisches  Heldengedioht,  translated  into 
German  by  M.  Heyne  (3rd  ed.,  Paderbom); 
Benedetti,  La  Canzone  di  Beowulf,  versione  ital' 
iana  (Palermo) ;  Kirtlan,  Beowulf  (London, 
1914),  consisting  of  a  translation  into  Modem 
English  prose;  and  Beowulf,  in  comparison  with 
the  Finnsburg  fragment  (Cambridge).  Other 
studies  in  An^lo-Saxon  are  Rubens,  Parataxe 
und  Hypotaae  tn  den  Ultesten  TeU  der  Scuihsen^ 
ehronik  (Halle);  Ley,  Der  Lautwert  des  alten- 
glisohen  'C  (Marburg,  1914) ;  Wende,  Ueher  die 
naohgesteUten   Pr^positionen   im   AngeMohsis- 


cJien  (Berlin,  1914);  KLuger  .Angels&chsisches 
Lesehuch  (4th  ed.,  Halle);  F.  Olivero,  Tradu- 
sHoni  dalla  Poesia  Anglo-Sassone  (Bari) ; 
Schacking,  Untersuohtmgen  zur  BedeutungsUhre 
der  angelsdchsischen  Diehtersprache  (Heidel- 
berg) ;  and  Trautmann,  Die  altenglischen  R&tsel 
(Heidelberg)  which  has  been  in  publication  for 
several  years.  In  Middle  and  Modem  English 
we  note  the  following:  Sanders,  Der  syntak- 
tische  Oehrauch  des  Infinitivs  im  FrUhmittelen- 
glisohen  (Kiel,  1914) ;  A.  S.  Cook,  Literary  Mid- 
die  English  Reader  (Boston);  O.  F.  Emerson, 
Middle  English  Reader  (new  ed..  New  York, 
1914);  Hattmann,  Das  Partizipium  Prdsentis 
hei  Lydgate  im  Vergleich  mit  Chaucers  Oehrauch 
(Kiel,  1914) ;  Schrader,  For-  und  fore-  Verbal- 
oomposita  im  Verlauf  der  englischen  Sprach- 
geschiohte  (Greifswald,  1914) ;  Schlemilch,  Bei- 
trdge  zur  Sprache  und  Orthographic  spdtalten- 
glischen  Sprachdenkmaler  der  Vebergangszeit 
(1000-1150)  (Gdttingen,  1914);  Joerdan,  Das 
Verhaltnis  von  Wort-,  Satz-  und  Uersakzent  in 
Ohauoef^s  Camterbury  Tales  (Halle) ;  A.  G.  Ken- 
nedy, The  Pronoun  of  Address  in  English  Lit- 
eraiure  of  the  ISth  Century  (Palo  Alto,  Cal.) ; 
Lausterer,  Der  syntaktisohe  Oebrauch  des  Arti- 
kels  in  den  dlteren  mittelenglischen  Romanzen 
(Kiel,  1914);  and  Stuhr,  Der  syntaktische  Oe- 
brauch der  Praposition  "for^'  im  FrUhmitteleng- 
lischen  (ib.,  1914).  The  dialect  studies  are  few 
in  number  and  carefully  prepared.  Among  them 
are  Sir  James  Wilson,  DuUeet  of  the  New  Forest 
in  Hampshire  (Oxford,  1914);  id.,  Lowland 
Scotch  as  spoken  in  the  Lower  Stratheam  Dis- 
trict of  Perthshire  (ib.) ;  W.  F.  Bryan,  Studies 
in  the  DialecU  of  the  Kentish  Charters  of  the 
Old  English  Period  (Chicago) ;  J.  B.  Johnston, 
Place-names  of  England  and  Wales  (London); 
Goodall,  Place-names  of  South-West  Yorkshire 
(new  ed.,  Cambridge) ;  Sedgefield,  Place-names 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  (London) ; 
Walker,  Place-names  of  Derbyshire;  Dialect 
Notes  of  the  American  Dialect  Society,  edited  by 
Percy  W.  Lonff  (vol.  iv,  part  iii,  Cambridge, 
Mass. ) ;  and  Norman,  Olossary  of  Archcsology 
(2  vols.,  London),  which  contains  many  details 
of  interest  to  the  philologist.  Useful  manuals 
are  Utter's  Guide  to  Oood  English  (New  York) ; 
and  Kirkpatrick,  Handbook  of  Idiomatic  Eng- 
lish (2nd  ed.,  Heidelberg),  which  is  of  special 
interest  for  travelers.  Simplified  spelling  re- 
ceives attention  in  Vizetelly's  Dictionary  of  Sim- 
plified Spelling  (New  York) ;  and  Viglione,  La 
riforma  deW  ortografia  inglese  (Rome).  Krfi- 
ger's  SchiDierigkeiten  des  Englischen,  which  has 
often  been  mentioned  here,  is  now  nearing  the 
end  of  syntax  (Dresden  and  Leipzig).  Finally 
among  the  dictionaries  there  is  the  practical 
Routledg^s  New  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage,  edited  by  C.  Weatherby  (London),  while 
Goldingham's  Dictionary  of  Modem  Naval  Tech- 
nical Terms,  German-English  and  English-Ger- 
man (London,  1914)  should  not  be  omitted.  The 
following  parts  of  Dr.  Murray's  New  English 
Dictionary  (Oxford)  were  issued  during  the 
year:  January,  part  of  vol.  ix,  su-subterrane- 
ous,  by  C.  T.  (>nions;  April,  also  vol.  ix,  Spring- 
Sguoyle,  by  W.  A.  Craigie,  and  St-Standard,  by 
H.  Bradley;  July,  part  of  vol.  x,  Trink-Tum- 
down;  October,  part  of  vol.  ix,  StandardrStead, 
by  H.  Bradley.  H.  Harrison's  concise  etymolog- 
ical dictionary  of  the  Surnames  of  the  United 
Kingdom  (voL  ii,  London)  is  a  most  interesting 
work  for  the  philologist  and  antiquarian. 


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Romance.  There  were  also  but  few  works  of 
a  general  nature  that  appeared  in  this  field  dur- 
ing the  past  year.  Kabilinaki's  Jacoh  Qrimm  aU 
Romamist  (Ureifswald)  is  one  of  a  series  of 
studies  devoted  to  pioneer  work  in  Romance 
philology.  Noggler's  Romanitehe  Familiennth 
men  im  OherwnsoKgau  (Meran,  1914)  is,  as  its 
title  indicates,  of  a  dialectical  nature.  H.  L. 
Cohen's  The  Ballade  (New  York)  is  an  unsatis- 
factory and  incomplete  treatment  of  a  very  in- 
teresting subject  Ritter's  Die  Oeschiehte  der 
franzdeischen  Balladenformen  wm  ihren  Anfdn' 
gen  hie  zur  Mitte  dee  15,  Jahrhunderie  (Jena, 
1914)  is  of  a  more  serious  nature. 

French.  The  most  important  work  relating 
to  French  philology  is  without  doubt  the  long- 
awaited  publication  of  Tobler's  Altfranzoeiechee 
Warierbuehf  the  first  fasciculus  of  which  was  is- 
sued under  the  editorship  of  Lommatzsch  (Ber- 
lin). Foerster  and  Koschwitz's  Alifranzdeiechee 
Uehungabuch  (Leipziff)  is  a  useful  work  for  the 
student.  Other  works  of  note  are  Gilli4ron's 
Paihologie  ei  th^rapeutique  verhalee  (Neuve- 
ville) ;  Nyrop's  PhUologie  fran^iee  (2nd  ed.,  Co- 
penhagen) ;  and  Grammont's  Le  vere  francaie 
(Montpellier).  Studies,  both  philological  and 
syntactical,  on  earl^  and  modem  French  include 
Belz,  Die  Munzbezetohnungen  in  der  aHfranxdeie- 
Chen  Literaiur  (Strassburg,  1914) ;  Farber,  Die 
Bprache  der  detn  Jean  Renart  eugeechriebenen 
Wef^e  (Halle) ;  Gumbaut^  AltfranzMeeher 
Artue-roman  dee  IS.  Jahrhunderie,  edited  by 
Stttrzinger  and  Brener  (ib.,  1914) ;  Ostrander, 
Li  Romane  dou  Lie,  edited  by  H.  A.  Todd  (New 
York) ;  Bacon,  The  Song  of  Roland,  translated 
into  English  verse  (New  Haven,  1914) ;  Gaede, 
Die  Bearheitungen  wm  Chreaiiene  Erek  and  die 
Mahinogionfrage  (Mflnster,  1914) ;  Waiblinger, 
Beitrdge  eur  Feeietellung  dee  Tonfalle  in  den 
romaniechen  Sprachen  (Halle,  1914) ;  Engeroff, 
Vntereuohungen  dee  VerwandteehafteverhAlt- 
nieeee  der  anglo-franzdeieehen  und  mitieleng' 
liechen  Ueberlieferungen  der  "Ueagee  of  Win^ 
cheeier^'  (Bonn,  1914) ;  Frumholtz,  Sprachliohe 
Uniereuchungen  zu  Oharlee  d*Orliane  (Jena) ; 
Schubert^  Form  und  Qebrauch  der  von  Lai.  "ante^' 
abetammenden  franzoeiechen  Prdpoeitionen  {Q^t- 
tingen) ;  Fabre,  La  diUvrance  d^Orliane 
(Paris),  containing  interesting  remarks  on  the 
language  of  a  mystery  play  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; Gannilscheg  and  Spitzer,  Die  Bezeichnun- 
gen  der  "Klette^*  im  Oalloromaniechen  (Halle) ; 
Stimming,  Der  Accueativue  cum  Infinitivo  im 
Franzdeiechen  (ib.) ;  F.  Behrens,  Vmechreibung 
der  AdverbialbUdung  durch  die  Verbindung  Bub- 
etantiv  mit  Prdpoeition  im  Franz6eiechen  (Gdt- 
tingen ) ;  Dey,  The  Latin  Prefia  pro-  in  French 
(Univ.  of  North  Carolina);  Haupt,  Infiniiiv- 
edize  im  Franzdeiechen  (Marburg) ;  Klein,  Die 
Worteiellung  im  Franzdaiech^  (Leipzig) ; 
Schwake,  Vouloir  -f-  *♦*/•  «^  Umachreibung  dee 
Verbuma  und  im  Sinne  von  "pflegen"  (G5ttin- 
gen) ;  Treder,  Ueber  die  Verbindung  von  avoir 
und  iire  mit  intranaitiven  Verben  (Berlin) ; 
Zimmermann,  Die  Byntax  dee  Verbuma  bei  Ber- 
nard Paliaay  (Leipzig) ;  Kellermann,  Franzd- 
aiache  Prdpoeitionen  in  affntaktiacher  Verknup- 
fung  untereinander  (Gdttingen) ;  and  a  new  edi- 
tion of  £.  C.  Armstrong's  Syntax  of  the  French 
Verb  (New  York),  a  very  complete  text  for  the 
use  of  students.  Dialects  have  thus  far  failed 
to  receive  the  necessary  attention  from  French 
scholars  because  they  have  been  occupied  with 
the  publication  of  Uie  numerous  and  valuable 


texts  in  which  French  literature  is  so  rich.  In 
fact,  no  other  modern  literature  can  compare 
with  the  French  in  this  regard.  Nevertheless, 
some  dialect  studies  have  appeared,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, Deneke,  Bprachverhdltniaae  und  Bprach- 
grenze  in  Belgien  und  Nordfrankreich  (Ham- 
burg) ;  Zaun,  Die  Mundart  von  Aniane  (Hir* 
ault)  in  alter  und  neuer  Zeit  (Halle) ;  Gttyyler, 
Der  Lautatand  in  der  altlothringiachen  Ueber- 
aetzung  der  HomUien  dee  Haimo  von  HtUberetadt 
(lb.) ;  Frutaz,  Lea  originea  de  la  langue  from- 
ga/iae  done  la  valUe  d?Aoate  (Aoste,  1913) ;  Ged- 
des,  Canadian  French  (Erlangen,  1914) ;  Dauzat, 
QloaaoMre  itymologigue  du  patoie  de  VinzeUea 
(Montpellier) ;  Kaspers,  Die  mit  den  Buffiofen 
•aoum,  -anum,  -aaoum,  und  -^tacum  gebildeten 
nordfranzdeiachen  Ortanamen  lateiniacher  Her- 
kunft  (Bonn,  1914);  Maver,  Binfluaa  der  vor- 
ohriatUchen  Kulte  auf  die  Toponomaatik  Frank- 
reicha  (Vienna) ;  and  Herzog,  Neufranzdaiache 
Dialekttewte  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914).  Among 
the  numerous  dictionaries  of  the  modem  lan- 
guage we  may  note  the  handy  little  Dictiownaire 
anglaia-frangaia,  francaia-anglaia,  edited  by  Ha- 
tier  (Paris) ;  Thormson,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire 
francaia-anglaia,  anglaia-fra/nQaie  (ib.) ;  Blanch- 
ard,  Dictionnaire  de  bon  langage  (ib.,  1914); 
Besson  and  Hecker,  Vocabulaire  ayatimatique 
franQaia-allemand  (Bonn) ;  "Weekly  Telegraph," 
Frenoh-Englieh  and  Engliah-French  Pronounoiftg 
Dictionary  (London),  intended  for  the  use  of 
soldiers;  and  Sommer,  Petit  Dictionnaire  dee 
aynonymea  frangaia  (19th  ed.,  Paris,  1914). 
Finally  mention  may  be  made  of  Olten,  Die  Ver- 
wertung  der  Ergebniaae  der  BprachwiaaenachcEft 
im  franzdeiechen  und  engliachen  Unterrichte 
(Leipzig,  1914). 

Italian.  There  is  also  a  marked  paucity  of 
works  dealing  with  the  philological  side  of  Ital- 
ian. In  a  general  way  we  have  Darchini,  Didat- 
tica  del  Linguaggio  (Milan,  1914) ;  and  Bertoni, 
/  Trovatori  d'[talia  (Modena)  which  is  interest- 
ing for  certain  points.  As  for  dictionaries,  tiie 
year  was  a  productive  one.  Thus,  we  have  two 
interesting  studies  on  the  vocabulary  of  the 
poet  Giovanni  Pascoli,  the  Vocabolario  Paaooli- 
ano  of  Passerini  (Florence),  and  the  Dizionar- 
ietto  Paacoliano  of  Capelli  (L^hom).  Of  a 
similar  nature  is  the  Dizionario  Carducdano 
(Florence,  1914)  of  Liguori  Pelli.  Besides  these 
there  is  Bacci,  Dizionario  Italiano-Bpagnuolo 
(ib.);  Hoare,  Italian  Dictionary  (Cambridge); 
Meazzini,  Vocabolario  Italiano-Eaperanto  (Bo- 
logna, 1914) ;  A.  D.  Lysle,  Dizionario  della 
Lingua  Italiana-Ingleae  (2  vols.,  Turin,  1914); 
Callegari,  Dizionario  Aatra-Coamografico  Ele- 
mentare  (Rocca).  Several  valuable  dialect 
studies  have  also  appeared,  such  as  H.  H. 
Vaughan,  Diaiecta  of  Central  Italy  (Philadel- 
phia) ;  Da  Ronco,  Voci  Dialettali  e  Toponomae- 
tiche  Cadorine  (Treviso,  1914) ;  Falcucci,  Vocab- 
olario dei  Dialetti,  Oeografia  e  Coatumi  della 
Coraioa,  edited  by  Guarnerio  (Cagliari) ;  Mac- 
carione,  /  Dialetti  di  Caaaino  e  di  Cervaro  (Peru- 
gia) ;  Trauzzi,  Attraverao  VOnomaatica  del  Me- 
dio Evo  in  Italia  (part  ii,  Rocca  S.  Casciano) ; 
Gk>idanich,  Ricerche  etimologiche :  denominazioni 
del  pane  e  di  doloi  caaerecoi  in  Italia  (Bologpa) ; 
Talmon,  Baggio  aul  dialetto  di  Pragelato  (Tu- 
rin) ;  Paura,  Quademo  di  Vocaboli  poco  iwti 
ma  fra  i  piA  pratieamente  utili  del  vocabolario 
(Palermo) ;  Pecorella,  Vocabolario  Numerieo 
BioUiano-Italiano  (Milan),  a  curious  work  in- 
tended for  the  interpretation  of  dreams;  Piase- 


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voli,  Del  Dialetto  Veneto  di  Zara  (part  ii,  Zara, 
1914). 

Spanish.  The  most  noteworthy  oontribution 
to  Spanish  philology  is  without  doubt  the  new 
14th  edition  of  the  Dicci<mario  de  la  lengua  C(Uh 
tdlana,  by  the  Spanish  Royal  Academy  (Madrid, 
1914).  Mentodez  Pidars  Manuel  de  gramdttca 
higtMca  eBpaiiola  (lb.),  originally  isBued  in 
1904,  has  already  passed  through  a  third  edition. 
Other  works  of  a  general  character  are  Cejador 
y  Frauca's  Historia  de  la  lengua  y  literatura 
oastellana  desde  los  origines  hatia  Carlos  V 
(ib.) ;  Plan  general  para  la  redaoci&n  del  Die- 
cionaHo  hieidrico  de  la  lengua  cttetdlana  (ib., 
1914) ;  Rogerio  8&nches,  Reswnen  de  historia  de 
la  lengua  y  literatura  eepwHola  (ib.) ;  Monner 
Sans,  De  gramdtioa  y  de  lenguaje  (ib.) ;  and  C. 
R.  Post,  Mediwval  Spanish  Allegory  (Cambridge, 
Mass.).  That  Spanish  philologists  have  been 
more  active  in  recent  years  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  dialect  studies  are  continually  increas- 
ing in  number  as  well  as  quality.  The  past  year 
saw  the  completion  of  numerous  important 
works,  such  as  the  Dicdonario  gtUlego-castellana, 
of  which  the  first  parts  were  issued  by  the  Royal 
Galician  Academy  (Corufia) ;  Umphrey,  The 
Aragonese  Dialect  (Washington) ;  Kriiger,  Stud- 
ien  ssur  Lautgesohichte  uyestapanimiher  Mundar^ 
ten  auf  Qrunde  von  Vntersuchtmgen  an  Ori  und 
Stelle  (Hamburg,  1914);  Espinosa,  Studies  f» 
VevD  Mexican  Spanish:  the  English  Elements 
(part  iii,  Halle) ;  Barr6n,  Oantabria  y  LogroHOf 
estudio  filoldgico-hist&rieo  (Malaga) ;  Wagner, 
Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  des  Judenspanischen  von 
Konstantinopel  (Vienna) ;  S&nchez  Moguel,  El 
Lenguaje  de  Santa  Teresa  de  Jesus  (Madrid) ; 
Dihigo,  El  hahla  popular  al  trav^s  de  la  litertk- 
tura  cuhana  (Havana) ;  Aguil6  y  Fuster,  Die- 
oionari  A^U6,  of  which  the  first  part  was  pub- 
lished at  Barcelona  (1914);  and  Castans,  Oali- 
oismos,  Barharismos,  Hispanismos  (Madrid), 
which  consists  of  a  repertory  of  French  locutions 
in  use  in  popular  language.  Other  works  that 
may  be  noted  are  Cotarelo  y  Mori,  Dicdonario 
biogrdfico  y  hibliogrdfico  de  caligrafos  espaHoles 
(ib.,  1914) ;  Reixach,  Rudimentos  de  Castellano 
y  gramdtica  latina  completa  (Vieh,  1914);  Guz- 
mAn,  Oramdtica  castellana;  analogia  (Buenos 
Aires) ;  E.  de  Hinojosa,  Elemento  germdnico  en 
el  derecho  espanol  (Madrid) ;  and  Macdonald, 
Spanish-English  and  English-Spanish  Commer- 
cial Dictionary  (New  York). 

Other  Lanouaqes.  In  Catalan  we  have  the 
following:  Oliva,  Introduccidn  al  estudio  del 
Arte  del  Alfaheto  en  Cataluda  (Villanueva  y 
GeltrtS,  1914) ;  Griera  y  Gaja,  La  frontera  cator 
lano-aragonesa,  estwU  geogrdfico  linguistic  (Bar- 
celona, 1914) ;  and  K.  Marx,  Die  katalanische 
Terminologie  der  Korkstopferzeugung  (Bonn, 
1914). 

In  Provengal,  the  seventh  volume  of  Levy's 
ProvenzeUisches  Supplement-Wdrterhuch,  going 
as  far  as  Suzurration,  was  completed  (Leipzig). 
A.  Jeanroy's  Les  Joies  du  gai  savoir  (Paris, 
1914)   contains  some  interesting  texts. 

In  Rumanian  there  are  two  publications  of 
first  rank,  Candrea  and  Densusianu's  Dictionarul 
etimologic  al  limhii  romine  (Bucharest)  of  which 
the  fourth  part  treating  of  the  Latin  elements 
was  published;  and  Jonascu,  Oramaticii  romdni 
(Jassy),  an  historical  grammar  of  the  lang^uage 
from  1767  to  the  present  day.  Finally,  it  is 
well  to  note  Torontsiu,  LUiput-W&rterhuch 
deutsch-rumdnisch  nnd  rumdnisch-deutsch  (Leip- 


zig, 1914).  In  Rhaeto-Romance,  two  works 
should  be  mentioned,  Stur's  Die  slau>isc7ien 
Sprachelemente  in  den  Ortsnamen  der  deutsch- 
^sterreichischen  Alpenldnder  moisohen  Donau 
und  Drau  (Vienna,  1914) ;  and  Velleman,  Oram- 
matiocB  rhaeto-romanca  (Enaniof  superioris  pars 
/.  (Zurich)  which  treats  of  the  lingua  ladina  of 
Engiadin'  Ota. 

Phonetics.  The  most  important  works  in 
this  field  are  Passy's  French  Phonetic  Reader 
(London,  1915) ;  R.  E.  Bassett,  Spanish  Pronun- 
ciation (Cincinnati,  1914) ;  and  Victor,  Elements 
der  Phonetik  des  Deutschen,  Englischen  und 
Franz6sisohen  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig).  Useful  man- 
uals are  Dumville,  Elements  of  French  Pronun- 
ciation (New  York,  1914) ;  S.  A.  Richards,  Pho- 
netic French  Reader  (ib.) ;  Rippmann,  Early 
Teaching  of  French  and  First  Steps  in  French 
(London) ;  C.  K.  Rogers,  English  Diction:  Part 
I,  The  Voice  in  Speech  (ib.);  Zachrisson,  Pro- 
nunciation of  English  Vowels  (U00-1700J  (G^ 
teborg) ;  Trautmann,  Kleins  Lautlehre  des 
Deutscheny  Frangdsisohen  und  Englischen  (2nd 
ed.,  Bonn);  Stefanini,  Studi  itdliani  di  fonetica 
sperimentdle  (Padua) ;  and  Merlo,  Note  di  fonet- 
ica italiana  meridionale  (Turin,  1914).  Other 
works  of  a  more  general  interest  are  H.  E.  Pal- 
mer, What  is  Phonetics?  which  consists  of  12 
letters  from  a  phonetician  to  a  non-phonetic 
friend  (London) ;  Lote,  Etudes  sur  le  vers  fra/n- 
gais:  VAleoa$idrin  d'apr^  la  phondtique  ewp^ri- 
mentale  (2nd  ed.,  3  vols.,  Paris) ;  Seidel,  Ein 
phonetisches  Alphabet  zur  Bezeiohnung  der  Aus- 
sprache  fremder  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1914) ;  Trit- 
schler,  Zur  Aussprache  des  Neuhochdeutsohen  im 
16»  Jahrhundert  (Freiburg);  Metz,  Ein  experi- 
mentell-phonetischer  Beitrag  zur  Untersuchung 
der  italienischen  Konsonantengemination  (Bonn, 
1914) ;  Streuber,  Die  Aussprache  und  Ortho- 
graphic im  frana^Mschen  Vnterricht  in  Deutsch- 
land  wdhrend  des  16,  his  18.  Jahrhundert  (Ber- 
lin); and  Julia,  El  Castellano  puede  escrihirse 
como  se  hahla  (Barcelona),  a  project  for  the  re 
form  of  Spanish  ortttography. 

PHILOSOPHY.  Philosophy  Ain>  the  Wab. 
The  great  war  has  not  been  without  effect  upon 
the  fortunes  of  philosophy  during  the  past  year. 
The  number  of  books  published  in  the  leading 
countries,  both  belligerent  and  neutral,  has 
fallen  off,  and  the  philosophical  periodicals  com- 
ing from  the  battling  nations  are  often  late  and 
generally  contain  a  smaller  number  of  pages  than 
heretofore.  A  pathetic  feature  is  furnished  by 
some  of  the  German  journals  in  the  death-lists 
of  German  teachers  and  writers  who  have  died 
on  the  field  of  battle:  many  a  promising  young 
thinker  has  given  his  life  as  a  sacrifice  to  the 
cause  of  his  country.  There  is  a  plethora  of 
books  and  articles  upon  the  philosophy  of  this 
war  and  upon  war  in  general,  as  well  as  upon 
subjects  to  which  the  fateful  struggle  has  given 
a  new  interest.  In  his  little  volume.  Die  Ethik 
und  der  Krieg,  Prof.  O.  KUlpe  sets  himself  the 
task  of  studying  the  ethical  aspects  of  war  as 
such  in  a  purely  scientific  manner  and  reaches 
conclusions  with  which  his  own  country's  con- 
duct in  the'  present  conflict  can  be  easily  squared. 
Prof.  H.  Cohen,  the  veteran  leader  of  the  ideal- 
istic Marburg  school,  writes  on  the  uniqueness 
of  the  German  spirit  {Die  EigentUmlichkeit  des 
deutschen  Qeistes),  and  E.  Bergmann  on  the  his- 
torical mission  of  German  education  {Die  welt- 
geschichtliche  Mission  der  deutschen  Bildung) 
and  Fichte  the  educator  to  Qerm'anism  {Fichte 


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der  Erzieher  zum  Deutachtum) .  All  theee  works 
are  examples  of  the  patriotic  spirit  which  is 
animating  European  scholars  of  to-day,  and  have 
the  true  Fichtean  ring.  At  the  same  time  they 
show  that  it  is  impossible  in  times  of  stress,  even 
for  men  thoroughly  trained  in  scientific  methods, 
to  preserve  the  impartial  attitude  of  mind  which 
has  always  constituted  the  glory  of  the  scholar 
in  times  of  peace.  The  same  remarks  apply, 
though  in  less  degree,  to  the  book  of  the  vener- 
able Leipzig  philosopher  Wilhelm  Wundt,  Die 
Natianen  und  ihre  Philoaophie :  Ein  Kafntel  zum 
Weltkrieg,  in  which  the  superiority  of  his  coun- 
try's philosophy  over  the  world-views  of  France 
and  ^gland  is  set  forth,  and  German  idealism 
declared  to  be  "the  philosophy  which  has  proved 
its  trustworthiness  throughout  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes in  the  fortunes  of  individuals  as  well  as  of 
peoples,  and  has  stood  the  test  even  in  the  pres- 
ent war." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  French  and  English 
thinkers  should  likewise  find  philosophical  justi- 
fication for  their  cause.    In  his  presidential  ad- 
dress before  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  and 
Morals,  Henri   Bergson  discusses  The  Meaning 
of  War  (translated  by  Carr)  and  interprets  it, 
in  accordance  with  his  principles,  as  a  conflict 
between  life  and  matter,  Germany  being  matter. 
Delbos  reaches  conclusions  in  his  Uesprii  phil- 
orophique  de  VAllemagne  et  la  penaSe  franQoise 
which  are  not  in  harmony  with  those  of  the 
Germans.     Among  the  interesting  contributions 
to  this  field  made  by  Englishmen,  we  mention 
The    IntemaiiomU    Criais    in    Its    Ethical    and 
Psychical  Aapects,  by  E.  M.  Sidgewick,  G.  Mur- 
ray, A.  C.  Bradley,  Stout,  Jacks,  and  B.  Bosan- 
quet;  and  Germany  in  the  "Nineteenth  Century, 
a  series  of  lectures  delivered  at  the  University  of 
Manchester  by  a  number   of  English   scholars. 
Since  these  lectures  were  given  &fore  the  war 
and  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  international 
good  will,  they  are  juster  in  their  estimates  of 
German  culture  than  those  written  after  the  out- 
break of  the  conflict.    Professor  Bosanquet  con- 
tributes the  article  on  philosophy  in  the  second 
series.    The  lack  of  agreement  in  the  views  of 
the    intellectual    leaders    of    Europe   is    clearly 
brought  to  light  in  the  numbers  of  the  Italian 
Journal     Sdentia     (beginning    with     January, 
1916)  in  which  "the  most  emment  philosophers, 
historians,  sociologists,  economists,  and  jurists," 
chosen  from  the  opposing  camps  and  also  from 
neutral  countries,  discuss  the  various  angles  of 
the   war.    Among   the   contributors    are   L^vy- 
Bruhl,  Ashley,  Wundt,  Landry,  Lodge,  Von  Be- 
low, Pareti,  W.  J.  Collins,  E.  Meyer,  and  Chat- 
terton-Hill.    Two  good  American  books  are  Prof. 
Felix  Adler's  The  WorldCriaia  and  Its  Meaning, 
and  Prof.  John  Dewey's  German  Philosophy  and 
Politics.    Professor    Adler    offers   a    thoughtful 
and  impartial  inquiry  into  the  deeper  causes  not 
only  of  the  present  catastrophe,  but  of  the  social 
and  ethical  shortcomings  of  our  entire  modern 
civilization,  and  flnds  tiiem   in  our  false  con- 
ceptions of  life.    While  Professor  Wundt  regards 
utilitarianism   and  pragmatism    (in   which  the 
good  is  identified  with  the  practical)  as  the  typ- 
ical expression  of  the  British  mind,  and  respon- 
sible for  England's  inability  to  appreciate  higher 
ideals.    Professor    Dewey    discovers    in    German 
idealism  with  its  absolutism  and  apriorism  the 
germs  of  the  prevalent  German  theories  of  poli- 
tics with  their  attendant  militarism.    It  will  be 
of  interest  to  readers  of  Dewey  to  consult  an  in- 


structive article  by  Katzer,  "Kant  und  der 
Krieg"  in  the  Kant-Studien,  vol  xx,  2.  A  thor- 
ough study  of  war  from  the  evolutionistic  point 
of  view  is  made  by  W.  Mackenzie  in  his  Big- 
nificato  bio-filosofico  della  guerra,  A  good  re- 
view of  this  work  has  appeared  in  the  July  num- 
ber of  the  R4vue  philosophique.  Many  interest- 
ing articles  on  the  subjects  uppermost  in  the  pub- 
lic mind  are  to  be  found  in  the  Hihbert  Journal 
and  in  the  International  Journal  of  Ethics, 
Professor  Tufts  gave  as  his  presidential  address 
before  the  American  Philosophical  Association 
(December,  1914)  a  paper  on  the  "Ethics  of 
States"  which  has  been  published  in  the  March 
niunber  of  ihe  PhUosophioal  Review. 

Logic  and  Thuobt  of  Knowledge.    In  spite 
of  the  war,  however,  the  work  of  philosophy  is 
proceeding  along  the  lines  described  in  recent 
volumes    of    the    Yrab    Book.    The    patriotic 
thinker  retiring  to  his  workshop  busies  himself 
with  the  same  problems  which  claimed  his  atten- 
tion before  the  fighting  b^an,  and  employs  tiie 
same  methods  by  which  he  sought  to  solve  them 
in  the  past.    The  theory  of  knowledge  is  still  the 
most  thoroughly  studied  field  of  investigation  in 
Germany.    The    German    mind    does    not    take 
kindly  to  positivism,  pragmatism,  intuitionism, 
or  any  of  the  anti-intellectualistic  movements 
which   go  against  logic.    The  Marburg  school, 
with  Cohen  at  its  head,  is  teaching  its  objective 
idealism  which  is  based  on  Kant,  while  Husserl, 
also   a  neo-Kantian,   with   his   large   following 
among  the  younger  men,  is  developing  his  "phe- 
nomenological  epistemology,"  which  is  seeking  to 
establish  a  theory  of  knowledge  which  shall  be 
free  from  all  presuppositions  and  shall  serve  as 
the  prima  philosophia  for  all  other  critiques  of 
reason.    Both  these  schools  are  arrayed  against 
what  they  call  psychologism  in  logic,  while  Nel- 
son, the  reviver  of  Fries,  is  taking  up  the  cud- 
gels for  psychoWy  as  an  essential  aid  to  the 
study  of  logic.    These  discussions  are  nutking  it 
necessary  to  consider  more  carefully  the  relation 
of  psychology  to  logic,  with  the  result  that  less 
extreme  views  are  beginning  to  prevail,  and  a 
sounder  philosophical  basis  is  being  sought  for 
psychology  than  has  been  found  by  the  experi- 
mental psychologists.     (See  Honigswald,  Prind- 
pien  der  Denkphilosophie.)     For  an  account  of 
recent    tendencies    in    German    philosophy    the 
reader  may  consult  Ewald's  paper  ''German  Phil- 
osophy in   1913,"  in  the  November  number  of 
the   Philosophical  Review,    1914.    In    this  con- 
nection it  must  be  noted  that  the  German  op- 
position to  intellectualism  or  logicism  has  re- 
ceived encouragement  from  foreign  sources  like 
Bergsonism,  and  is  gaining  some  ground.    K. 
Joel  in  his  Die  philosophische  Krises  der  Gegen- 
wart  characterizes  the  antithesis  as  the  dualism 
between  life  and  thought,  and  insists  upon  a 
philosophy  that  shall  reconcile  these  extremes. 
The  anti-intellectualist  movement  has  a  larger 
following  in  England,   France,  and  the  United 
States    (humanism,    intuitionism,    pragmatism) 
than  in  Germany.    In  England,  however,  the  at- 
tention is  centred  upon  Bertrand  Russell  who  is 
demanding  a  scientific  reform  of  philosophy,  and 
his  realism  is  arousing  interest  in  the  English- 
speaking  countries.    His  latest  book,  Our  Knowl- 
edge   of    the    External    World    and    Scientifio 
Method  in  Philosophy,  has  been  bitterly  attacked 
by  an  anonymous  reviewer  in  the  Nation  and 
lauded  as  a  work  to  be  reckoned  with  by  John 
Dewey.    Columbia  University  has  gone  so  far  as 


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to  bestow  a  gold  medal  upon  Russell  as  having 
made  the  most  important  contribution  to  phil- 
osophy within  the  last  five  years.  As  an  anti- 
dote to  the  anti-logical  tendencies  in  English 
and  American  thought  and  extreme  forms  of 
idealism,  the  new  realism  has  value,  but  it  is 
neither  new  nor  is  it  the  final  word  on  the  sub- 
ject. (For  articles  on  Russell  see  Proceedings 
of  Aristotelian  Society ,  vol.  xv;  Mind;  Journal 
of  Philosophy;  and  Dewey's  paper  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Review,  July.) 

The  year's  literature  on  pragmatism,  Bergson- 
ism,  and  other  anti-logical  theories,  is  not  large. 
H5ffding's  little  bo<^  on  Modem  Philosophers, 
which  has  long  been  available  in  a  German  trans- 
lation, has  at  last  been  translated  into  English 
and  combined  with  a  translation  of  his  able  char- 
acterization and  criticism  into  a  volume  bearing 
the  title  Modem  Philosophers  and  Lectures  on 
Bergson.  Mackintosh's  Problems  of  Knowledge 
is  for  the  most  part  an  exposition  and  criticism 
of  dualism,  agnosticism,  idealism,  the  new  real- 
ism, intellectualism,  and  pragmatism.  The  au- 
thor himself  accepts  what  he  calls  critical  mon- 
ism as  a  substitute  for  an  exaggerated  absolut- 
ism, which  he  thinks  is  characteristic  of  recent 
philosophical  systems.  Other  books  in  this  field 
are:  Driscoll,  Pragmatism  and  the  Problem  of 
the  Idea;  Tuckwell,  Religion  and  Reality  (a  crit- 
icism of  non-absolutist  systems  with  a  view  to 
establishing  absolutism  on  a  strictly  rational 
basis).  See  also  Proceedings  of  Aristotelian  So- 
ciety, vol.  XV. 

Other  books  on  logic  are:  H.  Sturt,  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Understanding  (humanistic  stand- 
point) ;  Philip,  Essays  Toward  a  Theory  of 
Knowledge;  Walter,  Subject  and  Object;  More, 
The  Limitations  of  Science;  Boutroux,  Certitude 
et  verit4;  Goldschitnidt,  Handbuch  der  vorausset- 
zungslosen  Fundamentalwissenschaft;  Meinong, 
Ueber  M^glichkeit  und  Wahrscheinlichkeit ;  Rick- 
ert,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Definition  (2nd  ed.) ;  De 
Michelis,  /{  problema  delle  scieme  sli>riche  (crit- 
icism of  Ridcert) ;  Calderon,  Le  logioisme;  Ste- 
fanescu,  Le  dualisme  logique;  Liebert,  Problem 
der  Oeltung  (an  able  book  on  the  problem  of 
value) ;  works  on  Space  and  Time  by  Robb, 
Witte,  Henry,  Zino-Zini. 

Metaphysics.  The  veteran  English  states- 
man and  member  of  the  Cabinet,  Balfour,  bas 
found  it  possible  in  times  like  these  to  publish 
the  substance  of  his  Gifford  lectures  on  Theism 
and  Humanism,  delivered  at  Glasgow  University 
before  the  war.  Mr.  Balfour  disavows  any  in- 
tention of  providing  a  philosophical  system.  He 
assumes  the  common-sense  outlook  upon  life  and 
the  whole  body  of  the  sciences,  and  holds  that  the 
whole  human  race,  including  the  philosopher 
himself,  lives  by  faith  alone.  And  assuming  the 
common  beliefs  in  science,  ethics,  lesthetics,  we 
are,  he  thinks,  led  to  theism:  all  we  think  best 
in  human  culture,  whether  associated  with 
beauty,  goodness,  or  knowledge,  requires  God  for 
its  support.  We  have  here  a  causal  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God  which  makes  human 
values  its  starting  point:  our  values  cannot  be 
held  or  explained  imless  they  have  an  eternal 
source.  "That  is,  if  we  would  maintain  the 
value  of  our  highest  beliefs  and  emotions,  we 
must  find  for  them  a  congruous  origin.  Beauty 
must  be  more  than  an  accident.  The  source  of 
morality  must  be  moral.  The  source  of  knowl- 
edge must  be  rational.  If  this  be  granted,  you 
rule  out  Mechanism;  you  rule  out  Naturalism; 


you  rule  out  Agnosticism;  and  a  lofty  form  of 
Theism  becomes,  I  think,  inevitable."  In  J.  M. 
Baldwin's  Genetic  Theory  of  Reality,  which  re- 
minds us  somewhat  of  one  of  the  phases  of 
Schelling's  philosophy,  we  reach  the  metaphys- 
ical culmination  of  the  author's  studies  in  gene- 
tic logic,  which  have  appeared  in  three  volumes 
imder  the  title:  Genetic  Logic:  Thoughts  and 
Things,  In  this  fourth  volume  Professor  Bald- 
win tries  to  show  how  genetic  logic  leads  to  an 
aesthetic  theory  of  reality  which  he  calls  Pancal- 
ism;  indeed,  genetic  thinking  itself  springs  from 
flpsthetic  tendencies.  Professor  Ward  has  pub- 
lished the  fourth  edition  of  his  Tfaturalism  and 
Agnosticism,  a  thorough  study  and  keen  criti- 
cism of  naturalistic  theories.  Wundt's  Sinnliche 
und  Hbersinnliche  Welt  expresses  in  a  more  pop- 
ular and  general  form  the  idealistic  world-view 
long  ago  set  forth  in  his  System  der  Philosophie. 
In  his  Cosmic  Relations  (2  vols.)  H.  Holt  pre- 
sents us  with  a  pantheistic  and  teleological  meta- 
physics which  finds  support  in  the  results  of 
psychic  research.  Other  books  of  interest  here 
are:  Ladd,  What  Should  I  Believe?  and  What 
May  I  Hope?;  Hagemann,  Metaphysik;  F.  K5h- 
ler,  Kulturufege  und  Erkenntniswege  (2  vols.,  a 
critical  survey  of  the  problems  of  the  religious 
and  spiritual  life) ;  Festschrift,  dedicated  to  A. 
Riehl;  Becher,  Naturphilosophie  and  Weltge- 
bdude,  Weltgesetze,  Weltentunckelung ;  Bavink, 
AUgemeine  Ergebnisse  und  Probleme  der  Natur- 
wissenschaft ;  Derwenen,  Naturphilosophie;  Mar- 
coni, Histovre  de  Vinvolution  naturelle,  trans- 
lated from  the  Italian;  Stange,  Aristoteles  und 
modeme  Weltanschauung. 

Ethics.  Theory  and  History  of  Ethics.  Ladd, 
What  Ought  I  to  Dot;  de  Laguna,  Introduction 
to  the  Science  of  Ethics;  Mackenzie,  Manual  of 
Ethics  (4th  ed.) ;  Hastings,  Encyclopedia  of  Re- 
ligion and  Ethics  (vol.  vii) ;  Liebert,  Das  Prob- 
lem der  Oeltung;  Nelson,  Ethische  Methoden- 
lehre;  Oppenheimer,  The  Rationale  of  Punish- 
ment; Spiller,  The  Meaning  of  Marriage;  Ves- 
per, Anticipation  d'une  morale  du  risque;  Moore, 
A  Historical  Introduction  to  Ethics;  Tattva- 
bushnan,  Krishna  and  Qita;  McCabe,  The 
Sources  of  the  Morality  of  the  Gospels;  Sertil- 
langes,  La  morale  de  St.  Thomas  d'Aquin; 
Shearer,  Hume's  Place  in  Ethics. 

Social,  Legal,  and  Political  Ethics.  Many  im- 
portant articles  in  the  International  Journal  of 
Ethics;  Adler,  The  World  Crisis  and  Its  Mean- 
ing; ijnes.  Higher  Individualism;  P.  E.  Moore, 
Aristocracy  and  Justice;  Preliminary  Report  on 
Efficiency  in  the  Administration  of  Justice;  W. 
H.  Taft,  Ethics  in  Service;  McCall,  The  Liberty 
of  Citiaenship;  Parker,  Biology  and  Social  Prob- 
lems; Shaeffer,  The  Social  Legislation  of  the 
Primitive  Semites;  Watkins,  Welfare  as  an  Eco- 
nomic Quantity;  Gide  and  Rist,  History  of  Eco- 
nomic Doctrines  (trans.) ;  Fries,  PhUosophische 
Rechtslehre  (reprint) ;  del  Vecchio,  The  Formal 
Basis  of  Law  and  Die  Idee  einer  vergleichenden 
universalen  Rechtswissenschaft  (both  trans.); 
Ldwenstein,  Der  Rechtsbegriff  als  Relationsbe- 
griff;  Maitland  and  Montague,  Sketch  of  Eng- 
lish Legal  History;  Wielkowski,  Neukantianer 
in  der  Rechtsphilosophie;  G.  D.  Burns,  Politic<U 
Ideals;  Barker,  Political  Thought  of  To-day; 
J.  A.  Hobson,  Towards  International  Govern- 
ment; Ford,  Natural  History  of  the  State;  Bo- 
nuoci,  II  fino  dello  stato.  Other  works  of  in- 
terest to  students  of  ethics:  Keith,  Antiquity 
of  Man;  H.  F.  Osborn,  Men  of  the  Old  Stone 


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Age;  Lucka,  Ero9:  Development  of  the  Bern  Re* 
lotion  through  the  Agee  (trans.) ;  Huntington, 
OiviUgation  and  Climate. 

HiSTOBT  OF  Philosopht.  Completely  reviaed 
editions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  well-known 
Orundrise  der  Oeachichte  der  Philosophie,  by 
Ueberweff  (formerly  edited  by  Heinze),  are  now 
bdng  published  under  the  editorship  of  Frischei- 
sen-Kdhler.  This  work,  with  its  excellent  bibli- 
ographies, is  the  result  of  the  col5peration  of 
many  specialists,  and  is  a  useful  aid  to  students 
of  the  history  of  philosophy.  Other  new  books 
of  general  interest  are:  -6.  Murray,  The  Stoiea; 
H.  O.  Taylor,  Deliverance:  The  Freeing  of  the 
Spirit  in  the  Ancient  World;  Deussen,  Oesohichte 
der  mittelalterlichen  PhUoaophie;  McGiffert, 
Riee  of  Modem  Religioue  Ideae;  J.  W.  Riley, 
Amerioan  Thought:  From  Puritamem  to  Prag- 
matiem;  H5ffding,  Modem  Philosophera  and 
Leoturee  on  Bergaon;  Cams,  Goethe;  Hal^vy, 
Life  of  F.  Nietgache  (trans.)  •  We  mention  also: 
Webb,  A  Hiatory  of  PhUoaophy  (Home  Univer- 
sity Library  Series) ;  Benn,  The  Oreek  Philoao- 
phera,  2nd  ed.$  Herberts,  Daa  Wahrheitaproh- 
lem  in  der  griechiachen  PhUoaophie;  Jacobus, 
Plato  und  der  Senaualiamua ;  Richards,  Aria- 
totelica;  Chevalier,  La  notion  du  niceaaaire  dona 
Ariatote;  Krakowski,  Lea  aourcea  medi4va1ea  de 
la  philoaophie  de  Locke;  Gentile,  StudU  Vichi- 
ani;  Gushing,  Baron  ^Holbach;  Brimswig, 
Orvndprohlem  Kanfa;  Stefanescu,  Le  dualiame 
et  le  thMame  de  Kant;  the  fourth  "Year  Book  of 
the  Schopenhauer  Society";  Andler,  Nietzache, 
aa  vie  et  aa  penaie;  Levenstein,  Nietzache  im 
UrteU  der  Arheiterklaaae ;  Henning,  Mach  ala 
PhUoaoph,  Phyaiker  und  Paycholog. 

Translations,  New  Editions  of  Wobks,  etc. 
Works  of  Aristotle,  translated  under  editorship 
of  W.  D.  Ross  {Magna  moralia;  Ethica  Eu- 
demia;  De  virtutibua  et  vitOa;  De  mundo;  De 
apiritu) ;  Lewi  Ben  Gerson,  Die  K&mpfer  Oottea 
(trans.) ;  Pascal's  complete  works,  edited  with 
introduction  and  notes  by  Brunschwieg;  selec- 
tions from  the  Scottiah  PhUoaophy  of  Common- 
Senae,  edited  b^  G.  A.  Johnston;  Kant's  works, 
vols.  V  and  vi,  edited  by  E.  Cassirer;  Kant, 
Worin  heateht  daa  Fortachreiten  0um  Beaaeren 
im  Menaohengeachlechtf  (hitherto  unpublished 
and  unknown),  edited  by  Kullmann;  Ficfate, 
Ideen  iiher  Gott  und  Unaterblichkeit  (an  essay 
hitherto  not  generally  known,  discovered  and 
published  independently  by  E.  Bergmann  and 
F.  BClchsel) ;  Schopenhauer,  The  Baaia  of  Moral- 
ity ^trajis.  by  Bullock  (new  ed.). 

PHUiFOTTS,  Eden.  See  Litbratuiie,  Eng- 
lish AND  Amebican,  Fiction. 

PHONETICS.    See  Philology,  Modern. 

PHONOFTICON.  A  device — consisting  of  a 
telephone,  voltaic  cell,  and  two  or  more  crystals 
of  some  substance  whose  electrical  resistance 
varies  with  the  intensity  of  luminous  radiation 
received  by  it — for  conveying  to  blind  persons  the 
sensation  of  white  and  black  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  enable  them  to  read  type.  In  1914,  Four- 
nier  d'Albe  had  described  an  arrangement  of  this 
kind  before  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He 
gave  it  the  name  optophone,  a  device  in  which 
a  circuit  consisting  of  a  battery,  a  selenium  cell, 
and  a  telephone  were  successful  in  enabling  the 
blind  to  distinguish  light  from  darkness.  An 
improvement  upon  this  was  made  in  1915  by 
F.  C.  Brown,  of  Iowa  State  University,  which 
differed  from  d'Albe's  arrangement  in  having  a 
number  of  specially  prepareid  crystals  of  sele- 


nium. It  was  used  by  moving  it  over  a  printed 
page  when  strongly  illuminated.  This  appa- 
ratus was  considered  auite  satisfactory  in  en- 
abling the  blind  to  read  type  with  but  little  in- 
struction in  its  use.  The  person  employing  it 
was  able  to  perceive  a  type  letter  by  the  change 
of  intensity  of  the  sound  emitted  by  the  tele- 
phone receiver.  The  shape  of  the  letter,  and  so 
its  identity,  was  learned  by  familiarizing  one's 
self  with  the  character  and  rate  of  change  of  the 
sound. 

PHOSPHATES.    See  Febtiuzbbs. 

PHOTOGBAPHY.  Among  the  general  ad- 
vances in  photography  to  be  noted  during  the 
year  1915  were  many  improvements  made  in 
cinematograph  cameras,  particularly  in  the 
portable  types  for  the  use  of  tourists  and  ex- 
plorers. There  was  also  progress  in  motion  pic- 
ture studio  work,  and  the  gas-filled  tungsten 
lamp  that  had  beoi  foimd  satisfactory  as  an 
illuminant  during  the  previous  year  was  em- 
ployed much  more  extensively,  in  some  instances 
entirely  replacing  the  mercury  vapor  lamps. 
Reports  from  European  studios  corroborated  the 
results  secured  in  the  United  States.  The  gas- 
filled  lamp  was  found  to  give  the  best  photo- 
graphic results  when  operated  at  a  voltage  25 
per  cent  higher  than  that  for  which  it  was  made. 
While  such  treatment  shortens  the  life  of  an 
incandescent  lamp  it  improves  its  usefulness  by 
increasing  its  range  of  actinic  radiation.  In 
one  case  a  lamp  operated  at  25  per  cent  over 
voltage  gave  100  per  cent  increase  in  brightness, 
thus  shortening  the  time  necessary  for  exposure. 
As  a  substitute  for  magnesium  flash  light,  it  was 
widely  used  for  photographing  interiors.  Even 
when  used  for  daylight  exposures,  it  was  found 
that  many  comers  and  dark  areas  of  an  apart- 
ment would  be  illuminated  by  these  lamps  so 
tiiat  operators  were  enabled  to  secure  more  sat- 
isfactory pictures.  Naturally  a  longer  exposure 
was  required  than  when  flae&  light  powder  was 
employed,  and  with  the  200-watt  gas-filled  lamps 
an  exposure  of  from  two  to  four  minutes  with  an 
F-8  stop  was  found  necessary. 

In  color  photography,  Frederick  E.  Ives  in- 
vented a  process  that  marked  a  distinct  advance 
in  the  art,  making  it  possible  to  print  directly 
from  the  negatives  on  paper  so  that  the  colors 
would  appear  in  their  proper  values.  He  used 
a  camera  containing  three  plates  sensitized  to 
red,  green,  and  blue,  respectively.  The  blue  plate 
was  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  camera  and  light 
traversing  the  lens  was  reflected  to  it  by  a  plate 
of  amber  tinted  glass  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45®. 
The  filtered  rays  transmitted  by  this  glass  then 
reached  the  other  plates  which  were  placed  with 
their  sensitized  faces  in  contact.  Tank  develop- 
ment for  all  three  plates  was  used.  When  fixed, 
the  blue  negative  was  printed  on  a  suitably  sen- 
sitized paper,  while  the  red  and  green  negatives 
were  printed  on  transparent  films  treated  with 
potassium  bichromate  and  then  baked  in  sodium 
hyposulphite.  Finally,  when  the  two  films  thus 
secured  from  the  red  and  green  exposures  were 
lafd  over  the  blue  print  and  properly  registered, 
any  number  of  paper  prints  could  be  made. 

An  ingenious  camera  was  brought  but  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  photographic  record  of  an 
electric  or  gas  meter.  The  camera  contained 
four  small  incandescent  lamps  supplied  by  a  bat- 
tery. To  take  a  reading,  the  case  carrying  the 
combined  camera  and  battery  was  placed  in  front 
of  the  meter  and  the  action  of  a  small  lever  at 


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the  side  of  the  case  exposed  the  film.  The  nega- 
tive when  developed  showed  the  readings  in  re- 
verse order,  but  when  placed  in  a  special  holder 
provided  with  a  mirror  the  figures  could  be  seen 
in  their  correct  position.  The  advantage  of  this 
device  to  the  electric  service  companies  was  that 
it  automatically  furnished  a  photographic  rec- 
ord of  every  meter  read  by  its  meter  men,  thu9 
avoiding  errors  either  in  reading  or  transferring 
the  figures. 

Progress  was  reported  in  the  construction  and 
arrangement  of  lens  combinations  for  telephoto- 
graphic  work  and  an  improved  form  of  this  kind 
of  camera  was  widely  used  by  the  allied  armies 
for  scouting  purposes. 

Before  the  European  war,  almost  all  photo- 
graphic print  paper  used  in  the  United  States 
was  imported  from  foreign  coimtries.  As  the 
great  conflict  almost  entirely  shut  off  this  sup- 
ply, American  manufacturers  were  giving  closer 
attention  than  ever  before  to  the  pr^uction  of  a 
suitable  paper  for  this  purpose,  and  it  was  re- 
ported that  several  mills  were  producing  papers 
highly  satisfactory  on  accoimt  of  their  freedom 
from  substances  that  would  give  rise  to  spots 
and  stains  when  put  in  the  developing  and  fixing 
solutions,  a  common  objection  to  the  use  of  do- 
mestic papers  formerly  manufactured. 

A  process  was  brought  out  during  the  year 
by  which  it  was  possible  to  sensitize  delicate 
hand-made  Japanese  tissue  paper  so  as  to  make 
it  available  for  contact  printing  and  enlargement 
by  artificial  light.  Hitherto  the  delicate  struc- 
ture of  such  papers  made  it  impossible  to  apply 
the  sensitizing  emulsions  in  ordinary  use.  The 
inventor  of  the  process  succeeded  in  ideating  this 
tissue  with  baryta  and  the  sensitizing  emulsions 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  the  paper  strong 
enough  to  withstand  manipulation  during  de- 
veloping, fixing,  and  washing.  The  paper  so  pre- 
pared could  be  dried  between  sheets  of  blotting 
paper  in  20  minutes,  remaining  flat  and  flexible, 
while  retaining  the  smooth  surface  characteristic 
of  Japanese  tissues.  Prints  made  on  such  paper 
gave  beautiful  results,  and  were  found  adaptable 
to  various  methods  of  coloring. 

In  the  United  States  District  Court  on  Aug. 
24,  1916,  a  decision  was  handed  down  adverse  to 
the  Eastman  Kodak  Company  in  the  suit  of  the 
United  States  government  under  the  Sherman 
Anti-Trust  Law.  The  company  had  made  vari- 
ous attempts  to  effect  a  settlement  with  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  but  without  success.  One 
portion  of  the  government's  complaint  related 
to  the  methods  of  doing  business,  including  fix- 
ing of  retail  prices  for  the  company's  goods. 
Some  modifications  of  this  practice  were  sug- 
gested, but  were  not  acceptable  to  the  govern- 
ment. The  order  embodied  in  the  decision  re- 
quired the  separation  of  the  business  of  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Company  into  two  or  more  sepa- 
rate companies;  but  this  change  was  not  to  be 
construed  as  being  immediately  necessary.  It 
was  still  hoped  that  some  reorganization  of  the 
constituent  companies  could  ^  brought  about 
so  as  satisfactorily  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  decision.  The  original  bill  against  the  East- 
man Company  was  filed  on  June  9,  1913.  One 
detail  of  interest  not  only  to  the  makers  and 
users  of  photographic  materials  but  to  all  man- 
ufacturers as  well,  was  the  statement  by  Judge 
Hazell  that  the  decision  was  based  upon  the  fact 
that  the  acts  of  the  corporation  had  been  con- 
trary to  law,  and  not  merely  because  of  its  size. 


That  part  of  the  complaint  relatins  to  contracts 
between  the  defendants  and  the  lotion  Picture 
Patents  Company  was  dismissed. 

PHOTOMETBY.     See  Abtbonomy. 

PHOTOPLAYS.  During  1916,  as  in  the  pre- 
vious year,  the  production  of  photoplays  in- 
creased enormously  and  many  theatres  formerly 
used  for  the  spoken  drama  were  offering  only 
screen  plays.  The  high  salaries  that  had  drawn 
so  many  actors  and  actresses  into  this  kind  of 
work  oontinued  to  attract  them,  as  well  as  to 
bring  out  many  new  stars  having  special  quali- 
fications for  acting  before  the  camera.  Besides 
the  immense  number  of  new  offerings  of  photo- 
plays, a  great  many  adaptations  of  books  and 
dramas  that  had  been  successful  in  the  past  were 
modified  or  re-written  for  presentation  as  photo- 
plays. It  would  be  impossible  herein  to  record 
the  names  or  to  give  an  outline  of  even  the  most 
successful  ones,  however.  Their  production  was 
stimulated  by  the  great  financial  success  that  had 
attended  like  imdertakings  in  the  previous  year 
due  to  the  constantly  growing  popularity  of 
cinema  exhibitions  in  general.  The  cost  of  pro- 
ducing many  of  these  adaptations  was  very 
large,  and  they  were  usually  exhibited  only  in 
the  class  of  theatres  customarily  asking  higher 
prices  of  admission  than  the  ordinary  film 
houses.  An  enormous  number  of  photoplays 
that  were  ordinary  third-rate  melodrama  were 
also  brought  out,  and  for  this  kind  of  enter- 
tainment the  public  appetite  seemed  to  be  more 
eager  than  ever.  From  a  photographic  and  tech- 
nical point  of  view  films  were  better,  the  objec- 
tionable fiicker  and  irregular  illumination  that 
formerly  characterized  many  of  them  having 
been  almost  entirely  absent.  There  was  a  grow- 
ing opinion  among  serious  observers,  however, 
that  the  average  cinema  drama  had  too  fre- 
quent a  tendency  to  employ  sex  problems,  the 
human  triangle,  etc.,  for  its  appeal,  and  was  too 
coarse  and  raw  in  its  treatment  of  subjects  con- 
sidered delicate  by  those  of  refined  sensibilities 
to  hold  any  degree  of  permanent  popularity. 
There  were  many  notable  exceptions  to  this 
statement,  for  example,  the  Birth  of  a  Nation, 
referred  to  in  the  1914  Year  Book.  Its  success 
was  so  great  that  its  presentation  was  continued 
throughout  the  year,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  it  was  exhibited  in  one  of  the  highest  priced 
theatres.  When  the  question  of  preparedness 
for  national  defense  be(»me  prominent  the  Battle 
Cry  of  Peace,  by  J.  Stuart  Blackton,  was  pro- 
duced, and  for  a  time  attracted  some  attention. 
It  was  well  constructed,  and  the  greatest  possi- 
ble use  was  made  of  the  defenseless  condition  of 
the  United  States  against  invasion  by  an  enemy. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  Mark  Twain's 
Prince  and  Pauper  was  presented,  as  well  as  a 
version  of  The  Old  Homeetead  that  had  been 
made  famous  some  years  before  by  Denman 
Thompson.  Another  attempt  at  dramatization 
was  a  filmed  version  of  Don  QuwotCf  in  which, 
as  well  as  in  the  others  mentioned,  there  were 
many  points  of  departure  from  the  original, 
most  of  which  added  nothing  to  the  intrinsic 
value  of  the  story  as  a  means  of  entertainment. 
As  evidence  of  the  willingness  of  the  producing 
companies  to  provide  clean,  attractive  cinema 
plays  may  be  mentioned  a  contract  made  by  one 
of  these  concerns  with  Ethel  Barrymore  for  a 
consideration  that  amounted  to  $160,000  a  year 
for  a  term  of  three  years.  Other  engagements 
with  equally  well-known  stars  were  entered  into 


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at  proportionately  high  rates  of  remuneration. 
The  demand  for  bright,  original  themes  was 
greater  than  ever  and  thousands  of  persons  were 
engaged  in  writing  scenarios,  many  of  them 
vainly  imagining  that  their  work  would  be  ac- 
cepted and  an  easy  road  to  fame  opened  to  them. 

For  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  interest 
of  the  public  as  well  as  to  add  variety  that 
could  not  be  secured  without  words,  important 
alterations  were  made  in  the  action  of  the  books 
and  plays  worked  over  for  the  films  as  well  as 
in  the  treatment  of  their  themes.  Not  the  least 
difficult  of  these  undertakings  was  the  filming 
of  the  action  of  several  operas,  including  Car- 
men and  Madame  Butterfly.  Cost  of  pro- 
duction was  disregarded  and  the  services  of  the 
original  operatic  stars  were  secured  for  the 
filmed  operas.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  how  long 
the  hold  of  such  productions  upon  the  public 
can  be  maintained,  since  the  appeal  of  a  filmed 
opera  rests  absolutely  upon  its  obvious  situ- 
ations alone.  For  this  reason  many  of  the  works 
shown  during  the  past  year  can  hardly  expect 
more  than  a  short  life  because  they  lack  this 
kind  of  appealing  quality.  Producers  were  real- 
izing that  the  construction  of  a  successful  cinema 
play  demands  different  treatment  from  that  of 
the  spoken  drama  and  showed  their  enlighten- 
ment on  this  matter  in  many  of  their  recent 
adaptations  and  reconstructions. 

The  work  of  the  National  Board  of  Censors 
was  continued  with  fairly  satisfactory  results. 
The  need  of  a  uniform  system  of  censoring  plays 
offered  for  screen  exhibition  was  still  a  pressing 
one,  and  in  several  States  the  commissions  ap- 
pointed for  this  purpose  were  passing  upon  the 
merits  of  an  enormous  amount  of  product  from 
the  studios.  These  State  commissions,  however, 
did  not  always  work  in  harmony,  and  the  need 
of  a  National  or  Federal  Board  was  again  em- 
phasised and  considerable  agitation  carried  on 
with  a  view  to  securing  legislation  for  the  cre- 
ation of  such  a  body. 

Competition  among  the  companies  producinff 
motion  pictures  of  aU  kinds  was  very  keen,  ana 
at  the  close  of  the  year  the  Imperial  Film  Ex- 
change had  begun  a  suit  in  the  Federal  District 
Court  under  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law  for 
treble  damages,  amoimting  to  $760,000,  against 
the  (General  Film  Company,  the  Vitagraph  Com- 
pany of  America,  Path6  Fr^res,  Kalem  Company, 
Edison  Manufacturing  Company,  Biograph  Com- 
pany, Essanay  Film  Manufacturing  Company, 
Lubin,  Selig  Polyscope  Company,  George  Kleine, 
and  the  Motion  Picture  Patents  Company.  The 
complainant  in  this  case  alleged  that  the  Gen- 
eral Film  Company  was  organised  by  the  other 
defendants  as  a  moving  picture  exchange  and  in 
doing  so  "entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  monopolise 
and  control  the  sale  and  distribution  in  the  va- 
rious States  and  Territories."  It  was  further 
aU^[ed  that  these  defendants  entered  into  vari- 
ous agreements  fixing  arbitrary  prices  at  which 
photoplay  films  were  to  be  rented  to  exhibitors 
throughout  the  United  States,  in  defiance  of  the 
Sherman  Law. 

While  the  photoplay  was  increasing  in  popu- 
larity, and  in  certain  directions  apparently  re- 
placing the  spoken  drama,  it  was  the  opinion  of 
those  best  informed  that  there  was  a  character- 
istic sphere  for  each  one  of  these  forms  of  en- 
tertainment. While  many  theatrical  producers 
had  turned  over  their  houses  to  the  photoplays, 
others  again  were  going  ahead  with  regular  dra- 


matic productions  on  a  larse  scale  without  fear 
of  competition  in  the  parncular  kind  of  plays 
which  they  intended  to  present.  Each  kind  of 
entertainment  has  to  a  large  extent  its  own  ap- 
preciative public.  Thousands  demand  and  will 
continue  to  demand  good  plays,  well  acted,  and 
correctly  spoken.  Millions  demand  photoplays 
Who  will  not  make  any  effort  to  understand  more 
than  what  they  can  see  on  the  screen. 

FHYITE,  WnxiAM  Henbt  Piwknet.  Ameri- 
can writer  and  orthologian,  died  March  7,  1015. 
He  was  bom  in  New  York  City  in  1855.  He  was 
educated  by  private  tutors  and  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. He  was  the  author  of  many  books  on 
correct  spelling  and  pronunciation.  The  best 
known  of  these  are:  7000  Worde  Often  Iftspro- 
nouneed;  5000  Worde  Often  Misspelled;  6000 
Facta  and  Fancies,  a  small  encyclopwdia;  12,000 
Words  Often  Mispronounced;  Napoleon — The  Re- 
turn  from  8t.  Helena  (1907). 

PHTSICS.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
work  in  physics  for  1013  was  characterized  par- 
ticularly by  the  investigations  on  X-rays  and 
crystals.  This  led  in  1914  to  the  consideration 
of  the  theories  of  atmnio  structure.  The  trend 
of  the  year  1915  is  largely  an  outgrowth  of  this 
in  that  much  attention  has  been  devoted  to  test- 
ing these  theories  by  the  criteria  furnished  by 
the  spectra  of  various  elements— especially  hy- 
drogen and  helium. 

In  addition  to  this  work  on  series  spectra  and 
their  relation  to  atomic  structures,  tiiere  has 
been  much  discussion  of  the  theories  dealing 
with  the  conduction  of  heat  and  electricity  in 
metals  and  with  the  optical  properties  of  metals. 
The  general  lines  of  work  mentioned  in  past 
years  have  received  due  attention.  But  more 
than  one  promising  research  has  been  inter- 
rupted by  "departure  for  the  seat  of  war." 

It  is  trite  to  comment  on  the  fact  that  the 
present  European  war  has  called  upon  every 
department  of  scientific  study  to  give  technical 
assistance  in  the  art  of  wholesale  destruction. 
At  the  same  time  some  of  the  contributions  of 
physics  possess  an  interest  entirely  aside  from 
their  murderous  efficiency.  It  is  true  that  the 
author  of  one  of  the  standard  English  textbooks 
on  optics  has  published  an  article  in  Nature 
on  "Aiming  with  the  Rifle,"  in  which  a  discus- 
sion of  the  optical  principles  involved  is  fol- 
lowed by  practical  suggestions  to  the  prospec- 
tive marksman.  But  this  is  offset  by  another 
article  in  the  same  journal  describing  a  device 
for  protecting  the  ears  against  the  concussion  of 
artillery  fire  and  bursting  shells.  This  cuts  off 
the  shock  of  the  intense  noise  without  interfering 
appreciably  with  the  ability  to  hear  sounds  of 
ordinary  intensity.  Moreover,  the  fact  that 
modem  artillery  shells  travel  with  a  velocity 
greater  than  that  of  soimd  has  led  to  some  very 
interesting  observations  on  the  repeated  sounds 
to  which  such  shells  may  give  rise. 

The  demands  of  the  field  hospital  for  rapid 
and  accurate  means  for  locating  projectiles  have 
led  to  several  lines  of  development.  In  the  case 
of  iron  or  steel  missiles  powerful  electromagnets 
are  of  service.  The  surgeon  has  long  acknowl- 
edged his  indebtedness  to  the  X-ray  bulb  and  the 
fiuoroscope,  but  now  he  is  demanding  more  than 
merely  a  shadow  picture.  At  least  three  or 
four  different  methods  for  locating  the  exact 
position  of  a  projectile  in  the  human  body  have 
been  devised.  Most  of  these  are  applications  of 
familiar   principles   in   geometric   optics.    Over 


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40  papers  dealing  with  such  problems  have  ap- 
peared in  the  Camptea  Rendus  during  1016. 

Seues  Spectra  and  thb  Stbuctuse  of  the 
Atom.  Ab  already  mentioned,  much  attention 
has  been  devoted  of  late  to  testing  the  relative 
merits  of  rival  atomic  theories  by  evidence  pre- 
sented in  the  series  of  lines  in  the  spectra  of  the 
elements.  Since  the  hydrogen  and  helium  atoms 
have  the  simplest  structure,  much  of  the  work 
has  centred  about  them.  Much  of  the  theory 
is  of  a  highly  mathematical  nature,  and  no 
brief  review  of  the  arguments  by  which  the  con- 
clusions are  reached  is  possible  in  such  an  arti- 
cle as  this.  Also,  in  some  instances,  the  results 
themselves  are  most  easily  stated  in  mathemati- 
cal language.  All  that  will  be  attempted  at  this 
time  is  a  brief  mention  of  the  recent  experimen- 
tal work  and  an  outline  of  the  important  theo- 
retical discussions.  To  assist  the  reader  in  fol- 
lowing this,  the  next  two  or  three  paragraphs 
are  devoted  to  a  review  of  the  accepted  laws  of 
series  spectra. 

The  orderly  arrangonent  of  the  lines  which 
compose  such  a  spectrum  as  that  of  hydrogen 
was  noticed  early  in  the  study  of  spectroscopy. 
The  first  attempts  to  discover  a  relation  be- 
tween the  frequencies  of  these  lines  were  based 
on  analogies  with  the  musical  scale.  Such  at- 
tempts were  far  from  successful,  and  showed 
that  the  phenomena  involved  are  very  compli- 
cated. No  real  progress  was  made  until  Balmer 
showed  (1886)  that  the  frequencies  of  the  prom- 
inent lines  in  the  hydrogen  spectrum  can  be 
calculated  by  means  of  the  formula 

-i  =3  27418.76  (1  — 4/m«) 

by  giving  m  the  values  3,  4,  6,  6,  etc.  The  hy- 
drogen spectrum  includes  many  lines  which  are 
not  given  by  the  Balmer  formula,  and  not  all  of 
the  fines  which  can  be  calculated  bv  it  have  been 
recognised.  Nevertheless,  Balmers  suggestion 
has  been  of  great  assistance,  and  many  attempts 
made  to  deduce  a  similar  relation  of  more  uni- 
versal application. 

Ab  is  well  known,  such  formula  have  been 
proposed  by  Kayser  and  Runge,  Hicks,  Rits, 
Rydberg,  and  others.  The  one  proposed  by  Ryd- 
berg  has  some  advantages.  It  may  be  written 
in  the  form 


sA  — 


No 


(m  +  M)* 


where  n  denotes  the  frequency,  i.e.  the  number 
of  wave  lengths  per  cm.  (in  a  vacuum),  A  and  m 
are  ccmstants  which  depend  upon  the  particular 
element  involved,  and  No  is  a  univermU  con- 
stant for  M  elements.  The  freouencies  of  the 
different  lines  in  the  series  are  obtained  by  giv- 
inf^  m  the  values  1,  2,  3,  — .  In  applying 
this  formula  it  was  soon  found  that,  as  a  rule, 
the  spectrum  of  an  element  consisted  of  three 
series  each  of  which  could  be  represented  by  such 
an  equation.  These  are  generally  distinguished 
as  the  principal  and  the  first  and  second  sub- 
ordinate series. 

It  is  readily  seen  from  the  equation  that  as 
m  increases  the  value  of  n  approaches  the  value 
A  as  its  limit.  For  this  reason  A  is  called  the 
convergence  frequency  of  the  series.  The  two 
subordinate  series  have  the  same  convergence 
frequency.  The  lowest  value  of  the  frequency 
for  a  given  series  is  obtained  by  plaeins  m=::l 
in  the  formula.    This  is  called  the  fundtMnentol 


frequency  of  the  series.  A  number  of  years  ago 
Rydberg  and  Schuster  independently  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  the  convergence  frequency  of 
the  prinoip(U  eeriee  is  equal  to  th^  eum  of  the 
convergence  frequency  of  the  euhordinate  eeriee 
and  the  fundamental  frequency  of  the  principal 
aeriee.  That  is,  the  convergence  frequency  of  the 
subordinate  series  must  be 

,>-       No 

Hence,  when  we  have  once  determined  the  prin- 
cipal series,  we  are  in  a  position  to  make  certain 
predictions  concerning  the  subordinate  series, 
and  vice  versa.  This  relation  also  gives  added 
significance  to  Rydberg's  constant. 

With  this  outline  of  the  relations  between 
spectral  series  in  mind,  the  bearing  of  such  phe- 
nomena on  the  theories  of  atomic  structure  are 
readily  seen.  Any  theory  of  atomic  structure 
must  provide  some  mechanism  for  sending  out 
vibrations  differing  in  frequencv  accordinff  to  the 
laws  of  series  spectra,  as  well  as  meetmg  the 
complex  requirements  of  radio-active  and  X-ray 
theory.    See  1014  Ybab  Book. 

The  recent  experimental  work  along  this  line 
is  not  very  great  in  amount  when  compared  to 
the  number  of  papers  dealing  with  the  theo- 
retical side  of  the  question.  Most  of  the  experi- 
mental investi|;ations  have  been  undertaken  to 
furnish  some  link  in  the  evidence  required  by  a 
particular  theory.  For  example,  there  has  been 
considerable  controversy  over  the  origin  of  the 
line  whose  wave  length  is  4686  A^^.U.  Accord- 
ingly, Evans  made  an  investigation  of  this  point. 
He  found  this  line  in  the  spectrum  of  a  dis- 
charge tube  containing  helium  without  a  trace  of 
hydrogen.  A  similar  result  was  obtained  inde- 
pendently by  Stark.  Fowler,  too,  failed  to  find 
this  line  in  the  spectrum  of  a  hydrogen  tube  in 
the  absence  of  helium.  According  to  Bohr's 
theory  (mentioned  in  the  Yeab  Book  for  1014) 
this  line  of  wave  length  4686  A^^.U.  bel<«gs  to  the 
spectrum  of  helium.  On  this  basis,  the  lines 
known  as  the  "3203  series"  can  be  united  with 
the  lines  of  the  "4686  series"  to  form  a  single 
series  for  which  the  constant  is  4No  instead 
of  No.  This  series,  according  to  Bohr,  is  pro- 
duced during  the  binding  of  an  electron  by  a 
helium  atom  from  which  two  electrons  have  been 
removed  by  the  exciting  source.  This  use  of 
4No  instead  of  the  usual  Rydberg  constant  had 
been  suggested  by  Fowler  in  1014  to  explain  the 
series  in  the  helium  spectrum. 

On  the  other  hand,  Merton  points  to  the  fact 
that  the  monbers  of  the  Balmer  series  of  the 
hydrogen  spectrum  lying  in  the  ultra-violet  have 
not  been  observed  in  spectra  from  tubes  contain- 
ing pure  hydrogen.  Hence  he  holds  that  the 
spectroscopic  evidence  that  the  "4686  line"  be- 
longs to  helium,  though  strong,  is  not  conclu- 
sive. He  attacked  the  problem  of  its  origin  by 
determining  the  highest  order  of  interference  of 
the  spectrum  lines  at  which  "fringes"  produced 
by  the  method  of  Fabry  and  Perot  remain  visi- 
ble. Lord  Rayleigh  has  shown  that  this  limit- 
ing order  of  interference,  N,  for  visible  fringes 
is  given  by  the  equation 

N=5K  VMTt 

where  K  is  a  constant,  M  is  the  atomic  weight 
of  the  source  of  the  line  and  T  is  the  absolute 
temperature.  Ab  a  result  of  his  experiments 
Morton  states  that  "the  mass  of  the  atom  from 


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which  4686  originates  ie  definitely  smaller  than 
cNat  of  the  atoms  concerned  in  the  production  of 
the  ordinary  helium  spectrum."  This  certainly 
leaves  much  room  for  future  investigation 

Bohr's  theory  of  the  origin  of  Spectra  included 
the  prediction  of  certain  very  faint  lines  in  the 
spectrum  of  helium,  and  it  was  claimed  that  the 
existence  or  non-existence  of  these  lines  would 
prove  or  disprove  the  theory.  These  lines  were 
found  by  Evans  in  the  course  of  the  investiga- 
tion mentioned  above.  Nicholson  at  once  pointed 
out  that  these  lines  could  not  be  used  as  a  final 
test  of  the  truth  of  Bohr's  theory,  since  their 
existence  follows  at  once  from  that  of  the  "4686 
series"  whatever  its  interpretation.  According 
to  his  argumoit,  the  test  of  the  theory  can  only 
be  made  by  means  of  very  accurate  interference 
measurements. 

Nicholson  has  proposed  a  "generalized  Ryd- 
berg  formula"  involving  the  constant  4No  and 
substituting  for  the  term  (m  +  A^)'  in  the  de- 
nominator, a  much  more  complicated  function 
of  (m-|-At).  It  is  hard  to  see  what  is  the 
physical  meaning  of  such  a  complex  formula. 

Late  in  1915  Bohr  published  a  rather  long 
paper  {Phil,  Mag,,  vol.  xxx,  pp.  394-415,  Sept., 
1915)  giving  a  somewhat  modified  form  of  his 
theory.  While  we  may  say  that  his  general 
method  is  to  apply  Planck's  quantum  theory  to 
the  Rutherford  atom,  to  get  any  adequate  idea 
of  this  contribution  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
original  paper. 

Allen  has  proposed  a  modification  of  Bohr's 
theory  by  adding  the  asstunption  that  the  core 
of  the  atom  has  a  magnetic  as  well  as  an  electric 
field.  To  quote  from  one  of  Allen's  later  papers: 
"The  atomic  model  which  is  suggested  .  .  .  con- 
sists of  a  ring  or  rings  of  electrons  surrounding 
a  central  core,  having  a  radius  considerably 
greater  than  the  nucleus  of  the  Rutherford  atom 
and  in  consequence  capable  of  producingappreci- 
able  magnetic  forces  in  its  vicinity.  The  total 
charge  of  the  core  must  be  equal  to  N.e  where 
N  is  the  atomic  number.  The  magnetic  moment 
of  the  core  arises  from  the  orbital  motion  of  the 
discrete  electrified  particles  (a  particles,  fi  par- 
ticles, hydrogen  nuclei,  or  positive  electrons)  of 
which  it  is  composed.  ...  A  consideration  of 
the  laws  of  spectral  series  suggests  that  the 
quantity  /ly  the  'phase'  of  the  series,  is  connected 
with  the  angular  momentum  of  the  particular 
part  of  the  core  specially  associated  with  the 
external  electron  concerned  in  radiation.  A 
further  study  of  the  values  of  this  quantity  may 
lead  to  a  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  core"  {Phil,  Mag.,  vol.  xxix,  p.  724, 
May,  1915). 

Hicks  has  worked  out  a  theory  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  Allen's,  but  his  results  cannot  be  directly 
applied  imless  the  central  mass  is  large  com- 
pared to  a  hydrogen  atom.  W.  Wilson  has  con- 
tributed a  theory  of  radiation  which  "contains 
that  of  Planck  (in  one  of  its  forms)  as  a  special 
case  and,  while  formally  distinct  from  Bohr's 
theory,  leads  to  the  same  results  when  applied  to 
the  Rutherford  type  of  atom." 

In  a  series  of  papers  appearing  in  the  PhUo- 
BopJUcal  Magazine,  A.  C.  Crehore  has  developed 
a  very  elaborate  theory  of  atomic  constitution 
based  upon  the  mechanics  of  revolving  particles. 
Moreover,  he  has  investigated  in  great  detail  not 
only  the  conditions  under  which  the  atom  itself 
shall  form  a  stable  system,  but  also  those  which 
are  required  by  the  formation  of  compound  mole- 


cules and  crystals.  His  models  for  rock  salt 
and  diamond  are  in  general  agreement  both 
qualitatively  and  quantitatively  with  Bragg's 
results.  The  amount  of  calculation  necessary  in 
working  out  so  elaborate  a  theory  is  appalling, 
and  it  is  surprising  that  Crehore  has  been  able 
to  make  such  rapid  progress. 

The  above  r4sum6  gives  only  the  most  promi- 
nent features  of  the  discussion  on  atomic  struc- 
ture. To  gain  an  adequate  conception  of  it  one 
must  consult  the  files  of  the  leading  journals,  es- 
pecially the  PhUo9ophieal  Magaaine,  and  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  An  excellent 
review  of  one  phase  of  the  matter  is  given  in  an 
article  by  Fulcher  on  "The  Stark  Effect  and 
Atomic  Structure"  {Aairophysieal  Journal,  vol. 
xli,  pp.  359-^72,  June,  1915). 

For  many  years  Lyman  has  beoi  investigating 
the  extreme  ultra-violet.  Work  in  this  region  is 
particularly  difficult,  due  to  the  fact  that  these 
exceedingly  short  waves  are  absorbed  very  read- 
.ily  even  by  gases  at  low  pressure.  This  has  ne- 
cessitated the  perfecting  of  a  vacuum  grating 
spectrometer.  During  the  past  year  Lyman  has 
succeeded  in  studying  the  spectrum  down  to 
wave-lengths  of  about  600  A"*.!!.— 4hat  is  ap- 
proximately through  the  third  octave  beyond  the 
visible.  He  has  found  15  lines  in  the  spectrum 
of  helium  lying  between  1250  A°.U.  and  600 
A^.U.,  and  in  the  hydrogen  spectrum  he  has 
identified  the  series  1216  A'^.U.,  1026  A^'.U.,  and 
972  A^'.U.,  which  was  predicted  by  Ritz. 

McLennan  and  Dearie  have  studied  the  other 
end  of  the  invisible  spectrum.  Using  a  mercury 
arc  in  a  quartz  tube  as  their  source,  they  studied 
the  region  from  10,000  A^U.  (1.00>>  to  30,200 
A^.U.  (3.02  m)-  O^  course,  the  infra-red  spec- 
trum has  been  carried  to  wave  lengths  over  100 
times  this  limit  (see  1911  Yeab  Book).  But 
McLennan  and  Dearie  found  three  new  lines  in 
this  interval— 10,670  A^'.U.,  10,900  A^.U.,  and 
12,700  A^.U. — ^and  confirmed  the  measured  wave 
lengths  of  the  other  10  lines  which  had  previ- 
ously been  identified.  With  the  mapping  of  new 
series  of  lines  in  the  infra-red  and  the  ultra- 
violet regions,  new  tests  for  the  various  theories 
of  radiation  are  supplied. 

Another  very  interesting  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  spectra  has  been  made  from  Mc- 
Lennan's  laboratory.  In  collaboration  with 
Henderson  he  has  succeeded  in  producing  spectra 
of  mercury,  cadmium,  and  zinc,  each  of  which 
consists  of  a  single  line.  By  applying  the  quan- 
tum theory  they  computed,  from  the  wave 
lengths  of  these  lines,  the  minimum  potential 
difference  necessary  to  ionize  zinc  and  cadmium. 
The  values  obtained  are  3.74  volts  and  3.96  volts, 
assuming  the  corresponding  value  for  mercury  to 
be  4.9  volts  as  shown  by  Franck  and  Hertz.  The 
minimum  arcing  potentials  necessary  to  bring 
out  the  many  lined  spectra  of  mercury,  zinc,  and 
cadmium  vapors  are,  respectively,  12.5  volts, 
15.8  volts,  and  15.3  volts.  J.  J.  Thomson  has 
suggested  that  there  are  two  types  of  ionization 
of  mercury  atoms.  These  results  are  in  line 
with  that  theory  and  suggest  that  a  similar  con- 
dition exists  for  cadmium  and  zinc.  That  is, 
the  potential  differences  giving  the  single  line 
spectra  are  the  minimum  ionizmg  potentials  for 
the  first  type,  while  the  potential  differences  nec- 
essary for  arcing  are  the  minimum  ionizing  po- 
tentials of  the  second  type.  These  single  line 
spectra  may  prove  to  be  of  great  aid  in  the  study 
of  atomic  structure. 


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Resonance  and  Fluobescent  Spectba.  The 
work  of  Wood,  Dunoyer,  and  others  on  the 
"resonance  spectra"  in  sodium  and  iodine  vapors 
was  described  at  some  length  in  the  Yeab  Books 
for  1911  and  1912.  The  year  1915  has  seen  sev- 
eral additions  to  our  knowledge  in  this  field. 

In  his  work  on  iodine  vapor,  Wood  found  that 
the  resonance  spectra  disappeared  when  the  va- 
por was  heated  above  326^  C.  Moreover,  he  was 
unable  to  detect  any  resonance  when  radiation 
of  a  wave  length  shorter  than  6460  A^^.U.  (the 
green  line  of  the  mercury  arc)  was  used  as  the 
exciting  source.  McLennan  has  now  succeeded 
in  going  far  beyond  both  of  these  limits.  By 
using  ultra  violet  as  the  exciting  "light"  he  was 
able  to  produce  fluorescence  in  iodine  vapor  at 
temperatures  varying  from  20®  G.  up  to  at  least 
1000®  C.  The  wave  leng^ths  used  to  stimulate 
this  fluorescence  lie  in  the  region  from  2100 
A^.U.  to  1800  A®.U.  The  fluorescent  spectrum 
produced  consists  of  narrow  bands  extending 
from  approximately  wave  length  4600  A®  .if. 
(blue)  to  wave  length  2100  A*».U.--the  limit  of 
the  exciting  source.  In  particular,  there  are 
seven  prominent  equally  spaced  bands  in  the  in- 
terval bounded  by  the  wave  lengths  3315  A®.U. 
and  3176  A®.U. 

Resonance  in  sodium  vapor  has  been  exten- 
sively studied  by  Wood,  but  we  are  indebted  to 
Strutt  for  the  recent  additions  to  our  knowledge 
of  it.  Some  of  his  experiments  are  similar  to 
those  of  Wood  on  mercury  vapor  and  the  results 
are  analogous.  For  example,  one  of  Strutt's 
papers  contains  the  statement:  "Resonance 
radiation  of  sodium  cannot  be  seen  through  even 
a  very  dilute  layer  of  sodiiun  vapor  placed  in 
front  of  it — a  layer  quite  transparent  to  white 
light."  (For  analogous  effect  in  mercury  vapor, 
see  1912  Year  Book,  p.  532.)  He  also  found 
that  resonance  radiation  from  sodium  vapor  is 
changed  in  intensity  when  either  the  vapor  or 
the  exciting  flame  is  placed  in  a  magnetic  flcld. 
The  effect  observed  depends  upon  the  strength . 
of  the  exciting  flame.  Strutt  has  suggested  an 
explanation  based  upon  the  theory  of  &e  Zeeman 
effect. 

The  "resonance  radiation"  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  consists  of  the  yellow  light  of 
the  "D  lines."  While  the  "D  lines"  are  the  only 
lines  of  the  sodium  spectrum  which  are  visible, 
it  is  well  known  that  this  spectrum  really  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  lines,  the  other  members  of 
which  lie  in  the  ultra  violet.  The  next  member 
of  this  series  is  a  double  line  of  wave  length 
3303  A®.U.  Wood  suggested  several  years  ago 
that  sodium  vapor  might  fluoresce  when  stimu- 
lated by  "light"  of  this  wave  leng^th.  He  was, 
however,  unable  to  observe  any  such  effect. 
Strutt's  work  shows  that  his  failure  was  due  to 
lack  of  intensity  of  the  exciting  "light."  He 
constructed  a  sodium  vapor  arc  lamp  in  a  quartz 
tube  similar  in  principle  to  the  familiar  quartz 
mercury  vapor  lamp.  With  this  as  a  course  he 
was  able  to  isolate  an  intense  beam  of  ultra  vio- 
let of  wave  length  3303  A®.U.  By  means  of  a 
quartz  lens  this  was  concentrated  on  a  quartz 
bulb  containing  sodium.  This  bulb  was  heated 
almost  to  redness  with  a  Bunsen  flame,  which 
was  then  extinguished.  As  the  bulb  cooled  and 
the  vapor  pressure  grew  less,  a  luminous  patch 
appeared  which  grew  larger  until  it  filled  the 
entire  bulb,  and  then  gradually  faded,  disap- 
pearing entirely  when  the  bulb  was  cold.  It  wi^s 
found  that  stimulation  by  either  member  of  the 


double  line  at  3303  A®.U.  produced  a  fluorescent 
spectrum  containing  both  of  the  "D  lines."  This 
result  is  surprising  since  Wood  and  Dunoyer 
found  that  stimulation  by  light  from  one  of  the 
"D  lines"  produced  a  resonance  spectrum  con- 
taining only  that  line  (see  1914  Yeab  Book). 
In  some  of  his  later  work  Strutt  used  a  vacuum 
zinc  arc  as  the  source  of  his  ultra  violet.  By 
using  very  heavy  currents  he  obtained  fluores- 
cence of  the  same  intensity  as  the  light  from  a 
"moderately  salted  Bimsen  flame." 

Theoretical  Physics.  The  year  1915  has 
produced  about  the  normal  number  of  abstract 
papers  dealing  with  relativity,  theories  of  gravi- 
tation, quantum  theory,  radiation,  etc.  It  is 
impossible  to  give  any  review  of  these  important 
contributions. 

As  already  mentioned,  theories  of  metallic  con- 
duction and  the  optical  properties  of  metals  have 
received  almost  as  much  attention  as  the  atomic 
theories.  The  Lorentz  theory  of  electrical  con- 
duction in  metals  is  now  almost  classic.  It  is 
in  general  accord  with  the  experimental  facts 
throughout  a  considerable  temperature  range  and 
furnishes  a  theoretical  basis  for  the  "Wiede- 
mann-Frantz  law."  The  work  of  Onnes  at  low 
temperatures  (see  1914  Yeab  Book,  and  below) 
and  the  renewed  study  of  the  Hall  effect  have 
helped  to  emphasize  the  limitations  of  this 
theory  and  the  need  for  further  work  along  this 
line.  The  work  of  Lorentz  has  served  as  a  guide 
to  Livens  in  developing  his  theory  of  electrical 
and  thermal  conduction.  Following  Lorentz  he 
assumes  that  the  conductivity  of  a  metal  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  free  electrons  which  have  a 
mean  free  path  and  which  may  be  treated  by 
the  kinetic  theory  of  gases.  He  has  developed 
his  theory  in  great  detail,  no  less  than  11  arti- 
cles from  his  pen  along  this  line  having  appeared 
during  1916  in  the  PMloMophical  Magassine, 

Lindemann  has  criticised  the  assumption  that 
free  electrons  obey  the  gas  law,  calling  attention 
to  the  fact  that  a  gas  can  conduct  heat  well  only 
in  case  its  heat  capacity  is  large.  Experiment 
has  shown  that  free  electrons  conduct  heat  well 
and  that  their  heat  capacity  is  too  small  to  be 
measured.  The  assumption  of  a  large  free  path 
to  offset  the  small  number  of  electrons  leads  to 
results  which  are  in  conflict  with  the  optical 
properties  of  metals.  Lindemann's  theory  con- 
tains the  suggestion  that  the  free  electrons  in  a 
metal  form  a  space  lattice  which  at  very  low 
temperatures  is  similar  to  the  space  lattice  of  a 
crystal.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  altered 
since  the  electron  must  be  vibrating  at  high  fre- 
quency. While  this  appears  to  explain  the  be- 
havior of  alloys,  it  certainly  requires  special 
assumptions  to  bring  it  into  line  with  other 
well  recognized  facts. 

J.  J.  Thomson  bases  his  criticism  of  theories 
such  as  those  of  Lorentz  and  Livens  on  the 
phenomena  of  super-conductivity  observed  by 
Onnes.  If  the  free  electrons  act  like  a  perfect 
gas,  increased  conductivity  is  produced  by  an 
increase  in  the  mean  free  path.  But  in  Onnes's 
experiments  the  conductivity  was  increased  over 
four  million  million  fold.  A  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  mean  free  path  of  the  electrons  is 
absurd.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  Thomson  sug- 
gested that  the  atoms  of  the  metal  are  joined  in 
pairs,  thus  forming  neutral  doublets.  These 
doublets  are  arranged  throughout  the  metal  with 
their  axes  pointing  in  all  directions.  Even  the 
smallest  difference  of  potential,  however,  tends 


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to  orient  the  doublets  with  their  axes  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  applied  e.m.f.  The  electrons  then 
pass  directly  from  atom  to  atom. 

The  resemblance  between  this  rearrangement 
of  the  doublets  and  Ewing's  theory  of  magnetism 
is  obvious.  The  passage  of  the  electrons  from 
doublet  to  doublet  is  similar  to  the  accepted  view 
of  conduction  in  electrolytes.  Since  the  thennal 
agitation  of  the  atoms  opposes  any  alignment 
of  the  doublets,  we  would  expect  the  conductivity 
to  be  increased  enormously  at  very  low  tempera- 
tures. 

Radioaotivitt.  Almost  since  the  beginning 
of  our  knowledge  of  radioactive  transformations 
lead  has  been  thought  to  be  the  final  product  in 
one  or  more  of  the  radioactive  series.  In  the 
last  number  of  the  Yeam  Book  mention  was 
made  of  the  work  of  Richards  and  Lembert  on 
the  atomic  weight  of  lead  of  radioactive  origin. 
Recently  Soddy  has  extracted  80  grams  of  lead 
from  some  20  kilograms  of  Ceylon  thorite.  This 
lead  and  a  similar  amount  of  assay  lead  were 
purified  by  identical  processes.  Determinations 
of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  assay  lead  gave 
results  that  checked  exactly  with  the  accepted 
values,  but  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lead  from 
thorite  proved  to  be  .026  per  cent  higher.  This 
indicates  207.64  as  the  atomic  weight,  assuming 
that  the  atomic  weight  of  "ordinary"  lead  is 
207.10.  In  attempting  to  account  for  such  phe- 
nomena, Lindemann  says:  "The  simplest  as- 
sumption would  appear  to  be  that  the  nuclei  of 
isotopes  di£fer  in  their  linear  dimensions,  but 
not  at  all,  or  only  very  little,  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  particles." 

Merton  has  nmde  a  very  careful  comparison 
of  the  spectrum  of  ordinary  lead  and  that  of  the 
lead  contained  in  Joachimsthal  pitchblende.  The 
principal  lines  in  the  two  spectra  between  3500 
A**.U.  and  4100  A^.U.  were  found  to  agree  within 
0.03  A.U. 

Direct  determinations  of  the  period  of  trans- 
formation of  some  of  the  radioactive  processes 
must,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  be  made  only 
after  years  of  observation.  Some  recent  work 
of  Soddy  and  Miss  Hitchins  illustrates  this.  In 
1905  Soddy  prepared  a  solution  of  uranium,  free 
from  radium  and  any  intermediate  products. 
From  time  to  time  the  solution  has  been  care- 
fully examined.  After  10  years  they  are  able  to 
annoimce  that  the  growth  of  radium  seems  to  be 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  time.  This 
agrees  with  the  theory  that  ionium  is  the  only 
long-lived  intermediate  product.  The  period  of 
average  life  of  ionium  is  given  as  100,000  years 
on  the  assumption  that  that  of  radium  is  2375 
years. 

In  1014  Marsden  foimd  that  when  a  particles 
pass  through  hydrogen,  particles  are  given  o£f  at 
high  velocity.  These  "hydrogen  particles"  were 
supposed  to  be  hydrogen  nuclei,  just  as  a  parti- 
cles are  helium  nuclei.  To  test  whether  these 
are  capable  of  ionizing  a  gas  through  which 
they  pass,  McLennan  and  Mercer  took  photo- 
graphs of  the  paths  of  the  a  particles,  using  the 
method  and  apparatus  of  C.  T.  R.  Wilson  (see 
Yeab  Books  for  1911  and  1912).  These  photo- 
graphs are  very  fine,  but  they  show  very  little 
eviaence  of  the  effect  sought.  However,  they 
show  that  the  a  ray  tracks  in  hydrogen  are 
longer  tiian  in  air.  The  results  in  general  con- 
firm the  position  of  Rutherford  and  C.  T.  R. 
Wilson  that  the  scattering  of  a  particles  is  due 
%o  single  reflections  through  considerable  angles. 


Much  important  work  has  been  done  by  Ma- 
kower,  Walmsley,  Tunstall,  and  others  in  deter- 
mining various  radioactive  constants,  but  their 
experiments,  though  very  valuable,  present  no 
points  of  special  interest. 

X-BAT8.  In  the  last  few  years,  Barkla  and 
his  associates  have  studied  the  effects  when  a 
primary  beam  of  X-rays  is  absorbed  by  an  ele- 
ment. The  total  energy  absorbed  from  the  pri- 
mary beam  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  energies 
of  the  "fluorescent"  X-radiation  and  the  corpus- 
cular radiation  which  are  emitted  (see  Yeab 
Books  for  1911,  1912,  and  1913).  A  definite 
portion  of  the  corpuscular  radiation  is  associated 
with  the  fluorescent  X-radiation,  and  the  num- 
ber of  quanta  of  fluorescent  X-radiation  emitted 
is  equal  to  the  number  of  high  speed  electrons 
emitted  in  this  associated  corpuscular  radiation. 

Early  in  1915  Barkla  showed  that  when  the 
wave  length  of  the  incident  prinmry  beam  is  just 
less  than  that  of  the  "characteristic  radiation," 
the  energy  is  equally  divided  between  the  cor- 
puscular and  the  fluorescent  radiation.  As  the 
wave  length  of  the  primary  beam  decreases,  the 
proportion  of  the  energy  in  the  corpuscular  radi- 
ation increases  so  that  for  very  short  wave 
lengths  practically  all  of  it  appears  there.  The 
absorption  by  an  atom  is  not  necessarily  in  whole 
quanta  and  there  is  no  loss  of  energy  within  the 
atom  in  transforming  primary  into  fluorescent 
radiaticm,  at  least  in  the  cases  for  which  there 
are  experimental  data.  In  December,  1915, 
Barkla  and  Shearer  showed  that  the  maximum 
velocity  of  ejection  of  an  electron  does  not  de- 
pend upon  the  particular  substance  from  which 
it  is  ejected.  The  "K"  and  the  "L"  electrons 
for  a  particular  substance  (see  1914  Yeab 
Book),  though  of  different  origin,  are  emitted 
with  approximately  the  same  velocity. 

Working  along  similar  lines,  Moore  has  shown 
that  the  number  of  electrons  liberated  from  an 
atom  of  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  or 
chlorine  by  a  given  beam  of  X-rays  is  the  same 
whether  the  atom  is  combined  with  other  atoms 
or  not.  From  his  results  and  those  of  Barkla 
and  Simons  (1912),  and  Barkla  and  Philpot 
(1913),  Moore  concludes  that  the  amount  of 
X-radiation  absorbed  by  an  atom  of  a  gas  is  pro- 
portional to  the  fourth  power  of  the  atomic 
weight.  Bragg  and  Pierce  have  shown  that  a 
similar  law  holds  for  elements  in  the  solid  state. 
This  suggests  that  the  law  is  of  universal  appli- 
cation and  it  should  therefore  be  possible  to 
compute  the  absorption  coefficient  of  any  mate- 
rial "provided  ite  homogeneous  (characteristic) 
radiation  is  not  excited." 

Due  to  their  very  short  wave  leng^ths,  diffrac- 
tion effecte  at  a  slit  or  a  straight  edge  are  very 
difficult  to  observe  with  X-rays.  An  elaborate 
series  of  experimente  by  Laub  along  these  lines 
has  been  very  successful  and  he  has  produced 
effecte  analogous  to  the  corresponding  well- 
known  effecte  in  light.  He  has  also  studied  the 
relation  between  the  intensity  of  the  secondary 
radiation  and  the  angle  of  incidence  of  the  pri- 
mary beam  which  produces  it.  The  resulte  in- 
clude new  characteristic  radiations  frcnn  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  platinum,  lead,  carbon,  and  sul- 
phur. These  radiations  from  carbon  and  sul- 
phur are  the  hardest  characteristic  X-radiations 
yet  discovered. 

Winawer  and  St.  Sachs  have  described  a 
method  by  which  X-rays  may  be  compared  with 
the  7  radiation  from  radium.    As  a  result  of 


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their  experiments,  they  propose  the  following 
unit  for  such  measurements:  "A  beam  of  X-rays 
will  have  unit  energy  if,  by  its  complete  ab- 
sorption in  air,  it  produces  the  same  number  of 
ions  as  the  7  rays  from  1  gram  of  radium 
(B  +  C)  would  produce  under  similar  condi- 
tions." Other  methods  of  measuring  the  inten- 
sity of  a  beam  of  X-rays  are  mentioned  under 

SELENIUlf. 

The  Coolidge  tube,  described  in  the  Yeab  Book 
for  1913,  has  proved  of  immense  assistance  in 
the  study  of  phenomena  requiring  X-rays  of 
constant  wave  length  and  intensity.  Almost  as 
soon  as  it  was  perfected,  Darwin  began  a  com- 
prehensive study  of  its  performance.  Like  the 
work  of  W.  L.  Bragg  on  X-rays  and  crystals, 
this  research  was  interrupted  by  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  scientist  into  the  soldier.  Darwin's 
work  has  been  continued  by  Rutherford,  J. 
Barnes,  and  H.  Richardson,  llie  behavior  of  the 
Ck>olidge  tube  was  studied  at  voltages  varying 
from  13,000  to  175,000  volts.  The  shortest 
wave  length  obtained  is  0.17  A**.U. — about  %o  ®^ 
one  one-billionth  of  an  inch.  This  is  produced 
at  about  145,000  volts.  The  frequency  and 
penetrating  power  reach  the  maximum  at  this 
voltage  and  are  unchanged  by  an  increase  to 
175,000  volts.  The  quantum  theory  was  found 
to  apply  directly  to  the  excitation  of  the  lower 
frequencies,  but  at  the  higher  frequencies  a  cor- 
rection factor  is  necessary.  The  value  of  this 
correction  term  increases  rapidly  with  the  fre- 
quency. Even  at  high  voltages  the  absolute  effi- 
ciency of  the  tube  is  not  high — ^about  %  per  cent 
— showing  that  on  the  average  only  about  1  elec- 
tron in  300  is  effective  in  producing  radiation. 

During  the  early  months  of  1915  X-rays  were 
put  to  a  novel  use  in  assisting  the  shipment  of 
cotton  to  Europe.  A  powerful  tube,  operating 
at  several  kilowatts,  was  placed  on  one  side  of 
a  cotton  bale.  An  observer  on  the  other  side 
examined  the  bale  with  a  fiuoroscope.  In  this 
way  the  presence  of  any  contraband  such  as 
copper  or  rubber  could  be  detected. 

Selenium.  On  accoimt  of  the  many  factors 
which  affect  it^  the  study  of  the  behavior  of 
selenium  is  both  baffling  and  attractive.  One  of 
the  most  enthusiastic  groups  of  investigators 
along  this  line  consists  of  F.  C.  Brown  and  his 
associates,  Sieg  and  Dietrich. 

In  1914  these  investigators  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing selenium  crystals  so  large  that  the  be- 
havior of  a  single  crystal  could  be  studied.  In 
this  way  the  uncertainties  due  to  interaction  at 
the  boundaries  between  crystals  are  eliminated. 
The  results  with  these  large  crystals  are  most 
interesting. 

The  change  in  resistance  produced  by  illumi- 
nation takes  place  throughout  the  crystal  itself 
— not  at  the  contacts  with  the  rest  of  the  circuit. 
When  a  crystal  is  illuminated  at  different  points, 
approximately  the  same  effect  is  produced  at  all 
places.  The  change  in  resistance  of  a  crystal  is 
approximately  the  same  whether  the  illumina- 
tion occurs  on  the  side  of  the  crystal  at  which 
the  contacts  are  made  or  on  the  opposite  side. 
Since  no  light  goes  through  the  crystal,  the  con- 
ductivity seems  to  be  controlled  by  sympathetic 
centres  which  are  located  throughout  it.  The 
effects  of  separate  illuminations  overlap  just  as 
if  they  were  produced  at  the  same  spot. 

While  illumination  at  one  point  affects  the 
entire  crystal,  just  the  opposite  effect  is  ob- 
served   when    mechanical    pressure    or    electric 

Y.  B.— 17 


force  is  applied.  In  such  cases,  only  the  points 
of  application  of  the  mechanical  or  electric 
force  are  affected.  This  indicates  that  the 
mechanism  to  which  the  light-sensitiveness  is 
due  is  essentially  different  from  that  called 
into  play  by  mechanical  or  electrical  stresses. 

The  influence  of  annealing  on  the  properties 
of  a  selenium  cell  were  recognized  early  in  the 
study  of  its  behavior.  This  was  investigated  in 
a  detailed  and  systematic  manner,  together  with 
the  sensitiveness  to  light  of  different  wave 
lengths.  The  shape  of  the  wave-length-sensibil- 
ity curve  was  shown  to  be  dependent  upon  the 
temperature  of  annealing,  lliis  can  be  explained 
by  assuming  the  presence  of  various  kinds  of 
crystals,  or  different  positions  of  the  same  kind 
of  crystal;  for  the  temperature  favorable  to  the 
production  of  one  kind  or  configuration  might 
be  very  unfavorable  for  another. 

An  attempt  to  detect  a  difference  between  the 
thermal  conductivity  of  a  selenium  crystal  in 
light  and  in  darkness  gave  negative  results. 
Other  experiments  showed  that  the  transmitted 
light  action  has  a  velocity  of  not  less  than  2  cm. 
per  second.  Hence  it  cannot  be  a  temperature 
disturbance. 

In  attempting  to  develop  a  theory  to  explain 
these  effects.  Brown  suggests  that  the  light  sen- 
sitiveness of  selenium  may  be  a  special  case  of 
a  property  common  to  all  substances.  Thus 
selenium  would  hold  a  imique  position  in  regard 
to  this  special  property,  just  as  iron,  nickel, 
and  cobalt  do  in  respect  to  magnetism.  Brown 
also  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  experi- 
mental results  cannot  be  explained  on  the  usual 
hypothesis  of  free  electrons.  The  theory  which 
he  suggests  is  quite  similar  to  the  theory  of 
metaltic  conduction  proposed  by  Sir  J.  J.  Thom- 
son to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 

The  light^sensitiveness  of  selenium  has  led  to 
its  use  in  various  forms  of  photometry.  Re- 
cently attempts  have  been  made  to  apply  it  to 
the  measurement  of  the  intensity  of  X-rays. 
The  experiments  of  Voltz  along  this  line  were 
far  from  successful,  but  Ffirstenan  showed  that 
this  failure  was  due  to  the  use  of  a  form  of 
selenium  which  is  very  slow  in  reaching  its  maxi- 
mum change  in  resistance.  Both  FUrstenan  and 
Guillemont  have  developed  satisfactory  methods 
for  measuring  the  intensity  of  a  beam  of  X-rays 
by  its  effect  on  selenium. 

WOBK  AT  Low  Tbmpjebatuiies.  The  "pursuit 
of  the  Absolute  Zero"  seems  to  have  been  aban- 
doned at  least  temporarily  by  Onnes  and  his  as- 
sociates. This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
they  have  been  idle.  In  fact,  the  number  of  con- 
tributions from  the  Low  Temperature  Labora- 
tory of  the  University  of  Leyden  is  increasing 
each  year.  But  at  present  the  aim  appears  to 
be  to  use  the  facilities  of  that  laboratory  for 
adding  greatly  to  our  data  on  the  properties  of 
bodies  at  the  low  temperatures  already  attained 
rather  than  to  attempt  to  narrow  the  interval 
of  one  or  two  degrees  which  separates  "the  low- 
est known  temperature"  from  the  "absolute 
zero." 

This  work  includes  the  study  of  means  for 
measuring  such  low  temperatures,  investigations 
on  the  change  of  electrical  resistance  in  a  mag- 
netic field  and  the  Hall  effect  in  several  metals, 
determinations  of  the  specific  heats  of  lead  and 
copper,  etc.  Aside  from  the  fascination  and 
interest  of  this  work  at  extreme  conditions,  such 
data  are  invaluable  in  theoretical  investigations. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Wilson  Solar  Observatory, 

PHYSIOG&APHY.    See  Gboloot. 

PICKABB,  Samuel  Thomas.  American  jour- 
nalist, died  Feb.  11,  1915.  He  was  born  iu  Uaw- 
ley,  Mass.,  in  1828,  and  received  an  academic 
education  in  Maine.  From  1852-59  he  was  edi- 
tor and  proprietor  of  the  Portland  7'ranscript. 
He  was  literary  executor  of  John  Greenleaf 
Whittier  and  undertook  the  publication  of  many 
works  relating  to  the  poet,  including  Whittier' s 
Life  and  Letters  (1894),  Whittier  as  a  Poet 
(1901),  Whittier  Land  (1904),  Ufe  and  Letters 
of  John  Oreenleaf  Whittier  (1907).  He  also 
edited  Hatcthome*s  First  Diary  (1897). 

PIEBS.    See  Docks  and  Habbobs. 

PIG  CLUBS.  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat 
Pboduction. 

PIG  IBON.  The  production  of  pig  iron  of  all 
kinds  in  the  United  States  in  1914  was  23,332,- 
244  long  tons,  compared  with  30,966,152  tons  in 
1913,  a  decrease  of  7,633,908  tons,  or  nearly  25 
per  cent.  The  market  production  of  pig  iron 
was  22,263,263  long  tons,  valued  at  $298,777,429, 
compared  with  30,388,935  long  tons,  valued  at 
$458,342,345  in  1915.  Tlie  total  value  of  blast- 
furnaces on  Dec.  1,  1914,  was  451.  See  IfiON  and 
Steel. 

Ihe  following  table  gives  the  production  of 
pig  iron  in  1913-14  by  States  in  long  tons: 


State 
Pennsylysnia , 

Ohio    

Illinoig  . . . . . 
New  York  . . . 
New  Jersey  . 
Alabama  . . . . 
Indiana  . . . . 
Michigan  . . . 
Wisconsin 
Minnesota  . . 
Virginia  . . . . 
Missouri  . . . . 
Colorado  . . . . 
California  . . . 
West  Virginia 
Kentucky  .  . . 
Mississippi  .  . 
Maryland  . . . 
Tennessee  . . . 
Connecticut  . 
Massachusetts 


1918 

Quantity 

12,954,936 

7.129,525 

2.927,882 

2,187,620 
2,057,911 
1,775,888 

867.826 
841,815 

824,268 

816,781 

289.959 
280.541 

12.810 


State 
Pennsylvania 

Ohio    

Illinois     

Alabama    

New  York  . . . 
New  Jersey  . 
Indiana  .... 
Michigan  .  . . 
Wisconsin 
Minnesota 
Virginia  .... 
Missouri  .... 
Colorado  .... 
California  .  . . 
West  Virginia 
Kentucky  . . . 
Mississippi  .  , 
Tennessee  . . . 
Maryland  .  . . 
Massachusetts  ) 
Connecticut    .  ) 


Total    30.966,152        Total 


1914 

QuantUy 

9,783,869 

5,283,426 

1,847.451 

1,826,929 

1.559.864 

1.557.855 

829.526 
271,228 

267,777 

286.893 

216.788 
195,594 

6.694 
.  .28,882.244 


a  Bureau  of  statistics  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel 
Institute. 

PIGS.  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat  Pro- 
duction. 

PINEBO,  Sib  Abthub.  See  Dbama,  Amebi- 
can  and  English. 

PINTADOITE.     See  MiNEajALOGY. 

PITTSBTTBGH,  Univebsity  of.  An  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  at  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  in  1787.  The  total  attendance  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  3418. 
There  were  360  members  of  the  faculty.  There 
were  no  noteworthy  changes  in  the  membership 
of  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  note- 
worthy benefactions  were  received.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  amoimted  to  about  $525,000,  and 
the  annual  income  to  about  $500,000.  The  li- 
brary contained  about  22,000  volumes.  The 
chancellor  of  the  university  was  Samuel  B.  Mc- 
Cormiek. 

PITTSBUBGH-LAKE  EBIE  CANAL.  See 
Canals. 


a  case  of  human  plague  occurred  in  the  cit?  of 
New  Orleans,  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  the 
diagnosis  being  confirmed  on  September  Sth. 
Ihe  exact  source  of  infection  was  not  determined, 
but  it  was  believed  that  it  was  received  in  the 
city.  This  case  demonstrates  the  difficulties  sur- 
rounding the  eradication  of  the  disease  as  well 
as  the  value  of  cooperation  between  the  United 
States  Public  Health  Service  and  the  Department 
of  Health,  since  no  other  case  occurred  after  the 
experts  of  the  Public  Health  Service  took  hold 
of  the  situation.  The  preventive  activities  are 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  118  ships  were  fomi 
gated  with  sulphur,  144  with  cartx>n  monoxide 
15  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas;  54  foul  bills  of 
health  were  issued;  56,233  rats  were  trapped: 
101,226  premises  were  inspected;  and  7281  build- 
ings were  made  rat  proof.  Among  the  I8,6iM 
rats  examined,  169  were  classed  as  suspicions 
and  7  were  found  to  have  the  plague.  See  Vmi 
Statistics. 

PLANETS.     See  Astbonomy. 

PLANT  BBEEDING.     See  Hobticultire. 

PLANT  QUARANTINE.    See  AGBicuLTatL 
Legislation. 

PLATINTJIC.  Comparatively  small  quant] 
ties  of  crude  platinum  are  produced  in  the  Unital 
States,  and  the  production  is  limited  almost  a 
tirely  to  two  States,  California  and  Oregoo 
The  production  in  California  in  1914  was  44> 
ounces,  and  in  Oregon  107  ounces.  An  output  (» 
platinum  is  made  from  the  refining  of  gold  i^ 
copper  bullion,  of  both  domestic  and  foreign 
origin.  From  these  sources  3430  ounces  ww^ 
obtained  in  1914.  The  imports  of  crude  platiaoE 
in  1914  amounted  to  30,304  troy  ounces  and  o. 
unmanufactured  platinum  38,781  ounces.  Tb^^ 
were  also  imported  46,553  ounces  of  manufa^ 
tured  productions,  valued  at  ^,908,303.  1^'' 
was  a  decrease  of  nearly  50  per  cent  from  tLe 
imports  of  1914,  and  was  due  chiefly  to  the  ^ 
settled  conditions  abroad.  The  embargo  p^ 
upon  the  exportation  of  platinum  from  Basi-' 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  European  war  resulted  is 
greatly  reducing  the  quantity  of  refined  ui^ 
manufactured  platinum  shipped  from  France  i£^ 
England,  and  the  shipments  from  GerniaE} 
stopped  entirely.  The  considerable  output  (' 
platinum  in  1914  was  263,543  troy  ounces,  <^ 
which  about  240,200  ounces  came  from  Rus^i 
Other  countries  which  produce  smalltf  q^^is 
titles  are  Colombia,  Canada,  New  South  ^V&i^ 
and  Tasmania. 

PLIOTBON.  See  Wibeless  Telegbapht  a>' 
Telephony. 

POETBY.     See  Fbench  Litebatuee;  G&a^ 

LiTERATUBE;    ITALIAN   LlTEBATURE;    LlTEB.\TrS! 

English  and  AicEbioan;  Scandinavian  Lite^ 
TUBE;  and  Spanish  Literatxtsb. 

POINCASE,  President  of  Franw-  ^^ 
Fbancb,  History,  poeaifik 

POLAND.     See  Russia. 

POLAB  BESEABCH.  If  polar  explorati;'- 
have  been  less  in  number  in  1915  than  in  li*'* 
they  have  nevertheless  been  of  greater  y 
graphical  interest.  They  include  the  first  N^^' 
east  Passage  ever  made  from  Bering  Strait  ><^' 
ward  to  the  White  Sea;  the  definite  elinuDsr  ' 
of  Crocker  Land  from  our  maps;  and  an  i*^'- 
sion  of  Parry  Archipelago  northwestward  ^^^ 
the  area  of  unknown  regions. 

Antabctic.  The  expedition  under  Sir  E-  '^ 
Shackleton   sailed  from   South  Greorgia,  in  ^' 


dur<ince,  to  occupy  winter  quarters  on  the 
ist  of  Luitpold  Land,  in  about  78°  S.  latitude, 
\y  in  January,  1915.  From  the  ship,  it  was 
seated  that  Shackleton  with  six  others  would 
irt  about  November  1st  and  cross  the  Con- 
en  t  of  Antarctica  to  McMurdoo  Sound,  Vic- 
■ia  Land,  where  they  hoped  to  meet  a  party 
the  end  of  March,  1916.  The  Endurance  was 
return  to  South  Georgia  in  February,  1916. 
e  exploration  of  the  Kerguelen  Archipelago, 
Captain  Rallier  du  Baty,  was  discontinued  in 
15  owing  to  the  war.  Du  Baty  has,  however, 
iBtructed  six  charts  and  outlined  nine  anchor- 
E^s  of  the  West  and  South  coasts,  besides  much 
ta  on  glaciation  and  geology.  Besides  ex- 
)ring  unknown  areas  he  made  important  cor- 
itions  in  locations  already  charted.  These  cor- 
'tions  attain  their  maximum  on  the  West 
and,  which  was  no  less  than  10  miles  in  error 
to  its  latitude. 

ARcrric.  The  most  notable  polar  achievement 
the  year  1915  is  the  circumnavigation  by  Vil- 
^sky  of  Asia  in  the  ice-breakers  Taimyr  and 
igatch,  the  first  Northeast  Passage  ever  made 
)m  Bering  Strait  westward.  Vilkitsky  dis* 
ig'uished  himself  in  1913,  while  engaged  in  his 
:*cial  work  of  surveying  the  waters  to  the  north 
Siberia,  by  navigating  the  ocean  to  the  north- 
,rd  of  the  New  Siberian  Archipelago,  to  which 

added  two  new  islands,  and  by  the  discovery 
Nicholas  II  Land,  north  of  Cape  Chelyuskin, 
aving  Vladivostok  in  July,  1914,  he  first  added 
other  island  to  the  Bennett  group,  and  then 
rther  explored  Nicholas  II  Land.  Its  southern 
d  lies  within  30  miles  of  Cape  Chelyuskin, 
lence  it  extends  northwestward  200  miles  to 
out  latitude  82°  N.,  longitude  93°  E.  Instead 
narrow  islets,  the  new  archipelago  proves  to 

land  of  considerable  area,  one  of  the  islands 
tending  100  miles  across,  from  east  to  west, 
ilayed  by  his  explorations,  Vilkitsky,  after 
ssing  to  the  west  of  Chelyuskin,  found  himself 
reed  by  an  early  winter  to  seek  refuge  in 
imur  Bay,  where  he  wintered,  1914-16.  With 
ening  summer  he  proceeded  to  Archangel, 
iring  the  early  winter  Vilkitsky  was  greatly 
rprised  to  learn  through  his  wireless  equip- 
mt  that  another  Russian  expedition  was  win- 
-ing  near  him,  with  which  he  established  com- 
ini  cation  by  sledge.  It  was  the  Eclipsey  in 
lich  Sverdrup  was  seeking  lost  explorers, 
eutenant  Brussiloff  attempted  in  1912  the 
)rtheast  Passage,  when  his  ship  was  beset  in 
^ra  Sea  and  carried  northward  by  drift  of  the 
ck  to  the  83rd  parallel  of  north  latitude,  off 
e  east  coast  of  Franz  Josef  Land.  Part  of  the 
ew  abandoned  the  ship  and  reached  land  in 
14.  Sverdrup,  in  their  search,  was  obliged  to 
nter  in  about  74°  46'  N.  on  the  west  coast  of 
I  imur  Peninsula,  whence  he  returned  to  Europe 

September,  1915.  It  may  be  here  noted  that 
ed  made,  in  1915,  successful  navigation  to  and 
om  the  Yenesei, — the  third  consecutive  season 

uninterrupted  voyages.  Wireless  land  sta- 
ms  keep  in  touch  with  ships,  advising  them  of 
^-conditions,  so  that  Siberian-European  sea- 
ade  appears  to  be  definitely  established. 
Full  reports  from  Macmillan  confirm  the  pre- 
ous  report  of  the  non-existence  of  Crocker 
md.  It  will  be  recalled  that  Peary  in  1906 
ported  "the  faint  white  summits  of  a  distant 
nd,"  and  later  from  another  point  "a  little 
ore  distinctly  the  snow-clad  summits  of  the 
Btant  land."    After  four  years  of  preparation 


Macmillan,  with  Ensign  Qreen,  reached  the 
designated  site  on  the  Great  Frozen  Sea,  on 
April  21,  1914,  reached  32°  30'  N.,  108°  22'  W., 
a  spot  "30  miles  inland"  of  the  reported  land, 
with  "not  a  thing  in  sight.  Our  hopes  ended." 
Misfortune  followed  the  voyage  of  the  duetto 
which,  imder  Dr.  Hovey,  sought  to  bring  Mac- 
millan's  party  back  from  Etah,  Greenland.  The 
Cluett  arrived  at  North  Star  Bay,  September 
12th,  and  was  neither  able  to  reach  Etah  nor  to 
return  home.  She  has  provisions  for  two  years, 
and  other  supplies.  In  1914,  by  a  daring  and 
prolonged  sledge  journey  of  96  days  over  the 
ice  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  V.  Stefansson  hydro- 
graphically  surveyed  large  areas  of  the  sea  to 
the  north  of  Alaska  and  to  the  west  of  Banks 
Land.  The  continental  shelf  is  situated  about 
70  miles  north  of  the  Alaskan  coast,  but  it 
closely  follows  the  west  shore  of  Banks  Land. 
Beyond  the  shelf  the  soundings  were  often  inde- 
terminate, as  he  had  but  750  meters  of  wire. 
Of  them  he  says:  "These  soundings  seem  to 
indicate  .that  the  sea  bottom  rises  in  at  least 
three  terraces  towards  Banks  Land.  In  some 
parts  the  bottom  is  either  hilly  or  cut  by  chan- 
nels." In  February,  1916,  Stefansson  sledged 
north  for  exploration  from  his  base  at  Cape 
Kellett,  Banks  Land.  Filling  in  the  unknown 
portions  of  Prince  Patrick  Island,  Stefansson 
discovered  to  the  north  an  unknown  land,  which 
he  reached  on  June  18,  1915,  in  78°  N.,  117*  W. 
As  far  as  seen — 100  miles — ^trending  from  the 
southeast  to  the  northwest,  it  was  a  moimtain- 
ous  land  of  considerable  extent.  Forced  by  ad- 
vancing summer  to  abandon  the  field,  Stefansson 
renewed  his  work  in  the  autumn.  Sailing  north- 
ward from  Cape  Kellett  on  Sept.  3,  1915, 
Stefansson  planned  to  establish  a  more  northerly 
base  from  which  he  could  reasonably  hope  to 
fully  explore  the  new  land  already  discovered. 
His  exploration  of  the  west  coast  of  Banks 
Land  shows  that  it  has  several  refuge  harbors, 
instead  of  being  the  precipitous,  cliff-continued 
land  that  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be. 

POLITICAL  AND  SOdlAL  SCIENCE, 
American  AcAOEinr  or.  A  learned  society 
founded  in  1889  for  study  of  political  and  social 
science.  Its  membership  is  about  6000.  The 
society's  official  publication,  the  bi-monthly  An- 
nals, of  which  Clyde  Lyndon  King  is  editor,  in 
1915  dealt  with  the  subjects:  "Public  Policies 
as  to  Municipal  Utilities,"  January;  "Readjust- 
ments in  Taxation"  (E.  M.  Patterson,  editor  of 
this  volume),  March;  ''Industrial  Opportunity," 
and  "Total  Disability  Provision"  (J.  Russell 
Smith,  editor).  May;  "America's  Interests  as 
Affected  by  the  European  War,"  July;  "Amer- 
ica's Interests  After  the  European  War,"  Sep- 
tember; "Public  Budgets"  (A.  R.  Hatton,  edi- 
tor), November.  The  officers  for  1915  were  as 
follows:  President,  L.  S.  Rowe,  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  vice-presidents,  Carl  Keisev,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Charles  W.  Dabney, 
University  of  Cincinnati,  and  David  P.  Barrows, 
University  of  California;  secretary,  J.  P.  Lich- 
tenberger.  University  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  treas- 
urer, Charles  J.  Rhoads,  Federal  Reserve  Bank, 
Philadelphia.  The  20th  annual  meeting  of  the 
Academy  will  be  held  on  Anril  14-16,  1916. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  Numerous  articles 
will  be  found  elsewhere  in  this  volume  treating 
various  matters  of  economic  interest  under  their 
own  headings.  Under  Financial  Review  is 
given  a  general  survey  of  business  conditions 


POLinGAL  ECONOMY 


616 


POLO 


during  the  year.  The  article  on  Labob  treats 
of  labor  conditions  and  gives  references  to  various 
special  topics.  Similarly  the  article  on  Banks 
AND  Banking  treats  specific  subjects  including 
the  Federal  Reserve  System  and  gives  references 
to  related  subjects.  Other  articles  that  should 
be  consulted  include  the  following:  Inbxtbancb; 
Old  Age  Pensions;  Pbices;  Social  Eoonomics; 
TABmr;  Taxation;  and  Tbusts. 

AlCEBICAN  ECONOMIO  ASSOCIATION.  The  28th 
annual  session  of  this  organization  was  held  at 
Washington,  December  27-30.  Various  other 
bodies  including  statistical,  sociological,  and 
historical  societies  and  the  Second  Pan-American 
Scientific  Ck)ngress  met  jointly  with  this  Asso- 
ciation. The  principal  subjects  discussed  in  the 
various  sessions  were  American  foreign  trade  as 
affected  by  the  European  war,  the  increasing 
cost  of  government,  the  economic  costs  of  war, 
the  recent  tendencies  in  economic  theory,  main- 
tenance of  retail  prices,  and  the  relation  of  pub- 
lic finance  to  private  credit.  One  session  was 
devoted  to  a  joint  meeting  with  the  American 
Historical  Association  in  the  interest  of  securing 
a  building  for  housing  the  federal  archives. 
This  included  addresses  on  the  value  of  archives 
to  students  and  to  public  administrators,  illus- 
trations of  the  policies  of  foreign  governments 
with  reference  to  the  preservation  of  archives, 
the  present  condition  of  American  archives,  and 
architectural  proposals.  At  another  session  of 
these  two  associations  were  heard  the  presiden- 
tial addresses  of  Professor  Walter  F.  Willcox 
of  the  American  Economic  Association  on  "The 
Apportionment  of  Representatives"  and  of  Prof. 
hT  Morse  Stephens  of  the  American  Historical 
Association  on  "The  Relation  of  History  to  Na- 
tionalism." 

The  Second  Pan-American  Scientific  CJon- 
GBESS.  This  Congress  which  held  sessions  in 
Washington  from  Monday,  December  27th,  to 
Saturday,  January  8,  1916,  devoted  one  section 
to  "Transportation,  Commerce,  Finance,  and 
Taxation"  under  the  chairmanship  of  Prof.  L.  S. 
Rowe  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Each 
of  these  four  topics  constituted  a  sub-section 
with  its  own  committee  of  distinguished  econo- 
mists and  publicists.  Hie  general  topics  for  the 
different  sessions  of  this  section  were:  "Prej^ 
aration  for  Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign";  "Uni- 
form Rates,  Methods  and  Classifications  in  Port 
Charges  and  Regulations  Between  the  North, 
Central,  and  South  American  Countries";  "Re- 
cent Tendencies  in  Economic  Theory";  "The 
Relation  of  Public  Finance  to  Private  Credit"; 
"The  Relations  Between  Federal,  State,  and  Local 
Revenues";  "The  Relation  of  Central  to  Local 
Control  in  the  Regulation  of  Public  Utilities"; 
"The  Merchant  Marine";  and  various  aspects  of 
international  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  South  American  countries,  including  prob- 
lems of  banking,  credit,  and  monetary  standards. 

Bibliography.     In  addition  to  the  references 

given  below  additional  titles  of  important  pub- 
cations  of  the  year  will  be  found  under  Labob  ; 
SodOLOGT;  Taxation;  and  various  other  special 
topics. 

Oeneral  Works.  Herman  Cahn,  Capital  To- 
day; H.  B.  Drury,  Soientifio  Management:  A 
History  and  Critioism;  Donald  D.  Dunbar,  The 
Tin-Plate  Industry;  Gide  and  Rist,  A  History  of 
Eoonomio  Doctrines;  F.  W.  Hirst,  The  Political 
Economy  of  War;  W.  I.  King,  The  Wealth  and 
Income  of  the  People  of  the  United  States;  H.  L. 


Moore,  Eeonomio  Cycles:  Their  Law  and  Cause; 
R.  H.  L.  Palgrave,  Dictionary  of  Political 
Economy;  "Proceedings  of  the  Conference  of 
American  Mayors  on  Public  Policies  as  to  Muni- 
cipal Utilities,"  published  in  the  Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Sci- 
ence; Werner  Sombart,  The  Quintessence  of  Mod- 
em Capitalism,  translated  by  M.  Epstein;  and 
Frank  W.  Taussig,  Some  Aspects  of  the  Tariff 
Question, 

Economic  History,  J.  E.  Barker,  Modem 
Oermany:  Her  Political  and  Economic  Prob- 
lems, 6th  ed.;  C.  W.  Barron,  The  Audacious 
War;  E.  Lipson,  An  Introduction  to  the  Eco- 
nomic History  of  England,  voL  i.  The  Middle 
Ages;  F.  W.  Tickner,  A  Social  and  Industrial 
History  of  England. 

Money  and  Banking.  R.  E.  Babson,  The 
Future  Method  of  Investing  Money:  Economic 
Facts  for  Corporations  and  Investors;  C.  W. 
Barron,  The  Federal  Reserve  Act:  a  Discussion 
of  the  Principles  and  Operations  of  the  New 
Banking  Act;  C.  A.  Conant,  A  History  of  Modem 
Banks  of  Issue,  6th  ed.;  J.  T.  Crosby,  Latin 
American  Monetary  Systems  and  Exchange  Con- 
ditions; C.  G.  Dawes,  Essays  and  Speeches;  R. 
S.  Harris,  Practical  Banking;  A.  B.  Hepburn, 
History  of  Currency  in  the  United  States;  W.  8. 
Kies,  Branch  Banks  in  Foreign  Countries;  W. 
H.  Kniffen,  Jr.,  Practical  Work  of  a  Bank;  and 
Hartley  Withers,  War  and  Lombard  Street. 

Business,  Trade,  and  Transportation.  R.  W. 
Babson,  Business  Barometers  Used  in  the  Ac- 
cumulation of  Money;  H.  G.  Brown,  Interna- 
tional Trade;  S.  Cody,  How  to  Deal  with  Human 
Nature  in  Business;  S.  Dunbar,  History  of  Travel 
in  America;  W.  B.  Ferguson,  Estimating  the 
Cost  of  Work;  H.  W.  Hess,  Produotvoe  Adver- 
tising; W.  F.  Hickernell,  Methods  of  Business 
Forecasting  Based  on  Fundamental  Statistics; 
A.  W.  Kirkaldy  and  A.  D.  Evans,  History  and 
Economics  of  Transport;  Hugo  Mlinsterberg, 
Business  Psychology;  P.  H.  Nystrom,  Economics 
of  Retailing;  A.  Oppel,  Der  Welthandel,  seine 
Entwicklung  und  gegenwartige  Qestaltvng;  J.  T. 
Peddie,  On  the  Relation  of  Imports  to  Exports; 
George  M.  Price,  The  Modem  Factory:  Safety, 
Sanitation  and  Welfare;  W.  Z.  Ripley,  Rail- 
roads: Finance  and  Organization;  A.  W.  Shaw, 
Some  Problems  in  Market  Distribution;  F.  C. 
Stevens,  English  Railways,  Their  Development 
and  Their  Relation  to  the  State;  and  K.  M. 
Sturges,  American  Chambers  of  Commerce, 

Population.  K.  C.  Baboock,  The  Scandinavian 
Element  in  the  United  States;  M.  J.  Bensasson, 
Quelques  consid^ations  sur  la  depopulation  de 
la  France;  H.  W.  Conn,  Social  Heredity  and 
Social  Evolution,  the  Other  Side  of  Eugenics; 
A.  Grotjahn,  Oeburten-Buokg<ing  und  Oeburten- 
Regelung  im  Lichte  der  individuelUm  und  der 
soziales  Hygiene;  Sidney  L.  Gulick,  The  Japanese 
Problem;  David  Sterr  Jordan,  War  and  the 
Breed;  M.  S.  Kamath,  The  Census  of  India; 
Edward  A.  Ross,  The  Old  World  in  the  New: 
The  Significance  of  Past  and  Present  Inmigmtiom 
to  the  American  People;  and  Warren  S.  Thomp- 
son, Population:  A  Study  in  Malthusianism. 

POLITICAL  PABTIES  IN  THE  XTNITED 
STATES.  See  United  States,  section  Elec- 
tions in  1915;  also  section  Politics  and  Oovem- 
ment  of  the  various  State  articles. 

POLO.  No  international  polo  matches  were 
played  in  1916  owinff  to  the  European  war. 
The  International  Challenge  Cup,  emblematic  of 


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POLO 


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POBTO  BICO 


the  world's  championship,  remains  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  British  players  who  won  it  the 
preceding  year,  after  a  sensational  battle  with 
the  United  States  four  on  the  field  of  the  Meadow 
Brook  Club  at  Westbury,  L.  I. 

In  the  United  States  the  game  showed  an  in- 
creasing popularity,  it  being  estimated  that 
there  are  at  present  1407  players,  of  whom  679 
are  military  men  and  828  civilians,  bringing  into 
use  2442  mounts.  According  to  Henry  Lloyd 
Herbert,  chairman  of  the  American  Polo  Asso- 
ciation, polo  in  the  United  States  and  its  pos- 
sessions is  now  an  all-the-year-around  sport. 

During  the  winter  months  the  climate  and 
condition  of  the  grounds  are  suitable  for  the 
game  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  Hawaii,  and  the 
Philippines,  while  in  the  spring  the  same  condi- 
tions prevail  on  the  Southern  circuit,  which  in- 
cludes Aiken,  Camden,  the  several  army  posts, 
and  Washington.  In  the  late  spring  the  sport 
begins  at  Philadelphia  and  Lakewood  and  during 
the  months  of  May  and  June  it  is  in  full  swing 
at  all  of  the  Eastern  clubs. 

Several  new  organizations  applied  for  member- 
ship in  the  association  in  1015  and  new  grounds 
are  completed  or  in  course  of  construction  at 
San  Mateo,  Cal.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  White  Plains, 
N.  Y.,  Narragansett  Pier,  R.  I.,  Dayton,  Ohio, 
and  Piping  Rock  and  Meadow  Brook,  L.  I. 

The  championship  of  America  in  1915  was  won 
by  the  Meadow  Brook  Club  four  comprising 
Raymond  Belmont,  J.  M.  Waterbury,  Malcolm 
Stevenson,  and  Devereux  Milburn,  who  defeated 
the  Great  Neck  team  in  the  final  match  by  a 
score  of  14  to  %. 

POOL.    See  Billiards  and  Pool. 

POOLE,  Eugene.  See  Litebatube,  English 
AND  ABfEBiCAN,  Fiction. 

POPPENBEBG,  Felix.  German  historian, 
died  Sep.  1,  1916.  He  was  born  in  Berlin  in 
1869.  After  graduating  from  the  gymnasium  in 
that  eity  he  studied  at  the  university,  and  took 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Literature.  He  stuped 
also  at  G5ttingen  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  for 
many  years  connected  with  several  of  the  lead- 
ing German  newspapers  and  periodicals  as  an 
art  critic  and  literary  reviewer.  He  also  wrote 
many  volumes  on  art  subjects  and  many  essays 
on  biographical  and  other  subjects.  Uis  best 
known  works  are  ZaoJiariaa  Werner  and  an  essay 
on  Maeterlinck, 

POBT  IMPBOVEMENT.  See  Docks  and 
Habbobs. 

POBTO  BICO.  Population.  On  July  1, 
1914,  the  estimated  population  was  1,184,489. 

Aobictjltube.  The  development  of  agriculture 
in  the  island  continued  to  receive  careful  atten- 
tion during  1915.  The  Insular  Board  of  Agri- 
cultural Commissioners  worked,  with  federal  aid 
and  private  cooperation,  toward  improving  culti- 
vation and  increasing  the  amount,  quality,  and 
variety  of  the  products  of  the  farms.  Owing  to 
the  ignorance  and  helplessness  so  common  among 
the  agricultural  laborers  and  farmers  of  the 
island  much  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in 
securing  their  cooperation  for  these  new  agencies 
for  improvement.  The  a^icultural  conditions 
were  on  the  whole  good  m  1915,  and  imusual 
prices  were  obtained  for  sugar  on  account  of  ab- 
normal conditions.  The  value  of  sugar  exports 
was  $7,000,000  more  than  in  1914,  although  the 
quantity  was  considerably  less.  Coffee  was  ex- 
ported in  greater  quantities  than  in  1914,  but 
¥ras  marketed  at  greatly  reduced  prices,  and 


yielded  $1,000^000  less  than  in  that  year.  The 
tobacco  leaf  exported  was  slightly  less  than  in 

1914.  The  value  was  about  the  same.  The  total 
fruits  exported  during  the  year  amounted  to 
$3,434,707,  compared  with  $3,390,554  in  1914. 

Commebgb.  The  total  imports  in  1915,  exclu- 
sive of  gold  and  silver,  amounted  to  $33,884,296, 
compared  with  $36,406,787  in  1914.  The  ex- 
ports amounted  to  $49,356,907,  compared  with 
$43,102,762  in  1914.  The  imports  from  the 
United  States  amounted  to  $30,929,831,  and  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States  amounted  to  $43,- 
311,920. 

Education.  The  total  enrollment  in  the 
schools  of  the  island  in  1914-15  was  168,319, 
compared  with  207,010  in  1914.  This  decrease 
was  due  to  a  ruling  of  the  department  of  edu- 
cation fixing  the  maximum  that  could  be  num- 
bered under  one  teacher  at  80  pupils.  The  school 
population  of  the  island,  5  to  18  years  of  age,  in 
1915  was  419,182.  Of  these  331,233  lived  out- 
side cities  and  towns  containing  2500  people  or 
mora    In   the  rural  schools  were  enrolled,  in 

1915,  91,966  pupils,  or  nearly  27  per  cent  of  the 
entire  numb^  of  school  children  in  the  rural 
districts.  Conditions  are  much  better  in  the 
urban  centres.  There  were  in  these  88,000  pu- 
pils of  school  age,  of  whom  64,428,  or  about  74 
per  cent,  were  enrolled  during  the  year.  Con- 
tinuation schools  were  maintained  in  the  larger 
urban  centres  where  no  complete  high  schools  ha,d 
been  established.  There  were  complete  high 
schools  at  San  Juan,  Ponce,  Mayaguez,  AreciU>, 
Humacao,  and  Fajardo.  These  schools  have  four- 
year  courses  of  instruction  in  English,  Spanish, 
Latin,  science,  mathematics,  home  economics,  and 
manual  training.  Two-year  courses  are  offered 
in  history  and  French.  In  the  urban  centres 
128  night  schools  were  operated  during  the  year, 
and  68  in  the  rural  districts.  Instruction  in 
these  schools  covers  the  common  branches;  and 
agriculture  is  taught.  The  average  number  of 
teachers  employed  during  the  year  was  2461,  of 
whom  2084  were  white,  and  377  were  colored. 
The  total  enrollment  in  the  University  of  Porto 
Rico  in  1915  was  916,  compared  with  505  in 
1914. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1914,  amoimted  to  $7,811,- 
980,  and  the  expenditures  to  $7,236,670,  leaving  a 
caeh  balance  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $575,310. 
The  total  outstanding  bonded  indebtedness 
amounted  to  $7,980,000. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  Owing  to  reduced 
funds  it  was  necessary  to  turn  over  to  the  muni- 
cipalities a  large  part  of  the  cleaning  and  in- 
spection work,  which  for  the  past  &w  years 
has  been  carried  on  by  the  sanitation  service. 
This  resulted  in  some  loss  of  efficiency.  The 
sanitation  officials  continued  their  efforts  for 
sewerage  systems  and  for  sanitary  dairies  and 
bakeries.  In  spite  of  all  efforts  the  number  of 
deaths  from  tuberculosis  and  malaria  showed  a 
marked  tendency  to  increase.  Work  for  the  pre- 
vention of  amemia  was  carried  on  in  all  towns 
for  a  part  of  the  year.  There  were  during  the 
year  49,947  births  and  23,664  deaths.  The  In- 
stitute of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene  con- 
tinued its  valuable  work  during  the  year.  Spe- 
cial work  of  great  interest  was  done  on  the 
tropical  disease,  called  sprue,  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  cause  of  this  disease  has  beoi  discovered 
and  traced  to  the  fungus  momUa, 

Ibbigation.    After  careful  study,  the  irriga- 


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tion  commiBsion  was  able  to  complete  during  the 
year  the  formation  of  an  irrigation  district. 
This  district  included  60,319  acres,  of  which  44,- 
821  acres  could  be  irrigated  by  gravity  from  the 
canals  of  the  system. 

Charities.  These  include  an  insane  asylum, 
a  blind  asylum,  a  girls'  charity  school,  and  a 
boys*  charity  school — all  at  Ponce.  The  penal 
institutions  include  prisons,  in  which  there  were 
7381  prisoners. 

Legislation.  The  first  session  of  the  8th 
Legislature  convened  on  Jan.  11,  1915,  and  ad- 
journed on  March  11th,  following.  Owing  to 
special  circumstances  which  brought  a  lack  of 
cooperation  between  the  two  houses,  there  was 
comparatively  little  legislation  of  general  im- 
portance enacted.  During  the  session  there  were 
passed  39  bills  and  11  joint  resolutions,  which 
received  the  approval  and  signature  of  the  Gov- 
ernor. One  of  these  acts  provided  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  juvenile  courts  and  the  protection 
and  care  of  delinquent,  neglected,  and  deserted 
children.  A  second  provided  for  the  sale  to 
laborers  of  certain  public  lands.  A  measure  was 
passed  also  postponing  the  date  of  the  meeting 
of  the  legislative  assembly  from  the  second  Mon- 
day of  January  to  the  second  Monday  of  Febru- 
ary. Women  were  made  eligible  to  become  mem- 
bers of  school  boards. 

The  Governor  in  1915  was  Arthur  Yager.  The 
members  of  the  executive  council  were:  Luis 
Munoz  Rivera,  President;  Martin  Travieso,  Jr., 
president  pro  tempore  and  secretary;  Howard 
L.  Kern,  attorney  general;  Allan  H.  Richard- 
son, treasurer;  J.  W.  Bonner,  auditor;  Manuel 
V.  Domenech,  commissioner  of  the  interior; 
Paul  G.  Miller,  commissioner  of  education; 
Manuel  Canunas,  director  of  labor ;  charities  and 
corrections,  Jos6  C.  Barbosa,  Antonio  Barcelo, 
and  Tulio  Larringa. 

FOBTUQAL.  A  European  republic  occupy- 
ing the  western  coast  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula; 
the  most  westerly  country  in  Europe.  Capital, 
Lisbon. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  following  table 
shows  the  area  by  provinces  and  their  constitu- 
ent districts,  together  with  the  population  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  Dec.  1,  1900,  and  the 
census  of  Dec.  1,  1911: 


Provineet  and  eon-  Area  in 

Hittunt  dials.  tq.mUes 

Entre-Douro-e-Minho : 

Viana  do  Oastelo    875 

Braga     1,040 

Porto    898 


Population 


1900 

215.267 
857,159 
597,985 


1911 

227.250 
882,276 
679,540 


2,790 
Ti  aB-os-Montes : 

Vila  Rial 1.650 

Braganga     2,514 

4,164 
Beira  Alta: 

Aveiro    1,065 

Coimbra      1,508 

Viseu      1,938 


4,511 
Beira  Baixa: 

Ouarda     2,117 

Castelo  Branco    2,582 


1,170,361 

1,289,066 

242,196 
185,162 

245,647 
192,024 

427,858 

487,571 

808,169 
832,168 
402,259 

886,248 
859,887 
416.744 

1,087,596 

1,112,874 

261.680 
216,608 

271,616 
241,184 

4,699 
Estremadura : 

Leiria     1,817 

Lisboa    8,066 

8antar6m     2,556 


478,288        512.800 


288,755 
709,509 
288.154 


262,682 
862,854 
826,775 


6,989     1,281,418     1,440.761 


Provinces  and  eon-  Area  in 

stituent  diets.  sq.mHes 

Alemtejo : 

Portalegre    2,406 

Evora     2,857 

Beja     8,959 


9  222 
Algarve    (Faro)     li988 


PoptiloHon 
1900  1911 

124,481  141,481 
128,062  148,295 
168.612         192.499 


482,275 
272,861 


416,105 
255,191 


ToUl.    continent    34,268     5,016,267     5,547.708 

Azores : 

Angra  do  Heroismo   .  .  281 

Ponta  Delgada    887 

Horta    804 


Madeira    (Funehal) 


922 
815 


78.883 

127,726 

55,283 

256.291 
150.574 


69,957 

122,658 

50,055 

242,565 
169.788 


Total    islands    1,287        406,865        412.848 

Grand    toUl    85,600     5.428,182     5.960.056 

The  total  area  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of 
the  State  of  Indiana,  which  is  36,354  square 
miles.  In  1900  the  continental  urban  popula- 
tion was  32.4  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  rural 
population  67.6  per  cent.  The  population  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  Dec.  1,  1911,  included  2,828,- 
G91  males  and  3,131,365  females.  The  principal 
towns,  with  their  population  in  1911,  were: 
Lisbon,  435,359;  Oporto,  194,009;  Setflbal,  30,- 
346;  Funehal  (Madeira),  24,687;  Braga,  24,647; 
Coimbra,  20,581;  Evora,  17,911;  Pon&i  Delgada 
(Azores),  16,179;  Covilha,  16,745;  Faro,  12,- 
680;  Tavira,  11,665;  Portalegre,  11,603;  Aveiro, 
11,623;  Elvas,  10,645;  Viana  do  Castelo,  10,- 
486;  Beja,  10,113;  Angra  do  Heroismo  (Azores), 
10,067;  Silves,  9919;  SantarCm,  9897;  Lagos, 
9673;  Guimarfles,  9516;  Lamego,  8696;  Viseu, 
8167;  Castel  Branco,  7798;  Figueira  da  Foz, 
6926;  Guarda,  6635;  Horta  (Azores),  6097. 

All  creeds  are  now  tolerated.  The  law  of 
1911  for  the  separation  of  Church  and  state 
discarded  the  Roman  Catholic  as  the  national 
faith.  Primary  education  has  been  compulsory 
since  1911,  but  over  70  per  cent  of  the  population 
over  6  years  of  age  remain  illiterate.  In  1911, 
primary  schools  numbered  about  7120  (6320  pub- 
lic, about  800  private) ;  secondary  schools,  32. 
There  are  several  special  and  technical  schools. 
There  are  three  universities,  at  Coimbra,  Lisbon, 
and  Oporto. 

Produotiow.  Three-fifths  of  the  population 
are  engaged  in  agriculture.  Of  the  total  area, 
26.2  per  cent  is  under  crops  and  pasture,  3.5 
per  cent  under  vineyards,  3.9  per  cent  under 
orchards,  17.3  per  cent  under  forest,  43.1  per 
cent  barren  or  uncultivable.  Wine,  olive  oil, 
and  fruits  are  produced  for  export;  cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats  are  raised.  In  the  uplands  cereals  are 
grown.  There  are  forests  of  oak,  chestnut,  sea- 
pine,  and  cork.  The  chief  industrial  product  of 
the  country  is  wine,  which  constitutes  nearly 
50  per  cent  of  the  total  exports. 

There  are  valuable  mineral  deposits,  but  little 
worked.  In  1910,  230,745  metric  tons  of  sul- 
phur were  produced,  3768  tons  of  copper  pre- 
cipitate, 17,630  of  copper  pyrites,  1991  of  copper 
ore,  947  of  wolfram.  The  output  and  spot  value 
of  the  chief  mineral  products  in  1912  were  as 
follows:  lead,  54,562  metric  tons  and  £23,029; 
copper  precipitate,  5582  and  £99,528;  sulphur, 
339,096  and  £103,632;  wolfram,  982  and  £102,- 
483;  silver  ore,  4646  and  £28,116;  anthracite, 
15,366  and  £11,640;  arsenic,  941  and  £9406;  iron, 
29,413  and  £6362;  copper  pyrites,  8843  and 
£2278;  copper,  905  and  £1160;  uranium,  850  and 


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POBTTTGAIi 


£798;  antimony  ore,  100  and  £689;  gold,  £518. 
The  value  of  the  fisheries  products  in  1910  was 
5,919,842  escudos.  Manufactured  products  are 
gloves,  silks,  woolens,  linen  and  cotton  textiles, 
metal  and  earthenware  goods,  tobacco,  cigars, 
etc. 

GoMMERCG.    In  the  table  below  is  given  the 
trade  for  four  years  in  thousands  of  escudos: 

Imports.  1910 

Raw  materials 80,518 

Foodstuffs 16,060 

Yarns   and   textiles...    7,828 

Various   mfrs 5.068 

Machinery,    etc 5,848 

Live   animals    8,456 

Tare    148 


1911 

1912 

1918 

82,493 

88.688 

85.906 

12.805 

17.020 

25.281 

7.682 

7,977 

8,108 

5,900 

6,916 

7,641 

6,077 

6,391 

10,056 

8.032 

2,515 

1.975 

187 

182 

166 

Total   mdse 69,816     68.127     74.689     88,978 

Coin  and  bullion   . .       299      1,072  968 

Total    imports 


.70,155     68,127     75,712     89,941 


Exports.  1910 

Raw  materials   7,405 

Foodstuffs     19,129 

Yarns   and   textiles...   8,064 

Various   mfrs 2,461 

Machinery,   ete 184 

Live    animals     8,584 


1911 

1912 

1918 

7,140 

7,897 

8,824 

19.044 

19,776 

19.284 

1,522 

1,172 

1,280 

2,277 

2,294 

2,846 

189 

145 

185 

3,948 

8,041 

8,418 

Total   mdse 85,727 

Coin    and   bullion ....      602 


84,065 


84,825 
641 


85,286 
1,898 


Total  exports    86,329     84,065     84.966     86,684 

The  export  of  wine  in  1910  was  valued  at  12,- 
416,000  escudos;  cork,  4,518,000;  cotton  textiles, 
2,654,000;  fish,  2,424,000;  tropical  fruits,  1,845,- 
000;  copper,  943,000;  timber,  909,000;  olive  oil, 
702,000.  In  1911  the  export  of  wine  was  valued 
at  11,023,478  escudos;  cork,  3,402,202;  preserved 
fish,  2,300,602;  fruits  and  vegetables,  1,635,610; 
cottons  and  yarn,  1,184,535;  cork  manufactures, 
975,778;  timber,  914,986;  copper  ore,  868,857; 
olive  oil,  543,867;  fish,  803,389.  The  import  of 
wheat  was  valued  in  1911  at  582,418  escudos; 
cotton,  6,104,997;  coal,  5,105,592;  codfish,  3,872,- 
729;  cottons  and  yam,  3,895,251;  industrial 
machinery,  2,305,415;  sugar,  2,875,938;  chemical 
products,  1,758,244;  hides  and  skins,  2,567,473; 
rice,  1,772,677;  oil  seeds,  1,903,552;  wool,  1,685,- 
372.  The  United  Kingdom  in  1911  contributed 
imports  valued  at  19,398,000  escudos,  and  re- 
ceived exports  valued  at  6,935,000;  (Jermany, 
12,128,000  and  3,300,000;  United  States,  5,836,- 
000  and  842,000,  etc.  Principal  countries  of 
origin  and  destination  in  the  1913  trade  follow, 
values  in  thousands  of  escudos: 


Imps. 

Exps. 

Imps. 

Exps. 

U.    K.    ... 

.28,490 

7,601 

Italy    

, .   1,816 

579 

Germany  . . 

.15,840 

8.407 

U.   8 

.   9.892 

1.225 

Norway  . . . 

.   2.180 

207 

Brazil   .... 

.    1,651 

6,198 

Belgium    .. 

.    4,049 

1,110 

Argentina  . 
Colonies    . . 

,.    5,004 

248 

France    . . . 

.    7,594 

1.834 

.    2,847 

4.944 

Spain    

Netherlands 

.    8,864 

5,479 

Other    .... 

,.    8.981 

2,239 

1,789 

710 

Total  . . . 

.88.978 

85.287 

Vessels  entered  (1010),  11,660,  of  20,615,688 
tons;  1911,  10,370  of  19,154,239  tons;  1913,  10,- 
638  of  24,568,120  tons.  The  merchant  marine  in- 
cluded (1911)  66  steamers  (70,193  tons)  and 
259  sail   (43,844). 

Railways  in  operation,  Dec.  31,  1913,  1849 
miles  (711  state-owned).  Telegraph  lines 
(1912),  5945  miles;  wires,  13,415.  Post  offices 
(1913),  4266. 

Finance.  The  regular  excess  of  expenditure 
over  revenue  during  many  years  has  added  to  the 


national  debt.  Foreign  debt,  Dec.  31,  1913,  175,- 
396.150  escudos;  internal,  713,689,720,  including 
87,296,642  floating  debt.  A  decree  of  May  22, 
1911,  established  a  new  monetary  system.  The 
name  of  the  monetary  unit  was  changed  from 
milreis  to  escudo.  The  escudo  has  the  same 
value  as  the  milreis  ($1.08046),  but  is  divided 
into  100  centavos,  whereas  the  milreis  represented 
1000  reis.  The  centavo  equals  10  reis.  The 
budget  for  1915-16  estimates  the  revenue  at 
78,043,630  escudos  (72,867,012  ordinary,  5,186,- 
618  extraordinary),  and  the  expenditure  at  88,- 
645,951  (80,305,423  ordinary,  8,340,528  extraor- 
dinary). In  addition,  war  expenses,  30,000,000 
escudos. 

Navy.  The  fleet  includes  1  armored  coast  de- 
fense vessel  of  3030  tons  (the  Vaaco  da  Oamaj 
remodeled  in  1902),  4  cruisers  (9410  tons),  6 
gunboats  of  date  1895-1909  (2573),  11  gunboats 
of    date    1874-90     (4300),    1    torpedo    gunboat 

(535),  4  torpedo  boats  of  date  1880-86  (252)-- 
total,  27  vessels,  aggregating  22,100  tons;  be- 
sides training  ships,  yachts,  etc.  Under  con- 
struction, 3  torpedo  boats. 

Government.  The  President,  elected  for  four 
years,  is  the  executive.  The  legislative  power 
is  exercised  by  a  Congress  composed  of  a  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies    (164  members)    and  a  Senate 

(71  members).  President  Aug.  24,  1911-15, 
Manoel  de  Arriaga;  President  1915-19,  Ber- 
nardino Machado. 

History 

The  Castro  Cabinet.  The  first  of  the  series 
of  cabinet  crises  which  occurred  with  such  be- 
wildering frequency  during  the  year  1915  de- 
veloped in  January  as  the  result  of  antagonism 
between  the  ministry  and  the  army.  The  con- 
test between  the  military  clique  and  the  Demo- 
cratic cabinet  culminated  with  the  resignation 
of  Premier  Coutinho  and  his  cabinet  on  January 
25th  and  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  under 
General  Pimenta  Castro.  The  Castro  cabinet 
was  constituted  on  January  28th,  as  follows: 
Premier  and  foreign  minister.  General  Pimenta 
Castro;  interior,  Col.  Gomes  Teixeira;  finance, 
Capt.  Santos  Veigas;  colonies.  Col.  Theophilo 
Trmidade;  marine,  Vice- Admiral  Xavier  Brito; 
justice.  Dr.  Alves  Moreira;  public  works,  Dr. 
Nunes  Ponte;  public  instruction,  Goulard  Ma- 
deiros.  A  we^  later  Jose  Rodriguez  Monteiro 
was  added  to  the  cabinet  as  foreign  minister. 
The  new  government  decided  to  postpone  general 
elections,  until  a  revision  of  the  census  could  be 
accomplished.  Against  this  decision  Dr.  Costa 
and  his  Democratic  adherents  strenuously  pro- 
tested, because  had  elections  been  held  on  the 
basis  of  the  old  census,  the  Democratic  party 
would  have  been  assured  of  victory.  Manifes- 
tations of  the  Democrats'  displeasure  multiplied 
themselves  during  the  spring.  On  March  5th  a 
meeting  of  Democratic  leaders  in  Lisbon,  under 
the  presidency  of  Senhor  Monteiro,  declared  the 
President  of  the  republic  and  the  ministers  of 
state  ''outlaws.*'  In  Northern  Portugal,  at 
Lamege,  the  Democratic  irreconcilables  estab- 
lished a  revolutionary  government,  the  "Republic 
of  Northern  Portugal,"  with  General  Antonio 
Barreto  as  President.  Another  group  of  Demo- 
crats formed  an  organization  "for  the  Defense 
of  the  Republic"  and  declared  that  true  Republi- 
cans should  refuse  obedience  to  the  decrees  of 
General  Castro.    A  further  protest  against  the 


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monarchical     tendencicB     and     antMtepubllcan 
character  of  General  Castro's  ministry  was  made 
by   Joao   Ghagas,   the   Portuguese   minister   to 
France,  who  resigned  on  March  llth. 
The  Coup  d'Etat.    The  movement  against  the 

Svernment  rapidly  gained  headway  during 
ftrch  and  April,  until  in  May  the  Democratic 
defenders  of  republicanism  were  strong  enough 
to  strike  a  ewlp  d^itat,  A  revolutionary  com- 
mittee, in  which  Alvaro  Castro  (not  to  be  con- 
fused with  Gen.  Pimenta  Castro),  Antonio  da 
Silva,  and  Captain  Leotte  Rego  were  conspicuous 
figures,  carefully  organized  the  insurrection. 
0^  May  14th,  in  accordance  with  the  plot,  the 
conspirators  on  board  Portuguese  warships  in 
the  harbor  of  Lisbon  opened  fire  on  the  town, 
while  simultaneously  the  revolutionaries  in  Lis- 
bon supplied  the  mob  with  arms  and  laid  siege 
to  the  government  offices.  Premier  Pimenta 
Castro  was  made  a  prisoner.  After  two  days  of 
street-ficrhting,  in  the  course  of  which  at  least 
700  persons  were  wounded,  200  mortally,  the 
success  of  the  Democratic  oaup  d^itat  was  as- 
sured. The  revolutionary  committee  published 
a  manifesto  declaring:  "We  intend  to  restore 
the  republic  to  the  Republicans.  We  desire  a 
national  government,  hence,  a  Republican  gov- 
ernment. We  recognize  no  party  ensign,  for  we 
wish  all  Republicans  to  be  united  in  safeguard- 
ing the  dignity  of  the  country  and  the  welfare 
of  the  republic.  ...  It  will  be  the  duty  of  the 
national  government  to  put  into  execution  patri- 
otic measures  of  national  defense."  Senhor 
Joao  Chagas  was  proclaimed  as  Premier,  May 
10th,  with  a  cabinet  constructed  as  follows: 
President  of  the  executive  coimcil,  Joao  Chagas; 
Interior,  Alvte  Veiga;  justice,  Falco;  war, 
Telles;  marine,  Fernandez  Costa;  finance, 
Queiroz;  public  works,  Magalhaes  Lima;  public 
instruction,  Jose  Castro;  colonies,  Pereira. 
Shortly  afterwards  Premier  Chagas  was  severely 
woimded  by  Senator  Freitas,  one  of  the  leading 
antagonists  of  the  government.  Senator  Freitas, 
it  may  be  noted,  was  shot  on  the  spot  by  a  gen- 
darme. As  the  result  of  Premier  Chagas's 
wounds,  Senhor  Jose  Castro  became  acting  head 
of  the  cabinet,  which  was  reconstructed  as  fol- 
lows: Minister  of  interior,  Jose  Castro;  fi- 
nance, Barros  Queiroz;  justice,  Paulo  Falco; 
foreign  affairs,  Teixeira  Queiroz;  colonies,  Jorge 
Pereira;  public  works,  Manoel  Monteiro;  marine, 
Fernandez  Costa;  public  instruction,  Magalhaes 
Lima. 

President  Arbiaoa's  Resignation.  Less  than 
a  fortnight  after  the  coup  d^^tat,  Senhor  Arriaga 
resigned  his  office  as  President  of  the  republic. 
May  27th.  Two  days  later  Theophilo  Braga, 
who  had  been  provisional  President  after  &e 
overthrow  of  the  monarchy  in  1910,  was  elected 
by  the  National  Assembly  to  succeed  Arriaga. 

Elections  held  on  Jime  13th  gave  the  Demo- 
crats a  safe  majority.  Shortly  after  the  elec- 
tions, June  16th,  the  Jose  Castro  ministry  was 
reconstructed,  June  19th,  as  follows:  President 
of  the  coimcil,  minister  of  war,  and  ad  interim 
minister  of  the  interior,  Jose  Castro;  justice, 
Catanho  de  Menezes;  foreign  affairs,  Augusto 
Spares;  colonies,  Norton  de  Mattos;  public 
works,  Manoel  Monteiro;  public  instruction, 
Lopez  Martins;  finance,  Victorino  Guimares. 
Dr.  Silva  later  relieved  the  Premier  of  the  port^ 
folio  of  the  interior.  The  Jose  Castro  cabinet, 
it  may  be  remarked  for  clearness'  sake,  rested 
upon  the  support  of  the  Democrats,  and  was  op- 


posed by  the  adherents  of  ex-Premier  Gen.  Pi- 
menta Castro. 

EuonoN  OF  Machado.  In  August  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  by  a  majority  of  134  votes 
elected  Senhor  Bernardino  Machado  President 
of  the  republic,  replacing  Provisional  President 
Braga.  The  election  of  Senhor  Madiado  to  the 
chief  magistracy  was  followed  by  a  serious 
monarchist  insurrection  in  Northern  Portugal 
led  by  Captain  Henrique  de  Palva  Couceiro.  At 
Guimaraes,  10  or  12  miles  southeast  of  Braga, 
the  royalist  insurgents  attadced  the  infantry 
barracks,  and  sanguinary  fighting  ensued.  At 
Trofa  an  attempt  was  made  to  dynamite  the  rail- 
way bridge.  The  National  Assembly,  informed 
of  these  events  by  Dr.  Silva,  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior, on  August  29th  authorized  the  govern- 
ment to  proce^  with  the  utmost  severity  in  the 
suppression  of  seditious  outbreaks.  Symptoms 
of  popular  unrest  continued  to  manifest  them- 
selves, however.  At  Braga  and  Caxias  royalist 
risings  recurred.  Despite  the  government's  re- 
pressive efforts,  riotous  mobs  terrorized  Lisbon 
and  other  important  cities. 

The  Costa  Cabinet.  Yet  another  cabinet 
crisis  at  the  end  of  November  attested  the  in- 
stability of  the  Portuguese  government.  The 
result  was  a  personal  triumph  for  Dr.  Affonso 
Costa,  the  former  Democratic  premier  who  had 
been  compelled  to  resign  in  January,  1914,  after 
the  public  exposure  of  his  scandalous  abuse  of 
ministerial  power  for  private  profit  (consult  the 
Yeab  Book  for  1914,  Pobtuoal,  History,  Over- 
throw  of  Costa,  for  a  discussion  of  political  con- 
ditions under  the  Costa  regime).  Dr.  Costa  was 
reinstated  as  premier  on  November  29th,  with  a 
csbinet  constituted  as  follows:  finance,  Dr. 
Costa;  interior,  Almeida  Ribeiro;  justice,  Ca- 
tanho de  Menezes;  colonies,  Rodriguez  Gaspar; 
war,  Norton  de  Mattos;  marine,  Victor  Cou- 
tinho;  public  works.  Dr.  Antonio  da  Silva; 
foreign  affairs,  Augusto  Spares;  public  instruc- 
tion, Ferreira  Simas. 

POBTUaiTESE  EAST  AFBICA.  (Mozaic- 
BIQX7E.)  A  Portuguese  colony  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa.  Area,  293,860  square  miles;  popula- 
tion about  3,120,000.  Capital,  Lourengo  Mar- 
ques, with  about  10,000  inhabitants,  nearly  half 
of  whom  are  Europeans.  Lourengo  Marques  is 
also  one  of  the  principal  ports;  other  ports  are 
Mozambique,  Beira,  Inhambane,  and  Chinde. 
The  leading  products  are  rubber,  sugar,  coco- 
nuts, beeswax,  and  minerals.  Coal  and  gold 
occur.  A  considerable  part  of  the  trade  of 
British  South  Africa  passes  through  Beira  and 
Lourengo  Marques  and  thence  by  the  Beira  or 
the  Delagoa  Bay  Railway  (the  former  204  miles, 
the  latter  67  miles,  within  the  colony).  The 
Beira  railway  connects  with  the  British  line 
from  Salisbury,  and  the  Delagoa  Bay  Railway 
with  the  line  from  Pretoria.  A  line  from  Lou- 
rengo Marques  to  the  Swaziland  border  is  under 
construction.  The  Gaza  line  from  Ghai-Chai 
to  Manjacase  has  32  miles  in  operation,  and  that 
from  Mutamba  to  Inharrime  25  miles.  Work 
on  the  proposed  Mozambique-Nyassaland  line 
was  begun  in  1914;  the  total  distance  is  esti- 
mated at  342  miles.  Imports  in  1913,  12,078,- 
336  escudos;  exports  3,027,312.  The  trade  is  di- 
vided among  the  state  territories,  the  Mozam- 
bique Company,  and  the  Nyassa  Company.  The 
budget  for  1913-14  estimated  the  revenue  at 
5,878,698  escudos  and  the  expenditure  at  6,063,- 
410.    A  €k>vemor-General  administers  the  colony. 


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PEBPABBDNE8S 


POBTTrGTTESE  GUINEA.  A  Portuguese 
colony  on  the  weet  coast  of  Africa,  including  the 
adjacent  archipelago  of  Bijagoz  with  the  Island 
of  Bolama,  in  which  the  capital  (Bolama)  is 
situated.  Area,  13,490  square  miles;  population, 
about  820,000.  Imports,  1912,  1,264,672  escudos, 
and  exports,  1,118,767  escudos.  In  1912,  72  ves- 
sels, of  80,098  tons,  were  entered  at  the  ports, 
llie  budget  for  1913-14  estimated  revenue  and 
expenditure  at  743,888  and  672,022  escudos  re- 
spectively.    A  Governor  administers  the  colony. 

POSTAGE  STAMPS.    See  Stamps. 

POSTAIi  SAVINGS  BANKS.  See  Savinqs 
Banks. 

POTASH.    See  Febtiuzbbs. 

POTASSIUM  SALTa  See  Chemistbt,  In- 
dustrial. 

POTATOES.  Data  regarding  the  world's  po- 
tato crops  of  1914  and  1915  were  incomplete. 
The  acreages  reported  by  some  of  the  principal 
potato-growing  countries  seemed  to  indicate  that 
the  area  devoted  to  the  crop  in  1915  was  about 
the  same  as  the  area  used  for  this  purpose  the 
year  before.  Climatic  conditions  were  not  gen- 
erally favorable  and  ccmsiderable  loss  was  sus- 
tained in  some  countries  as  the  result  of  hot 
and  rainy  weather  and  the  attacks  of  disease. 
In  some  parts  of  Europe  a  fair  yield  of  tubors 
for  consumption  was  secured,  while  in  the  same 
regions  the  crop  grown  for  factory  purposes 
did  not  turn  out  very  satisfactorily,  as  it  suf- 
fered from  night  frosts  and  did  not  well  recover. 
For  Germany,  however,  an  enormous  crop  of 
2,200,000,000  bushels  was  annoimced.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  this  yield  was  over  30  per  cent 
above  normal  and  that  it  represented  a  produc- 
tion of  30  bushels  per  capita  as  compared  with 
4  bushels  in  the  United  States  in  a  good  year. 
The  supply  of  potatoes  supplemented  the  short- 
age of  other  food  supplies  which  war  conditions 
prevented  importing.  The  large  crop  was  fur- 
ther of  value  as  a  source  of  potato  alcohol  for 
use  in  place  of  gasoline  in  running  motors  em- 
ployed to  a  large  extent  in  the  war.  The  mash 
derived  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
potato  alcohol  is  used  for  feed  the  same  as  beet 
pulp.  The  industrial  uses  of  the  potato  are 
much  larger  in  most  European  countries  than 
in  the  United  States,  and  this  is  one  of  the  rea- 
sons why  the  per  capita  production  is  also 
much  larger.  The  world's  annual  production  is 
normally  about  6,000,000,000  bushels.  The  Cana- 
dian yield  was  estimated  at  62,604,000  bushels 
from  478,600  acres,  or  131  bushels  per  acre,  as 
compared  with  180  bushels  per  acre  in  1914,  and 
the  lowest  acre  yield  since  1910.  The  produc- 
tion of  the  United  States  as  estimated  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  was  369,103,000 
bushels  grown  on  an  area  of  3,761,000  acres,  the 
average  yield  being  96.5  bushels  per  acre.  As 
compared  with  the  preceding  year  the  produc- 
tion was  less  by  over  60,000,000  bushels  and 
the  average  acre  yield  bv  16  bushels.  The  total 
value  of  the  crop  based  on  the  farm  price  on 
December  1,  61.6  cents  per  bushel,  was  placed 
at  $221,104,000.  The  growing  season  favored 
the  production  of  a  heavy  vine  growth,  but  the 
harvest  was  not  as  good  as  earlier  prospects 
had  indicated.  Weather  conditions  in  Septem- 
ber and  October  gave  rise  to  a  serious  develop- 
ment of  blight  and  rot  in  most  of  the  commer- 
cial potato-growing  States  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  as  a  result  only  a  small  part  of  the 
crop  consisted  of  marketable  tubers.    These  con- 


ditions prevailed  generally  in  Michigan,  New 
York,  Maine,  and  other  Middle  and  Eastern 
States,  and  some  localities  were  even  forced  to 
buy  for  consumption.  The  Northwestern  States 
produced  a  reasonably  good  crop  and  had  a  sur- 
plus of  soimd  potatoes.  During  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1916,  271,000  bushels  were  imported, 
mostly  from  the  Bermudas,  as  compared  with 
3,646,000  bushels  in  1914  and  13,700,000  bush- 
els in  1912. 

POTTEBY.    See  Clat-Wobkinq  Industbibs. 

POWEB,  Eleotbio,  Tbansmission  or.  See 
Elbctbio  Poweb,  Tbansmission  of. 

PBATT,  Skbeno  S.  American  financial  ex- 
pert, died  Sept.  14,  1916.  He  was  bom  in  West- 
moreland, N.  Y.,  in  1858.  For  a  time  he  studied 
at  the  University  of  Vermont,  but  bcMsame  editor 
of  the  8t,  Albans  Advertiser  at  the  age  of  18.  In 
1878  he  became  connected  with  the  New  York 
Commercial  Bulletin,  and  came  to  be  its  city 
editor.  After  serving  as  Wall  Street  reporter 
for  several  newspapers  in  New  York  Citv  he 
was  made  manager  of  the  Philadelphia  Ledger's 
New  York  Bureau  in  1887,  a  position  which  he 
held  for  16  years,  writing  on  business  and  finan- 
cial topics.  In  1903  he  contributed  to  Apple- 
ton's  series  of  business  books.  The  Work  of  Wall 
Street,  He  became  associate  editor  of  the  WM 
Street  Journal  in  1903,  and  from  1905-08  was 
editor-in-chief  of  this  paper.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce in  1908,  and  continued  in  that  position 
until  shortly  before  his  death.  He  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  magazines  and  newspapers 
on  articles  dealing  with  financial  topics.  He 
received  the  degree  of  A.M.  from  the  University 
of  Vermont. 

PBEGIOUS  STONES.  See  Gems  and  Pbb- 
cious  Stones. 

PBEFEBENTIAL  VOTING.  See  subhead 
under  Mttnicipal  Qovebnment. 

PBEPABEDNES8.  No  topic  aroused  more 
vital  interest  and  general  discussion  in  the 
United  States  in  1916  than  the  consideration  of 
the  ability  of  the  United  States  to  resist  in- 
vasion by  a  foreign  foe  and  the  general  status 
and  condition  of  its  means  of  defense.  It  came 
as  one  of  the  direct  consequences  of  the  war  in 
Europe,  and  figured  in  informal  as  well  as  for- 
mal aiscussions  and  debates,  in  which  men  prom- 
inent in  commercial  and  professional  life,  as  well 
as  those  in  the  army  ana  navy,  and  in  the  halls 
of  government,  participated.  It  became  a  po- 
litical question  of  prime  importance,  yet  one 
in  whiciL  members  of  all  parties  participated, 
and  much  of  the  discussion  was  distinctly  non- 
partisan. In  view  of  the  developments  of  the 
war,  Americans  were  forced  to  consider  not  only 
the  position  of  the  United  States  as  a  neutral, 
but  what  would  happen  in  the  possible  event  of 
aggressive  military  attack  by  one  or  more  Euro- 
pean or  Asiatic  powers.  Indeed,  the  matter 
soon  aroused  a  widespread  interest,  and  there 
developed  a  distinct  popular  movement  in  favor 
of  at  least  discussing  the  entire  subject  with 
a  view  to  adopting  sooner  or  later  means  to 
secure  increased  military  and  naval  prepared- 
ness for  the  United  States. 

This  movement,  it  may  be  said,  gained  its  im- 
petus quite  independently  of  the  efforts  of  those 
who  for  years,  within  and  without  the  military 
and  naval  service  of  the  country,  had  advocated 
a  larger  navy  and  a  larger  army.  It  became 
the  earnest  conviction  of  many  that  the  United 


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States  should  be  put  in  a  stronger  position  be- 
fore the  world,  ready  to  resist  with  force  any 
attempts  at  aggression,  and  able  to  enforce 
treaty  obligations  as  well  as  its  Monroe  Doc- 
trine and  other  settled  policies.  These  people 
believed  that  this  only  could  be  secured  through 
an  increased  military  and  naval  establishment, 
and  that  many  reforms  as  well  as  greater  sup- 
port were  necessary  for  the  nation's  army  and 
navy.  The  movement  found  expression  not  onlj 
in  the  press  but  in  various  organizations,  which 
held  meetings  and  conventions,  and  instituted 
a  general  propaganda.  Speakers  of  national 
reputation  delivered  addresses  before  business 
and  trade  assemblies,  and  other  gatherings,  and 
these  were  for  the  most  part  well  received.  A 
practical .  expression  of  this  movement  was  the 
enthusiastic  response  made  by  business  men  to 
the  proposal  to  hold  practice  camps  at  Platts- 
burgh  and  elsewhere,  tiius  testifyii^  their  belief 
in  the  necfd  of  some  such  effort.  See  Militabt 
Pboobess. 

President  Wilson  on  October  6th  committed 
himself  to  a  policy  of  strong  national  defense, 
and  in  a  vigorous  address  on  November  4th,  in 
New  York  City,  urged  most  earnestly  that  the 
United  States  must  be  prepared.  It  began  gen- 
erally to  be  recognized  that  the  standing  army 
of  the  United  States  should  be  increased  to  care 
adequately  for  the  coast  defenses  and  to  supply 
a  nucleus  of  trained  and  equipped  forces  in  case 
of  an  emergraicy.  Furthermore,  it  was  realized 
that  there  must  be  also  a  force  of  reserves  and  a 
large  body  of  citizen  soldiery  which  would  be 
available,  with  at  least  some  degree  of  training 
and  equipment,  at  comparatively  short  notice. 
One  lesson  from  the  European  war  was  patent 
to  every  one:  namely,  that  great  armies  could 
not  be  organized  in  a  few  days,  and  that  armies 
must  be  able  to  strike  at  once  to  act  effectively. 
It  was  argued  in  addition  that  as  modem  battle- 
ships require  time  for  their  construction,  the 
navy  of  the  United  States  should  be  increased  so 
that  it  should  be  second  only  to  Great  Britain's, 
and  thus  be  able  to  protect  not  only  the  coasts 
as  the  first  line  of  defense  but  also  the  commerce, 
and  merchant  marine  which  it  was  hoped  Amer- 
ica could  again  place  on  the  seas. 

These  advocates  of  preparedness  realized  that 
a  vast  expense  would  be  involved  in  carrying  out 
any  programme  by  which  a  reasonable  degree  of 
military  efficiency  could  be  obtained,  but  they 
agreed  that  it  was  necessary  in  order  to  main- 
tain this  country  in  its  proper  position  as  a 
world  power.  Some  sort  of  military  and  naval 
preparation  should  be  begun  at  once,  if  the 
United  States  were  ever  to  be  able  to  enforce  its 
ideas  of  right  and  justice,  and  to  protect  other 
republics  on  the  American  continent.  Indeed, 
strange  and  abhorrent  as  it  might  appear  to 
American  traditions,  there  was  a  small  but  ever 
growing  party  that  favored  conscription  in  times 
of  peace,  or  some  form  of  compulsory  military 
service,  while  others  advocated  the  military 
training  of  youth,  and  particularly  of  students. 
Still  others  urged  the  immediate  increase  of  the 
standing  army  so  as  to  obtain  a  reserve  which 
would  be  in  training  a  greater  or  less  amount 
of  time  during  the  year.  By  some  it  was  believed 
that  such  a  system  of  universal  military  service 
as  obtained  in  Switzerland  should  prevail,  and 
the  Swiss  method  was  studied  and  explained  in 
magazine  articles  and  addresses.  This  would  in- 
volve gymnastic  training  and  drill  in  the  schools 


preliminary  to  military  service,  and  while  many 
educational  authorities  resisted  any  attempt  to 
engraft  this  discipline  on  the  school  curriculum, 
there  seemed  to  be  a  decided  tendency  in  this 
direction.  The  Australian  system,  which  pro- 
vided for  universal  registration,  training,  and 
rifle  club  instruction,  was  also  discussed,  as  ap- 
parently it  had  worked  satisfactorily  in  develop- 
ing for  tliat  Commonwealth  an  imperial  force  of 
volunteers. 

Secretary  of  War  Garrison  gave  expression  to 
the  opinion,  which  also  figured  in  President  Wil- 
son's message  to  Congress,  that  the  army  should 
be  increased,  additional  munitions  provided,  and 
a  so-called  "Continental  Army"  of  400,000  be 
formed  out  of  men  temporarily  taken  from  their 
ordinary  vocations  ana  given  short  periods  of 
training.  The  General  Staff  plan  made  public 
on  December  10th  contemplated  a  still  larger 
force.  General  Leonard  Wood  and  other  officers 
advocated  before  various  organizations  of  civil- 
ians large  increases  in  the  army,  and  urged  the 
necessity  for  taking  the  question  of  military 
preparedness  in  hand  at  once.  The  National 
Defense  Society,  the  National  Security  League, 
and  other  organizations,  with  distinguished  offi- 
cers and  membership,  were  formed.  The  Navy 
League,  ever  zealous  for  a  large  navy,  became 
increasingly  active,  and  various  naticmal  and 
local  organizations  adopted  resolutions  in  favor 
of  the  general  movement.  On  November  14th, 
Mayor  J.  P.  Mitchel  of  New  York  City  ap- 
pointed a  Committee  of  One  Thousand  on  Na- 
ti<Mial  Defense.  At  the  various  commercial  and 
other  conventions  held  in  Washington  and  else- 
where "Preparedness"  was  a  favorite  topic  of 
discussion,  and  its  advocates,  though  rarely 
specific  as  to  plan  or  degree,  met  with  favorable 
receptions.  In  Congress  speeches  were  made  on 
this  subject  and  the  change  of  President  Wilson 
from  a  position  where  he  had  held  that  this 
country  needed  no  large  standing  army  to  a 
distinct  advocacy  of  preparation,  was  typical  of 
the  general  trend  of  popular  opinion.  See 
United  States. 

It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  were  unanimous  in 
this  movement  for  a  more  adequate  defense.  An 
extensive  peace  and  anti-militaristic  party  also 
developed  and  was  hardly  less  active  in  their 
propaganda  than  were  the  advocates  of  prepared- 
ness. They  argued  that  increased  preparedness 
would  bring  about  rather  than  prevent  war.  It 
was  held  that  as  many  of  those  advocating 
preparation  inclined  towards  the  side  of  the 
Allies,  the  anti-militarists  received  encourage- 
ment from  those  of  Teutonic  affiliations  or  sym- 
pathies, but  the  question  was  so  broad  that  it 
had  to  be  discussed  on  its  merits  without  the 
introduction  of  extraneous  issues.  The  proposi- 
tions advanced  by  the  secretaries  of  war  and 
navy,  and  by  the  Naval  Board  and  the  General 
Staff,  will  be  found  discussed  elsewhere  in  the 
Yeab  Book  under  Military  Pboobess  and  Natal 
Progress,  while  in  the  section  concerned  with 
politics  under  United  States,  the  distinctly 
political  aspect  is  treated.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  bringing  up  of  this  ques- 
tion involved  in  many  respects  a  change  in  na- 
tional policy,  a  departure  from  beaten  paths, 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  many  statesmen,  was 
only  to  be  embarked  on  because  demanded  to 
secure  the  safety,  integrity,  and  permanence  of 
the  nation.    See  also  Battleships;   Military 


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PBICES 


Pboobess;  Militia;  Naval  Pbogbess;  Switzeb- 
LAND,  Army;  Wae  of  the  Nations, 

PBESBYTEBIAN  CHTJBCH.  The  total 
number  of  Presbyterian  church  members  in  the 
United  States  in  1015  was  2,104,039,  an  increase 
of  69,148  over  1914.  There  are  four  large  and 
several  smaller  denominations  under  the  Pres- 
byterian system.  The  largest  is  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  of  America,  known 
as  the  Northern  Presbyterians,  with  1,495,157 
communicants  (an  increase  of  52,659  over 
1914),  9881  churches,  and  9560  ministers.  The 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States, 
known  as  the  Southern  Presbyterians,  had,  in 
1915,  332,339  communicants,  3438  churches,  and 
1850  ministers.  Other  Presbyterian  churches, 
which  are  treated  under  their  own  titles,  are 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rians (including  several  branches  in  the  North 
and  South).  A  very  small  body  is  the  Associ- 
ate Presbyterian  denomination,  numbering  in 
1915,  500  communicants,  14  churches,  and  9  min- 
isters. 

The  Northern  Presbyterian  Church,  officially 
known  as  the  Presbyterian  Churcli  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  is  divided  into  39 
synods,  with  292  presbyteries.  The  Simday 
school  members  in  1915  numbered  1,387,114,  an 
increase  of  68,486  over  1914.  The  total  contri- 
butions for  all  purposes  were  $27,785,036,  an 
increase  of  $103,066  over  1914.  Of  the  total 
contributions  in  1915,  $19,633,945  was  for  con- 
gregational purposes,  $1,954,421  for  home  mis- 
sions, $1,812,661  for  foreign  missions,  and  $501,- 
736  for  colleges.  The  General  Assembly  is  the 
chief  governing  body  of  the  Church.  The  mis- 
sionary work  is  carried  on  imder  the  control  of 
the  board  of  foreign  missions  and  the  board  of 
home  missions.  In  1915  there  were  27  foreign 
missions,  163  stations,  1276  missionaries,  5863 
native  helpers,  859  fully  organized  churches, 
143,306  communicants,  2074  mission  schools,  81,- 
183  pupils,  183,656  pupils  in  Sabbath  schools, 
165  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  and  over  300,- 
000  patients  treated  annually.  The  board  of 
education  controls  the  educational  work  of  the 
denomination.  It  also  provides  pastoral  care 
and  religious  instruction  for  students  in  State 
universities  and  State  colleges.  Other  impor- 
tant boards  are  the  board  of  publication  and 
Sunday  school  work,  the  board  of  church  erec- 
tion, and  the  board  of  ministerial  relief  and 
Bustentation.  The  denomination  has  12  theolog- 
ical seminaries,  with  817  students  in  1915,  and 
66  colleges  and  universities,  with  26,697  stu- 
dents in  1915. 

During  the  sessions  of  the  Oeneral  Assembly 
of  1915,  of  which  the  Rev.  J.  Ross  Stevenson, 
president  of  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
was  moderator,  some  of  the  acts  passed  were 
these:  Approving  Biblical  instruction  among 
children  in  public  schools;  approving  the  pro- 
posed union  of  all  Presbyterian  churches;  plac- 
ing the  work  in  Mormon  and  Mexican  commimi- 
ties  on  the  same  basis  as  that  in  Porto  Rico 
and  Cuba;  recommending  consolidation  of  col- 
leges in  certain  States;  recommending  the  es- 
tablishment of  chairs  of  English  Bible  and  pas- 
toral oversight ;  advising  cooperation  of  churches 
with  other  denominations;  authorizing  a  con- 
ference with  the  Disciples  of  Christ;  deciding 
that  divorced  ministers  must  be  reported  upon 
to  presbyteries;  recommending  presbyteries  not 


to  receive  students  whose  belief  is  not  clear  on 
fundamental  doctrines;  approving  the  honor 
system,  plan  of  probation,  and  law  limiting  the 
product  of  labor  in  prison  reform;  and  con- 
demning Sunday  newspapers  and  the  secular 
uses  of  the  Sabbath.  See  also  Religious  De- 
nominations AND  Movements. 

PBICES.  Much  interest  attached  to  the 
movement  of  food  prices  both  at  home  and  in 
foreign  countries  during  the  year,  but  accurate 
information  from  abroad  was  difficult  to  secure. 
Bulletin  No.  170,  Foreign  Food  Prices  as  Af- 
fected by  the  War,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  summarized  information  ob- 
tained through  the  Consular  Service  for  the  pe- 
riod August,  1914,  to  February,  1915.  It  was 
found  that  potatoes  had  fallen  in  price  in  most 
countries  and  that  meat  had  increased  but  lit- 
tle. On  the  other  hand,  flour  was  34  per  cent 
higher  in  Germany  in  January  than  m  July, 
1914;  in  Vienna  82  per  cent  higher;  in  Switzer- 
land, the  Netherlands,  and  Great  Britain  from 
24  to  33  per  cent  higher.  While  the  price  of 
sugar  showed  little  change  in  Berlin  and  Mos- 
cow, it  rose  sharply  in  France,  and  in  England 
was  70  per  cent  higher  in  January,  1915,  tlian 
in  June,  1914.  The  prices  of  all  kinds  of  meat 
products  rose  everywhere  and  especially  in  Ger- 
many and  Austria.  The  prices  of  many  articles 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  war  supplies  ad- 
vanced sharply  even  in  the  United  States.  The 
price  of  copper  reached  the  high  record  of  21 
cents  per  pound  toward  the  close  of  the  year; 
spot  cotton  rose  from  794  to  12%;  so  also  the 
prices  of  zinc,  pig  iron,  and  all  kinds  of  iron 
and  steel  products  rose  steadily. 

Administrative  measures  by  foreign  govern- 
ments to  check  rises  in  prices  includei  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  export  of  nearly  all  foodstuffs 
b^  Denmark,  Egypt,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Rus- 
sia, Spain,  and  Turkey.  Less  extensive  prohi- 
bitions were  promulgated  in  France,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  while  Holland  prohibited  the  ex- 
port of  butter  and  cheese.  Every  country  fixed 
maximum  prices  for  certain  foodstuffs.  In 
France,  Germany,  Greece,  Italy,  Netherlands, 
Russia,  Spain,-  and  parts  of  Turkey,  municipal 
authorities  either  alone  or  in  cooperation  with 
the  central  or  military  authorities,  fixed  maxi- 
mum prices.  In  Bulgaria  a  special  law  was 
passed  authorizing  local  authorities  to  fix  both 
wholesale  and  retail  prices.  In  Serbia  the  min- 
ister of  the  interior  had  this  responsibility.  In 
Austria  and  Germany  the  proportion  of  wheat 
or  rye  flour  to  be  used  in  bread-making  was 
prescribed.  Later  the  prices  of  cereals  and  the 
consumption  of  flour  and  bread  were  brought 
under  strict  control.  Turkey  fixed  the  prices  of 
petroleum,  sugar,  and  fiour.  Denmark,  Hol- 
land, and  Switzerland  limited  their  control  to 
important  breadstuff s. 

Index  Numbers.  BradstreeVs  index  number 
which  gives  the  aggregate  prices  per  pound  of 
96  different  articles  including  not  only  all  kinds 
of  food  products,  but  also  13  metals,  11  chem- 
icals ana  drugs,  7  building  materials,  and  also 
raw  and  manufactured  textiles,  coal  and  coke, 
mineral  and  vegetable  oils,  naval  stores,  and  7 
miscellaneous  articles,  and  which  therefore  gives 
a  broad  greneral  indication  of  the  changes  in 
general  price  levels,  stood  at  $8.8619  on  Nov.  1, 
1914.  On  Dec.  1,  1914,  it  was  $9.0354.  On  the 
first  of  each  month  of  1915  it  was  as  follows: 
January,    $9.1431;    February,    $9.6621;    March, 


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PBINCETON  TTNIVEBSITY 


$0.6197;  April,  $9.7753;  May,  $9.7878;  June, 
$9.7328;  July,  $9.8598;  August,  $9.8113;  Septem- 
ber, $9.7934;  October,  $9.9778;  November,  $10.- 
3768;  and  December,  $10.6473.  These  figures 
should  be  compared  with  the  following  indexes 
for  other  years:  1896,  $6.9124;  1900,  $7.8839; 
1905,  $8.0987;  1906,  $8.4176;  1907,  $8.9045 ;  1910, 
$8.9881;  and  1912,  $9.1867. 

Gbbat  Britain.  The  reports  of  the  Labor 
Gossette  made  it  clear  that  the  war  had  brought 
about  a  considerable  increase  in  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing, but  that  this  was  in  part  offset  by  a  de- 
crease in  unemployment  and  a  considerable  in- 
crease in  wages.  Thus  during  five  months  end- 
ing May  31  nearly  2,000,000  working  people 
were  reported  to  have  had  weekly  wages  in- 
creased bv  an  amount  averaging  85  cents  per 
capita.  This  did  not  include  earnings  due  to 
overtime.  The  increase  in  the  coal  mining  in- 
dustry accounted  for  nearly  one-half  of  the  total, 
while  those  in  the  engineering  and  shipbuilding 
trades  were  responsible  for  nearly  half  of  the 
remainder.  Less  extensive  benefits  were  had  by 
the  workers  in  the  transportation  and  textile 
industries. 

The  increase  in  the  price  of  coal  following  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  resulted  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  committee  in  March  to  investigate 
its  causes.  They  found  that  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion had  increased  only  slightly;  wages,  railway 
rates,  and  cartage  expenses  had  likewise  in- 
creased only  sli^tly.  All  of  these  items  ac- 
counted for  a  total  increase  of  3  shillings  per 
ton,  whereas  the  increase  in  London  had  ranged 
from  7  riiillingB  to  11  shillings  per  ton.  Most 
of  the  increase  therefore  occurred  in  the  retail 
trade  in  London.  The  commission  recommended 
the  restriction  of  the  export  of  coal  to  neutral 
countries;  the  adoption  of  measures  for  supply- 
ing small  consumers  in  or  near  London.  The 
reduction  of  freight  rates  and  the  use  of  suit- 
able captured  vessels  for  coal  transport.  In 
June,  1915,  a  second  committee  reported  on  the 
labor  conditions  in  the  coal  mining  districts.  It 
found  that  the  total  enlistments  of  persons  or- 
dinarily employed  in  the  coal  mines  amounted 
to  about  220,000  by  June  Ist,  or  20  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  of  miners.  However,  the  pro- 
portion of  miners  of  ages  19  to  38  who  had  en- 
listed was  approximately  45  per  cent.  Ck>nse- 
quent  reduction  in  output  of  36,000,000  tons  for 
the  year  was  largely  offset  by  a  reduction  in 
exports,  nevertheless  a  yearly  shortage  of  12,- 
000,000  tons  was  estimated.  This  was  believed 
to  be  a  factor  in  the  remarkable  rise  in  the  price 
of  coal;  and  the  committee  recommended  that 
advantage  be  taken  of  the  law  permitting  the 
extension  of  the  working  day  in  coal  mining  for 
60  days  during  any  calendar  year;  and  that  ef- 
forts be  made  to  draw  into  the  coal  mining  in- 
dustry persons  suffering  from  unemployment  be- 
cause of  the  slackness  in  other  lines. 

Some  indication  of  the  general  price  level  of 
commodities  in  England  is  shown  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  Statisfa  index  number.  This  is 
based  on  the  average  for  the  10  years  1867-77 
as  equal  to  100.  The  average  for  the  year  1905 
was  72;  for  1910,  78;  for  1911,  80;  for  1912, 
85;  for  1913,  85;  and  for  1914,  86.  The  aver- 
age for  the  month  of  November,  1914,  was  88.8; 
for  the  month  of  January,  1915,  it  was  96.4; 
for  March,  1915,  103.7;  for  May,  107.2;  for 
July,  106.4;  and  for  September,  107.8.  This  was 
an  increase  from  November,  1914,  to  Septemberi 


1916,  of  21.3  per  cent.  The  Board  of  Trade  re- 
ported the  following  advances  in  food  prices 
from  July,  1914,  to  July,  1915:  sugar,  68. per 
cent;  fish,  64  per  cent;  flour,  50  per  cent;  brcAd, 
40  per  cent;  meat,  45  per  cent;  cheese,  33  per 
cent;  potatoes,  a  slight  reduction. 

Gebmant.  Official  estimates  of  the  rise  in 
the  general  level  of  food  prices  at  Berlin  placed 
the  increase  at  80  to  100  per  cent.  A  summary 
of  prices  of  foods  in  70  principal  cities  showed 
the  following  percoitage  increases  from  June, 
1914,  to  June,  1915;  wheat  flour,  41;  wheat 
bread,  31;  rye  flour,  60;  rye  bread,  42;  pota- 
toes, 39;  peas,  211;  beans,  186;  lentils,  200; 
butter,  40;  and  lard,  126.  At  Berlin  the  fol- 
lowing percentage  increases  were  shown  between 
Aug.  1,  1914,  and  Aug.  25,  1915;  beef,  35  to  45 
per  cent  for  different  grades;  veal,  about  the 
same  as  beef;  mutton,  40  to  50  per  cent;  fresh 
pork,  90  per  cent  for  spare  ribs  and  120  per 
cent  for  ham;  smoked  bacon,  140  per  cent;  but- 
ter, 54  per  cent;  potatoes,  no  change;  eggs,  100 
per  cent. 

Australia.  The  Labor  Bulletin  gave  data 
showing  that  between  July,  1914,  and  July,  1915, 
the  general  price  index  for  groceries,  general 
produce,  and  meat  had  risen  10.1  per  cent  in 
New  South  Wales;  25.6  per  cent  in  Victoria; 
25.6  per  cent  in  Queensland;  19.2  per  cent  in 
South  Australia;  and  11.5  per  cent  in  Western 
Australia.  For  the  Commonwealth  the  increase 
was  17.8  per  cent. 

PRTHrARTES,   Direct.    See  ELEcrroRAL  Re- 

IX)RM. 

PBIHABT  ELECTION  LAWS.  See  Elec- 
toral Reform. 

FBIME,  Frederick.  American  educator  and 
geologist,  died  July  14,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  1865  graduated  from  Columbia 
University.  He  took  postgraduate  courses  at 
Lafayette  College,  and  at  Freiburg,  Germany. 
From  1869  he  was  assistant  in  assaying  at  Co- 
lumbia University,  and  in  1870  became  profes- 
sor of  geology  and  metallurgy,  holding  this  chair 
until  1879.  From  1880-89  he  was  manager  and 
president  of  several  iron  companies  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Alabama.  From  1885  until  his 
death  he  was  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Girard  College.  He  was  assistant  State  geolo- 
gist in  Pennsylvania  from  1874-79.  He  ^ited 
Von  Cotta's  Treatise  on  Ore  Deposits,  1870, 
and  wrote  various  reports  on  geological  sub- 
jects. 

FBINCE  EDWABD  ISLAND.  One  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada.  It  is  the  small- 
est province  in  the  Dominion,  its  area  being 
2184  square  miles.  The  population,  at  the  1911 
census,  was  93,728.  Charlottetown,  the  capital, 
had  11,198  inhabitants.  The  province  is  admin- 
istered by  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  who  is  ap- 
pointed for  five  years  by  the  Governor-General 
of  the  Dominion,  and  who  acts  through  a  re- 
sponsible executive  council.  There  is  a  legis- 
lative assembly  of  30  members  elected  for  four 
years,  half  of  them  by  real-property  holders,  and 
half  by  manhood  suffrage.  Benjamin  Rogers, 
appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  June  1,  1910, 
was  succeeded  by  Augustine  Colin  Macdonald, 
appointed  June  2,  1915.  Premier  and  attorney- 
general  in  1915,  John  A.  Mathieson. 

PBINCETON  TTNIVEBSITY.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of 
1915  was  1615.    There  were  210  professorB  and 


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instructors.  During  the  year  Dana  Carlton 
Hears,  L.H.D.,  was  appointed  Dodge  professor 
of  mediaeval  history;  George  H.  Shull,  professor 
of  botany;  and  Warner  Fite,  professor  of  eth- 
ics. The  benefactions  of  the  year  included  $250,- 
000  from  Mrs.  Russell  Sage  for  a  dining  hall. 
The  productive  funds  of  the  university  at  the 
end  of  the  collegiate  year  1914-15  amounted  to 
$5,562,750,  and  the  income  from  investments  to 
$257,736.  There  were  in  the  library  353,945  vol- 
umes. The  president  was  J.  6.  Hibben,  Ph.D., 
LL.D.  For  additional  notes  in  regard  to  the 
imiversity  see  Univebstties  and  cS)LLEoes. 

PBISON  ASSOCIATION,  Amebioak.  See 
Pknologt. 

FBISON  BEPOBM.    See  Penoloot. 

FBISONS.    See  Penology. 

PBIVATE  BANKS.    See  State  Banks. 

PB03ATI0N.  For  matters  connected  with 
this  subject,  see  Chabtties;  and  Penologt. 

PBOPESSOBS,  American  Association  of 
Univebsitt.  See  Univebsities  and  Colleges, 
section  so  entitled. 

PBOGBAIOCE,  Municipal.  See  Municipal 
GovEBNMENT,  Model  City  Charier, 

PBOHIBITION.    See  Liquob  Regulation. 

PBOPOBTIONAL  BEPBESENTATION. 
See  Municipal  Govebnicent. 

PBOSTITTJTION.  One  of  the  notalble  aspects 
of  social  reform  in  the  United  States  during 
the  past  few  years  has  been  a  persistent  and 
effective  attack  upon  prostitution  in  all  forms. 
The  vigor  of  this  movement  is  shown  by  the 
great  variety  of  its  manifestations.  Lq^sla- 
tive  enactments  have  included  those  against  the 
transportation  of  women  for  immoral  purposes 
between  States  and  in  several  instances  within 
States,  and  those  known  as  injunction  and 
abatement  laws.  There  have  been  numerous  in- 
vestigations into  the  forms  and  extent  of  the 
social  evil  in  cities  and  even  in  rural  districts. 
The  effort  to  suppress  or  eliminate  segregated 
districts  has  been  carried  forward  with  deter- 
mination and  considerable  success.  During  the 
year  effort  in  this  line  was  most  pronounced 
at  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Baltimore,  New  Orleans, 
and  S&n  Francisco.  In  September  it  was  re- 
ported that  the  last  open  house  of  prostitution 
in  Baltimore  had  been  closed  after  a  campaign 
of  five  years.  On  December  20th  a  vice  com- 
mission appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Maryland 
issued  a  report  covering  three  years'  work,  and 
setting  forth  many  astonishing  facts  regarding 
conditions  in  Baltimore.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco  were  the 
only  large  cities  where  publicly  acknowledged 
red  li^ht  districts  were  maintained.  In  Cleve- 
land it  was  reported  that  the  police  had  en- 
tirely closed  the  segregated  district.  In  Chi- 
cago the  Committee  on  Crime  of  the  City  Coun- 
cil, with  Prof.  Charles  E.  Merriam  as  chairman, 
made  a  searching  investigation  into  the  rela- 
tionship between  prostitution  and  the  use  of 
habit-forming  drugs,  the  excessive  use  of  liquor, 
and  professional  crime.  In  Atlanta  where  vari- 
ous vice  commissions  of  recent  years  had  re- 
ported that  "segr^tion  does  not  segregate," 
and  where  a  police  investigation  had  shown  that 
the  closing  of  the  tenderloin  district  in  1912 
had  resulted  in  scattering  vice  throughout  the 
city,  the  police  department  began  a  vigorous 
effort  to  drive  the  business  from  the  city.  Par- 
lor houses,  disorderly  apartments  in  tenem^it 
houses,  assig^nfitiail  hoteU|  public  dance  halls. 


and  disorderly  saloons  have  all  been  brought 
into  the  limelight  and  attacked  by  law  and 
police.  In  New  York  the  Committee  of  Four- 
teen continued  its  effective  work,  and  in  Chi- 
cago a  recently  created  Committee  of  Fifteen 
was  similarly  active. 

Social  Hygiene.  Moreover,  the  movement 
has  broadened  into  one  embracing  all  aspects  of 
social  hygiene.  Numerous  associations  have 
been  form^  in  the  nation  and  the  various  States 
for  inquiry  and  education.  Among  these  the 
most  notable  is  the  American  Social  Hygiene 
Association  (see  below),  and  its  branches  in 
Connecticut,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  Oregon 
(see  below),  and  other  States.  Almost  equally 
important  is  the  Society  of  Sanitary  and  Moral 
Prophylaxis.  At  the  1916  sessions  of  such  or- 
ganizations as  the  National  Conference  of  Chari- 
ties and  Corrections,  the  American  Medical  As- 
sociation, and  the  American  Public  Health  Asso- 
ciation, considerable  attention  was  given  to  ve- 
nereal diseases.  At  the  Pan-American  Scien- 
tific Congress  at  Washington,  Dec.  27,  1915,-Jaii. 
8, 1916,  various  papers  on  venereal  diseases  and 
the  suppression  of  vice  were  considered.  More- 
over, a  propaganda  against  ophthalmia  neona- 
torum or  blin&ess  in  infants  due  to  a  venereal 
infection  was  carried  forward  by  a  multitude 
of  means.  Similarly  the  relation  of  feeble- 
mindedness to  prostitution  and  the  spread  of 
sex  diseases  received  marked  attention.  A 
notable  development  was  the  enlistment  of  hos- 
pitals in  this  movement.  Thus  the  Grenito* 
urinary  Department  of  the  Brooklyn  Hospital 
Dispensary  undertook  an  extensive  campaign 
for  the  treatment  of  these  diseases  and  the  edu- 
cation of  the  community  regarding  them.  So 
much  impressed  was  President  Emeritus  Charles 
W.  Eliot  with  the  duplication  and  lack  of  co- 
ordination of  effort  that  in  his  annual  address 
to  the  American  Social  Hygiene  Association,  he 
expressed  the  opinion  that  efficiency  would  be 
greatly  increased  by  bringing  together  a  num- 
ber of  organizations  under  centralized  control 
with  unhampered  bureau  administration  for 
each  line  of  work. 

White  Slave  Law.  The  annual  report  ol 
the  attorney-general  stated  that  during  the 
fiscal  year  there  had  been  486  indictments  under 
the  Mann  White  Slave  Traffic  Act,  302  convic- 
tions, 52  cases  nolle  prosaed,  and  67  acquittals. 
There  had  been  since  its  passage  1203  convic- 
tions imder  that  act,  193  acquittals,  and  185 
cases  dismissed.  The  penalties  imposed  had  ag- 
gregated over  2060  years'  imprisonment  and 
fines  of  $149,318. 

INJXTNOTION  AND  Abateicent  Laws.  In  1909 
Iowa  passed  a  law  making  it  possible  for  any 
citizen  to  secure  an  injunction  against  any 
house  of  ill  fame.  Similar  laws  were  enacted 
in  1915  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  Indiana,  and  Michi- 
gan, making  a  total  of  23  States  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  having  such  laws.  All  of 
these  laws  give  the  individual  citizen  the  right 
to  prevent  bv  injunction  the  continued  operation 
of  houses  of  lewdness,  assignation,  or  prostitu- 
tion as  nuisances,  without  proving  that  he  has 
suffered  special  damages  different  from  those 
Buffered  in  common  with  the  public.  In  the  Leg- 
islatures of  California,  Connecticut,  Colorado, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New  Hampshire,  New 
York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Vermont, 
Washington,    and    Wisconsin    were    introduced 


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bills  on  such  subjects  as  prostitution,  vice-com- 
missions, injunction  and  abatement,  quack  ad- 
vertising, and  white  slavery,  manifesting  the 
widespread  interest  in  the  movement. 

Oregon,  The  Oregon  Social  Hygiene  Society 
has  perhaps  been  the  most  active  State  society 
in  this  country.  It  has  investigated  conditions 
in  Portland  and  throughout  the  State.  It  in- 
duced newspapers  to  refuse  advertisements  of 
quack  physicians  professing  to  cure  private  dis- 
eases. It  induced  the  Legislature  to  enact  a 
law  forbidding  the  advertising  of  sex  medicines 
in  which  a  ''cure"  was  included.  Tliis  law  was 
upheld  by  the  State  Supreme  Court  in  the  fall 
of  1915.  In  its  opinion  the  court  held  that  the 
protection  of  "those  unfortunates  who  have 
sowed  the  wind  and  reaped  the  whirlwind"  from 
designing  men  who  prey  upon  them  for  financial 
profit  "is  clearly  in  the  interest  of  the  public 
morals."  The  court  held  the  act  not  to  be  class 
legislation  since  it  applied  to  all  in  a  like  busi- 
ness. The  society  also  carried  on  an  extensive 
lecture  campaign;  and  it  published  various 
pamphlets  and  spread  them  broadcast  by  the 
hundred  thousand  throughout  the  State;  it 
posted  in  54  cities  and  towns  nearly  2000 
health  placards  prepared  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health ;  investigated  the  extent  of  the  demand 
for  sex  medicines  in  drug  stores  of  the  State; 
and  carried  on  its  educational  campaign  by  ex- 
hibits, a  State  conference,  work  with  the  Na- 
tional Guard,  and  by  house  to  house  work  with 
mothers  by  women  visitors  in  26  cities. 

New  York.  The  Court  of  Appeals  of  New 
York  upheld  an  amendment  to  the  tenement 
house  law  passed  in  1913  forbidding  the  use  of 
a  tenement  for  prostitution  or  assignation.  The 
court  said  "the  landlord  who  fails  to  suppress 
the  continued  use  of  his  tenement  for  purposes 
of  vice  is  in  the  plight  of  any  other  owner  who 
fails  to  abate  a  nuisance  on  his  land,  and  it  is 
not  a  defense  that  the  use  was  unknown  to 
him." 

The  American  Social  Htgiene  Association 
held  its  annual  session  in  Boston  in  October. 
Papers  were  presented  showing  the  continued 
growth  of  interest  in  the  social  hygiene  move- 
ment as  evidenced  by  the  formation  of  new 
local  associations  and*  the  continued  growth  in 
membership.  Dr.  Edward  L.  Keyes  of  New 
York  noted  that  the  campaign  against  venereal 
diseases,  which  10  years  ago  dealt  almost  en- 
tirely with  the  explanation  of  these  diseases 
and  their  evil  consequences,  now  dealt  largely 
with  such  constructive  aspects  of  the  matter  as 
the  principles  and  habits  of  physical  hygiene, 
sex  hygiene,  and  social  hygiene.  Different  phy- 
sicians read  papers  on  the  venereal  diseases,  on 
quack  practitioners,  and  on  the  problem  of 
syphilis.  With  reference  to  the  latter  it  was 
contended  that  it  should  be  reported  in  a  modi- 
fied way;  that  Wassermann  tests  should  be  pro- 
vided by  the  State  free  of  charge  upon  requests 
of  physicians;  and  that  salvarsan  should  be  fur- 
nished free  by  the  State.  Other  papers  dealt 
with  illegitimacy,  the  activities  of  the  Morals 
Commission  of  Chicago,  the  attitude  of  the 
courts  toward  sex  offenders,  a  municipal  pro- 
gramme for  dealing  with  venereal  diseases,  and 
the  relation  of  recreation  to  social  hygiene. 
President  Eliot,  who  became  honorary  president, 
suggested  that  the  cooperation  of  various  soci- 
eties dealing  with  venereal  diseases,  sex  educa- 
tion, the  care  of  the  feable^mincledi  adequate  rec- 


reation, and  other  movements  would  all  become 
more  effective  if  they  were  brought  into  closer 
cooperation,  each  becoming  parts  of  a  large  na- 
tional organization  under  an  experienced  corps 
of  experts.  President  A.  W.  Harris  of  North- 
western University  was  chosen  president  of  the 
association.  A  later  conference  was  held  at  Chi- 
cago in  November.  Here  again  various  aspects 
of  the  movement  were  discussed.  Emphasis  was 
laid  upon  the  importance  of  education  both  in 
the  public  schools  and  of  the  general  public; 
upon  the  importance  of  creating  a  proper  atti- 
tude on  the  part  of  newspapers ;  upon  the  powers 
of  proper-minded  and  determined  boards  of 
health  even  without  additional  legislation.  Dr. 
William  A.  Pussey  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
laid  stress  upon  the  practical  importance  of  two 
discoveries  whereby  the  contagious  period  of 
syphilis  may  be  reduced  to  a  few  weeks  by  sal- 
varsan and  mercury  therapy  in  nearly  all  cases 
which  are  treated  promptly,  and  whereby  infec- 
tion may  be  prevented  by  means  of  personal 
prophylaxis  developed  by  Metchnikoff.  Ray- 
mond B.  Fosdick  of  New  York  declared  that 
prostitution  is  only  in  small  part  a  police  prob- 
lem, but  that  it  includes  such  other  factors  as 
ignorance,  mental  defectiveness,  alcoholism,  in- 
dustrial conditions,  and  indeed  the  whole  do- 
mestic and  industrial  structure.  In  December, 
1914,  the  association  issued  the  first  number  of 
a  new  quarterly,  Social  Hygiene,  with  James 
Bronson  Reynolds  and  Thomas  F.  Snow  as  ed- 
itors. This  journal  gives  a  comprehensive  sur- 
vey of  efforts  throughout  the  world  to  deal  with 
ali  aspects  of  social  hygiene  problems  together 
with  suggested  references  and  reviews  of  re- 
lated books.  It  also  publishes  a  Monthly  Bulle- 
tin which  contains  news  items  and  bibliogra- 
phies of  current  books  and  periodical  literature. 

Bibliography.  Raymond  B.  Fosdick,  Euro- 
pean Police  Byatems;  Winfield  S.  Hall,  From 
Youth  into  Manhood;  Wisconsin  Vice  Commis- 
sion, Report  and  Recommendations:  William 
Burgess,  The  World's  Social  Evil;  William  A. 
Pussey,  Syphilis  as  a  Modem  Problem;  A.  B. 
Spingarn,  Laus  Relating  to  Sex  Morality  in 
•  Neic  York  City;  Emil  Lucka,  Eros;  the  Devel- 
opment of  the  Sew  Relation  Through  the  Ages; 
Oregon  Social  Hygiene  Society,  State  Wide  Ex- 
tension; and  the  reports  of  vice  commissions  at 
Shreveport,  La.,  and  Baltimore,  Md. 

PBOTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHTTBCH. 
The  total  number  of  communicants  in  this  de- 
nomination in  the  United  States  in  1915  was 
1,040,896,  an  increase  of  25,648  over  1914.  The 
total  number  of  communicants  in  the  world  was 
1,058,804,  an  increase  of  26,167  over  1914.  In 
the  Sunday  schools  in  the  United  States  were 
enrolled  52,354  teachers,  and  462,221  scholars. 
The  total  number  in  the  world  was  53,110  and 
483,936  respectively.  The  total  number  of  the 
clergy  in  the  United  States  was  5538.  The  total 
number  in  the  world  was  5800.  There  were  in 
the  United  States  in  1015,  418  candidates  for 
orders,  and  430  in  the  world.  The  total  con- 
tributions of  the  denomination  for  all  purposes 
in  1915  amounted  to  $20,972,589,  an  increase  of 
$1,120,683  over  1914.  There  were  in  1915,  91 
dioceses  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States,  and  12  dioceses  in  foreign 
countries.  The  missions  of  the  denomination 
are  under  the  control  of  the  Domestic  and  For- 
eign Mission  Society.  The  amount  received  for 
missionary  purposes  in  1915,  including  the  emer* 


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527 


PSYCHICAL  BE8EABCH 


gency  fund,  was  $1,759,446,  an  increase  of  $712,- 
132  over  1914. 

The  Church  lost  by  death  in  1915  three  of  its 
bishops :  Bishop  Biller,  of  South  Dakota ;  Bishop 
Godman,  of  Maine;  and  Bishop  Toll,  of  Chi- 
cago. The  bishops  elected  during  1915  were 
Edward  Campion  Acheson,  bishop  coadjutor  of 
Connecticut;  George  Yemens  Bliss,  bishop  co- 
adjutor of  Vermont ;  Charles  Fiske,  bishop  coad- 
jutor of  Central  New  York;  and  Francis  f5. 
\\Tiite,  bishop  coadjutor  of  Dallas.  G^rge  Ye- 
mens Bliss,  bishop  coadjutor  of  Vermont,  was 
consecrated  on  April  21,  1915;  Thomas  Campbell 
Darst,  bishop  of  East  Carolina,  was  conse- 
crated on  Jan.  6,  1915;  Hiram  Richard  Hulse, 
bishop  for  the  Missionary  District  of  Cuba,  was 
consecrated  on  Jan.  12,  1915;  Paul  Matthews, 
fifth  bishop  of  New  Jersey,  was  consecrated  on 
Jan.  25>  1915. 

There  was  increased  interest  shown  in  1915, 
notwithstanding  the  confusion  caused  by  the 
European  war,  in  the  work  of  the  World  Con- 
ference on  Faith  and  Order  in  the  promotion 
of  Christian  unity.  As  evidence  of  the  interest 
taken  abroad,  there  were  noticed  articles  in  sev- 
eral important  Russian  ecclesiastical  papers,  in 
which  the  work  of  the  World  Conference  was 
explained  and  the  cooperation  of  the  Russian 
Church  was  urged.  Other  proofs  of  interest 
were  contained  in  a  pamphlet  from  Finland  and 
another  from  Munich.  An  eminent  Russian 
archbishop  sent  a  financial  contribution,  and 
also  a  pamphlet  containing  a  sympathetic  re- 
view by  him  of  the  publications  about  the  World 
Conference.  Communications  from  Germany 
and  Hungary  show  continued  interest  there  in 
the  work  of  the  conference.  An  interesting  il- 
lustration of  the  growing  importance  of  the 
question  of  Christian  unity  is  foimd  in  the  prog- 
ress made  in  the  United  States  by  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South,  toward  restoring  their  union ;  and 
also  in  the  fact  that  three  important  Norwegian 
synods,  namely,  the  Norw^an  Synod  in  Amer- 
ica, the  Haf^e  Norwegian  Lutheran  Synod,  and 
the  Norwegian  United  Lutheran  Synod,  are  con- 
sidering union,  as  are  also  the  various  bodies 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States. 
The  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  New  Zealand  passed  a  note  of  sympathy  and 
interest  in  the  work  of  the  conference,  and  the 
committee  on  cooperation  and  unity  of  the  Na- 
tional Missionary  Council  of  India  has  asked 
for  literature  and  to  be  kept  in  touch  with 
the  movement.  The  Southern  Baptist  Conven- 
tion, in  view  of  the  work  of  the  conference  and 
of  the  increasing  prospects  of  its  proving  of 
value,  has  discontinuea  its  appointment  of  a 
commission  from  year  to  year  and  has  ap- 
pointed a  standing  commission  which  shall  con- 
sist of  its  president  and  two  secretaries.  Fifty- 
four  commissions,  representing  almost  every 
part  of  the  world,  have  now  been  appointed  to 
codperate  in  furthering  the  aims  of  the  con- 
ference. The  Advisory  Committee,  composed  of 
one  or  more  members  appointed  by  each  of  the 
commissions  to  keep  in  communication  with  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  Episcopal  Commis- 
sion, now  represents  practically  all  parts  of  the 
world  and  is  active  in  preparing  for  the  con- 
ference. A  deputation  of  this  commission  was 
to  have  been  sent  abroad  in  September,  1915, 
to  explain  the  methods  and  aims  of  the  World 
Conference   to   the    ContinentfU    imd    Eastern 


churches;  but  that  visit  was  prevented  by  the 
war.  The  correspondence  relating  thereto  has, 
however,  been  continued,  and  the  communica- 
tions in  reply  show  a  wide  and  increasing  inter- 
est in  the  movement  and  a  clearer  conviction 
that  nothing  but  the  visible  unity  of  the 
Church  will  suffice  to  establish  the  law  of  peace. 
Notable  communications  have  been  received 
from  Cardinal  Gasparri  expressing  the  deep  in- 
terest of  Pope  Benedict  XV  and  of  himself  in 
the  movement  and  promising  their  prayers. 
Two  of  the  leading  magazines  of  the  Russian 
Church  have  printed  articles  by  eminent  theo- 
logians urging  the  coSperation  of  the  Russian 
Church. 

PBOVENQAL.     See  Philoloot,  Modern. 

PBTTSSIA..    See  Gebmant. 

PSTCHICAL  BESEABOH.  The  year's  in- 
vestigation of  automatic  movements,  cross-corre- 
spondence, thought-transference,  and  like  phe- 
nomena has  brought  out  no  new  group  of 
facts,  but  has  led  to  increased  emphasis  of 
the  subconscious  processes  as  underlying  causes 
of  supernatural  revelation  (see  Yeab  Book, 
1914,  p.  580).  H.  G.  Verrall  {Proceedings, 
English  8.  P.  R.,  xxvii,  415-457),  continu- 
ing experiments  on  thought-transference,  had  the 
"percipient"  sit  in  a  room  well  removed  from 
that  in  which  the  "agent"  viewed  or  handled 
various  objects.  The  "percipient"  would  de- 
scribe what  he  "saw."  Only  9  out  of  34  trials 
were  successful.  The  experimenter  admitted 
that  it  was  not  safe  to  draw  conclusions  from 
so  small  a  number  of  tests;  but,  since  action 
on  the  part  of  the  "agent"  was  always  found  to 
facilitate  the  report,  she  supposed  that  the  stim- 
ulation of  "subconscious  nerve-centres  both  mo- 
tor and  sensory"  helped  in  the  transmission  of 
ideas.  The  "Willet  scripts,"  reported  last  year 
(see  Year  Book,  1914,  p.  580)  as  instances  of 
revelational  automatic  writing,  were  again  sub- 
jected to  sharp  criticism.  H.  Carrin^n,  who 
attempted  an  impartial  review  of  the  informa- 
tion received  by  means  of  these  automatisms 
from  the  late  Professor  Verrall,  reported  {ibid,, 
458-491) :  "Studied  without  prepossession,  they 
almost  invariably  resolve  themselves  into  sim- 
ple subconscious  memories  and  associations  be- 
tween which  no  real  connection  whatever  ex- 
ists. I  believe  with  Dr.  Maxwell  that  the  evi- 
dence afforded  by  these  cross-correspondences 
has  been  vastly  overrated;  that  chance  has 
played  a  far  greater  part  than  is  usually  as- 
sumed ;  and  that  the  evidence  for  survival  which 
they  furnish  is  distinctly  inferior  in  all  respects 
to  the  straightforward  communications  supplied 
in  the  Hodgson  and  Hyslop  reports,  from  which 
method  many  of  us  are  sorry  the  society  has 
ever  departed."  With  this  view  I.  L.  Tuckett 
essentially  agrees  {ibid.,  472  ff.).  J.  H.  Hyslop, 
the  leader  of  American  activity  in  psychical  re- 
search, not  only  emphasized  the  rdle  which  sub- 
conscious processes  play  in  the  phenomena  un- 
der investigation,  but  expressed  the  hope  that 
the  facts  of  abnormal  psychology  might  be 
drawn  upon  for  explanation  of  psychical  occur- 
rences. At  the  San  Francisco  meeting  of  the 
American  Psychological  Association  he  de- 
clared that  "the  subconscious  and  its  various 
phenomena  of  automatism  and  alteration  of  per- 
sonality must  now  be  the  avenue  of  approach  to 
the  subject,"  and  that  the  hysterical  subject  and 
the  principles  of  abnormal  psychology  are  hence- 
forth to  be  the  objects  to  wbicb  tb«  student  of 


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psychical  research  must  frive  his  attention 
{Ptychol  Bull,,  xii,  327).  After  all,  this  is  but 
a  step  farther  than  the  position  previously  taken 
{ProoeedrngSf  American  8.  P.  B.,  viii,  490  flf.; 
Journal,  ix,  222,  362,  487),  viz.  that  subcon- 
scious processes  doubtless  account  for  some  of 
the  coincidences  in  the  reports.  In  1907  pro- 
vision had  already  been  made  in  the  society  for 
the  study  of  psychopathology  (ibuL,  i,  17); 
These  statements  must  not  be  interpreted  to 
mean,  however,  that  psychical  research  as  such 
j^ves  way  to  psychology;  psychology  is  called 
in  only  as  an  aid.  As  the  author  elsewhere 
says:  "In  fact,  you  must  choose  between  fraud 
on  my  part  and  the  spiritistic  explanation" 
{ibid,,  ix,  329;  v.  also  571):  the  inference 
being,  of  course,  that  the  occurrence  of  telepa- 
thy in  this  case  is  to  be  established  on  a  super- 
natural basis. 

That  subliminal  impressions  aid  in  the  com- 
munication of  ideas  is  suggested  by  some  of  the 
10,000  experiments  conducted  by  J.  E.  Coover 
(Psychol.  Bulhy  xii,  327)  under  the  new  endow- 
ment for  psychical  research  at  Stanford  Univer- 
sity. Taken  altogether,  however,  as  the  experi- 
menter affirms,  the  instances  which  seem  to  fa- 
vor telepathic  communication  "do  not  exceed  the 
limits  of  chance."  The  problem  of  synchronous 
movements,  such  as  those  often  found  in  auto- 
matic writing,  has  also  been  subjected  to  em- 
pirical investigation.  Not  only  may  two  highly 
complex  movements,  like  reading  aloud  and  writ- 
ing, be  carried  on  successfully  and  independ- 
ently at  the  same  time,  but  there  is  also  evi- 
dence of  a  synchronous  awareness  of  the  two 
corresponding  sets  of  mental  processes  (J.  E. 
Downey  and  J.  E.  Anderson,  Am,  J,  of  PsychoL, 
xxvi,  161-196). 

In  The  Natural  Order  of  Spirit,  Mrs,  Lucien 
0.  Graves  pleads  for  an  "open-minded"  attitude 
toward  psychical  studies.  In  an  uncritical  pre- 
sentation of  the  subject  of  telepathy,  we  are 
called  upon  to  refurbish  our  poetic  religion 
and  to  gain  thereby  "the  deeper  insight  into 
the  world  of  matter"  (41).  Through  faith, 
through  analogy  to  unprecedented  revelations  of 
the  physical  sciences,  through  inductive  reason- 
ing, we  are  asked  to  judge  the  validity  of  the 
testimony  apparently  received  from  a  deceased 
son.  In  substance  the  book  is  more  propa- 
gandic  than  confessional;  in  Henry  Holt's  On 
Cosmdc  Relations  (see  Yeab  Book,  1914,  p.  679) 
we  had,  at  least,  an  attempt  at  a  closed  system. 

Prof.  Gilbert  Murray,  the  eminent  classical 
scholar  of  Oxford,  has  been  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  English  Society.  The  American 
Society  reports  the  resignation  from  the  under- 
secretaryship  and  then  the  death  in  the  Lusir 
tania  disaster  of  E.  W.  Friend,  whose  last  pub- 
lication {Unpopular  Review,  iv,  199)  claims  to 
present  additional  evidence  for  telepathic  com- 
munication with  the  late  William  James.  The 
endowment  of  the  American  Society  has  been  in- 
creased about  60  per  cent  over  last  year's  total, 
and  now  reaches  9160,000. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  ABSOCLA.TION,  Ameri- 
can.   See  PSTCTHOLOOT,  Meetings, 

PSYCHOLOGY.  Meetings  and  General 
News.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Psychological  Association  was  held  at  dJhicago, 
December  28-30,  imder  the  presidency  of  J.  B. 
Watson.  Special  meetings  were  held  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Ex- 
position on  August  2nd,  3rd,  and  6th  at  the 


University  of  California,  and  on  August  4th  at 
Stanford  University. 

Academic  recognition  of  psychology  as  an  in- 
dependent discipline  has  become  more  evident. 
Schumann's  courses  in  psychology  at  the  newly  es- 
tablished municipal  University  of  Frankfort  on 
the  Main  are  listed  under  the  faculty  of  science; 
at  Dartmouth,  psychology  and  education  have 
been  housed  in  separate  buildings;  Johns  Hop- 
kins has  organized  a  department  of  psychology 
with  distinct  courses;  and  the  University  of 
Missouri  in  its  group-requirements  classes  psy- 
chology with  the  biological  sciences.  A  new 
laboratory  has  been  equipped  at  the  University 
of  Oregon,  and  a  gift  of  $8500  provides  for  the 
installation  of  a  laboratory  and  for  a  publica- 
tion fund  at  the  George  Peabody  College  for 
Teachers. 

Owing  to  the  war,  many  foreign  periodicals 
have  appeared  at  irregular  intervals  and,  so 
far  as  this  country  is  concerned,  with  much  de- 
lay. Several  psychologists  were  serving  with 
the  armies.  F.  M.  Urban,  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  detained  in  Europe;  C.  S. 
Myers,  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  was  last 
reported  at  a  base  hospital  in  France;  W. 
Brown,  F.  Aveling,  and  C.  Spearman,  all  of  the 
University  of  London,  were  in  the  British  serv- 
ice; and  E.  ClaparMe,  of  the  University  of  Ge- 
neva, was  with  the  Swiss  army.  Sir  T.  8. 
Clouston,  a  distinguished  psychiatrist.  Prof.  J. 
Stilling  of  the  University  of  Strassburg,  known 
by  his  work  on  color-vision.  Dr.  C.  Schrttder  of 
the  University  of  Giessen,  writer  on  the  psychol- 
ogy of  religion,  and  Dr.  A.  Marie,  director  of 
the  psychiatrical  laboratory  at  the  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes,  were  among  those  killed  in  the 
war.  Prof.  E.  Meumann  of  the  Kolonialinstitut 
in  Hamburg,  leader  in  the  field  of  experimental 
education,  and  psycholo^st  of  high  standing, 
died  at  53,  and  Prof.  S.  Witasek  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Graz,  author  of  papers  on  ssthetics  and 
space-perception,  and  of  a  useful  text-book,  died 
at  the  age  of  46. 

Genebal  Books  and  Treatises.  The  only 
text-book  of  general  psychology  which  the  year 
has  produced  is  E.  B.  Titchener's  Beginner's 
Psychology,  an  elementary  work  written  to  re- 
place the  author's  well-known  Primer. 

In  a  series  of  lectures  delivered  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  London  and  printed  under  the  title 
The  International  Crisis  in  its  Ethical  and  Psy- 
chological Aspects,  G.  Murray  emphasizes  the 
instincts  of  the  herd  which  are  called  forth: 
greater  union,  submission  of  the  individual,  in- 
tensification of  the  emotions,  release  of  subcon- 
sciously suppressed  motives;  G.  F.  Stout  shows 
the  blinding  effect  of  the  passions  aroused  by 
the  war,  but  justifies  the  emotion  of  resentment 
on  ethical  grounds;  other  lecturers  point  out 
the  changes  in  the  national  mind,  advance  eth- 
ical ideals,  and  interpret  the  duties  of  the 
state.  In  The  Psychology  of  the  Kaiser,  Mor- 
ton Prince  argues  that  this  personality  shows 
certain  fixed  antipathies  and  emotions.  ''The 
Kaiser's  real  obsession  is  a  subconscious  phobia, 
a  fear  of  democracy  for  himself  and  his  house.*' 

In  the  delayed  first  number  of  the  Arheiten 
zur  Entwicklungspsychologie  F.  Krueger  makes 
an  elaborate  plea  for  genetic  or  evolutional  psy- 
chology; he  shows  the  necessity  for  a  genetic 
discussion  of  mental  phenomena,  and  outlines  a 
programme  of  procedure.  Historical  points  of 
view  are  considered  in  the  light  of  sociological 


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and  ethnological  problems.  A.  MacDonald 
{Arch.  /.  d.  gea,  Payohol,  xxxiii,  292-308)  has 
made  a  minor  contribution  to  this  type  of  psy- 
chology in  his  statistical  comparison  of  cul- 
tural influences  among  various  peoples. 

The  Paychology  of  High  School  Buhjects  by 
C.  H.  Judd  analyzes  the  psychological  princi- 
ples involved  in  the  presentation  and  learning 
of  high  school  courses.  Mathematics,  the  lan- 
guages, the  manual  arts,  industrial  courses,  sci- 
ences, the  fine  arts,  and  history  are  thus  treated. 
There  are  further  chapters  on  general  problems, 
the  teaching  of  students  to  study,  and  certain 
moot  questions.  Another  work  of  ''applied" 
psychology  is  E.  B.  Holt's  The  Freudian  Wish 
and  He  Place  in  Ethics,  The  wish  is  a  course 
of  action  which  some  bodily  mechanism  is  set 
to  carry  out,  whether  it  does  so  or  not;  and  in 
the  Freudian  ethics  it  becomes  the  articulate 
unit  of  mind  and  character.  "Right  is  that  con- 
duct, attained  through  discrimination  of  the 
facts,  which  fulfills  all  of  a  man's  wishes  at 
once,  suppressing  none." 

Last  year  we  referred  under  this  heading  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  "self"  in  sytematic  psy- 
chology (Yeab  Book,  1914,  p.  681).  In  an  ex- 
tended criticism  of  the  view,  J.  N.  Curtis  (Am. 
J.  of  Paychol.,  zxvi,  68-98)  finds  psychology  as 
"the  science  of  selves"  wanting  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  epistemological  in  distinction  and  is 
not  warranted  by  introspection.  She  receives 
some  support  from  the  independent  work  of 
E.  L.  Woods  (op.  ait.  under  Recognition),  who 
discovered  no  introspective  evidence  for  the 
"self";  "awareness  of  'self  is  not  a  necessary 
component  of  recognition."  E.  A.  Gamble 
comes  to  the  defense,  affirming  that  there  is  room 
in  psychology  for  the  discussion  of  the  person 
in  its  concrete  relations  with  its  environment, 
in  addition  to  the  analysis  of  metal  processes: 
(merely  a  change  of  point  of  view  and  another 
set  of  premises  are  needed  {Psychol,  Bull.,  xii, 
194-202).  Without  meeting  Gurtis's  criticisms 
directly,  M.  W.  Galkins  then  gives  a  detailed 
presentation  of  her  system  of  "selves"  {Am,  J. 
of  Paychol.,  xzvi,  496-624),  finds  support  in  the 
works  of  other  psychologists,  and  explains  why 
introspective  evidence  is  not  always  in  favor  of 
the  "self."  The  chief  reason  is  that  observers 
are  so  instructed  as  to  overlook  the  presence 
of  the  "self"  in  their  experiences;  "self  is  ac- 
cordingly foredoomed  to  perpetual  exile  from 
psychology." 

Sensatiok  and  Perception.  General.  A.  S. 
Edwards  has  made  a  thorough^ing  introspec- 
tive analysis  of  sensory  suggestion  {Am,  J,  of 
PaychoLt  xxvi,  99-129).  In  the  departments  of 
vision,  smell,  taste,  and  temperature,  sensations 
of  a  definite  sort  were  suggested.  Audition, 
however,  did  not  lend  itself  to  suggestive 
arousal. 

Audition,  In  the  third  installment  of  his 
Akuatiache  Unterauchungen,  W.  Koehler  {Zeita. 
f  Paych.,  Ixxii,  1-192)  distinguishes  tonal 
pitch  from  tonal  body  (brightness  and  darkness 
plua  vocality),  and  raises  a  many-sided  protest, 
against  the  autocracy  of  pitch.  Very  high,  very 
low,  very  brief  tones  have  no  pitch;  the  ex- 
tremely unmusical  have  no  sense  of  pitch, 
though  they  are  sensitive  to  tonal  body;  natural 
speech  has  no  pitch;  absolute  tonal  memory  is 
commonly  memory  of  body,  and  not  of  pitch; 
the  correlation  of  pitch  with  its  normal  stimu- 
lus may  be  disturbed,  while  tonal  body  remains 


unaffected;  even  in  music  the  part  played  by 
pitch  has  been  overrated.  Since  we  have  no 
ground  to  assume  more  than  one  soimd-receiv- 
ing  organ,  and  since  the  vast  majority  of  sound- 
experiences  are  noises,  we  must  look  upon  the 
ear  as  primarily  a  noise-receptor,  and  as  only 
secondarily  a  piitch-receptor ;  our  whole  perspec- 
tive is  thus  ehangred.  Kadical  conclusions!  but 
the  essay  is  well-argued  and  well-illustrated, 
and  the  writer's  standpoint  must  henceforth  be 
taken  into  account.  He  outlines  a  physiological 
theory  of  audition  in  the  form  oi  a  working 
hypothesis. 

J.  Peterson  uses  tuning-forks  and  piano-tones 
to  show  that  summational  and  differential  tones 
are  derived,  not  from  the  upper  partials  of  the 
primaries,  but  from  the  disturbed  superposition 
of  the  vibrations  in  the  Helmholtzian  sense  of 
the  phrase  {Paychol,  Rev,,  xxii,  612-618).  S. 
Baley  {Zeita.  f,  Paychol,,  Ixx,  321-346)  has  in- 
vestigated the  qualitative  limen  for  two  simul- 
taneously sounding  tones.  Differentiation  begins 
at  a  difference  of  six  to  seven  vs.,  beyond  which 
point  three  stages  of  qualitative  effect  may  be 
made  out.  There  seems  to  be  a  definite  spatial 
reference  which  lends  itself  to  investigation  in 
this  type  of  dichotic  judgment.  In  opposition 
to  G.  Stumpf  and  others,  R.  Hohenemser  holds 
that  concordance  and  discordance  can  best  be 
accounted  for  in  terms  of  reference  to  the  im- 
tempered  musical  scale;  hence,  e.g.  the  discord- 
ance of  G-E-G$,  although  the  chord  is  composed 
of  consonant  intervals  {Zeita,  f,  Paychol.,  Ixxii, 
373-382). 

Some  results  of  the  investigation  of  sound- 
localization  by  L.  R.  Geissler  (Aw.  J,  of  Pay- 
chol., xxvi,  268-286)  are:  sounds  are  most  fre- 
quently referred  to  the  front  of  the  observer, 
where  vision  usually  assists  in  their  localiza- 
tion; the  left  ear  is  about  3  per  cent  more  ac- 
curate than  the  right;  most  errors  occur  imme- 
diately about  the  horizontal  axis.  S.  Baley  has 
also  worked  with  simultaneous  (dichotic)  tones 
of  different  pitches,  differentlv  located  {Zeita. 
f.  Paychol.,  Ixx,  347  ff.),  and  finds  that  they 
may  be  correctly  localized  without  the  aid  of 
head-movements. 

Viaion.  The  general  statement  that  a  series 
of  light-fiashes  seems  faster  than  a  series  of 
sound-impulses  of  the  same  rate  and  duration 
is  invalidated  by  the  investigations  of  B.  v.  d. 
Nienburg  {Paychol,  Rev,,  xxii,  66-70) :  "The 
experience  that  the  light-succession  is  less  rapid 
than  the  sound-succession  comes  not  infre- 
quently, and  with  some  observers  comes  indeed 
more  frequently  than  does  the  opposite  experi- 
ence." The  higher  the  rate  or  the  longer  the 
series,  however,  the  more  pronoimced  becomes 
the  illusion  that  the  light-series  is  the  more 
rapid."  K.  Dunlap,  in  his  work  on  visual  time- 
intervals  {Paychol,  Rev.,  xxii,  226-260),  de- 
scribes a  "fictitious  doubleness"  of  perception. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  fiash,  there  appears  a 
"back-lash"  which  behaves  differently  from  the 
ordinary  after-effect;  otherwise,  since  the  phe- 
nomenon is  more  pronoimced  for  the  dark- 
adapted  eye,  it  might  be  taken  as  a  form  of  the 
positive  after-image.  The  writer  thinks  that  it 
is  due  to  a  refiex  from  the  iris. 

Astronomy  still  furnishes  psychology  with 
problems.  The  illusion  that  two  stars  of  equal 
magnitude  as  judged  in  the  horizontal  plane  be- 
come unequal,  even  to  the  extent  of  a  difference 
of  two  or  three  magnitudes,  when  viewed  ver- 


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tically,  is  invcBtigated  by  J.  W.  Hayes  {Paf/ohol, 
Rev,  Monog.  8upp.,  xx,  1-126).  It  appears  to 
rest  upon  peculiarities  of  foveal  vision  and  has 
to  do,  not  with  the  size  of  the  objects,  but  with 
their  brightness.  C.  E.  Ferree  and  G.  Hand 
again  point  to  shortcomings  in  the  flicker- 
method  of  equating  brightnesses.  The  rate  of 
succession  is  so  slow  that  there  is  not  enough 
lapping  from  one  impression  to  the  next  to  pro- 
duce fusion;  not  even  the  summation-effect  re- 
sults, an  indispensable  condition  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  suitable  degree  of  intensity  of  sensa- 
tion {Psychol  Rev.,  xxii,  110-162).  The  con- 
sequence is  an  underestimation  of  the  intensities 
of  red  and  yellow,  with  a  corresponding  over- 
estimation  of  blue  and  green.  Experiments  on 
the  visual  discrimination  of  two  lines  lead  K. 
Dunlap  to  the  use  of  an  instrument  called  the 
duoscope,  which  consists  essentially  of  a  prism 
of  Iceland  spar  on  one  of  whose  faces  a  line  is 
engraved  {Peychol.  Rev.y  xxii,  28-36) ;  the 
double  image  can  be  delicately  controlled.  The 
instrument  also  lends  itself  to  the  testing  of 
astigmatic  conditions. 

G.  H.  Miles  {Brit,  J.  of  Psychol.,  vii,  420- 
433)  investigates  differences  between  the  visual 
after-image  and  the  image  projected  after  inter- 
mittent stimulation  of  the  retina  through  the 
closed  eyelids.  The  latter  image  becomes  more 
distinct  than  the  after-image,  and  is  projected 
to  a  definite  distance.  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions hallucinatory  effects  are  observed.  Ac- 
cording to  M.  W.  Loring  {Psychol,  Rev.,  xxii, 
354-370),  the  laws  of  Donders  and  Listing  re- 
quire modification.  The  torsion  of  each  eye  in 
taking  up  secondary  positions  is  slightly  dif- 
ferent; it  is  exaggerated  toward  the  left  for 
the  left  eye,  and  toward  the  right  for  the  right 
eye.  Torsion  also  increases  as  the  position  of 
the  head  becomes  more  and  more  oblique.  Prob- 
lems of  spatial  perception,  and  in  particular 
those  of  stereoscopy,  are  discussed  by  H.  Hen- 
ning  {Zeits.  /.  Psychol.,  Ixx,  37^-428). 

K.  Dunlap  proposes  a  modification  of  the 
Young-Helmholtz  theory  of  vision  {Psychol. 
Rev.,  xxii,  09-103)  which  shall  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  realism.  Yellow,  blue-green,  purple, 
and  white  are  suggested  as  the  four  primary 
components.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Color  Vision,  by  J.  H.  Parsons,  is  a  useful  di- 
gest of  the  facts  and  theories  of  color  vision. 
Three  systematically  arranged  "parts"  set  forth 
the  chief  facts  of  normal  color  vision,  the  chief 
facts  of  color  blindness,  and  the  principal  the- 
ories with  their  experimental  evidence.  The 
theoretical  discussion  is  careful,  and  the  facts 
are  impartially  summarized,  but  the  author  does 
not  attempt  to  conceal  his  preference  for  a  the- 
ory of  the  Young-Helmholtz  type. 

Oryanio.  E.  G.  Boring  {Am.  J.  of  Psychol., 
xxvi,  1-67)  reports  experiments  on  the  sensa- 
tions aroused  by  stimulation  of  the  alimen- 
tary tract.  The  stimuli  are  thermal  (water  at 
various  temperatures),  mechanical  (distension 
of  inserted  bladders),  chemical  (alcohol,  hydro- 
chloric acid,  oil  of  peppermint,  and  pepper  and 
mustard  in  suspension),  and  electrical  (faradic 
shocks).  In  the  oesophagus,  sensations  corre- 
sponding to  all  stimuli  except  pepper  and  mus- 
tard are  reported;  in  the  stomach  all  are  sensed, 
but  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  sensations  of 
cold,  warmth,  and  electrical  shock  arise  in  the 
stomach  or  in  the  surrounding  tissues.  Later 
results  {Am,  ^,  of  Psyoholt  xxvi,  486-494)  in- 


dicate that  a  stimulus  of  40** C.  arouses  the  sen- 
sation of  warmth,  and  a  stimulus  of  30^*0.  the 
sensation  of  cold,  in  the  stomach  itself.  Hydro- 
chloric acid  induces  the  sensation  of  hunger. 
The  greatest  error  in  localization  occurs  in  the 
direction  of  the  median  line  through  throat  and 
stomach,  reference  being  often  made  to  head,  to 
throat,  or  to  a  point  below  the  sternum.  A 
qualitative  study  {Psychol.  Rev.,  xxii,  306-331) 
of  experiences  referred  to  the  alimentary  and 
urinary  tracts  concludes  "that  thirst,  hunger, 
nausea,  the  call  to  defecation,  defecation,  the 
call  to  urination,  and  urination  are  all  com- 
plex experiences  reducible,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, to  various  patterns  of  pressure  and 
pain."  Nausea  is  apparently  the  most  difficult 
to  analyze.  Further  experiments  of  a  syn- 
thetic kind  are  promised. 

Dream  and  Slexp.  A  little  volume  in  the 
Mind  and  Health  series  on  The  Meaninff  of 
Dreams  by  I.  H.  Coriat,  a  well  known  specialist 
in  nervous  diseases,  gives  a  readable  summary 
of  S.  Freud's  Traumdeutung  (see  Year  Book, 
1913,  p.  679) .  The  sexual  element  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  dreams  is,  however,  not  stressed  as 
strongly  as  by  Freud;  all  anti-social  elements 
are  mentioned  as  causes  for  underlying  motives 
and  suppressed  wishes.  A  number  of  dreams 
arc  given  and  analyzed  as  illustrations. 

An  analysis  of  226  dreams  by  G.  H.  Hyslop 
{Proceedings  Am.  S,  P.  R.,  viii,  286-366)  shows 
the  influence  of  the  wish-factor  and  the  sex- 
motive,  but  less  predominantly  than  in  the 
Freudian  analyses.  The  writer  makes  the  point 
that  the  frequency  of  these  elements  much  de- 
pends upon  the  rOle  they  play  in  the  waking 
period.  Instances  which  show  a  more  potent 
influence  of  these  complexes  are  narrated  anony- 
mously in  a  subsequent  article  {ibid.,  viii,  366- 
379),  and  in  the  J,  of  Ahnorm,  Psychol.,  x,  100- 
119.  On  the  descriptive  side,  we  note  an  ana- 
lytical investigation  by  M.  Bentley  {Am.  J.  of 
Psychol.,  xxvi,  196-210).  Five  observers  were 
asked  to  give,  immediately  after  waking  from  a 
dream,  a  systematic  account  of  their  dream  ex- 
periences. Visual  and  auditory  processes  were 
the  most  numerous;  perceptual  and  emotive 
complexes  were  the  most  frequent.  Secondary 
attention  was  found  to  be  fitful  and  incidental. 
Aside  from  these  and  similar  results,  the  study 
is  of  methodological  value.  H.  A.  Bruce  writes 
a  popular  account  of  Sleep  and  Sleeplessness, 
setting  forth  the  view  that  sleep  is  caused  by 
dearth  of  mental  processes.  The  author  indi- 
cates the  various  kinds  of  stimuli  which  may 
arouse  dreams,  and  the  conditions  of  their  oc- 
currence. The  part  played  by  subconscious  mo- 
tives, the  disorders  of  sleep  and  of  sleepless- 
ness, and  their  psychotherapeutic  treatment  are 
discussed  in  the  closing  chapters. 

Emotion  and  Action.  G.  S.  Hall  believes 
that  the  emotions  of  fear,  sympathy,  and  anger 
are  comparable  in  their  subconscious  effects  to 
the  sexual  factor  in  the  Freudian  doctrine,  and 
are  therefore  as  infiuential  in  the  patterning 
of  mental  processes  as  are  the  suppressed  sexual 
wishes  {Am.  J.  of  Psychol.,  xxvi,  438-443). 
Laughing,  according  to  S.  H.  Bliss  {Am.  J.  of 
Psychol.,  xxvi,  236-246),  is  an  expression  of 
primitive  subconscious  satisfaction,  and  is  nat- 
urally more  and  more  suppressed  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  cultural  influences.  T.  L.  Smith  notes 
that  shame  has  been  neglected  as  a  separate 
emotion,  and  traces  its  development  from  tiie 


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time  that  self  and  social  consciousness  began 
to  be  differentiated  (Aw.  J.  of  Psychol.,  xxvi, 
229-235).  The  subject  of  the  alternation  and 
interference  of  feelings  is  studied  by  C.  E.  Kel- 
logg  {Psychol.  Rev.  Monog.  Supp.,  xviii,  1-94). 

When  two  kinds  of  appeal  become  nearly  iden- 
tical there  may,  under  certain  conditions,  be 
fusion  of  feelings;  otherwise,  there  is  alterna- 
tion; and  when  the  mental  attitudes  are  widely 
dissimilar,  inhibition  of  feelings  is  observed.  It 
is  also  found  that  attention  to  feeling  may 
heighten  its  effect. 

In  The  Psychological  Aspects  of  Christian  Ex- 
perience R.  H.  K.  Gill  points  out  the  importance 
of  emotions,  for  the  most  part  subconsciously 
considered,  in  the  consciousness  of  sin,  and  in 
the  experiences  of  repentance,  penitence,  and 
conversion.  "There  is  no  part  of  the  mental 
self  so  prominent  in  many  as  the  emotions.'' 
The  connection  of  hallucinatory  experiences  with 
these  emotional  states  is  also  worked  out  in 
terms  of  religious  conversion.  Bodily  Changes 
in  Pain,  Hunger y  Fear,  and  Rage;  an  Account 
of  Recent  Researches  into  the  Function  of  Emo- 
tional Excitement  is  the  title  of  a  volume  by 
W.  B.  Cannon.  Through  the  agency  of  the  sym- 
pathetic nervous  system  adrenin  is  secreted  by 
the  adrenal  glands;  this  together  with  sugar  is 
poured  into  the  circulatory  system  under  the 
influence  of  emotion;  and  certain  appropriate 
physiological  adjustments  result.  Fear,  anger, 
and  hunger  occasion  similar  bodily  changes  by 
way  of  the  sympathetic  system;  and  the  uni- 
formity of  these  changes  tells  against  the  James- 
Lange  theory  of  emotion.  The  author  advocates 
the  normal  expression  of  the  pugnacious  in- 
stincts and  emotions  in  competitive  athletic 
sports.  A  plea  for  the  genetic  consideration  of 
emotions  is  made  in  G.  W.  Crile's  The  Origin  and 
Nature  of  the  Emotions.  As  remnants  of  for- 
merly useful  reactions,  certain  emotions  (like 
those  evinced  by  crying  and  laughing)  are 
phylogenetically  represented  in  the  present  or- 
ganism by  aborted  movements,  which  serve  to 
drain  the  excess  of  energy  released  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. Fear  and  anger  are  not  found  in 
the  minds  of  animals  that  are  adequately 
equipped  with  aggressive  weapons. 

In  the  field  of  the  reaction  experiment,  H. 
Woodrow  {Psychol.  Rev.y  xxii,  423-452)  shows 
that  the  times  of  reaction  to  the  cessation  of 
stimuli,  in  the  departments  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing, are  sensibly  identical  with  those  of  the 
ordinary  simple  reaction.  'The  fact  of  cessa- 
tion-reactions cannot  be  adequatelv  explained 
w^ithout  postulating  such  a  central  system  of 
energies  the  balance  of  which  may  be  upset  by 
either  an  increase  or  a  decrease  of  activity  in 
any  part  of  the  system"  (461).  This  theory 
receives  some  confirmation  from  the  work  of  C. 
J.  Herrick  {J.  of  Phil.  Psychol,  d  Sc.  M.,  xii, 
543-551),  who  finds  that  "there  is  no  afferent 
tract  leading  into  the  cortex  directly  from  a 
peripheral  sense  organ  or  from  any  centre  within 
the  brain  which  is  'pure,'  that  is,  devoted  to  a 
single  sensory  function."  A  series  of  observa- 
tions by  W.  Wirth  {Psychol.  Stud.,  x,  1-99) 
brings  the  reaction  experiment  nearer  to  the 
realities  of  astronomical  'procedure.  An  ap- 
paratus capable  of  minute  adjustment  carries 
an  artificial  star,  and  is  provided  with  hand- 
gears  whereby  the  star  may  be  followed  in  its 
course.  The  average  error  of  the  adjustment  is 
then  found  by  of^loulation  from  an  automatic 


registry  on  a  smoked  drum.  The  observation  is 
divided  into  three  periods.  The  advantage  of 
the  100  sec.  period  commonly  used  in  astronomy 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  observers  vary 
most  in  the  preliminary  periods  and  least  toward 
the  end.  W.  Lankes  {Brit.  J.  of  Psychol.,  vii, 
387-419)  traces  perseverative  tendencies  in  sen- 
sory, ideational,  and  physiologically  subconscious 
processes.  While  he  regards  these  tendencies  as 
characteristic  of  the  nervous  system,  he  declines 
to  identify  them  with  the  tendency  to  'persist- 
ence' shown  in  the  investigation  of  character  by 
E.  Webb  {Brit.  J.  of  Psychol.  Monog.  Bupp., 
No.  1,  1-99).  Intelligence  stands  "in  some  close 
relation  to  'persistence  of  motives,'  i.e.  depends 
upon  the  consistency  of  action  resulting  from 
deliberate  volition"  rather  than  from  impulse. 
We  may  compare  with  this  result  N.  Ach's  in- 
terpretation of  willed  action  in  terms  of  deter- 
mining tendency.  Two  main  tendencies  or 
springs  to  action  are  distinguished  in  J.  J.  Put- 
nam's Human  Motives.  There  are  motives  which 
are  idealistic  and  intellectual,  and  there  are 
motives  which  are  emotional  repressions  of  in- 
stinctive tendencies.  The  conflict  of  these  two 
types  constitutes  the  setting  for  willed  ac- 
tion. 

Memobt,  Recognition,  Leabnino,  Associa- 
tion, Attention,  and  Thought.  R.  Mliller-  ' 
Freienfels  {Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Psychol.,  xxxiv,  65- 
105)  marks  off  orientative  from  reproductive 
memory.  The  former  is  the  more  rudimentary 
and  occurs  in  the  lower  organisms;  it  corre- 
sponds to  the  feeling  of  familiarity  without  re- 
produced content.  Memory  in  general  is  largely 
affective  in  character.  The  affective  character 
of  recognition  is  emphasized  by  G.  A.  Feingold 
{Psychol.  Rev.  Monog.  Supp.,  xviii,  1-128),  who 
is  led  to  the  problem  by  its  bearing  on  the  con- 
fusion of  similar  trade-marks.  Recognitive  abil- 
ity is  found  to  vary  inversely  with  degree  of 
similarity.  A.  Fischer  {Zeits.  f.  Psychol.,  Ixxii, 
321-372)  investigates  the  influence  of  "sublimi- 
nal reproduction"  on  the  process  of  recognition. 
While  reproductiiMi  thus  initiated  aids  in  recog- 
nition, extended  meditation  makes  it  less  re- 
liable. R.  B.  Owen  (Psychol.  Rev.  Monog. 
Supp.,  XX,  1-154),  after  a  critical  and  historical 
survey  of  the  theories  of  recognition,  reports  ex- 
periments on  the  function  of  imaginal  and  sen- 
sory processes  in  the  establishment  of  meaning 
and  of  personal  reference  to  the  object  recognized. 
The  factors  which  constitute  this  reference  are 
given;  they  are  dependent  for  the  most  part  on 
the  conscious  pattern  of  mental  processes.  The 
writer  concludes  that  the  "cognition  of  pastness" 
is  "an  unanalyzable  datum  of  conscious  life." 
Another  analytical  study  of  the  recognitive  con- 
sciousness by  E.  L.  Woods  {Am.  J.  of  Psychol., 
xxvi,  313-387)  outlines  three  stages  of  develop- 
ment. An  initial  level  of  incipient  recognition 
contains  a  "wealth  of  sensory  components,"  with 
attentive  search  for  a  fitting  association.  The 
intermediate  level,  of  brief  duration,  shows  a 
relative  scarcity  of  sensory  content.  In  the  final 
stage  imagery  may  be  entirely  lacking.  Through- 
out there  is  present  "an  orderly  procession  of 
mental  events"  under  the  direction  of  the 
Aufgdbe. 

The  third  type  of  associative  inhibition  de- 
scribed by  Mtiller  and  Pilzecker  ( see  Yeab  Book, 
1914,  p.  583)  appears  to  be  negligible  in  connec- 
tion with  nonsense  syllables.  According  to  J.  £. 
DeCamp    {Psychol,    J^,    tfono^'    Supp.,    xix, 


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VXTRDXTE  TTNIV1BBSITY 


1-69)  the  retroactive  inhibition  has  "no  positive 
introspective  evidence''  m  its  favor,  nor  do  other 
results  indicate  its  presence.  A.  Wohlgemuth 
{Brit  J.  of  PayohoL,  vii,  434-452)  concludes 
that  associations  of  objects  comprehended  as  a 
whole  are  most  strongly  retained,  and  argues 
for  the  association  of  ideas  through  simultaneity 
of  experience.  This  simultaneity,  according  to 
K.  Lambrecht  {Zeita.  f,  PsifchoL,  Ixxi,  1-65), 
is  able  to  counteract  the  instruction  to  abstract 
the  form  of  objects  from  their  color  in  associa- 
tive presentation.  In  spite  of  the  negative  in- 
struction, both  factors  influence  the  reproduc- 
tion. The  method  of  diagnostic  association  has 
again  been  put  to  experimental  test  by  H.  W. 
Crane  {Paychol.  Rev,  Monog.  Supp,,  xviii,  1-61). 
In  one  series,  criminal  acts  are  performed  be- 
fore witnesses,  who  are  afterward  subjected  to 
the  tests;  the  practical  results  are  negative.  T. 
H.  Haines,  on  the  other  hand,  flnds  diagnostic 
value  in  certain  mental  performances  {Paychol. 
Rev.,  xxii,  299-305) ;  in  tests  of  moral  discrim- 
ination, for  instance,  defectives  are  differentiated 
from  normals. 

Imageless  thought  is  the  subject  of  R.  8. 
Woodworth's  presidential  address  to  the  Amer- 
ican Psychological  Association  {Psychol.  Rev.^ 
xxii,  1-27).  The  address  sets  forth  a  theory  of 
"mental  reactions";  percepts  are  taken  to  be 
'"inner  reactions  to  sensation."  These  reactions, 
which  are  as  distinct  in  type  as  the  motor  re- 
actions, are  the  units  revived  in  recall.  The  re- 
call, then,  is  always  couched  in  terms  of  the 
facts  previously  noted,  and  these  facts  consti- 
tute the  meanings.  T.  V.  Moore  {Peychol.  Rev., 
xxii,  177-226),  in  an  attack  on  the  theory  of 
meaning  as  context,  flnds  in  experiments  with 
visual  material  that  meaning  often  precedes 
imaginal  content.  He  concludes,  therefore,  that 
imaginal  content  cannot  be  the  condition  of 
meaning;  meaning  is  "a  definite  mental  process 
aui  generie."  Q.  A.  Coe  {Peychol.  Rev.,  xxii, 
87-98)  suggests  a  new  classification  of  mental 
functions.  The  main  classes  are  biological  men- 
tal functions,  which  constitute  the  mind's  re- 
action to  environment,  and  preferential  func- 
tions, which  are  qualitative  in  aspect  and  typify 
the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  mind. 

Psychotherapy.  The  Freudian  analysis  of 
dreams  has  proved  its  practical  value  according 
to  M.  Solomon  {J.  of  Ahnorm.  Psychol.,  x,  19- 
31)  in  that  it  gains  the  confidence  of  the  patient 
in  tracing  the  history  of  his  case.  R.  Bellamy 
{ibid.,  32-46)  thinks,  however,  that  the  Freud- 
ian theory  is  neither  new  nor  plausible,  and  that 
suggestion  has  played  an  important  part  in  its 
formulation.  A.  Myerson  {ibid.,  1-10)  assumes 
a  simpler  mechanism  than  the  sexual  complex 
in  his  interpretation  of  a  typical  case  of  hys- 
teria, i.e.  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  a  young 
wife  to  gain  the  sympathy  of  her  husband. 
C.  D.  Fox  in  his  comprehensive  treatment  of 
The  Psychopathology  of  Hysteria  grants  to 
Freud  the  honor  of  having  done  more  than  any 
one  else  in  the  successful  interpretation  of  the 
disorder.  A.  W.  Van  Keuterghem  {J.  of  Ah- 
norm.  Psychol.,  ix,  369-384;  x,  46-66)  makes 
the  point  that  Freud  and  his  colleagues  do  not 
disparage  hypnotic  and  other  treatments: 
"Freud  explains  it  in  this  manner:  when  one 
treats  the  patient  by  hypnotic  suggestion,  one 
introduces  a  new  idea  from  the  outside  in  ex- 
change for  the  morbid  idea;  if  psychoanalysis 
is  applied,  then  one  simply  eliminates  the  mor- 


bid idea."  An  outline-history  of  the  Freudian 
doctrines  and  their  interpretation  is  given. 

In  an  address  before  the  Psycho-medical  So- 
ciety of  London,  C.  G.  Jung  {ibid.,  ix,  385-399) 
points  out  the  advantages  of  the  reductive 
method.  It  brings  the  individual  mind  back  to 
its  simplest  motives,  while  other  methods  build 
up  from  the  present  condition  on  false  or  de- 
teriorated foundations. 

PSYCHOLOOY,  Experimental.  See  Psy- 
chology, passim.      

PSYCHOTHBSAPY.  See  Psychology,  sec- 
tion so  entitled. 

PUBLIC  BITILDINOS.     See  Aechitectdee. 

PTTBLIC  DEBT.  See  articles  on  various 
countries. 

PTTBLIC  LANDS.    See  Lands,  Public. 

PTTBLIC  SCHOOL  ADMINISTBATION. 
See  Education  in  the  United  States. 

PTTGILISM.    See  Boxing. 

PTTMPING  MACHINEBT.  In  many  Amer- 
ican and  European  cities  the  use  of  rotary 
pumps  driven  by  alternating  current  motors  was 
jfound  advantageous  for  high  pressure  fire  serv- 
ice and  for  general  supply.  At  the  Austerlitz 
plant  in  the  city  of  Paris,  six  three-phase  mo- 
tors with  the  shaft  mounted  vertically  were  in- 
stalled. Each  of  these  motors  gives  500  horse 
power  and  operates  at  700  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. At  the  Montsouris  city  plant  a  single 
phase  motor  of  200  horse  power  and  42  cycle 
frequency  of  another  design  was  installed.  The 
alternating  current  motor  is  particularly  useful 
for  centrifugal  pumps  and  many  other  installa- 
tions have  been  equipped  with  them.  One  of 
the  striking  developments  in  pumping  machin- 
ery of  the  year  was  a  series  of  mammoth  screw 
pumps  of  new  design  which  developed  high  ef- 
ficiencies for  low  lift.  These  pumps  were  lo- 
cated in  the  various  branch  stations  for  pump- 
ing the  storm  drainage  of  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans, and  are  intended  to  supplant  the  older 
screw  pumps,  developing  a  much  greater  effi- 
ciency in  times  of  flood  when  they  are  needed. 
These  new  pumps  have  a  12-foot  screw  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  siphon  instead  of  submerged, 
each  unit  consisting  of  a  cylindrical  casing  12 
feet  in  diameter,  and  13  feet  9  inches  in  length, 
with  its  axis  horizontal.  This  casing  contained 
the  impeller  or  moving  plates  and  the  stationary 
or  diffusion  plates.  The  latter  was  mounted  in 
a  watertight  cone-shaped  housing,  within  which 
is  a  main  bearing  and  a  marine  type  thrust 
bearing.  On  the  suction  side  the  pump  is  con- 
nected to  a  cast  iron  46**  bend,  through  which 
the  shaft  extends  through  a  stuffing  box,  and  is 
directly  connected  to  a  600  horse  power  electric 
motor  by  means  of  a  flexible  coupling.  The  dis- 
charge pipe  is  of  riveted  sheet  steel  bolted  to 
the  pump  casing  and  contains  a  45**  bend  and 
sections  increasing  in  diameter  up  to  16  feet  at 
the  lower  end.  These  new  pumps  were  designed 
and  patented  by  A.  B.  Wood,  engineer  of  the 
sewerage  and  water  board  of  Kew  Orleans,  and 
enable  a  number  of  much  larger  units  to  be  em- 
ployed than  were  ever  buut  for  centrifugal 
pumps. 

PTTMPS.    See  Pumping  Machinery. 

PUBDTTE  TTNIVEBSITY.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  in  1869  at 
Lafayette,  Ind.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915.  was  2137. 
The  faculty  numbered  210.  During  the  year 
J.  C.  Austin,  professor  of  botany,  retired,  and 


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QmOLEY 


R.  L.  Zacketty  professor  of  sanitary  and  hy- 
draulic engineering  resigned.  The  university 
received  a  residuary  bequest  from  Moses  Fell 
Dunn  of  Bradford,  Ind.,  amouting  to  about  $100,- 
000.  The  total  endowment  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  1916  was  $1,500,000.  The  library 
contained  about  100,000  volumes. 

FITTNAM,  Fbedebio  Wabd.  American  an- 
thropologist and  zoologist,  died  Aug.  14,  1915. 
He   was   bom   in   Salem,   Mass.,   in    1839,    and 

gaduated  from  Harvard  University  in  1862. 
.  1856  he  was  appointed  curator  in  the  Essex 
Institute,  subsequently  becoming  superintendent 
of  the  museum,  Essex  Institute  and  East  India 
Marine  Society.  From  1861-63  he  was  director  of 
the  museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Salem.  In  1874  he  was  assistant  in  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Kentucky,  and  took  part  in 
the  survey  west  of  the  lOOth  meridian.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  American  archaeol- 
ogy at  Harvard  University  in  1886,  serving  until 
1909,  when  he  became  professor  emeritus.  From 
1874  until  1909,  he  was  curator  of  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  Harvard  University.  From  1909-13 
he  was  honorary  'curator.  He  was  professor 
of  archsBology  and  director  of  the  anthropolog- 
ical museum  of  the  University  of  California  from 
1903-09.  From  1882-89  he  was  State  Commis- 
sioner of  Inland  Fisheries  of  Massachusetts. 
He  served  as  chief  of  the  department  of  ethnology 
at  the  Chicago  Exposition,  1891-94,  and  from 
1894-1903  as  curator  of  archeology  at  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  foreign  cotmtries.  For 
varying  terms  he  edited  the  Prooeedinga  of  the 
Essex  Institute;  the  Reports  of  the  Peabody 
Academy;  the  annual  volumes  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science;  an- 
thropological publications  of  the  University  of 
California;  and  the  publications  of  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  Harvard.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  American  Naturaliet,  He  published 
over  400  papers  on  zoOlogy  and  anthropology, 
and  from  1871  was  engaged  in  researches  and 
explorations  concerned  with  American  arch»- 
ology. 

PYOBBHOBA  ALVEOLABIS  (Rioo's  Dis- 
ease) .  The  formation  of  pus  pockets  at  the  roots 
of  the  teeth,  accompanied  by  atrophy  of  the 
outer  surfaces  of  the  roots  involved,  and  erosion 
of  the  alveoli,  or  sockets,  in  which  the  teeth 
are  implanted;  the  destructive  process  being  due 
to  the  presence  of  endamceba  gengivalie,  or  other 
form  of  endamceba.  The  researdies  of  the  last 
two  years  culminated  in  positive  statements  dur- 
ing 1915,  as  to  the  causation  and  treatment  of 
this  disabling  and  dangerous  disease.  The  in- 
fection from  the  teeth  attacked  becomes  ^s- 
temic,  and  causes  chronic  arthritis,  chronic  gas- 
tritis, facial  neuralgia,  chronic  laryngitis,  ob- 
stinate severe  headaches,  as  well  as  suppura- 
tive disease  in  distant  parts  of  the  body. 
Wright  and  White,  of  the  United  States  navy, 
used  with  great  success  deep  muscular  injec- 
tions of  mercury,  together  with  local  treatment 
described  as  follows:  Careful  expression  of  the 
pus  from  the  sockets,  removal  of  the  tartar  and 
calcareous  formations,  extraction  of  hopeless 
roots  and  teeth,  and  applications  of  tincture  of 
iodine,  tincture  of  aconite  and  chloroform  to  the 
margins  of  the  gums.  The  preferable  salt  of 
mercury  is  the  succinimid. 

Gros   in    1849   observed   and  described   with 


great  accuracy  the  condition  and  named  the 
animalcule.  But  it  was  the  researches  of  Bar- 
rett-Bass and  Johns,  and  Chiavero  during  the 
last  two  years  that  gave  us  the  present  kaowl- 
edge,  and  furnished  us  with  a  remedy  in  the 
drug  emetin,  the  active  alkaloidal  principle  of 
ipecacuanha.  The  remedy  is  used  by  hypoder- 
mic injection  into  the  gums,  or  by  dropping 
into  the  cavity  between  the  tooth  and  gum,  sepa- 
rated by  air  pressure.  Oral  sepsis  as  a  factor 
in  remote  suppurative  conditions  had  been  em- 
phasized by  Billings,  Rosenow,  and  others.  One 
of  the  most  frequent  conditions  dependent  on 
pyorrhcea  is  pernicious  anemia,  which  is  re- 
lieved 1^  the  emetin  treatment. 
QITA&EBS.    See   Fuknds,   Religious   Soci- 

KTT  OF. 

QUABAHTINE  OP  PLANTS  AND  ANI- 
MALS.   See  Aqbigultural  Legislation. 

QUEBEC.  A  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  The  area  is  706,834  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation (1911  census),  2,005,779.  (See  Canada, 
section  Area  and  Population.)  The  city  of 
Quebec,  the  capital,  had  in  1911  78,710  inhabi- 
tants. The  province  is  administered  by  a  Lieu- 
tenant-Qovemor,  who  is  appointed  for  five  years 
by  the  Governor-General  of  the  Dominion,  and 
who  acts  through  a  responsible  executive  coun- 
cil. The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  le^s- 
lative  council  of  24  members  appointed  for  life, 
and  a  legislative  assembly  of  81  members  elected 
for  five  years.  Lieutenant-Governor,  P.  E.  La- 
blanc,  appointed  Feb.  10,  1916.  Ftemier  and 
attorney-general.  Sir  Lomer  Gouin. 

QUEBEC  BRIDGE.    See  Bbidoes. 

QUEENSLAND.  A  state  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia,  situated  north  of  New 
South  Wales  and  east  of  the  Northern  Territory 
and  South  Australia.  The  estimate  area  is 
670,500  square  miles.  Population,  as  returned 
by  the  census  of  April  3,  1911,  605,813,  exclusive 
of  full-blooded  aboriginals;  as  estimated  March 
31,  1915,  685,138.  The  capital  is  Brisbane, 
which  with  suburbs  had  in  1911,  139,480  inhabi- 
tants. Governor  in  1915,  Major  Sir  Hamilton 
John  Goold- Adams;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Sir 
Arthur  Morgan.  Premier  and  attorney-general, 
T.  J.  Ryan. 

QUIQLEY,  JAICES  Edwabd.  American  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishop,  died  July  10,  1915. 
He  was  bom  at  Oshawa,  Canada,  in  1855.  Two 
years  later  his  parents  moved  to  Lima,  N.  Y., 
where  he  attended  the  public  schools.  In  1871 
he  graduated  from  St.  Joseph's  College  of  Chris- 
tian Brothers  at  Buffalo.  He  afterwards  stud- 
ied theology  at  the  Seminary  of  Our  Lady  of 
Angels  in  Suspension  Bridge,  N.  Y.  His  abil- 
ity soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  authori- 
ties, and  he  was  sent  to  Europe  to  continue  his 
studies.  In  1874  he  obtained  a  d^ree  at  the 
Universitv  of  Innsbrudc,  and  was  transferred 
to  the  Collie  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  where 
after  five  years  of  preparation,  he  was  ordained 
priest.  He  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
became  the  pastor  of  St.  Vincent's  Church  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.  After  five  years  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Joseph's  Cathedral  at  Buffalo, 
where  he  remained  for  12  years.  In  1897  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Buffalo.  He  was  particu- 
larly influential  among  the  Polish  dock  workers 
of  that  city,  who  were  almost  all  Catholic,  and 
he  rendered  services  of  great  importance  as 
mediator  during  the  long  and  bitter  dock 
strikes.    In  1903  he  was  installed  Ardibishop  of 

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Chicago.  Under  his  direction  many  pariah 
schools  and  colleges  were  founded  in  that  city. 
He  also  established  hospitals,  homes,  and  dis- 
pensaries for  the  poor  of  his  diocese.  Through 
his  influence  the  first  Polish  bishop  of  the 
United  States  was  appointed  for  Chicago.  One 
of  his  most  important  works  was  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Catholic  Church  Extension  Society, 
through  which  hundreds  of  churches  and  chapels 
have  been  built  in  small  communities  in  the 
sparcely  settled  districts  of  the  United  States. 
On  several  occasions  he  protested  at  Washing- 
ton against  the  mistreatment  of  the  nuns  and 
priests  in  Mexico.  He  organized  the  first  Cath- 
olic missionary  congress  in  the  United  States. 

QXJICKSILVEB.  The  producticm  of  quick- 
silver in  the  United  States  in  1914  was  16,548 
flasks,  valued  at  $811,680.  Of  this  11,333 
flasks  were  produced  in  California,  and  6215 
in  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  Texas  combined.  The 
prevailing  prices  from  January  to  July,  1914, 
were  so  low  that  there  was  little  profit  in  the 
industiy.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
war,  however,  prices  rose  so  high  that  proiduo- 
ers  were  encouraged  to  make  their  maximum 
output.  There  were  30  producers  of  quicksil- 
ver in  the  United  States  in  1914,  compared  with 
24  in  1913.  Twenty  of  the  producers  were  in 
California,  seven  in  Nevada,  and  three  in  Ari- 
zona and  Texas  combined.  The  average  domes- 
tic price  of  quicksilver  in  California  was  $49.05. 
The  imports  of  quicksilver  in  1914  amounted  to 
614,859  pounds,  valued  at  $271,984.  The  ex- 
ports amounted  to  1446  flasks  of  75  pounds 
each,  valued  at  $70,763. 

BABIES.  The  results  of  the  antirabic 
inoculation  at  the  Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris 
for  1914  shows  that  the  mortality  from  hydro- 
phobia has  almost  disappeared.  In  1912,  395 
persons  were  treated;  in  1913,  3330  were 
treated;  in  1914,  373  were  treated  without  a 
single  death.    See  also  Vetebinabt  Medicine. 

bACINO.  Thorou^bred  racing,  killed  for 
the  time  being  in  Europe  because  of  the  war, 
has  taken  on  a  new  lease  of  life  in  the  United 
States,  judging  from  the  interest  and  enthusi- 
asm the  sport  aroused  in  1915.  There  was  a 
marked  increase  in  attendance  at  all  the  Amer- 
ican meetings,  this  being  especiallv  true  at  the 
tracks  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City. 

Harry  Payne  Whitney,  who,  owing  to  the 
death  of  his  brother-in-law,  Alfred  Gwynne  Van- 
derbilt,  leased  his  racing  stable  to  L.  S.  Thomp- 
son, headed  the  list  of  winning  oviTiers  with 
more  than  $100,000.  Of  this  total  $68,671  was 
won  on  the  Jockey  Club  trades,  Dominant  earn- 
ing $18,945  and  Thunderer  $17,385.  To  these 
amounts  must  be  added  the  purses  captured  by 
Borrow  and  Regret  through  their  victories  in 
Kentucky,  which  amounted  to  $23,150. 

Other  leading  winners  were  August  Belmont, 
$50,003;  R.  T.  Wilson,  $40,399;  H.  C.  Hallen- 
beck,  $23,380;  Andrew  Miller,  $22,310;  James 
Butler,  $20,685;  Greentree  Stable,  $17,585; 
Quincy  Stable,  $17,080;  Gifford  A.  Cochran, 
$16,720;  R.  F.  Carman,  $16,333;  J.  E.  Davis, 
$15,005;  H.  C.  Bedwell,  $14,975;  John  E.  Mad- 
den, $13,030;  John  O.  Talbott,  $11,475;  Thomas 
Hitchcock,  $11,435;  Dave  Leary,  $11,340; 
Schuyler  L.  Parsons,  $11,070;  Edward  McBride, 
$10,330;  Captain  E.  B.  Cassatt,  $10,085;  Emil 
Herz,  $10,030. 

Andrew  Miller's  Roamer  deserves  special  men- 
tion among  the  horses  of  the  year,  winning  seven 


races,  including  the  Saratoga  Handicap,  Sara- 
toga Cup,  and  Havre  de  Grace  Handicap.  H.  P. 
Whitney's  Regret  was  another  horse  that  stood 
out,  her  principal  victories  being  in  the  Ken- 
tucky Derby  and  the  Saranac  Handicap.  Other 
horses  to  gain  the  limelight  during  1915  were 
August  Belmont's  Btromholi;  H.  P.  Whitney's 
Borrow,  Thunderer,  and  Dominant-,  R.  T.  Wil- 
son's Tartar;  H.  C.  Hallenbeck's  The  Finn; 
Schuyler  L.  Parsons's  Phoaphor, 

The  winners  of  the  more  important  stakes 
were:  Metropolitan  Handicap,  August  Bel- 
mont's Btromholi;  Futurity,  H.  P.  Whitney's 
Thunderer;  Brooklyn  Handicap,  R.  T.  Wilson's 
Tartar;  Brighton  Handicap,  R.  T.  Wilson's 
Olambala;  Excelsior  Handicap,  J.  W.  Messervy's 
Addie  M;  Carter  Handicap,  S.  L.  Parsons's  Phos- 
phor; Suburban  Handicap,  August  Belmont's 
Btromholi;  Saratoga  Handicap,  Andrew  Miller's 
Roamer, 

The  leading  jockey  of  the  year  was  Tommy 
McTaggart,  who  made  a  name  for  himself  in 
handling  two-year-olds  as  well  as  in  actual  num- 
ber of  victories  won. 

Racing  in  England  suffered  from  the  war,  and 
in  France  no  meetings  were  held.  For  the  first 
time  since  1780  the  English  Derby  was  not  run 
over  Epsom  Downs.  The  New  Derby  Stakes 
contestMl  for  at  Newmarket  were  captured  by 
Sol  Joel's  Pommem, 

Harness  racing,  judging  by  the  chain  of  meet- 
ings conducted  on  the  Grand  Circuit,  had  one 
of  its  most  successful  years.  The  10  members 
of  the  circuit — Cleveland,  Detroit,  Kalamazoo, 
Grand  Rapids,  Montreal,  New  York,  Hartford, 
Syracuse,  Columbus,  and  Lexington — kept  rac- 
ing stables  occupied  for  13  weeks  and  distributed 
among  winning  owners  $417,518.  A  total  of 
1447  entries — ^trotters  and  pacers — competed  on 
the  Grand  Circuit  tracks. 

A  world's  record  of  winnings  on  the  Amer- 
ican harness  turf  for  one  season  was  made  by 
Peter  Bcott  which  captured  purses  to  the  total 
value  of  $36,285,  to  which  might  be  added  $14,- 
410  won  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  meet- 
ing, or  a  grand  total  of  $50,695. 

More  than  20  new  world's  records  were  made. 
Directum  I  paced  a  mile  at  Syracuse  in  1:56% 
as  against  his  own  old  mark  of  1 :  58,  and  Wil- 
liam paced  a  mile  to  wagon  in  1:59^,  a  reduc- 
tion from  the  record  of  two  seconds.  Peter  Volo 
set  a  new  world's  figure  for  a  four-year-old  trot- 
ting colt  and  equaled  the  world's  trotting  stal- 
lion record  of  2:02. 

AACQUETS  AND  COUBT  TENNIS.  Clar- 
ence C.  Pell  of  the  Tuxedo  Racquet  and  Tennis 
Club  proved  supreme  in  the  racquets  world  in 
1915.  He  captured  the  national  singles  amateur 
championship  and  was  a  member  of  &e  team  that 
won  the  national  doubles  title.  In  the  final 
round  of  the  singles  tournament  Pell  defeated 
Lawrence  Waterbury,  who  had  held  the  cham- 
pionship in  the  two  preceding  years,  by  a  score 
of  3  matches  to  1. 

Stanley  G.  Mortimer  and  Pell  then  deposed 
Dwight  F.  Davis  and  J.  W.  Wear  of  the  St. 
Louis  Racquet  Club  as  doubles  champions.  In 
the  professional  ranks  Jack  Soutar  of  New  York 
City  retained  his  championship  laurels. 

Jay  Gould  successfully  defended  his  title  in 
court  tennis  by  defeating  Joshua  Crane,  chal- 
lenger, at  6-4,  6-2,  6-2.  In  the  doubles  Gould 
and  W.  H.  T.  Huhn  defeated  Crane  and  George 
R.   Fearing  at  6-1,  0-6,  6-1,  6-3.    Walter  A. 


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BAILWAY  ACCIDENTS 


Kinsella  won  from  Jack  White  in  a  professional 
match  by  a  score  of  4-6,  6-3,  6-3,  6-2. 
BADIOACTIVE  EEBTILIZEBS.     See  Feb- 

TILIZEBS.  ' 

BADIOACTIVITT.  See  Chemistbt;  Geol- 
ogy; and  Physics. 

BADIOMETEB.     See  Astbonomy. 

BADIO-TELEGEAFHY.  See  Wireless  Te- 
legraphy AND  Telephony. 

EADIUM.  See  Chemistry,  General  Prog- 
ress OF,  Organic  Chemistry;  and  Chemistry, 
Industrial. 

BAILWAY  ACCIDENTS.  The  fiscal  year 
1015  showed  a  marked  reduction  in  the  number 
of  railway  accidents  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  loss  of  life  as  reported  by  the  Interstate 
Conunerce  Commission.  At  last,  the  effects  of 
the  "Safety  First"  movement — the  improved  fa- 
cilities in  the  way  of  equipment,  signals  de- 
signed to  secure  safer  operation,  ^. — ^were 
manifest.  In  saying  this,  it  must  not,  however, 
be  forgotten  that  there  was  decreased  railway 
traffic  caused  by  the  business  depression.  For 
the  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  excluding  tres- 
passers,  the  total  nun^r  of  fatalities  was  3537, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  tables.  This 
was  less  than  in  any  year  since  1900,  and  over 
27  per  cent  less  than  in  1914;  while  the  number 
of  passengers  carried  one  mile  in  1915  was  106 
per  cent  greater,  and  the  number  of  tons  of 
freight  hauled  one  mile  about  92  per  cent  greater 
than  in  1900.  The  total  number  of  casualties 
in  1915  was  170,661,  including  8621  persons 
killed  and  162,040  injured.  In  1914,  9893  per- 
sons were  killed,  and  192,662  injured,  as  will  ap- 
pear from  the  accompanying  table.  The  vear 
1915  afforded  a  marked  improvement  in  all  re- 
spects, including  trespassers,  against  whom  a 
campaign  was  ]^mg  actively  waged  by  the  rail- 
roads, both  in  the  way  of  education  and  secur- 
ing increased  punishment.  Another  important 
element  of  the  record  for  1915  was  the  fact 
that  but  410  fatalities  occurred  in  train  acci- 
dents. In  short,  the  total  number  of  persons 
killed  in  1915  was  less  than  in  any  other  year 
since  1902,  <and  the  number  of  injuries  less  than 
in  any  year  since  1911.  In  191 5,  approximately 
1,000,000,000  passengers  were  carried,  while  in 
1898,  when  the  number  killed  was  less  than  in 
1916,  only  798,000,000  were  carried. 

The  number  of  train  accidents  in  1915  was 
11,542,  as  compared  with  15,006  in  1914,  or  a 
decrease  of  23  per  cent,  and  these  accidents 
consisted  of  3537  collisions — a  decrease  of  32 
per  cent;  6846  derailments — a  decrease  of  20 
per  cent;   1159  accidents — a  decrease  of  3.4  per 


cent.  The  number  of  collisions  was  the  small- 
est in  10  years.  The  number  of  collisions  and 
derailments  combined  was  the  smallest,  except 
in  1909,  since  1903.  The  number  of  passengers 
killed  in  train  accidents  in  1915  was  89,  as  com- 
pared with  85  in  1914,  and  with  that  exception 
was  less  than  for  any  other  year  since  1899,  al- 
though the  number  of  passengers  carried  one 
mile  in  1914  was  146  per  cent  greater  than  in 
1899.  The  total  for  the  two  years  1914  and 
1915  combined  was  slightly  greater  than  the 
average  for  the  previous  ten  years,  which  was 
164  per  cent. 


FATALITIES   IN   CONNECTION 

WITH   10   YEARS* 

OPERATIONS   OF 

AMERICAN   RAILROADS 

FataliHttin 

Train  Aeei- 

OilUT 

dsnttonly 

(indud- 

PaM4n-      Em- 

Ttm- 

Not  Tret 

'     tdintht 

ger9       phyeet 

P<u9er9 

patting 

foregoing) 

1906          418          8807 

5881 

949 

1093 

1907          647         4868 

6612 

1088 

1464 

1908         406          8858 

5489 

918 

807 

1909          885          2456 

4944 

915 

661 

1910         421          8888 

* 

* 

982 

1911          866          8168 

6284 

1154 

867 

1912          818          8286 

6484 

1198 

859 

1918          408          8801 

6658 

1288 

849 

1914          265          2850 

5471 

1807 

626 

1916          222          1809 

6084 

1168 

410 

*  Not  reported. 

An  important  feature  of  the  American  acci- 
dent statistics  is  that  while  collisions  have  been 
decreasing,  derailments  have  been  increasing. 
In  1902  there  were  8675  train  accidents  reported, 
of  which  5042  were  collisions  and  3633  were 
derailments.  In  1908,  the  collisions  had  de- 
creased and  derailments  had  increased  until 
their  number  was  about  equal.  In  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1915,  derailments  outnumbered  col- 
lisions almost  two  to  one,  the  figures  being  3538 
collisions  and  6849  derailments.  Of  40  derail- 
ments which  the  Commission  investigated  dur- 
ing the  year,  11  were  caused  by  bad  track.  The 
Commission  sums  up  the  matter  as  follows: 
"The  remarkable  increase  in  speed  and  weight 
of  trains  in  recent  years  confirms  the  necessity 
for  further  investigation  to  determine  with  ac- 
curacy the  stresses  to  which  equipment  and 
track  are  subjected  under  present  service  con- 
ditions in  order  to  establish  safe  working  lim- 
its for  their  use." 

This  already  has  involved  the  reduction  of 
speeds,  for  with  an  increase  of  speed  defects  in 
track  are  likely  to  develop  and  increased  dam- 
age in  case  of  a  derailment. 


SUMMARY  OF  CASUALTIES  TO  PERSONS  FOR  THE  YEARS  ENDED  JUNE  80,  1915  AND  1914 

Steam  raHwayt  Bleetrie  raUwayt 

Item                                                           1915                                       1914  1916                         1914 

KiUed      Injured              KUled       Injured  KiUed       Injured       KiUed  Injured 
Passengers : 

In  train  accidents 89              4,648                     85              7,001  9             769            18          1,182 

Other   causes    188              7,462                    180              8,120  26          1,696            40          2,047 

Total     222            12.110                    265            15,121  85          2,465            58          8,229 

Employees  on  duty : 

In    train    accidents     221              8.871                    452              4,828  9             111              9             100 

In    coupling    accidents    90              1,993                    171              2,692  ...                14              2               25 

Overhead  obstructions,   etc.    . .       45              1,088                     89              1,490  ...               21              2               28 

Falling  from  cars,  etc 868            10.748                    497            14,568  7             184              8             126 

Other   causes    870            20,866                1,814            27,278  8             221            25             289 

Total     1,594            88,060                2,628            60,841  24             601            46             668 

Total    passengers    and    em- 
ployees on  duty   1,816            60.170                 2,788            65,962  59          2,966          104          8,797 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


BAILWAY  ACCIDBNT8 


536 


&AILWAY  ACCIDSirFS 


Umn  191$ 

KHUd     Iniur€d 
Employeea  not  on  duty: 

In  train  accidents 6  72 

In  coupling  accidents 1 

Overhead  obstructions,   etc 10 

Falling  from  cars,  etc 46  287 

Other  causes    166  470 

ToUl 216  840 

Other  persons  not  trespassinff: 

In  train  accidents 7  110 

Other  causes    1,166  6,280 

Total     1,168  6,300 

Trespassers: 

In  train  aecidenU 88  161 

Other  causes    4,996  6,287 

Total      6,084  6.448 

Total    accidents    luTolTing    train 

operation     8,278  62,848 

Industrial  accidents  to  employees 

not  inyolWng  train  operation. .    848  00,192 

Grand  toUl    8,621  162,040 


MUcMo  roOiscyt 
1914^  1916  1914 

Krn^d      iniured      KUU4     Inhirtd    KUUd     JftiwMd 


8 

64 
266 


117 

2 

6 

870 

608 


16 
6 


16 


18 
6 


827 

1.097 

8 

26 

8 

84 

9 
1.298 

1.807 

148 
6.827 

6,976 

1 
190 

191 

26 
1.093 

1,118 

1 
247 

248 

4 
1.081 

1.086 

75 
6,896 

6.471 

178 
6.176 

6.864 

ios 

108 

ioe 

106 

i68 
168 

189 

9.898 

79.388 

866 

4.216 

628 

6.066 

409 

118.274 

16 

932 

28 

1.068 

10.802  192.662  872 


DERAILMENTS— STEAM  RAILWAYS 

Tear  ended  June  SO,  1916  Year  ended  June  SO,  1914 

Damage  Damage 

to  road  to  road 

and  and 

Caueee                                                                                          ogulp-  equtp- 

merU  and  ment  and 

eoet  of  eoet  of 

Pereone —         clearing  Pereone —          eUaring 

Due  to  Defeete  of  Equipment                     Number   KHUd  Injured     wreeke  Number    Kitted  Injured       wreeke 
Defective  wheels: 

Broken  or  hurst  wheel 885            8           63       $894,569  860           4           29         $456,886 

Broken   flange    846            2           49         811,556  584           8         100            526.247 

Loose  wheel   100            1           11            69,122  117            1            74              97.789 

Miscellaneous  wheel  defecU 86                        29           49,467  118           2            66              66,766 

Broken  or  defective  axle  or  journals 867            6         104         862,766  425           2          120            840,185 

Broken  or  defective  brake  rigging 890           8            54         261,704  580           9         162            898.458 

Broken  or  defective  draft  gear 280           8           41          178,106  411           2            57            258,978 

Broken  or  defective  side  bearings 141                        87          108.098  .148           8           44            110.928 

Broken  arch  bar   222            6           77         269.817  276            1            66            278.695 

Rifid  trucks 177            4            65            92,057  217          .  .             88            118,774 

Failure  of  power-brake  apparatus,  hose,  etc.     858            9           45         175,568  260           1           26            180,631 

Fsilure  of  couplers    219            8            82          102,750  288            2            18            116.184 

Miscellaneous    400           9         169         277.568  512         16         276            468.918 

Total    8,416         54         766      2.648,188  4,186         60      1.074  •      8.858.088 

Due  to  Defeete  of  Boadwtnf 

Broken  rail    272            6         527       $842,842  811         24         810         $887,058 

Spread   rail    90            8          147            55,889  217           8          147            126.827 

Soft  track 854            8          292          191.456  856          .  .          218            254,265 

Bad  ties    61            8            39            27.884  62            8          118              29.760 

Sun  kink 82            2            96            29,874  27            8            21              22.701 

Irregular  track    416         11         281         290,082  512         12         227            878.883 

Broken  or  defective  switch  or  frog 202            0         126         127,798  299          18         294            186.702 

Miscenaneous    81            6           82           56,858  104           8         157            131,152 

Totol    1,607         48      1,540      1,120,588  1,888          66      1,987         1,516.848 

SUMMARY  OF  AOOIDENTS  RESUiyHNO  FROM  COLLISIONS    AND  DERAILMENTS    FOR    THE    10 

YEARS  ENDED  JUNE   80.   1916  * 

Damage  to 
road  and 
equipment 
and  eoet  of 

Pereone —  clearing 

Tear                                                                          Number                   Kitted  Injured                          vreeke 

1906     18,455                       977  12.686                        $10,669,189 

1907     15,458                    1,291  16,286                           12,865.702 

1908     t 18.084                       728  12.834                          10,188.660 

1909     9,670                       606  9,560                             7.480.208 

1910     11.779                       778  12.579                            9.828.958 

1911     11,865                       785  11,798                             9.861.780 

1912     18.698                       772  16,096                          11.527.458 

1918     15.526                       791  14.565                          18.049.214 

1914     18.806                       605  11,437                          10,965.181 

1915     10,887                      382  7.554                            7.800,898 

*  For  the  years  prior  to  1911  the  figures  for  persons  killed  and  injured  are  restricted  to  passengers  and 
to  employees  on  duty.     Returns  for  electric  railways  are  included  in  the  figures  for  the  same  years. 


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The  Bailwoff  Age  Oaaette,  Dec.  31,  1015  (p. 
1252),  reported  that  the  mileage  of  railways  m 
the  United  States  operated  under  the  block  sig- 
nal ^stem  on  Dec.  31,  1915,  was  97,809  miles, 
an  increase  during  the  year  of  9677  miles.  Of 
this,  31,160  miles  was  automatic  block  signal 
mileage,  as  compared  with  29,689  for  the  previ- 
ous year,  while  the  remainder  was  operated  on 
the  manual  block  system.  Practically  all  the 
large  railways  had  under  consideration  plans 
for  the  extension  and  improvement  of  their 
block  signal  systems,  which  varied  all  the  way 
from  the  extensive  reconstruction  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford,  where  auto- 
matic signals  were  to  replace  the  control  system, 
to  the  Long  Island,  which  was  considering  plans 
to  install  a  considerable  number  of  manually 
operated  block  signals. 

Rail  failure  statistics  for  the  year  ended  Oct. 
31,  1914,  are  tabulated  in  the  September  Bulle- 
tin of  the  American  Railvoay  Engineering  Aaeo- 
oiation.  As  a  general  average  the  failures  per 
10,000  tons  of  Bessemer  rails  were  about  double 
those  of  open-hearth  rails.  A  table  was  given 
showing  the  ranking  of  the  mills  as  regards 
rate  of  failures  for  the  rollings  of  the  years  1909, 
1910,  1911,  and  1912,  and  a  comparison  with  the 
1914  statistics  indicated  as  a  general  average 
of  all  of  the  mills,  a  gradual  decrease  in  the 
rate  of  rail  failure  of  rollings  for  the  successive 
years  since  1908,  with  which  year's  rolling  the 
records  started. 

Safety  of  Passengers.  An  excellent  record 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  was  made 
by  the  Union  Pacific,  which  carried  in  the  previ- 
ous 12  months  4,550,949  passengers  without  a 
fatality  to  a  passenger.  In  1915  229  passengers 
were  injured,  as  compared  with  333  in  1913, 
which  was  the  last  year  before  the  Bureau  of 
Safety  was  organized.  In  1915  28  employees 
were  killed,  as  compared  with  59  in  1913,  and 
4537  passengers  were  injured  as  compared  with 
6097  in  1913.  A  good  record  was  also  enjoyed 
by  the  entire  Pennsylvania  Railroad  system, 
with  its  26,000  miles  of  track.  On  Dec.  31, 
1915,  there  were  completed  two  years  without 
a  single  one  of  the  361,572,114  passengers  car- 
ried in  that  period  being  killed  in  a  train  acci- 
dent, figures  for  November  and  December  being 
estimated.  The  lines  east  of  Pittsburgh  com- 
pleted their  third  successive  year  without  a 
single  train  accident  fatality  to  one  of  the  320,- 
000,000  people  carried  in  the  three-year  period. 
In  five  of  the  eight  years  ending  with  1915 — 
1908,  1910,  1913,  1914,  and  1915— more  than 
520,000,000  passengers  were  carried  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania lines  east  of  Pittsburgh  on  4,000,000 
trains  without  a  single  loss  of  life  in  a  train 
accident. 

A  large  number  of  accidents  were  reported 
during  the  year,  manifestly  due  to  the  careless- 
ness of  motorists  at  crossmgs,  often  where  ade- 
quately guarded.  So  many  were  experienced  on 
the  Long  Island  Railroad,  where  a  large  number 
of  such  accidents  had  taken  place,  that  the  of- 
ficials of  that  line  were  led  to  redouble  care, 
and  in  many  places  to  install  heavy  pole  gates. 
In  several  instances  these  gates  were  broken 
down  by  motorists  who  did  not  stop  at  the 
warning.  At  a  single  corner,  on  Long  Island, 
on  the  Merrick  Road  at  Springfield,  on  Aug- 
ust 8th,  9408  automobiles  passed,  and  in  a  sin- 
gle hour  845  motor  cars,  or  more  than  14  a 
minute,   crossed   the  tracks.    The   abolition   of 


grade  crossings  is  taking  place  in  many  subur- 
ban districts  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  during 
the  year  increased  attention  was  being  given 
to  extra  care  by  drivers  of  motor  cars,  and  con- 
siderable public  sympathy  was  enlisted  on  the 
side  of  the  railways  as  a  result  of  their  cam- 
paign of  publicity  against  such  practices. 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  there 
were  fewer  accidents  than  usual  where  great 
loss  of  life  ensued.  A  number  of  the  more  im- 
portant are  summarized  herewith  and  show  the 
tendency  towards  safety  in  railway  operation. 
A  collision  took  place  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  between 
a  street  car  and  a  string  of  freight  cars  pushed 
by  a  switching  engine,  on  the  Detroit,  Toledo,  and 
Ironton  Railroad,  in  which  15  persons  were 
killed  and  20  injured,  on  April  14,  1915.  The 
motorman  on  the  street  car  misunderstood  the 
signal  of  his  conductor  who  had  been  sent  ahead 
to  investigate,  and  the  car  on  application  of 
the  power  ran  down  an  incline  and  on  to  the 
crossing.  An  accident  due  to  a  washout  near 
Lake  City,  Minn.,  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaiikee,  and 
St.  Paul,  resulted  in  3  being  killed,  and  10  in- 
jured, on  June  5th;  while  the  malicious  re- 
moval of  a  rail  near  Birmingham,  Ala.,  on  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  product  an  accident  in 
which  3  were  killed  and  15  injured.  An  acci- 
dent due  to  a  collision  between  two  passenger 
trains  occurred  near  Thurmont,  Md.,  on  the 
night  of  June  24,  1915,  on  the  Western  Mary- 
land Railroad.  This  collision  took  place  on  a 
high  bridge.  The  bi^^gage  car  of  the  west  bound 
train  fell  to  the  ravine  below.  Both  engines 
were  badly  damaged  but  they  ronained  on  the 
bridge,  as  did  the  rest  of  both  trains.  In  the 
baggage  car  which  fell  there  were  two  passen- 
gers and  the  baggage  master,  who  were  killed; 
while  one  engineman,  one  fireman,  and  a  trav- 
eling fireman  were  also  killed.  Several  persons 
were  injured.  The  collision  was  due  to  a  mis- 
take by  a  train  dispatcher  sending  conflicting 
orders.  A  few  days  later — June  27th — ^there 
was  a  collision  between  two  freight  trains  near 
Platte  River,  Mo.,  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  in  which  three  employees  were  killed 
and  five  were  injured. 

A  rear  end  collision  between  a  standing  pas- 
senger train  and  a  freight  train,  resulting  in 
the  death  of  seven  passengers,  occurred  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern  Railroad  at 
Orient,  Ohio,  Aug.  12,  1915.  The  accident  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  engineer  of  the  freight 
train  in  a  heavy  rain  was  not  running  under 
control,  and  the  passenger  train  did  not  exer- 
cise adequate  precautions  in  the  way  of  fiagging 
and  throwing  off  fusees.  The  car  in  which  the 
passengers  were  killed  was  of  wooden  construc- 
tion with  open  platforms.  Another  serious  acci- 
dent of  the  year  occurred  in  September  in  a 
tunnel  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad 
at  Phcenixville,  when  9  workmen  were  killed 
and  9  injured,  these  being  members  of  a  gang  of 
50  who  were  run  down  while  walking  along  the 
track  by  a  southbound  passenger  tram,  running 
on  the  northbound  track.  It  was  claimed  that 
the  unusual  operation  of  the  train  should  have 
been  explained  to  the  foreman  and  workmen  be- 
fore entering  the  timnel,  and  the  misunderstand- 
ing averted  by  a  written  order.  The  railway 
claimed  that  the  conductor  of  the  work  train 
had   given    proper    notice    to    the    construction 

A  serious  accident,  not  connected,  however,  with 


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RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS 


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RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS 


operation,  occurred  on  Sept.  27,  1916,  at  Ard- 
more,  Okla.,  where  the  explosion  of  a  tank  car 
filled  with  gasoline  resulted  in  the  deaths  of  39 
people,  injuries  to  a  large  number,  and  the  de- 
struction of  property  valued  at  between  $500,- 
000  and  $1,000,000.  The  explosion  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  gasoline,  loaded  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  50^  Fahrenheit,  had  been  standing  on  a 
side  track  at  Ardmore,  where  the  temperature 
was  93^  in  the  shade,  and  the  immediate  cause 
was  the  removal  of  the  dome  cap  of  the  tank 
car,  while  the  tank  was  subjected  to  interior 
pressure.  While  there  are  regulations  for  the 
transportation  of  gasoline  and  other  explosives, 
yet  the  occasion  seemed  to  emphasize  the  need 
of  absolute  compliance  with  the  requirements  of 
the  Railroads  Bureau  of  Explosives  regulations. 

On  October  16th  a  passenger  train  of  two 
cars,  consisting  of  a  gasoline  motor  and  a  pas- 
senger car  was  derailed  near  Randolph,  ^n., 
the  result  of  a  washout  which  damaged  the 
roadbed,  but  not  sufficiently  to  change  its  sur- 
face appearance.  The  accident  occurred  on  a 
bank  at  an  approach  to  a  bridge,  and  the  pas- 
senger car  was  thrown  down  into  a  stream,  its 
forward  end  being  submerged;  11  passengers 
were  drowned,  and  3  seriously  injured.  On  the 
18th  of  October  a  southbound  passenger  train 
was  derailed  near  Brownsville,  Texas.  Three 
passengers  were  killed  and  several  injured. 
This  accident  was  thought  to  be  due  to  obstruc- 
tions placed  on  the  track  by  Mexican  bandits, 
who,  as  soon  as  the  train  was  stopped,  entered 
the  passenger  car  and  began  shooting.  One  of 
the  serious  collisions  of  the  year  occurred  Oct. 
19,  1915,  at  Agawam,  Okla.,  between  a  passenger 
train  and  a  freight  train,  on  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island,  and  Pacific  Railway,  causing  the  death 
of  seven  persons  and  fatal  injuries  to  several 
others.  In  November  a  butting  collision  oc- 
curred on  the  Central  of  Georgia,  four  miles 
east  of  Columbus,  Ga.,  between  a  northboimd 
passenger  train  and  a  southbound  special,  car- 
rying a  show,  in  which  at  least  seven  persons 
were  killed  and  many  injured.  The  engines  of 
both  trains  were  wrecked,  and  while  the  steel 
cars  of  the  passenger  train  were  not  badly  dam- 
aged, 10  or  more  cars  in  the  circus  were  wrecked 
and  destroyed  by  fire,  and  many  wild  and  tame 
animals  were  killed,  while  a  number  of  wild  ani- 
mals escaped. 

Gbeat  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  year  1915 
was  the  worst  on  record  so  far  as  safety  of  pas- 
8C:ngers  was  concerned  for  the  railways  of  Great 
Britain.  In  the  12  months,  269  passengers  were 
killed  in  train  accidents,  beginning  on  January 
1st,  when  a  collision  caused  by  an  engineer  over- 
running his  signals,  occurred  at  Ilford,  Eng- 
land, in  which  10  passengers  were  killed.  (Si 
January  28th  two  women  were  killed  at  Kin- 
sale,  in  a  collision  between  a  freight  train  of 
whose  engine  the  engineman  had  lost  control, 
and  some  standing  passenger  cars.  Three  pas- 
sengers were  kill^  in  a  collision  at  Smithey 
Bridge  on  March  18,  in  a  sand  storm  where  an 
engineer  ran  by  several  signals  and  dashed  into 
a  standing  train.  The  most  serious  accident  of 
the  year  was  a  collision  on  May  22nd,  at  Quin- 
tinshill,  where  228  passengers  were  killed. 
On  August  14th  10  passengers  were  killed  in  an 
accident  at  Weedon,  in  which  the  Day  Irish 
Mail  was  derailed.  August  16th  a  passenger 
was  killed  at  Pollokshaws  in  a  collision  due  to 
an  engineer  mistaking  a  danger  night  signal  for 


a  clear  signal.  Again  on  September  6th  a  pas- 
senger was  killed  in  a  collision  between  an  ex- 
press train  and  a  derailed  car  at  Newark,  and 
on  December  17th  occurred  a  disastrous  collision 
at  Jarrow,  in  which  17  passengers  were  killed. 

The  accident  at  Quintinshill  was  near  Gretna, 
on  the  Caledonian  Railway,  and  228  were  killed 
outright  or  died  of  their  injuries,  and  246  were 
injured,  of  whom  191  were  passengers  in  a  troop 
train  of  21  vehicles,  51  were  passengers  on  the 
down  express,  1  an  employee  on  the  troop  train, 
and  3  employees  on  the  down  express.  This  ac- 
cident, which  was  the  most  serious  since  the 
Armagh  disaster  in  1889,  where  80  were  killed, 
was  due  first  to  a  collision  of  a  special  troop 
train  from  London  with  a  local  train  from  Car- 
lisle, which  had  been  switched  from  the  down 
to  the  up  track.  A  few  moments  afterwards  an 
express  passenger  train  from  Carlisle  ran  into 
the  wreckage,  which  by  this  time  was  afire, 
while  the  down  express  was  telescoped  and 
added  its  debris  to  the  fire.  This  accident 
brought  up  again  the  question  of  rendering  the 
timber  used  for  the  construction  of  railway  cars 
non-infiammable,  and  as  the  gas  tanks  exploded 
with  the  heat  and  fire,  it  was  recommended  that 
electric  light  be  used  in  all  .new  carriages,  as 
was  the  prevailing  tendency  in  Great  Britain. 
As  a  consequence  of  this  accident  two  signal- 
men and  a  fireman  were  put  on  trial  for  cul- 
pable homicide.  The  fireman  was  found  not 
guilty,  but  the  signalmen  received  18  months' 
imprisonment  and  three  years'  penal  servitude 
respectively.  Like  other  railway  accidents,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Board  of  Trade  inspector,  this 
was  considered  exceptional,  and  the  human  fail- 
ure, as  in  other  accidents,  was  perhaps  the  lead- 
ing consideration,  as  the  three  employees  con- 
cerned each  failed  in  his  duty  though  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  culpability.  The  inspector  fur- 
ther recommended  that  track  circuits  should  be 
employed  at  all  dangerous  places  like  Quintins- 
hill, and  that  each  signal  box  on  the  main  line 
be  protected  with  such  a  device  between  the 
home  and  starting  signals,  but  under  such  con- 
ditions the  particular  point  would  have  been 
one  of  the  last  to  have  been  so  protected,  as  the 
track  was  entirely  in  view  of  the  signalman  in 
his  tower. 

The  wreck  on  the  North  Eastern  Railway  of 
England,  at  St.  Bede's  Junction,  Jarrow,  a  short 
distance  from  Newcastle,  December  17th,  was 
caused  primarily  by  a  rear  end  collision,  which 
was  followed  by  fire.  Sixteen  passengers  and 
1  fireman  were  killed  and  50  or  more  passen- 
gers were  injured.  The  accident  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  a  signalman  had  overlooked  the  fact 
that  a  pusher  engine  which  had  just  assisted  a 
freight  train  to  the  top  of  a  grade  was  standing 
on  the  main  track,  and  he  admitted  a  following 
passenger  train  to  the  block  section.  This  train 
collided  with  the  pusher;  and  one  or  two  of  the 
passenger  cars  fell  over  on  an  adjacent  main 
track.  On  this  track  a  train  of  empty  passen- 
ger cars  was  approaching,  and  before  it  could 
be  warned,  it  struck  the  wreck. 

France.  In  France  the  military  as  well  as 
the  normal  operation  of  the  railways  was  re- 
markably free  from  accidents  in  1914  and  1915. 
In  the  latter  year,  however,  two  somewhat  seri- 
ous accidents  occurred,  one  at  Rochefort  on  the 
State  Railway  lines,  May  17th,  when  7  em- 
ployees were  injured  by  the  derailment  of  the 
Nantes-Bordeaux  express,  caused  by  the  drop- 


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ping  of  a  steamship  smokestack  from  a  preced- 
ing freight  train;  and  the  other  on  Octoher 
9th,  at  Saint  Cyr-de-Faviferes,  on  the  line  of  the 
Paris- Lyon-Mediterran^,  when  17  soldiers  were 
killed  and  30  injured,  this  being  the  largest  num- 
ber of  fatalities  that  has  marked  any  accident 
in  France  for  many  years.  The  accident  was 
due  to  a  special  troop  train  breaking  in  two, 
and  six  passenger  coaches  running  wild  jumped 
the  track  and  rolled  into  a  ravine.  France  had 
a  unique  record  for  railroad  accidents,  there 
being  but  one  passenger  killed  to  32,000,000  car- 
ried, and  but  one  injured  to  1,300,000  carried. 
In  the  40-year  period  since  1875,  railroad  travel 
had  tripled  and  had  developed  to  a  point  where 
it  was  far  safer  than  the  stage  coach,  where 
one  passenger  was  killed  to  335,000  carried,  and 
one  injured  to  50,000  carried.  Aside  from  train 
accidents,  however,  with  the  large  number  of 
guards  alonsr  the  line  of  the  railways,  it  was 
believed  that  there  would  be  a  considerable 
number  of  fatalities  to  soldier  track  guards. 

Mexico.  Another  serious  railway  accident  of 
the  year  took  place  on  October  5th  on  the  Mex- 
ican Railway  on  the  Maltrata  incline  (between 
Orizaba  and  Boca  del  Monte),  where  the  line 
makes  an  ascent  of  4  per  cent,  which  reaches 
5  per  cent  at  some  stretches.  Ilie  alignment  is 
very  crooked  and  there  are  a  number  of  sharp 
curves.  The  accident  occurred  near  Alta  Luz, 
tunnel  No.  13.  In  the  tunnel  the  coupling  to 
the  engine  gave  way,  and  the  train  was  parted 
from  the  engine,  which,  bumping  into  the  cars 
with  sufficient  force,  released  the  air  brakes  and 
started  the  train  on  the  down  grade.  The  hand 
brakes  did  not  avail,  and  a  panic  took  place 
among  the  passengers,  nearly  all  of  whom  were 
killed  or  injured,  the  number  of  casualties  being 
estimated  at  300,  a  great  majority  being  fatali- 
ties as  all  who  jumped  from  the  train  were 
killed.  The  engineer  and  train  crew  were  of 
Mexicans,  and  the  road  was  being  operated  by 
the  Carranza  forces,  it  is  said.    See  also  Rapid 

TRANSIT. 

RAILWAYS.  Some  roads,  notably  the  Hill 
roads  (Great  Northern,  Northern  Pacific,  and 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy),  for  years  made 
a  persistent  and  scientific  effort  to  carry  the 
largest  possible  tonnage  of  freight  with  the  few- 
est number  of  freight  trains.  By  a  great  many 
roads,  however,  this  object  was  pursued  in  a 
more  or  less  haphazard  fashion,  but  the  move- 
nent  received  a  new  impetus  in  1910  when  the 
reads  were  forced  to  make  an  analysis  of  their 
own  operations  to  be  used  in  connection  with 
an  appeal  to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion for  higher  rates.  In  August,  1914,  the 
railways  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  were 
faced  with  a  situation  that  called  imperatively 
for  drastic  action.  In  the  Southeast  and  some 
parts  of  the  Southwest  in  the  United  States, 
business  came  almost  to  a  standstill.  The  rais- 
ing of  new  railway  capital  was  for  a  time  not 
even  considered.  The  International  and  Great 
Northern,  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas, and  Texas  were  forced  into  the  hands  of  re- 
ceivers. 

In  dramatic  interest  the  fact  that  nearly  one- 
sixth  of  the  entire  mileage  of  the  United  States 
was  bankrupt  comes  first  in  a  review  of  railway 
history  in  1915.  As  of  lasting  significance  in 
the  development  of  the  science  of  railroading, 
however,  the  fact  that  railway  managers  were 


forced  into  devising  scientific  methods  of  carry- 
ing the  greatest  possible  amount  of  freight  ton- 
nage with  the  fewest  possible  freight  train 
miles,  ranks  of  equal,  if  not  greater,  impor- 
tance. Of  35  of  the  most  important  roads  in 
the  United  States,  28  show  an  increase  in  ton- 
nage of  freight  per  freight  train  mile  in  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1915,  as  c(Hnpared 
with  the  previous  year.  The  average  tonnage 
of  freight  per  freight  train  for  these  35  roads 
was  482  in  1914  and  504  in  1915. 

When  the  depression  of  1907-08  caused  a  sud- 
den and  large  reduction  in  the  tonnage  of 
freight  carried  by  the  railways,  it  was  the  ex- 
ception rather  than  the  rule  to  find  a  railway 
which  could  reduce  transportation  expenses 
(the  wages  of  men  actually  engaged  in  moving 
trains  and  handling  freight  and  passengers,  and 
the  cost  of  fuel  and  material  consumed)  in  as 
great  proportion  as  the  total  loss  in  revenue. 
There  was  an  entirely  adequate  explanation  of 
this.  The  loss  in  revenue  was  both  from  pas- 
senger fares  and  from  freight  charges.  Only 
sufficient  freight  trains  need  be  run  to  move 
the  freight  which  is  offered,  but  the  passenger 
trains  have  to  be  run  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  whether  or  not  there  are  sufficient  pas- 
sengers to  make  them  pay.  The  total  expenses, 
therefore,  of  freight  and  passenger  service  would 
normally  show  a  decrease  in  greater  proportion 
than  the  reduction  which  could  be  made  in 
transportation  expenses.  In  1915,  however,  the 
majority  of  the  largest  roads  showed  a  greater 
proportional  reduction  in  transportation  ex- 
penses than  in  total  operating  revenues,  al- 
though in  many  cases  the  loss  in  revenue  was 
greater  in  1915  when  compared  with  the  previ- 
ous year  than  in  1908  when  compared  with  1907. 
Far,  in  a  way,  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
success  which  was  attained  in  1915  in  effecting 
economies,  was  the  attention  which  was  given  to 
securing  heavier  trainloads. 

American  methods  of  railway  operation  have 
never  been  scientific  in  the  sense  that  German 
railway  operation  is  scientific.  The  American 
theory  leaves  each  officer  in  the  organization  a 
fairly  broad  discretion  in  the  manner  of  carry- 
ing out  the  orders  of  his  superior.  A  striking 
contrast  between  American  and  German  meth- 
ods is  afforded  by  the  duties  of  the  train  dis- 
patcher. In  Germany  every  conceivable  situa- 
tion that  may  arise  in  regard  to  the  movement 
of  trains  over  a  train  dispatcher's  district  is 
cataloged  and  a  rule  is  made  to  cover  each.  It 
is  only  left  to  the  dispatcher  to  apply  the 
proper  rule  to  each  situation  as  it  arises.  On 
an  American  railway  a  train  dispatcher  has 
charge  of  getting  trains  over  his  district.  Ho 
has  certain  general  rules  by  which  he  must  be 
guided,  but  he  is  left  quite  free  to  deal  with 
each  specific  instance  as  his  own  judgment  and 
ingenuity  suggest.  An  analogous  situation  has 
obtained  in  regard  to  freight  train  loading.  It 
is  to  the  interest  of  the  engineman  to  have  lit- 
tle enough  tonnage  to  haul  to  make  sure  of 
getting  over  his  run  without  delay.  The  yard- 
master  who  makes  up  the  train  does  not  want 
to  "get  himself  in  wrong"  with  the  enginemen 
by  giving  them  too  long  a  train,  which  may 
result  in  delay  and  a  reprimand  for  both  the 
enginemen  and  yardmaster,  and  so  it  has  gone. 
Of  course  the  higher  officers  of  nearly  all  rail- 
way companies  have  accepted  the  general  prin- 
ciple that  the  fewer  trains  that  are  used  to 


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SAILWATS 


haul  a  given  amount  of  freight  the  leas  will  be 
the  expenses  per  ton-mile  and  the  greater  the 
net  revenue.  To  put  this  theory  into  practice, 
however,  has  required  a  scientific  study  and 
supervision  which  has  only  been  given  to  it  in 
the  last  few  years  on  many  roads. 

Although  there  has  been  progress  made  along 
these  lines  in  each  year  since  1910,  1015  was 
the  culmination  of  these  efforts  and  marks  for 
the  majority  of  railway  companies  a  distinct 
stage  in  their  historv.  As  previously  mentioned, 
there  was  a  large  falling  off  in  gross  earnings 
on  most  railways  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1915.  After  July  there  was  considerable 
improvement,  and  the  calendar  year  1915  prob- 
ably ruiked  about  the  same  as  1913,  and  some- 
what better  than  the  calendar  year  1914.  The 
fiscal  year  ended  June  80,  1916  (all  railway 
companies  reporting  to  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  report  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  and  most  companies  make  their  reports 
to  their  stockholders  for  the  same  period),  bade 
fair  to  be  better  than  any  year  since  1906.  The 
falling  off  in  revenue  in  the  last  half  of  1914 
and  the  first  half  of  1915  was  due  to  inactivity 
in  industrial  lines,  to  smaller  purchases  by  re- 
tailers and  individuals,  with  consequent  smaller 
shipments  of  freight,  and  to  loss  in  passenger 
revenue,  due  apparently  to  the  following  causes: 
Business  houses  reduced  their  force  of  traveling 
salesmen  and  traveling  buyers,  and  they  re- 
stricted the  expense  accounts  of  the  force  that 
they  retained.  Business  men  economized  by  re- 
stricting their  own  traveling  expenses,  and  de- 
spite the  fact  that  a  ffreat  many  people  who 
were  in  the  habit  of  going  to  Europe  for  their 
vacations  stayed  in  America  in  1914-15,  the  pas- 
senger travel  of  this  class  did  not  offset,  prob- 
ably, the  smaller  pleasure  traffic  where  people 
denied  themselves  traveling  expenses  either 
from  actual  necessity  or  because  of  feeling  poor. 
It  is  rather  interesting  to  note  that  most  of  the 
transcontinental  railroads  showed  smaller  pas- 
senger revenue  during  the  year  in  which  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition  and  the  San  Diego 
Fair  were  open  than  in  the  previous  year.  Even 
in  States  where  the  crops  were  unusually  good 
in  the  fall  of  1914,  travel  was  restricted,  ap- 
parently from  a  feeling  of  a  desire  to  econo- 
mize. 

Receivebships.  At  one  time  during  1916 
there  was  between  41,000  and  42,000  miles  of 
railway  in  the  hands  of  receivers.  Two-thirds 
of  the  mileage  in  receivers'  hands  was  in  the 
territory  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  line  from 
Chicago  to  New  Orleans,  on  the  north  by  the 
line  n'om  Chicago  to  the  northeastern  comer 
of  the  State  of  Colorado,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  eastern  border  of  Colorado  and  a  continua- 
tion of  this  line  to  Mexico.  This  territory  takes 
in  the  States  of  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas, 
Missouri,  and  Kansas.  Texas  has  in  the  past 
probably  been  the  most  rabid  anti-railroad 
State  in  the  union.  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  and 
Arkansas  have  followed  close  on  Texas  in  the 
passage  of  laws  restricting  railroad  operation 
and  earnings.  Many  of  the  roads  in  the  South- 
west were  financed  by  a  firm  of  international 
bankers,  which  was  adversely  affected  by  the 
war,  and  this  together  with  the  shortsighted 
policy  of  the  States,  accounts  in  large  measure 
for  the  fact  that  while  only  32  per  cent  of  the 
railroad  mileage  of  the  entire  United  States  is 
in  the  Southwest,  66  per  cent  of  the  total  mile- 


age in  the  hands  of  receivers  is  in  that  terri- 
tory. The  four  largest  roads  to  go  into  receiv- 
ers' hands  in  1915,  were  the  Chicago,  Rock  Is- 
land, and  Pacific,  operating  7847  miles  of  rail- 
way; the  Missouri  Pacific,  operating  7286  miles; 
the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  operating  3865 
miles;  and  the  Western  Pacific,  operating  946 
miles. 

Hie  Rock  Island  situation  was  extraordinar- 
ily interesting  and  complicated.  In  1901-02 
Judge  W.  H.  Moore,  Daniel  O.  Reid,  and  W.  B. 
Leeds  acquired  a  substantial  minority  of  the 
$75,000,000  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific 
Railway  Company  stock  in  the  open  market.  Pre- 
viously control  of  this  stock  had  been  held  by 
R.  R.  Cable,  Marshall  Field,  and  certain  other 
wealthy  men  of  Chicago.  Messrs.  Reid,  Moore, 
and  Leeds  had  made  a  fortune  in  tin  plate 
manufacture,  and  when  they  had  aoouired  suf- 
ficient Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  stock  to 
elect  a  majority  of  the  board  of  directors  they 
devised  a  double  holding  company  scheme  by 
which  stock  of  the  railway  company  was  de- 
posited with  one  holding  company,  which  issued 
collateral  trust  bonds  against  the  railway  com- 
pany stock  as  collateral,  and  the  stock  of  this 
holding  company  was  held  by  a  second  holding 
company — ^the  Rock  Island  Company  of  New 
Jersey — which  issued  its  own  common  and  pre- 
ferred stock  and  offered  this  stock  and  the  col- 
lateral bonds  of  the  hol^Ung  company  No.  1  to 
stockholders  of  the  railway  company  in  exchange 
for  their  railway  company  stock.  The  holders 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  $75,000,000  stodc  ae- 
cepted  this  offer  and  the  scheme  went  throu^. 
Although  the  par  value  of  the  securities  of  uie 
holding  companies  was  270  per  cent  of  the  par 
value  of  the  railway  company  stock,  the  holders 
of  the  new  securities  never  during  the  entire 
life  of  the  top-heavy  structure  received  any- 
thing but  what  was  paid  in  dividends  (an 
average  of  only  a  little  over  6  per  cent)  on 
the  orif^nal  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa- 
cific Railway  Company  stock.  The  scheme  was 
devised  to  permit  Messrs.  Reid,  Moore,  and 
Leeds  to  control  the  railway  company  with  a 
minimum  of  investment,  control  of  the  board 
of  directors  being  vested  in  the  preferred  stock 
of  the  New  Jersey  holding  company.  This  per- 
mitted the  Reid-Moore  people  to  sell  their  col- 
lateral bonds  and  the  New  Jersey  common  stock, 
still  retaining  control  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors. The  public  as  shippers  and  travelers  on 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  were  never 
affected  one  way  or  the  other  by  the  holding 
company  scheme.  The  whole  scheme,  however, 
hung  on  the  ability  of  the  railway  company  to 
pay  dividends.  This  it  could  not  do  in  1914, 
and  the  holding  companies  were  wiped  out,  but 
the  railway  company's  credit  had  been  so  im- 
paired that  it  could  not  make  arrangements  for 
refunding  maturing  obligations  and  was  also 
put  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver. 

The  Missouri  Pacific  was  one  of  the  Gould 
roads.  It  was  much  overcapitalized,  its  credit 
having  been  used  for  financing  other  Qould  rail- 
way projects,  and  control  of  the  company  was 
secured  by  Kuhn,  Loeb  and  Company  of  New 
York.  This  strong  banking  house  proposed  a 
reorganization  plan  under  which  all  classes  of 
security  holders  would  have  accepted  certain 
readjustments,  and  the  holders  of  junior  bonds, 
and  the  bonds  with  a  mortgage  on  what  were 
considered   unimportant   lines   would   have   ac- 


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641 


RAILWAYS 


cepted  a  nominal  Bcalinff  down  of  tlie  face  value 
of  their  Becurities  and  accepted  a  preferred 
stock  in  place  of  a  bond.  Common  Btockliolders 
were  aaked  to  subscribe  sufficient  monej  to  re- 
habilitate the  property.  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  it  was  .quite  impossible  to  recon- 
cile the  various  conflicting  interests  of  security- 
holders and  that  the  onfy  way  to  effect  a  re- 
organization would  be  through  receivership. 
The  road,  therefore,  was  put  into  the  hands  of 
receivers. 

The  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  was  being 
particularly  wdl  operated.  Crop  failures  and 
flood  damage  had  been  very  costly  in  the  previ- 
ous year,  but  had  there  been  a  normal  conditi<m 
in  the  railway  security  market  the  company 
ought  easily  to  have  pulled  through  its  diffi- 
culties. It  had  $11,000,000  notes  falling  due 
shortly  before  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania.  An 
agreement  with  the  hol&rs  of  these  notes  was 
reached  by  which  all  but  a  very  small  minority 
of  the  notes  were  extended.  After  the  sinking 
of  the  Lusitania,  however,  bankers  were  more 
than  ever  disinclined  to  make  any  new  ven- 
tures, and  further  flood  damage  necessitated  con- 
siderable immediate  expenditures  of  cash  on  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas.  This  situation  was 
made  worse  by  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
holders  of  the  notes  that  were  not  extended  to 
compel  payment  in  cash,  and  it  was  decided  that 
the  best  way  to  preserve  the  interests  of  every- 
body was  to  place  the  roads  in  the  hands  of  a 
receiver. 

The  Western  Pacific  Railway  was  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Gould  system  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  Qould  system  had  previously  ended  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande 
Railroad  at  Salt  Lake  aty,  Utah.  The  road 
had  no  local  traffic  to  speak  of,  and  was  carried 
for  a  while  by  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande, 
but  receivership  had  been  inevitable  for  some 
time. 

New  CONSTBUcnoN.  Exploitation  of  railroad 
property  had  become  unfauiionable.  The  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission's  investigations 
and  reports  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa- 
'  cific,  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco,  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  affairs  dis- 
couraged the  kind  of  high  finance,  using  a  word 
which  had  been  very  much  misused,  that  was 
generally  believed  by  the  outside  public  to  have 
yielded  high  profits  to  a  few  individuals  in  the 
three  cases  just  mentioned.  It  was  a  striking 
fact,  however,  that  not  since  1884  has  there  been 
as  small  a  mileage  of  new  railroad  built  in  the 
United  States  as  was  built  in  the  calendar  year 
1915.  The  total  mileage  of  first  main  track 
built  in  the  United  States  in  1915  was  933.  In 
Canada  there  was  718  miles  built,  and  in  Mexico 
37  miles.  Not  only  was  there  an  almost  negli- 
gible amotmt  of  extension  work  done,  but  there 
were  only  356  miles  of  second  track  built  in 
1915. 

In  his  testimony  before  the  Hadley  Commis- 
sion, which  was  making  an  investigation  of  the 
question  of  federal  regulation  of  the  issuance  of 
railroad  securities,  Frank  Trumbull,  chairman 
of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio,  made  the  remark  that  changing  a  one 
hundred  dollar  bill  into  100  one  dollar  bills  was 
an  act  of  irreproachable  honesty  but  not  of  any 
particular  profit.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  con- 
nection between  the  remarkably  small  amount 
of  railroad  work  done  in  1915  and  the  public 


disapproval   of   promoters'   profits   in   railroad 
buildinff. 

The  following  table  shows  the  first  and  second 
track  mileage  in  each  of  the  States  in  1915: 


Nbw  Tkaox  BuniT  in  1915 


UiU 


No.  €o9. 

United  Stotes—  buUding 

AlAbAmA     2 

AlfttkA     1 

Arixonft     2 

ArkanMM     1 

OAlifomift    4 

ColorAdo     8 

Florida    6 

Georgia 5 

Idaho    

Illinois    4 

Iowa 

Kanaae    4 

Kentucky    8 

Maine    1 

Maryland    2 

Maaaachusetts     2 

Michigan     2 

Minnesota 4 

Mississippi    1 

Missonn    1 

Montana    1 

Nebraska     1 

Noyada    1 

New  Jersey    1 

New  Mexico   1 

New  York 8 

North  Carolina 8 

North   DakoU    2 

Ohio    8 

Oklahoma    8 

Oregon    4 

Pennsylvania    9 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee    4 

Texas    2 

Utah    1 

Virginia    2 

Washington     6 

West  Virginia   7 

Wisconsin 1 

Wyoming    1 

Total   104 

Oanada    17 

Mexico     2 


Lbqal  Decisions.  From  the  railroad  man's 
point  of  view  the  most  important  decision  in 
1915  was  that  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  case 
which  the  Norfolk  and  Western  appealed  from  a 
law  of  West  Virginia  fixing  a  rate  of  two  cents 
per  mile  for  passenger  fares.  The  principal 
ground  on  which  the  railway  company  had  made 
its  appeal  was  that  a  rate  as  low  as  two  cents 
a  mile  made  passenger  business  unprofitable  and 
did  not  yield  an  adequate  return  on  the  value  of 
the  property  used  in  that  service.  The  West 
Virginia  courts  had  held  that  the  profit  on  all 
of  the  business,  freight,  express,  mail,  etc.,  as 
well  as  passenger,  shown  by  the  Norfolk  and 
Western  was  sufficient  to  yield  an  adequate  re- 
turn on  the  value  of  all  the  property  u^  in  all 
classes  of  service.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  held  that  this  was  not  sufficient  justifica- 
tion for  a  two-cent  passenger  rate,  and  held  that 
a  railroad  company  could  properly  claim  the 
protection  of  the  Constitution  against  a  law 
which  made  one  class  of  service  unremunerative. 
The  Court  held  that  each  general  class  of  service 
could  not  legally  be  compelled  to  accept  rates 
which  did  not  yield  a  fair  return  on  the  property 
used  in  that  particular  service.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  while  the  railroad  company  itself,  if 
it  chose,  could  perform  certain  classes  of  service 
which  yielded  little  more  than  the  actual  out- 


FirH 

Second 

traok 

track 

58.15 

27.85 

84.80 

•  • .  • 

60.00 

19.00 

1.00 

82.00 

•  •  •  • 

4.78 

■  •  •  • 

88.66 

.  •  .  • 

81.64 

,  , 

.  •  ■  ■ 

1.76 

6.00 

24.78 

8.48 

58.56 

4.09 

48.80 

6.02 

1.88 

.... 

8.40 

4.05 

2.00 

.... 

18.50 

1.00 

46.76 

28.18 

8.50 

18.25 

.16 

8.85 

8.51 

•  • .  • 

1.25 

.... 

7.00 

.... 

.66 

2.00 

8.66 

2.84 

18.84 

88.80 

80.90 

26.20 

.... 

0.80 

7.26 

84.74 

■  *  •  • 

82.70 

. .    • 

08.87 

44.86 

•  •  * " 

1.66 

12.15 

18.71 

4.40 

.60 

14.05 

7.76 

17.80 

81.08 

70.88 

9.27 

18.78 

1.82 

29.82 

7.78 

7.87 

088.24 

856.28 

718.87 

.84 

86.50 

.... 

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of-pocket  cost  of  performing  the  service,  neither 
State  commissions  nor  State  Legislatures  could 
compel  the  railway  company  to  follow  this  course. 
In  another  decision  handed  down  on  the  same 
day  the  Supreme  Court  applied  the  same  rea- 
soning to  a  law  of  North  Dakota  fixing  unduly 
low  rates  on  coal.  The  Court  held  that  coal 
rates  can  not  be  fixed  by  a  State  law  or  State 
commission  so  low  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
this  class  of  service  to  pay  its  proportion  of  fixed 
charges. 

Wage  Contbovebsies.  The  decision  of  the 
arbitrators  in  the  Western  wage  controversy, 
which  controversy  was  begun  in  1914  but  con- 
tinued on  into  1915,  gave  certain  advances  to 
certain  classes  of  employees,  but  in  general  it 
was  less  favorable  to  the  employees  than  had 
been  the  decision  in  1914  in  the  Eastern  cases. 
The  demand  had  been  made  for  increases  in 
wages  of  enginemen  and  firemen  in  all  classes  of 
service.  The  advances  granted  were  principally 
to  men  in  switching  service.  As  always,  the 
men  refused  absolutely  to  accept  any  leveling 
down  as  well  as  leveling  up,  so  that  the  only 
changes  which  the  arbitrators  made  were  in- 
creases. The  report  of  the  arbitrators  was  in 
general  an  affirmation  of  the  claims  of  the  West- 
ern railway  managers  that  they  were  already 
paying  a  very  high  standard  of  wages  to  all 
classes  of  men  in  train  service. 

Locomotive  Building.  There  were  1573  loco- 
motives ordered  by  the  railroad  companies  of 
the  United  States  in  the  calendar  year  1915. 
This  was  greater  by  308  than  the  number  ordered 
in  1914,  but  about  half  of  the  locomotives  ordered 
in  1915  were  ordered  between  October  1st  and 
December  31st.  The  two  heaviest  types  of 
freight  locomotives  are  the  Malett  and  the 
Mikado.  There  were  562  Mikado  locomotives 
ordered  in  1915,  a  very  considerable  increase 
over  1914,  and  there  were  120  Malett  locomo- 
tives ordered  in  1915  compared  with  59  ordered 
in  1914.  Until  a  few  years  previously  compara- 
tively few  locomotives  in  American  railroad 
service  were  equipped  with  superheaters.  The 
economies  to  be  effected  by  the  use  of  super- 
heated steam  had  been  found,  however,  to  do 
more  than  offset  the  cost  of  equipping  loco- 
motives, which  had  been  in  service  not  more 
than  10  or  12  years,  with  superheaters.  Prog- 
ress in  this  respect  would  have  been  even  more 
rapid  than  it  was  in  1915  had  not  the  necessities 
for  holding  down  all  capital  expenditures  to  the 
very  lowest  possible  amount  been  enforced  by 
the  boards  of  directors  and  railroad  executives. 
There  were  at  the  end  of  1915  about  1300  loco- 
motives in  the  United  States  equipped  with  me- 
chanical stokers,  since  the  mechanical  stoker  is 
generally  conceded  to  be  economical  only  where 
the  coal  consumed  by  the  locomotive  is  so  great 
as  to,  under  certain  conditions,  overtax  the 
strength  of  one  man  to  fire  it,  the  fact  that  so 
many  mechanical  stokers  have  been  put  in  serv- 
ice is  an  illustration  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
heavier  locomotives  are  replacing  the  lighter 
types.  The  Erie  in  1914  built  a  new  type  of 
locomotive,  calling  it  the  "Triplex,**  which  was 
known  locally  on  the  road  as  "The  Centipede." 
It  had  12  pairs  of  driving  wheels,  four  pairs 
being  placed  under  the  tender.  In  1915  the 
Erie  ordered  two  more  of  this  type  of  locomo- 
tive. The  one  now  in  service  was  being  used  in 
pusher  service,  and  presumably  was  proving 
satisfactory. 


Equipment.  The  total  number  of  freight 
cars  ordered  in  1915  was  107,796.  Of  these  56,- 
713  were  all  steel  and  23,768  steel  frames  with 
steel  underframe.  Only  about  700  to  800  all 
wood  cars  were  ordered.  The  total  number  of 
passenger  cars  ordered  in*  1915  was  3092,  and 
of  these  2874  were  all  steel,  94  were  steel  under- 
frame,  and  only  one  was  specifically  reported  as 
having  been  ordered  made  of  all  wood.  Up  to 
October  1st  the  cars  and  locomotives  ordered 
were  fewer  in  number  than  in  any  year  in  the 
last  two  decades.  With  the  very  large  increases 
in  freight  business  which  came  in  September 
and  October  and  were  in  full  swing  in  Decem- 
ber, railroad  companies  foimd  it  necessary  to 
place  a  large  number  of  orders  for  cars  and 
locomotives,  in  many  instances  at  prices  con- 
siderably above  what  they  would  have  had  to 
pay  during  1914  or  in  the  first  months  of  1915. 

Electrifioation.  Two  very  important  elec- 
tric traction  installations  on  what  had  been 
steam  mileage  were  completed.  The  Norfolk  and 
Western  electrified  a  section  of  about  30  miles 
of  heavy  grade  on  the  main  line  in  West  Vir- 
ginia; the  purpose  of  this  electrification  was 
both  to  reduce  the  cost  of  freight  service  over 
heavy  grades  and  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the 
double  track.  The  Pennsylvania  completed  the 
electrification  of  its  suburban  lines  running  out 
of  Philadelphia.  The  purpose  here  was  to  re- 
duce the  cost  of  operation,  but  also,  and  more 
important,  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  service 
and  to  do  away  with  the  smoke  nuisance.  The 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  put  in  service 
in  the  last  half  of  the  year  the  longest  line  of 
both  freight  and  passenger  railroad  that  had 
vet  been  electrified.  This  line  was  440.5  miles 
long.  The  line  crosses  the  Belt  Mountains,  the 
Bitter  Pool  Mountains,  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  heaviest  grades  are  1.7  per  cent. 
The  total  expenditure,  it  is  estimated,  will  be 
about  $15,000,000.  The  object  of  this  electrifi- 
cation was  to  reduce  the  cost  of  operation  over 
heavy  grades.    See  Electric  Railways. 

Western  Rate  Decision.  The  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  handed  down  its  opinion 
in  the  Western  rate  advance  case  on  Tuesday, 
Aug.  11,  1915.    The  report  held: 

1.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  grain 
and  grain  products  considered  as  one  commodity 
not  justified. 

2.  Proposed  increase  from  30,000  pounds  to 
40,000  pounds  in  the  minimum  carload  weight  of 
grain  products  justified. 

3.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  live 
stock  not  justified. 

4.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  pack- 
ing-house products  and  fresh  meats,  except  as 
indicated  between  points  on  the  Missouri  River, 
not  justified. 

5.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  fer- 
tilizer and  fertilizer  materials  not  justified. 

6.  Proposed  increased  rates  on  bituminous 
coal,  except  as  to  South  Dakota  points,  justified. 
The  rates  on  coke  here  proposed,  which  are  the 
same  as  on  coal,  justified. 

7.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  brew- 
ers' rice  and  less-than-carload  rates  on  domestic 
rice  justified. 

8.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  broom 
corn  not  justified. 

9.  Proposed  increased  import  rates  and  pro- 
posed increases  in  carload  minima  from  Gulf 
ports  justified. 


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10.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  fruits 
and  vegetables  justified. 

11.  Proposed  increased  carload  rates  on  hay 
and  straw,  where  not  in  excess  of  Glass  C,  justi- 
fied. 

12.  Proposed  increased  any-quantity  rates  on 
(*otton  piece  goods,  and  proposed  increased  car- 
load rates  from  points  in  Texas,  not  justified. 

Commissioners  Daniels  and  Harlan  filed  dis- 
senting opinions.  They  agreed  with  all  the  in- 
creases granted,  but  contended  that  others  should 
have  been  allowed. 

See  also  Arbitration  and  Ck>NCiLiATioN, 
Strikes  and  Lockouts. 

SAILWAYSy  Electrification  of  at  Chi- 
cago.   See  Smoke  Abatement. 

SAINPALL  IN  ITNITED  STATES.  See 
Metbobologt,  under  the  section  Rainfall  of  the 
United  States. 

RAPID  TRANSIT.  New  York.  The  con- 
struction of  the  various  subways  and  elevated 
railroads  to  increase  the  rapid  transit  facilities 
of  the  city  of  New  York  progressed  actively  in 
1915.  At  the  end  of  the  year  72  of  the  89  con- 
tracts had  been  let,  and  work  was  in  progress 
on  most  of  these.  The  third  track  on  the  ele- 
vated railways  in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx 
was  completed  and  ready  to  be  opened  to  traffic 
in  the  following  year.  The  third  tracks  were 
intended  for  express  service,  and  were  to  be 
operated  in  one  direction  only — downtown  in 
the  morning,  and  uptown  in  the  afternoon.  The 
third  tracking  involved  the  Ninth  Avenue,  Third 
Avenue,  and  Second  Avenue  lines  in  Manhattan, 
and  the  Fulton  Street  and  Myrtle  Avenue  lines 
in  Brooklyn.  On  the  Ninth  Avenue  the  third 
track  was  extended  so  that  it  would  reach  from 
155th  Street  to  Cortlandt  Street,  while  on  Third 
Avenue  express  service  facilities  were  provided 
between  Chatham  Square  and  Bronx  Park;  and 
on  Second  Avenue,  from  Chatham  Square  to  the 
Harlem  River. 

In  some  cases  in  Manhattan  an  island  plat- 
form between  the  local  tracks  and  the  central 
express  track  could  be  built,  but  at  others  "over- 
grade"  stations  were  necessary,  as  the  express 
track  was  raised  above  the  local  tracks  to  a 
level  usually  of  11  feet  6  inches.  A  double  deck 
station  was  built  with  the  upper  station  plat- 
form extending  over  the  local  track  to  the  centre 
express  track.  These  raised  portions  of  the  ex- 
press track  not  only  made  access  from  the  plat- 
forms possible,  but  rendered  more  efficient  actual 
operation,  as  they  assisted  in  the  retardation  of 
the  trains  stoppinff  at  the  station  and  when 
starting  on  the  incline  the  acceleration  was  in- 
creased. In  many  cases  the  old  tracks  had  to 
be  moved,  at  others  a  reconstruction  of  the  sta- 
tions was  necessary,  and  a  removal  of  the  tracks 
and  supporting  structure,  which  was  tempor- 
arily carried  on  wooden  supports.  A  new  double 
deck  bridge  across  the  Harlem  River  was  albo 
built  and  successfully  fioated  into  position. 
Were  it  not  for  the  important  subway  construc- 
tion taking  place  during  the  year  the  recon- 
struction of  the  elevated,  for  such  essentially  it 
was,  at  many  points  would  have  been  considered 
an  engineering  feat  of  no  small  importance,  as 
often  entirely  new  construction  was  essential 
without  interfering  with  the  track  and  the  use 
of  the  existing  structure. 

On  December  Ist  the  New  York  Public  Service 
Commission  of  the  First  District  had  completed 
or  had  under  contract  on  new  rapid  transit  lines 


to  be  owned  by  the  city  of  New  York,  work  ag- 
gregating $167,606,969.07,  in  addition  to  the 
construction  work  on  third  tracking  and  exten- 
sions of  existing  elevated  railways  carried  on  by 
the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Company  and 
the  New  York  Municipal  Railway  Company, 
which  aggregated  about  $26,000,000,  making 
total  contracts  in  force  of  upwards  of  $193,000,- 
000.  The  total  cost  of  construction  of  city  owned 
lines  was  estimated  at  $236,000,000,  of  which  the 
city  would  supply  about  $164,000,000,  the  Inter- 
borough Rapid  Transit  Company,  $58,000,000, 
and  the  New  York  Municipal  Railway,  $14,000,- 
000. 

The  Fourth  Avenue  subway  in  Brooklyn,  ex- 
tending from  the  Mimicipal  Building  in  Man- 
hattan to  Fourth  Avenue  and  56th  Street, 
Brooklyn,  was  opened  in  June,  1915,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  reconstructed  Sea  Beach  line  of 
the  Brooklyn  Company,  extending  to  Coney 
Island,  between  which  point  and  Manhattan 
through  train  service  was  maintained.  The  ex- 
tension of  the  Fourth  Avenue  subway  from  65th 
to  86th  Street,  Brooklyn,  was  being  completed, 
and  it  was  reported  that  on  the  1st  of  Decem- 
ber the  Fourth  Avenue  subway  to  the  Sea  Beach 
line  was  carrying  upwards  of  1,000,000  passen- 
gers per  month,  relieving  the  congestion  on  the 
lines  crossing  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  in  the 
first  subway. 

In  Jime,  1915,  the  Steinway  timnel,  extending 
from  42nd  Street,  Manhattan,  under  the  East 
River  to  Long  Island,  and  consisting  of  a  two 
track  railroad,  was  opened.  This  tunnel  had 
been  constructed  for  a  number  of  years,  having 
been  built  by  Interborough  interests  at  a  cost 
of  about  $8,000,000,  and  was  by  them  trans- 
ferred to  the  city  of  New  York  under  the  dual 
system  contract  for  a  consideration  of  about 
$3,000,000.  This  tunnel  became  known  as  the 
Queensboro  subway,  and  was  being  extended 
from  the  Queens  terminus  to  join  with  the  new 
rapid  transit  line  to  Astoria  and  Corona,  on 
the  Queensboro  Bridge  plaza.  This  extension 
was  over  90  per  cent  completed  at  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  tunnel  also  was  to  be  extended 
on  the  west  to  a  junction  with  the  first  subway 
at  Times  Square,  from  which  subwav  trains 
would  run  through  it  and  over  the  new  lines  in 
Queensboro. 

In  Brooklyn,  the  New  York  Municipal  Rail- 
way Corporation  completed  a  new  elevated  rail- 
road over  the  route  of  the  Lutheran  Cemetery 
line,  and  also  extended  the  Fulton  Street  ele- 
vated from  Liberty  Avenue  to  Lefferts  Ave- 
nue, Queens. 

Accidents.  In  connection  with  the  construc- 
tion of  the  subways  in  Manhattan,  two  serious 
accidents  occurred.  In  one  case,  on  September 
22nd,  on  Seventh  Avenue,  at  24th  and  25th 
streets,  a  blast  loosened  the  shoring  and  caused 
a  collapse  of  the  street  decking  for  the  full  width 
of  the  roadway  for  nearlv  two  blocks.  As  the 
deck  collapsed  it  carried  down  with  it  the  street 
car  tracks,  including  a  street  car  and  large 
motor  truck  and  several  delivery  wagons.  There 
were  seven  deaths,  four  of  the  men  killed  being 
subway  laborers,  and  a  number  of  accidents. 
On  September  25th  a  slide  of  rock  from  the  west 
wall  of  the  subway  excavation  on  Broadway 
just  above  38th  Street  carried  away  the  support- 
ing posts  and  produced  a  collapse  of  the  deck- 
ing, taking  with  it  the  western  half  of  the  road- 
way and  the  two  street  car  tracks,  and  caused 


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the  other  half  of  the  roadway  to  saff.  An  empty 
taxicab  and  three  pedestrians  fell  into  the  hole, 
and  one  of  these,  a  woman,  was  killed,  while  a 
workman  below  was  injured.  The  moving  of  the 
rock  was  due  to  a  slight  crack,  and  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  unfortunate  incidents  of  such 
operations,  which  in  the  main  had  been  carried 
on  in  safety  and  success  in  the  construction  of 
the  New  York  subways.  While  there  was  some 
criticism  of  engineers  and  contractors,  yet  it 
was  realized  that  subway  construction  in  New 
York  carried  on  bv  the  cut  and  cover  method, 
was  done  without  mterferinff  with  the  ordinary 
use  of  the  streets,  and  involved  timbering  on  a 
scale  unparalleled  even  in  most  mining  opera- 
tions. Nevertheless,  increased  caution,  both  in 
construction  and  inspection  of  the  timbering  and 
other  supports,  was  observed  after  these  acci- 
dents. 

On  Jan.  6,  1015,  occurred  the  worst  accident 
in  the  history  of  the  New  York  subway,  due  to 
a  cable  burnout,  and  resulting  in  the  putting  out 
of  commission  of  the  entire  system  for  nearlv  a 
day.  While  there  was  but  one  person  killed, 
200  others  were  overcome  by  smoke  and  gas, 
and  the  situation  threatened  to  be  serious.  As 
a  result  of  the  accident,  various  improvements 
were  recommended  in  the  arrangement  of  cables, 
and  conductors,  while  the  elimination  of  wood 
cars  for  those  of  steel  construction  was  expedited. 

Boston.  The  Dorchester  tunnels  under  con- 
struction during  the  year  were  the  latest  de- 
velopments of  £>ston's  underground  transporta- 
tion system.  Th^  extend  from  the  direct 
connection  to  the  Boston  terminal  of  iJie  Gam- 
bridge  subwapr  at  Tremont  and  Winter  streets, 
run  under  Wmter  and  Summer  streets,  the  Fort 
Point  channel  and  Dorchester  Avenue,  to  Andrew 
Square,  Dorchester,  a  total  length  of  a  little 
more  than  two  miles.  One  section  of  this  route, 
namely  Section  E,  which  includes  the  portion 
under  Fort  Point  channel,  a  somewhat  irregular 
navigable  water  way  connecting  Boston  Harbor 
with  a  tidal  basin.  South  Bay,  presents  many 
interesting  engineering  features.  This  section 
has  a  length  of  about  3200  feet,  of  which  2160 
feet  is  directly  under  the  channel  and  the  re- 
mainder under  streets  and  private  land,  a  route 
selected  to  avoid  expensive  easements,  and  one 
that  offered  no  serious  diflSculties  to  modem 
tunneling  as  the  tunnels  were  pushed  forward 
under  compressed  air  with  shields,  having  two 
working  platforms  thrust  forward  by  hydraulic 
jacks  to  help  hold  the  face.  Behind  the  shields 
was  placed  wood  block  s^^ental  lining  which 
formed  the  outer  shell  of  each  tunnel  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  cast  iron  columns  were  em- 
ployed. The  interior  of  the  wooden  shield  re- 
ceived waterproofing,  consisting  of  layers  of 
treated  cotton  fabric  and  hot  asphalt,  and  then 
an  inside  concrete  shell  with  a  minimum  thick- 
ness of  2  feet,  unrefinforced,  was  used. 

The  tunnels  were  beins  driven  through  a  stiff 
blue  day  with  occasional  pockets  of  sand  with 
hard  pan  near  the  bottom,  and  the  minimum 
depth  beneath  the  channel  was  35  feet  below 
mean  low  water,  except  at  the  northerly  end, 
where  for  a  length  of  300  feet  the  depth  is  from 
35  to  25  feet.  The  minimum  thickness  of  the 
roof  between  the  top  of  the  tunnel  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  channel  is  about  16  feet.  The  aver- 
age progress  during  August  was  from  10  to 
12  feet  per  day,  but  it  was  expected  that  this 
would  be  increased  to  from  12  to  16  feet  after 


the  belt  conveyers  which  were  an  interesting 
feature  of  the  construction  were  installed. 

Philaoelpria.  On  April  20th  the  citizens  of 
Philadelphia  voted  favorably  on  a  $6,000,000 
bond  issue  to  begin  the  construction  of  an  ex- 
tensive subway  system  which  was  planned  to 
cost  some  $46,000,000.  The  existing  PhiUdelphia 
subway  runs  east  and  west  under  Market  Street, 
terminating  in  a  short  north  and  south  elevated 
line  along  the  river  front.  The  new  subway  was 
planned  to  cross  under  the  present  one  at  the 
City  Hall  and  extend  north  and  south  under 
Broad  Street  with  a  delivery  loop  in  the  form 
of  a  rough  square  about  one-half  mile  on  a  side, 
providing  for  discharging  the  traflSc  at  a  num- 
ber of  points  in  the  business  district.  With  the 
elimination  of  grade  crossings  track  construction 
had  been  designed  so  that  trains  may  be  routed 
from  either  direction  by  or  around  this  loop. 

The  bond  issue  of  April  was  to  be  applied  to 
the  construction  of  the  Broad  Street  line,  and 
funds  for  work  on  the  loop  were  to  be  provided 
later.  The  flat  character  of  the  portion  of  Phila- 
delphia traversed  by  the  subway  makes  possible 
a  form  of  construction  in  which  the  roof  of  the 
subway  supports  directly  the  street  surface  so 
that  no  back  filling  with  incidental  settlement 
and  trouble  is  required.  Where  the  new  subway 
would  cross  the  former  Market  Street  subway, 
it  was  suggested  that  the  space  between  the 
roof  of  the  subway  and  the  street  could  be  left 
open,  and  one  use  sugsested  was  for  parking 
automobiles  which  stand  in  the  centre  of  Broad 
Street. 

The  first  bids  for  the  new  subway  were  opened 
August  16th,  which  will  be  paid  for  with  the 
$3,000,000  appropriated  by  the  city  council, 
which  at  the  same  time  appropriated  $3,000,000 
for  the  first  elevated  section.  The  subway  sec- 
tion on  which  bids  were  opened  extended  from 
Filbert  to  Broad  Street,  under  the  City  Hall, 
while  the  elevated  section  involved  the  construc- 
tion of  foundations  for  about  four  miles  of  the 
Frankford  elevated  line.  On  the  afternoon  of 
September  11th  actual  construction  was  begun 
by  the  turning  of  the  first  spadeful  of  euth 
with  a  silver  shovel  by  Mayor  Blankenburg. 

Cleveland.  In  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1015, 
plans  were  approved  calling  for  a  double  barreled 
reinforced  concrete  subway  under  4.4  miles  of 
Euclid  Avenue,  between  University  Circle  and 
the  Public  Square.  Each  barrel  of  the  structure 
will  have  inside  dimensions  of  10  feet  4  inches  by 
12  feet  6  inches,  and  the  over  all  dimensions  of 
both  barrels,  which  will  be  contiguous,  are  26  feet 
wide  by  16  feet  high.  The  open-tren<^  type  of 
construction  will  be  employed,  and  at  all  points 
the  sand-crushed  stone  foundation  of  the  Euclid 
Avenue  pavement  will  rest  directly  on  the  roof 
of  the  subway.  It  was  estimated  that  the  total 
cost  of  the  tubes,  exclusive  of  rolling  stock,  sta- 
tion embellishment,  and  the  public  square  ter- 
minal, would  be  $4,840,000.  Construction  was 
promised  early  in  the  spring  of  1016  by  the 
Cleveland  Rapid  Transit  Company,  and  the  first 
work  planned  was  the  removal  of  the  city  water 
connections  in  Euclid  Avenue.  The  contract  pro- 
vided that  actual  construction  should  begin 
within  12  months,  and  at  least  one  double  trade 
line  from  the  public  square  to  the  city  limits 
should  be  complete  and  in  operation  within  30 
months  after  construction  was  begun.  After 
construction  of  the  first  line  at  least  6  miles  of 
double  track  line  should  be  completed  in  the 


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next  succeeding  period  of  3  years,  and  after 
that  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  6  miles  each 
succeeding  3  years.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year 
construction  to  the  amount  of  at  least  $500,000 
should  have  been  expended,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  second  year  at  least  $1,500,000.  This 
franchise  gave  to  the  company  the  right  to  dig 
subways  under  every  important  street  in  Cleve- 
land, and  to  locate  its  downtown  terminal  under 
the  public  square.  The  material  in  which  exca- 
vation must  be  carried  on  was  in  many  places 
quicksand,  and  it  was  feared  this  might  present 
unusual  difficulties,  especially  in  the  business 
section. 

Cincinnati.  The  Cincinnati  Rapid  Transit 
Commission  during  the  year  was  working  on  the 
preliminary  plans  for  a  new  rapid  transit  sys- 
tem for  that  city,  so  that  the  question  of  issu- 
ing $6,000,000  worth  of  bonds  to  finance  the 
project  might  be  submitted  to  a  popular  vote 
in  April,  1916.  The  new  subway  was  to  have 
the  double  purpose  of  serving  as  a  rapid  transit 
loop  connecting  the  various  hilltop  suburbs  of 
Cincinnati,  and  be  the  entrance  for  the  various 
interurban  lines,  all  of  which  terminated  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  city.  The  problem  before  the 
commission  was  mainly  to  have  the  interurban 
lines  establish  connection  with  the  new  loop 
system  at  convenient  points.  Professor  George 
F.  Swain,  of  Harvard  University,  was  the  con- 
sulting engineer  for  the  project. 

San  Francisco.  Preliminary  steps  had  been 
taken  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  providing  a  much 
needed  rapid  transit  system  for  that  city,  where 
a  trip  to  the  western  residence  district  was  said 
to  require  20  minutes  longer  during  the  rush 
hours  than  would  be  needed  with  an  effective 
rapid  transit  system.  It  was  estimated  that  a 
double  track  electric  line  could  be  built  for  $800,- 
000  per  mile  for  a  subway  system,  while  the  cost 
of  the  surface  lines  would  be  about  $215,000  per 
double  track  mile. 

Chicago.  In  Chicago  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  year  the  city  council  passed  an  ordinance  for 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  of  three  engi- 
neers to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  subway  construction  for  that  city.  One 
member  was  to  be  a  Chicago  man,  and  the  others 
were  to  be  men  familiar  with  conditions  at  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia.  See  Tunnel. 
BATES.  Railway.  See  Railways. 
BECAIiL.  See  Electoral  Reform. 
BECEIVEBSHIPS.  See  Railways. 
BED  CBOSS,  The  American  National. 
The  volunteer  reserve  emergency  organization  of 
the  American  people  to  relieve  distress  in  times 
of  peace  and  war.  The  year  1915  was  by  far 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  the  or- 
ganization, not  only  by  reason  of  the  continu- 
ance of  the  European  war  and  the  unprecedented 
relief  measures  thereby  rendered  necessary,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  more  expanded  scope, 
more  ^cient  organization,  and  improved  coordi- 
nation of  the  Red  Cross  with  other  agencies  of 
relief. 

The  greater  work  done  in  1915,  as  well  as  the 
imperative  need  of  further  reforms,  were  pointed 
out  at  the  11th  annual  meeting  of  the  organiza- 
tion, held  at  Washington,  on  Dec.  8,  1015,  in  an 
address  by  the  Hon.  William  Howard  Taft,  the 
chairman  of  the  Central  Committee.  He  also 
said  that  Miss  Mabel  Boardman,  the  founder  of 
the  new  Red  Cross  in  the  United  States,  had 

Y.  B.— 18 


been  chiefly  instrumental  in  providing  a  new 
marble  home  for  the  organization  in  Washing- 
ton, to  be  finished  in  the  fall  of  1916.  A  perma- 
nent American  Red  Cross  endowment  fund  of  at 
least  $2,000,000  was  asked  for  by  Mr.  Taft,  and 
of  this  $900,000  has  been  contributed.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  out  of  a  $2,000,000  endow- 
ment fund  the  overhead  charges,  emergency  calls, 
and  expenses  of  the  regular  departments  of  the 
first  aid  and  the  nursing  service  can  be  met. 
Mr.  Taft  recommended  a  change  in  the  financial 
basis  of  membership,  saying  that  the  Red  Cross 
is  much  stronger  by  raising  its  funds  from  mil- 
lions of  members  of  small  units  than  by  large 
contributions  from  comparatively  few.  He 
showed  how  the  present  American  Red  Cross 
membership  of  30,000  could  be  vastly  increased, 
if  a  dollar  each  were  contributed  by  members 
as  membership  dues. 

European  war  Relief.  The  war  found  the 
Red  Cross  with  a  registered  enrollment  of  6000 
nurses  and  the  necessary  surgeons,  besides  an 
equipment  for  the  purchase  and  transportation 
of  supplies,  which  resources  have  enabled  it,  dur- 
ing 1915  and  the  latter  part  of  1914,  to  send 
surgical  and  sanitary  units  (a  unit  is  a  working 
force  of  3  surgeons  and  12  nurses  sent  to  a  hos- 
pital, together  with  the  necessary  supplies)  for 
war  hospital  work  and  the  relief  of  non-comba- 
tants, thereby  rendering  greater  continuous  serv- 
ice than  was  ever  given  in  a  foreign  war  by  any 
Red  Cross  of  a  neutral  country.  There  were 
expended  and  distributed  in  money  supplies  and 
paid  expert  service,  $2,000,000.  This  amount 
was  entirely  made  up  of  voluntary  contributions. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  war,  to  meet  the  condi- 
tions in  Belgium,  Northern  France,  Serbia, 
Poland,  and  the  misery  resulting  from  the  terri- 
ble losses  of  life  and  limb  in  battles  between 
the  Germans,  French,  Russians,  and  Austrians, 
the  American  people  contributed  on  the  whole 
not  far  from  $10,000,000.  General  Devol  re- 
ported that  in  England,  Russia,  France,  Belgium, 
Serbia,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary  the 
American  Red  Cross  maintained  in  1915,  75  doc- 
tors and  255  nurses,  for  varying  periods.  An 
enormous  quantity  of  purchased  and  donated 
medical,  surgical,  and  hospital  supplies,  bed 
linen,  garments,  etc.,  valued  at  $1,245,174  was 
received  at  the  Red  Cross  shipping  depot.  Bush 
Terminal,  Brooklyn,  and  forwarded  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  The  superintendent  of  the  shipping 
station  at  Bush  Terminal,  Brooklyn,  reported 
that  150  shipments  were  made,  aggregating  25,- 
259  cases,  weighing  3,851,416  pounds,  since  the 
beginning  of  the  war  and  during  the  greater 
part  of  1915.  If  to  these  figures  be  added  the 
supplies  afterward  sent  up  to  Jan.  16,  1916, 
there  were  175  shipments,  weighing  4,798,402 
pounds,  and  the  value  of  the  donations  was  about 
$1,000,000. 

Miss  Jane  A.  Delano,  In  submitting  the  sixth 
annual  report  on  the  nursing  service,  said  that 
the  department  now  has  40  State  and  74  local 
committees,  covering  all  large  nursing  centres  in 
the  United  States.  She  also  said  that  in  Euro- 
pean countries  where  modem  training  schools  for 
nurses  had  not  yet  been  established  the  Ameri- 
can Red  Cross  had  established  a  definite  stand- 
ard of  nursing  which  will  surely  produce  re- 
sults later^  Valuable  experience  had  been  gained 
in  by  far~  the  widest  field  of  operations  ever 
known;  the  nurses  had  learned  how  to  care  for 


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large  numbers  of  patients  in  the  shortest  possi- 
ble time  without  disturbing  the  routine  of  the 
hospital;  they  had  shown  by  their  own  conduct 
and  deportment  that  women  can  be  mobilized 
without  confusion,  that  their  chances  of  illness 
when  carefully  selected  seem  to  be  no  greater 
than  men's.  The  experience  gained  had  also  in- 
dicated the  special  type  of  nurse  most  desirable 
for  this  kind  of  service.  It  was  also  felt  that 
it  will  now  be  possible  for  the  American  Red 
Cross  to  do  a  splendid  piece  of  constructive  work 
for  the  United  States,  and  to  guarantee  a  satis- 
factory nursing  personnel  not  only  in  national 
relief  work  in  time  of  calamity,  but  an  efficient 
service  should  the  United  States  be  confronted 
by  war. 

The  director  general  of  civilian  relief,  Mr. 
Ernest  P.  Bicknell,  elected  to  that  office  at  the 
annual  meeting  in  1916,  had  previously  been 
loaned  by  the  American  Red  Cross  to  direct  a 
large  part  of  the  stupendous  non-combatant  or 
civilian  relief  work  of  the  Rockefeller  Founda- 
tion in  the  European  war  zone.  This  work  con- 
sists in  the  collection  and  forwarding  of  supplies 
for  the  relief  of  refugees  and  those  rendered 
helpless  and  homeless  by  remaining  in  their  own 
country.  The  supplies  are  consigned  to  com- 
mittees doing  this  work  and  officially  recognized 
by  the  American  Red  Cross.  Large  quantities 
of  clothing  for  women  and  children  and  special 
layettes  for  babies  were  sent  to  Belgian  refugees 
in  Holland,  Northern  France,  and  England.  In 
Serbia  and  Montenegro  the  American  Red  Cross, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
suppressed  the  epidemic  of  typhus  fever,  which 
destroyed  150,000  lives.  The  value  of  supplies 
sent  to  Serbia  alone  amounted  to  $149,707.  Dr. 
James  F.  Donnelly  and  Dr.  Ernest  P.  Magruder 
lost  their  lives  from  typhus  fever  as  a  result  of 
their  heroic  work  in  suppressing  the  epidemic. 

National  Relief.  The  work  of  the  First  Aid 
Department  was  energetically  carried  on  in  1915. 
For  the  10  months  ended  November  27th  the 
sale  of  first  aid  supplies  brought  in,  in  revenue,' 
$28,491,  as  compared  with  $18,116  during  all 
of  1914,  a  gain  of  64  per  cent.  Since  June, 
1914,  7265  lumbermen  had  received  instruction 
in  first  aid  and  accident  prevention.  The  first 
aid  instruction  cars  in  1915  traveled  22,977 
miles,  and  46,839  railway  employees  were  in- 
structed in  first  aid  and  accident  prevention  by 
Red  Cross  staff  doctors,  who  gave  818  lectures. 
The  number  of  life  saving  corps  organized  by  the 
life  saving  branch  of  the  Medical  Bureau  were 
more  than  doubled  in  1915,  having  reached  a  to- 
tal of  86.  The  Town  and  Coimtry  Nursing  Serv- 
ice in  1915  received  a  generous  gift  from  Jacob 
H.  Schiff,  making  it  possible  for  a  larger  number 
of  nurses  to  take  post-graduate  courses.  Of  the 
223  applicants  for  enrollment,  nearly  100  failed 
to  come  up  to  the  higher  standard  now  estab- 
lished. A  notable  example  of  scientific  relief 
was  afforded  by  the  consolidation  of  various 
agencies  under  the  American  Red  Cross,  follow- 
ing the  capsizing  of  the  steamer  Eastland  in  the 
Chicago  River  and  the  drowning  of  over  900  per- 
sons. The  work  of  apportioning  relief  funds 
was  carried  on  and  a  pension  system  for  de- 
pendents of  the  victims  had  been  arranged. 
Nearly  $372,000  was  raised  for  this  work.  An- 
other case  of  relief  work  was  that  of  the  New- 
port, Ark.,  fiood.  Mexican  refugees  in  Browns- 
ville, Texas,  and  other  border  points  were  cared 


for,  and  the  veteran  Union  soldiers  in  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic  encampment  in  Washing- 
ton were  attended  to. 

International  Reuet.  There  were  several 
cases  of  relief  given  in  1915  to  sufferers  from 
disasters  outside  of  the  United  States  and  apart 
from  the  European  war.  The  American  Red 
Cross  did  much  in  behalf  of  hungry  and  desti- 
tute persons  in  Mexico  City,  and  also  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Mexican  Republic.  Many 
thousands  of  starving  non-combatants  were  cared 
for  during  the  past  summer  and  early  fall.  One 
measure  was  the  opening  of  free  soup  kitchens. 
Destitute  Americans  were  also  assisted.  Other 
instances  of  relief  were  those  of  the  suffering 
caused  by  the  fire  at  Colon,  Panama;  the  famine 
in  Haiti,  for  which  $1500  was  contributed,  be- 
sides purchases  of  medical  and  surgical  supplies; 
and  the  earthquake  and  typhoon  in  the  Samoan 
Islands.  The  islands  affected  were  the  Manna 
group,  which  formerly  belonged  to  Germany,  but 
shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  war  came  under 
British  authority.  Colon,  though  a  city  of  Pan- 
ama, is  under  the  sanitary  control  of  the  United 
SUtes. 

Home  Reserve.  The  name  ''Home  Reserve'' 
has  been  given  to  agencies  organized  under  the 
military  authority  of  the  United  States  for  the 
purpose  of  accumulating  supplies  which  are  to 
be  used  for  calami^  or  war.  Receiving  stations, 
with  hospitals,  will  be  found  in  12  prominent 
cities  whose  situations  will  command  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  supplies  will  be  sent  from 
each  city  nearest  to  the  place  of  calamity  or  to 
the  indicated  centre  of  possible  military  urgency, 
in  order  that  the  cost  of  transportation  may  be 
lessened  and  the  greatest  practicable  speed  at- 
tained in  forwarding  relief. 

The  New  York  **Up-Town"  Office.  Bv  rea- 
son of  the  increased  work  which  suddenly  de- 
veloped on  account  of  the  European  war  it  be- 
came impossible  for  the  executive  office  in  Twen- 
ty-second Street  to  attend  to  all  the  matters  de- 
manding consideration,  and  the  result  was  the 
opening  of  an  up-town  office  on  the  second  floor 
at  661  Fifth  Avenue.  The  office  was  primarily 
intended  for  an  information  bureau,  but  it  has 
also  been  very  useful  as  a  reception  depot  for 
supplies,  whidi  have  been  and  are  being  shipped 
from  the  office  to  any  part  of  the  European  war 
field.  A  capable  executive  and  a  large  number 
of  alert  and  obliging  assistants  are  busy  answer- 
ing countless  calls  for  information,  ranging  from 
the  proper  way  to  knit  a  sock  or  muffler,  or  fold 
compresses,  to  the  exact  location  of  a  nurse  in  a 
field  hospital  "somewhere  in  France."  Between 
October,  1914,  and  July  1,  1915,  107  cases  were 
packed  and  shipped  abroad. 

Administration.  The  annual  meeting  of  the 
American  Red  Cross  was  held  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  Dec.  8,  1915.  The  president  of  the  society, 
Woodrow  Wilson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  ex-President  William  Howard  Taft, 
chairman  of  the  Central  Committee,  and  Rob^t 
W.  de  Forest,  vice-president  of  the  society,  pre- 
sided at  different  times  during  the  three  ses- 
sions— morning,  afternoon,  and  night-— of  the 
meeting,  which  was  very  largely  attended  by 
representative  American  humanitarians.  The 
programme  was  of  extraordinary  variety,  and 
the  discussions  had  this  highly  beneficial  result: 
a  movement  was  initiated  whereby  numerous 
American  war  relief  organizations,  representing 


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dilTereiit  and  independent  interests,  are  expected 
to  cooperate  heartily  and  actively,  should  there 
come  a  grave  national  emergency,  either  as  war 
or  natural  catastrophe.  Important  changes  in 
the  by-laws,  proposed  by  the  Central  Ck>mmittee 
and  ratified  by  the  General  Board  of  Delegates, 
were  made  to  increase  general  efficiency  in  1916. 
The  vice-chairman  of  the  Central  Committee, 
Maj.-(3en.  Arthur  Murray,  U.  8.  A.,  retired,  was 
appointed  to  serve  as  active  executive  in  charge 
at  the  national  headquarters  in  Washington  in 
the  absence  of  former  President  Taft,  who  will 
maintain  his  headquarters  in  New  Haven,  Conn. 
In  lieu  of  the  office  of  national  director,  filled 
since  1908  by  Ernest  P.  Bicknell,  the  offices  of 
director  general  of  military  relief  and  director 
general  of  civilian  relief  will  hereafter  have  jur- 
isdiction over  varied  relief  operations  classified 
under  their  headings. 

Maj.-Gen.  George  W.  Davis,  U.  S.  A.,  retired 
as  chairman  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Central 
Committee,  after  filling  that  office  with  great 
abilitv  for  eight  years.  He  was  unanimously 
awarded  the  American  Red  Cross  gold  medal  of 
merit.  Special  certificates  of  merit  were  con- 
ferred upon  Rabbi  Henry  Cohen,  of  Galves- 
ton, Texas,  and  Dr.  J.  L.  Renfro,  Brownsville, 
Texas. 

The  officers  for  1916  are:  President,  Wood- 
row  Wilson,  President  of  the  United  States; 
vice-president,  Robert  W.  de  Forest;  director 
general  of  military  relief,  Col.  Jefferson  R. 
Kean;  director  general  of  civilian  relief,  Ernest 
P.  Bicknell;  treasurer,  John  Skelton  Williams, 
United  States  Comptroller  of  the  Currency; 
counselor,  John  W.  Davis,  solicitor-general  of 
the  United  States;  secretary,  Charles  L.  Magee. 
Executive  committee  of  the  Central  Committee 
as  now  constituted  (W.  H.  Taft,  chairman  of 
the  Central  Committee,  and  General  Murray, 
vice-chairman  of  the  Central  Committee,  are  ex- 
officio  chairman  and  vice-chairman,  respectively, 
of  the  executive  committee) :  Mabel  I.  Board- 
man;  Robert  W.  de  Forest;  Franklin  K.  Lane, 
secretary  of  the  interior;  MaJ-Gen.  William  C. 
Gorgas,  surgeon-general  of  the  United  States 
army;  Rear  Admiral  William  C.  Braisted,  sur- 
geon-general of  the  United  States  navy;  Charles 
D.  Norton;  Alfred  T.  White.  See  Relief  fob 
War  Victims. 

BEPEBENDITM.    See    Electoral    Reform. 

BEPOBIC,  Electoral.  See  Electoral  Re- 
form. 

BEFOBIOSD  CHXTBCH  IN  AMEBICA 
(Dutch  Reformed).  This  denomination  had, 
in  1916,  126,847  communicants,  an  increase  of 
3704  over  1914;  1759  churches,  and  750  min- 
isters. For  administrative  purposes  it  is  di- 
vided into  four  particular  synods  and  36  classes 
corresponding  to  the  presbyteries  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church.  The  Sunday  schools  had  over 
160,000  pupils.  The  denomination  contributes 
annually  for  benevolent  and  missionary  purposes 
about  $500,000,  and  for  congregational  purposes, 
about  $1,700,000.  Its  missionary  work  is  in 
charge  of  the  board  of  foreign  missions,  the 
women's  foreign  mission  board,  and  the  domestic 
missionary  board.  The  board  of  education  and 
board  of  publication  regulate  educational  and 
publishing  interests.  The  officers  of  the  General 
Synod  are  Isaac  W.  Gowen,  president;  John  La- 
mar, vice-president;  Henry  Lockwood,  stated 
clerk;  Clifford  P.  Case,  permanent  clerk.  The 
General  Synod  meets  at  Holland,  Mich.,  in  June, 


The    denominational 
East  Twenty-second 


headquarters    are 
Street,   New    York 


1916. 

at   25 

Cit  

iftEFOBMED  CHUBCH  IN  THB  UJNITEB 
STATES,  known  also  as  the  GrauAN-RE- 
FORUED  Chxtrch.  This  denomination  had,  in 
1915,  320,459  communicants,  an  increase  of  7709 
over  1914;  1769  churches,  and  1213  ministers. 
The  affairs  of  the  denomination  are  administered 
by  ei^ht  district  synods,  and  59  classes  corre- 
sponding to  the  presbyteries  in  the  Presbyterian 
CSiurch.  The  Sunday  schools  had,  in  1916,  over 
250,000  pupils.  The  missions  of  the  church  are 
carried  on  in  practically  all  the  States  of  the 
Union  and  in  Canada.  Theological  seminaries 
are  maintained  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  and  Dayton, 
Ohio.  The  colleges  include  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College,  and  Heidelberg  College,  at  Tiffin, 
Ohio.  Colleges  for  women  are  maintained  at 
Frederick,  Md.,  and  Allentown,  Pa. 

BEFOBMED  EPISCOPAL  CHXTBCH.  In 
this  denomination  there  were,  according  to  the 
latest  available  returns  (1913),  10,800  commu- 
nicants, 80  churches,  and  83  ministers,  lliere 
are  six  bishops  at  the  head  of  the  denomination. 
Domestic  missions  are  carried  on  among  the 
colored  people  of  South  Carolina,  and  foreign 
missions  are  maintained  in  India.  The  theolog- 
ical seminary  is  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  same 
city  is  published  the  official  organ,  the  Episcopal 
Recorder. 

BEFOBIOSD  PBESBYTEBL/USrS.  Under 
this  title  are  included  five  branches.  The  Asso- 
ciate Reformed,  South;  the  Reformed  (Synod); 
the  Reformed  (General  Synod) ;  the  Reformed 
(Covenanted) ;  and  the  Reformed  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  Associate  Reformed 
South  is  the  largest  branch.  In  1915  it  had  14,- 
821  communicants,  155  churches,  113  ministers. 
The  Reformed  (Synod)  had,  in  the  same  year, 
8634  communicants.  111  churches,  and  128  min- 
isters. The  Reformed  (General  Synod)  had 
3300  communicants,  17  churches,  and  16  min- 
isters. The  Reformed  (Covenanted)  had  40 
communicants  and  one  church.  The  Reformed  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  had  360  communi- 
cants, one  church,  and  one  minister.  The  Re- 
formed (Greneral  Synod)  maintains  two  churches 
in  India.  It  has  a  theological  seminary  in 
Philadelphia  and  a  college  at  Cedarville,  Ohio. 

BEFUSE  DISPOSAL.  See  Garbage  and 
Refuse  Disposal. 

BEINDEEB.  See  Alaska,  section  so  en- 
titled. 

BELIEF  FOB  WAB  VICTnCS.  The  out- 
break of  the  European  war  very  soon  made  it 
evident  that  millions  of  innocent  victims  in  the 
fighting  areas  would  be  without  independent 
means  of  support  on  account  of  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  property,  the  confiscation  of  food 
supplies,  and  the  paralysis  of  industry.  This 
was  first  illustrated  in  Belgium  where  it  was  es- 
timated that  by  November,  1914,  over  6,000,000 
persons  had  been  rendered  homeless  and  1,500,- 
000  destitute.  The  prosecution  of  the  war,  how- 
ever, resulted  in  the  creation  of  a  similar  situa- 
tion in  Russian  Poland,  in  Galicia,  and  in  Serbia. 
The  situation  in  Poland  was  indeed  even  worse 
than  that  in  Belgium.  Finally,  the  unprece- 
dented butchery  of  the  Armenians  by  Turks,  ren- 
dered relief  of  the  remnant  of  the  Armenian  pop- 
ulation an  absolute  necessity. 

As  early  as  September,  1014,  relief  organiza- 
tions  began  to  be  formed  in  the  United  States. 

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GommitteeB  sprang  into  existence  all  over  the 
country  with  the  result  that  at  first  there  was 
considerable  duplication.  Gradually,  however, 
relief  activities  were  systematized  under  central 
committees.  Throughout  1915  numerous  organi- 
zations seekinff  relief  for  special  classes  of  vic- 
tims continued  to  operate  and  all  were  most 
generously  supported.  By  far  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  organizations  in  the  world  was  the 
Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium;  but  numer- 
ous other  funds,  many  of  which  are  noted  below, 
performed  work  necessary  to  the  life  and  welfare 
of  war  victims.  All  sorts  of  devices  for  raising 
money  were  resorted  to,  including  appeals 
through  newspapers,  endless-chain  whist  parties, 
fairs  and  bazaars,  theatrical  and  musical  per- 
formances, ''tag"  days,  balls  and  fetes  of  various 
kinds,  and  appeals  through  churches  and  other 
organizations. 

COKMISSION    FOR    ReLIET    IN     BELGIUM.      This 

was  the  most  extensive  relief  organization,  em- 
bracing all  neutral  countries.  It  was  brought 
into  existence  through  the  activities  of  the  Amer- 
ican and  Spanish  ambassadors  at  London  and 
ministers  at  Brussels,  the  American  ambassador 
at  Berlin,  and  the  American  minister  at  The 
Hague.  In  addition  to  the  six  foregoing,  its 
honorary  chairman  in  1915  included  uie  Amer- 
ican ambassador  in  Paris,  and  the  Netherlands' 
minister  to  Belgium.  Its  chairman  was  Herbert 
Hoover;  it  had  directors  in  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  Great  Britain,  besides  Mr.  Lindon  W.  Bates, 
in  America.  Moreover,  there  were  national  or- 
ganizations in  America,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Eng- 
land, besides  a  most  extensive  distributory  or- 
ganization in  Belgium  and  Northern  France. 
Affiliated  witib  it  was  a  Woman's  Section.  Dur- 
ing 1915  it  carried  out  the  distribution  of  its 
aid  in  Belgium  through  the  Comity  National  de 
Secours  et  d' Alimentation.  Similarly  on  ac- 
count of  the  devastation  in  the  occupied  French 
territory  the  Comit6  d' Alimentation  du  Nord  de 
la  France  was  organized.  Its  American  head- 
quarters were  at  71  Broadway,  New  York  City; 
and  there  were  other  principal  offices  in  Lon- 
don, Rotterdam,  and  Brussels.  It  had,  in  1915, 
assembling  depots  in  every  State  in  the  United 
States,  and  representative  executives  in  all  but 
12  States.  It  transported  free  of  charge  from 
any  point  in  the  United  States  all  gifts. 

The  committee  secured  pledges  from  England, 
Holland,  and  Germany  permitting  the  transpor- 
tation of  food  products  to  the  occupied  territory, 
and  the  pledge  of  Germany  that  such  food  would 
not  be  confiscated  for  war  purposes.  The  gen- 
eral policy  of  the  commission  was  to  cooperate 
with  organizations  of  every  sort  in  Belgium  in 
the  distribution  of  relief.  It  thus  created  over 
4000  distributing  committees  in  Belgium  and 
Northern  France;  local  committees  were  brought 
into  existence  in  nearly  every  commune  of  the 
occupied  territory,  and  over  these  were  district 
and  provincial  committees  all  under  the  Comity 
National  above  mentioned.  The  work  was 
carried  out  under  three  main  divisions:  the  Pro- 
visioning Department;  the  Financial  Relief  and 
Exchange  Department;  and  the  Benevolent  De- 
partment. The  Provisioning  Department  pro- 
vided food  for  about  7,000,000  people  in  Belgium 
and  2,300,000  people  in  Northern  France.  Up 
to  June  30,  1916,  it  had  secured  over  600,000 
tons  of  foodstuffs  for  the  Belgian  section,  valued 
at  over  $45,500,000.  These  foodstuffs  were  re- 
sold to  the  population,  and  the  profits  thus  se- 


cured were  used  bv  the  Benevolent  Department 
in  the  care  of  destitute.  These  profits  were  due 
entirely  to  the  volunteer  executive,  commercial, 
and  transportation  services,  which  were  valued 
during  the  first  eight  months  at  $4,800,000.  The 
Financial  Relief  and  Exchange  Department  fa- 
cilitated remittances  of  money  to  the  amount  of 
$20,000,000,  with  the  result  that  500,000  persons 
were  saved  from  destitution.  The  Benevolent 
Department  secured  up  to  June  30,  1915,  a  total 
of  over  $31,000,000  for  the  support  of  2,750,000 
destitute  ^rsons  in  700,000  families.  Both  food 
and  dothmg  were  supplied  at  an  expenditure 
during  1915  of  $5,000,000  per  month.  Food  was 
given  out  through  a  system  of  canteens  covering 
all  Belgium,  m^ds  being  thus  supplied  to  desti- 
tute persons  at  a  per  capita  cost  of  only  eight 
cents  per  day.  There  were  also  baby  canters, 
cheap  restaurants,  meals  for  school  children,  and 
in  some  cases  provision  of  shelter.  Besides  these 
activities  the  commission  gave  aid  to  or  through 
the  following:  a  committee  to  aid  doctors  and 
pharmacists  by  supplying  medicines,  serums,  and 
other  necessities;  child  institutions  working  for 
the  better  feeding  of  infants,  the  aid  of  private 
and  public  orphanages,  and  assistance  to  war 
orphans  and  other  homeless  children;  the  treat- 
ment of  indigent  consumptives;  an  agricultural 
c(»nmittee  to  control  the  supply  of  seeds  and  fod- 
der; a  committee  for  the  aid  and  protection  of 
artists;  some  50,000  lace  workers,  mostly  Bel- 
gian women;  destitute  foreigners;  refugees  from 
other  localities;  a  committee  for  the  rehabilita- 
tion of  churches;  local  workrooms  for  the  repair 
of  clothing  for  the  destitute;  and  miscellaneous 
grants  to  Cardinal  Mercier  for  trade  training 
for  maimed  soldiers,  and  for  maternity  hospitals. 

Up  to  June  30,  1915,  gifts  of  money  from  all 
parts  of  the  British  Empire  reached  a  total  of 
$4,850,582;  cash  gifts  from  the  United  States 
totaled  $311,939;  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund  (see 
below)  had  sent  $502,025;  from  commissions  in 
China,  Italy,  and  Spain  had  been  received  $85,- 
710;  and  Belgian  institutions  and  Belgians 
abroad  had  supplied  $16,222,701.  Gifts  of  foods 
and  clothing  are  not  included  in  these  figures. 

During  the  year  it  became  evident  that  relief 
for  the  civil  population  in  Northern  France  was 
necessarv.  Consequently  the  Comity  d'Alimoi- 
tation  above  mentioned  was  created.  This  began 
active  work  about  April  1,  1915,  and  during  the 
next  three  months  distributed  food  products  val- 
ued at  $14,193,000.  In  addition  it  supplied 
clothing.  During  the  later  months  of  1915  the 
commission  made  a  persistent  appeal  for  new 
clothing  of  all  kinds,  and  for  cloth  suitable  to 
be  made  into  clothing  for  3,000,000  people  in 
Belgium  and  France.  It  had  organized  work- 
shops in  the  relief  territory  for  the  manufac- 
ture and  repair  of  clothing. 

Belgian  Relief  Fund.  This  fund  "for 
women,  children,  and  other  non-combatants"  had 
its  headquarters  at  10  Bridge  Street,  New  York 
City.  Its  president  was  Rev.  J.  F.  Stillemans. 
Mr.  Robert  W.  de  Forest  was  chairman  of  the 
executive  committee;  and  J.  P.  Morgan  and 
Co.,  treasurer.  It  embraced  numerous  lo- 
cal committees,  including  one  in  every  State. 
Up  to  the  close  of  1915  it  had  collected  $1,080,- 
000  in  cash;  and  food  supplies  valued  at  $1,000,- 
000.  In  cooperation  with  the  Rockefeller  Foun- 
dation it  had  sent  into  Belgium  foodstuffs  to  the 
amount  of  $1,000,000.  Most  of  the  cash  received 
was  spent  for  food,  but  small  sums  were  sent  to 


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refugees  in  Holland  and  to  war  victims  in  the 
unoccupied  parts  of  Belgium.  The  cost  of  trans- 
porting and  distributing  food  products  sent  by 
it  was  borne  by  the  American  Ck>mmission  for 
Relief  in  Belgium,  so  that  the  fund  became  a 
central  agency  for  the  collection  of  cash  gifts  and 
for  the  expert  purchasing  of  food  supplies. 

Jewish  Relief.  On  account  of  the  great 
number  of  Jews  in  Poland  and  other  parts  of 
Europe  who  suffered  extreme  privation  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  war,  the  American  Jewish  Relief 
Committee  for  Sufferers  from  the  War  was  or- 
ganized with  Felix  M.  Warburg,  52  William 
Street,  New  York  City,  as  treasurer.  •  Toward 
the  close  of  the  year  a  most  active  campaign  for 
funds  was  undertaken.  A  memorable  meeting 
was  held  in  Carnegie  Hall  on  December  23rd,  at 
which  more  than  $500,000  was  secured.  Local 
committees  were  formed  in  cities  throughout  the 
country.  While  the  prime  movers  were  He- 
brews, there  were  many  non-Jews  who  assisted 
in  securing  funds.  By  the  close  of  the  year  $1,- 
881,743  had  been  sent  to  needy  Jews  abroad,  and 
plans  for  the  dispatch  of  $500,000  more  for  gen> 
eral  relief  in  Russia,  Poland,  Galicia,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Greece,  and  Palestine,  for  Jewish  stu- 
dents in  Switzerland,  and  refugees  in  Alexandria, 
were  nearly  completed.  Mass  meetings  were  to 
be  held  in  all  principal  cities  early  in  1916  un- 
der the  direction  of  a  National  Committee  of  One 
Hundred. 

In  Great  Britain  was  formed  the  Russian 
Jews'  Relief  Fund  for  the  aid  of  Jews  in  Russia 
and  Poland.  It  had  branches  in  all  principal 
cities.  This  was  a  national  non-sectarian  fund 
administered  in  Russia  through  a  committee  at 
Petrograd  headed  by  Baron  Gttnzburg.  By 
means  of  it  over  120  local  relief  centres  were 
feeding  every  day  more  than  200,000  homeless 
and  destitute  Jews. 

In  Russia  a  central  relief  committee  at  Petro- 
grad sent  out  word  that  military  authorities 
had  forcibly  removed  250,000  Jews  from  their 
homes  in  the  occupied  territory,  and  that  200,000 
more  had  left  voluntarily.  The  committee  had 
opened  employment  agencies  in  31  cities  and 
equipped  10  workshops.  Its  most  valuable  ac- 
tivity had  been  the  extension  of  credit  through 
codperative  loan  societies  in  17  different  places. 
In  addition,  hospitals,  asylums,  infirmaries,  and 
schools  were  opened.  The  Russian  government 
had  contributed  1,500,000  rubles  to  the  work  of 
this  committee. 

Other  Funds.  There  were  a  considerable 
number  of  other  agencies  collecting  money  and 
supplies  for  the  relief  of  special  classes  of  vic- 
tims. Thus  there  was  the  American  Ambulance 
Fund,  collecting  means  for  the  support  of  the 
American  Hospital  in  Paris.  Its  treasurer  was 
J.  P.  Morgan  and  Co.,  23  Wall  Street,  New 
York.  The  Duryea  War  Relief  Fund  of  which 
the  Union  Trust  Company,  New  York,  was  the 
treasurer  was  headed  by  Mrs.  Nina  L.  Duryea. 
The  American  Girls'  Aid  for  the  collection  of 
clothing  for  war  victims  in  France  had  executive 
oflSces  at  50  Broad  Street.  The  Fund  for  the  Re- 
lief of  Women  and  Children  in  France,  headed 
by  Mrs.  Whitney  Warren,  16  East  47th  Street, 
reported  a  total  of  more  than  $122,000  at  the 
close  of  1915.  The  Dollar  Christmas  Fund,  with 
Henry  Clews  as  treasurer,  was  organized  to  pur- 
chase shoes  for  destitute  Belgian  children.  It 
had  received  about  $75,000  by  means  of  which 
more  than  100,000  pairs  of  shoes  had  b^n  sent 


to  the  poor  children  of  Belgium.  The  Vacation 
War  Relief  Committee,  of  which  Miss  Anne  Mor- 
gan was  chairman,  and  the  office  of  which  was  at 
38  West  39th  Street,  reported  aggregate  gifts  of 
$186,123.  At  the  very  close  of  the  year  it  issued 
an  appeal  for  contributions  of  phonograph  rec- 
ords and  phonographs  for  distribution  among 
French  and  English  hospitals  and  in  the  camps. 
The  distribution  of  such  gifts  was  to  be  carried 
out  by  the  American  Fimd  for  French  Wounded, 
which  was  assisting  some  500  small  hospitals. 
Mrs.  Ethelbert  Nevin,  38  West  89th  Street,  was 
chairman  of  this  fimd,  which  reported  gifts  of 
$15,575.  Mr.  Frederic  R.  Coudert,  2  Rector 
Street,  New  York,  was  treasurer  of  the  War 
Orphans'  Fund,  for  the  care  of  French  war  or- 
phans. The  Cardinal  Mercier  Fund,  organized 
to  collect  money  to  be  distributed  for  relief  work 
in  Belgium  by  Cardinal  Mercier  and  of  which  J. 
P.  Morgan  and  Co.,  23  Wall  Street,  was 
treasurer,  reported  a  total  of  about  $15,000. 
The  National  Allied  Relief  Committee,  of  which 
Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot  was  president  and  Lee,  Hig- 
ginson  and  Co.,  Boston  and  New  York,  was 
treasurer,  was  one  of  the  most  active  at  the  close 
of  1915,  giving  special  attention  to  relief  in  Ser- 
bia. The  Prince  of  Wales  National  Relief  Fund 
in  the  United  States,  of  which  R.  W.  Stuart 
Wortley,  25  Broad  Street,  was  treasurer,  reached 
a  total  of  $146,226  at  the  close  of  the  year.  This 
fund  had  headquarters  in  Great  Britain,  and 
branches  in  the  various  colonies.  Its  total  ag- 
gregated many  millions  of  dollars.  The  Lafay- 
ette Fund  with  offices  at  the  Vanderbilt  Hotel, 
New  York,  sent  comfort  kits  to  the  soldiers  of 
France;  it  had  collected  $102,040.  The  Commit- 
tee of  Mercy  was  engaged  in  forwarding  neces- 
sities for  women  and  children,  such  as  condensed 
milk,  food,  and  clothing.  Its  treasurer  was  Au- 
gust Belmont,  200  Fifth  Avenue,  and  its  total 
gifts,  $143,202.  The  War  Children's  Relief 
Fund  had  headquarters  at  35  West  39th  Street. 
It  secured  contributions  from  women's  clubs, 
Sundav  schools,  children  of  the  public  schools, 
and  elsewhere  valued  at  $17,000.  These  gifts 
were  in  money,  toys,  or  articles  useful  in  making 
presents  to  children.  These  were  sent  to  Eng- 
land, France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Serbia,  Monte- 
negro, Italy,  Russia,  and  Poland.  Among  other 
things  it  sent,  near  the  close  of  the  year,  a  thou- 
sand pounds  of  candy  in  small  packages  and  sev- 
eral thousand  toys.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
relief  activities  was  that  organized  by  the  Vi- 
comtesse  de  Ranoougne  for  the  relief  aid  of  des- 
titute artists  of  France  and  their  families. 
Many  prominent  Americans  were  interested, 
their  aid  being  distributed  through  the  Appui 
aux  Artistes  of  Paris.  Similarly,  Mr.  Fritz 
Kreisler  collected  funds  through  concerts  and 
sale  of  autographed  photographs  for  the  relief 
of  destitute  artists  of  all  nationalities  in  Vienna. 
There  were  various  funds  for  the  relief  of  spe- 
cial nationalities.  The  Serbian  Relief  Fund,  of 
which  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot  was  chairman  and 
Murray  H.  Coggeshall,  70  Fifth  Avenue,  treas- 
urer, reached  a  total  of  $187,128  at  the  close  of 
the  year.  It  made  an  especially  strong  appeal 
during  the  later  months  of  the  year  b^use  of 
the  urgent  need  in  Serbia.  The  National  Com- 
mittee for  Syrian  and  Armenian  Relief,  with 
Charles  R.  Crane,  70  Fifth  Avenue,  as  treasurer, 
reported  a  total  of  $170,337.  It  received  contri- 
butions through  banks  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.    The  American-Armenian  Relief  Fund, 


Digitized  by 


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BELIEV  FOB  WAB  VICTIMB 


550 


BBLZGIOUS  DBV0HIHATI0H8 


of  which  Brown  BrotherB  and  Co.,  59  Wall 
Street,  acted  as  treasurer,  was  also  very  active 
at  the  close  of  the  year.  The  Polish  Victims'  Re- 
lief Fund,  with  ex-President  Taft  as  honorary 
president  and  with  headquarters  at  33  West  42d 
Street,  had  received  a  total  of  $205,555  before 
the  close  of  the  year.  A  subsidiary  committee 
was  collecting  clothing  and  hospital  supplies  for 
Polirii  sufferers.  The  American  Polish  Relief 
Commission,  with  the  Guarantee  Trust  Company 
of  New  York  as  treasurer,  was  sponsored  by 
President  Hibben  of  Princeton,  President  Butler 
of  Columbia,  Governor  Capper  of  Kansas,  ex- 
Senator  Burton,  and  other  distinguished  Ameri- 
cans. The  Polish  pianist,  Jan  Paderewski, 
aroused  the  entire  country  to  the  urgency  of  the 
need  for  immediate  and  generous  relief  in  Po- 
Und.  The  "Friends  of  Poland"  fund,  Roger 
Wolcott,  00  State  Street,  Boston,  treasurer,  re- 
ported a  total  of  $16,411.  There  were  in  addition 
the  Montenegrin  Fund;  the  Dardanelles  Fund; 
the  British- American  War  Relief  Fund ;  the  Brit- 
ish War  Relief  Fund;  and  the  Garibaldi  Fund, 
all  of  whidi  were  generously  supported  by  the 
American  public.  A  unique  effort  to  secure 
funds  was  the  sale  of  The  Book  of  the  HomelesM, 


edited  by  Edith  Wharton.  The  proceeds  were  to 
go  to  the  American  Hostels  for  Refugees  and  The 
Children  of  Flanders  Rescue  Committee.  See 
also  Red  Cboss,  The  AiCEiacAN  Nationai«. 

BELIOION,   Books  on.    See  Literatubk. 

BBLiaiOXTS  DENOHIHATIONB  AND 
KOVBHENTS.  Statistics  of  the  religious  de- 
nominations in  the  United  States  and  their  pos- 
sessions in  1915  were  prepared  by  Dr.  H.  K.  Car- 
roll, associate  secretary  of  the  Federal  Council 
of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America.  The  gen- 
eral results  of  his  investigation  are  given  in  the 
table  below.  The  statistics  cover  only  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,  the  ministers, 
churches,  and  communicants  of  various  denom- 
inations in  foreign  countries  being  deducted  from 
the  denominational  totals.  Where  the  official  re- 
turns of  denominations  are  obtainable,  they  are 
preferablv  used,  and  where  such  returns  are  not 
to  be  had,  the  best  denominational  sources  of  in- 
formation are  sought  for  approximate  figures. 
In  some  cases  the  census  returns  for  1006  are 
the  latest  and  only  figures  available.  It  is 
chiefiy  the  verjr  small  religious  bodies  that  re- 
port no  statistics.  Estimates,  usually  by  statis- 
ticians of  denominations,  are  given  in  a  few  cases 


Denofninationa  MiniHart 

Adventiate    (0   bodies)    1,288 

Baptists   (15  bodies)    48.646 

Bretliren    (Dunksrds)    (4   bodies)    8,554 

Brethren  (Plymoath)   (4  bodies) 

Brethren    (BiYer)    (8  bodies)    224 

Bnddhiote    (2    bodies)     15 

Catholic  ApostoUe   (2  bodies)    88 

GathoUc  (Eastern  <>rthodox)    (7  bodies) 888 

Oatholic  (Western)   (8  bodies)   19.462 

Ohristadelphians     

Christians    1,066 

Christian  Catholie   (Dowie)    85 

Christian    Union    860 

GUnrch  of  Christ  Scientist 2.828 

Churches  of  Qod    (Winebrennarian)    440 

Churches  of  the  Livinc  God  (Colored)    101 

Churches  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (2  bodies) . .  147 

Church   Transcendent    2 

Communistic    Societies    (2   bodies)    

Congregationalists     5,028 

Disciples  of  Christ  (2  bodies)    8.261 

EYsngelical   (2  bodies)    1,664 

Faith  Associations  (9  bodies)   241 

Free  Christian  Zion  Church 20 

Friends   (4  bodies)    1.471 

Friends  of  the  Temple    8 

German    Evangelical    Protestant    59 

German  Evangelical  Synod 1,085 

Jewish   Congregations    1,084 

Lstter-Day   Saints    (2  bodies)    4.185 

Lutherans   (21  bodies)    9,688 

Scandinavian  Evangelical   (8  bodies)    629 

Mennonites    (12    bodies)     1.476 

Methodists    (16   bodies)    42.088 

Moravians   (2  bodies)    149 

Nonsectarian  Bible  Faith  Churches 50 

Pentecostal    (2  bodies)    890 

Presbyterians    (12  bodies)    14.012 

Protestant  Episcopal   (2  bodies)    6,621 

Reformed  (4  bodies)    2,156 

Reformed  Catholic   7 

Salvation   Army    2,061 

Schwenkf  elders     6 

Social  Brethren    16 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture    7 

Spiritualists     

Tneosophical   Society    

Unitarians     512 

United  Brethren  (2  bodies)    2.185 

Universalista     656 

Independent    Ck>ngregations    267 

Grand  total  in  1916    180,604 

Grand  total  in  1914   178,888 

d  Decrease. 


Summary  for  1915 

N0t  OabM  forl915 

Oimimu' 

Oommm- 

Churehet 

nieamU 

MiniBUrt  Chyrek49 

HiMllIf 

J'l** 

106,847 

26 

76 

5.229 

57.520 

6,807.055 

66 

5 

180,888 

1,260 

128,844 

121 

d20 

2.869 

408 

10,566 

•  >  • 

105 

4,008 

• « • 

... 

74 

8.165 

. . . 

24 

4.027 

•  •  • 

410 

467,500 

dZ 

18 

5.000 

15,802 

14,070,208 

405 

280 

187,795 

70 

1,500 

.  •  • 

... 

88 

1.860 

118.887 

<  •  • 

• .  • 

17 

5,865 

•  •  • 

, , 

820 

16.800 

6 

18 

1,088 

1.414 

85.006 

156 

78 

498 

28.650 

20 

4 

8.224 

68 

4.286 

... 

... 

151 

0.718 

4 

4 

42 

8 

144 

2 

8 

144 

22 

2.272 

.  •  • 

6,108 

771.862 

•  • . 

15 

8,180 

11,148 

1.522,821 

. . , 

. .  • 

2.601 

205,255 

dS 

8 

10,720 

146 

0.572 

... 

15 

1.885 

... 

, , 

998 

120.712 

.  • . 

<144 

d  1.292 

8 

876 

. . . 

... 

66 

84.704 

.  •  • 

, , 

1.878 

264,007 

27 

18 

1,769 

148,000 

... 

... 

..... 

1,680 

807,000 

885 

55 

22,000 

15,269 

2,484,184 

288 

d951 

d  10.786 

857 

72.000 



760 

61.881 

63 

24 

8.094 

62,728 

7.472.108 

168 

814 

144.070 

147 

21,146 

2 

4 

581 

204 

6,896 

... 

, 

878 

88,409 

88 

134 

4.618 

16,580 

2,104,089 

60 

d290 

69,148 

8,141 

1.061,696 

dS 

189 

25,648 

2,782 

502.602 

d22 

12 

28,651 

6 

8.250 

.  . . 

.  . . 

..... 

941 

27,664 

58 

87 

207 

6 

1,048 

1 

... 

4 

17 

1,262 

•  •  • 

6 

2,450 

. . . 

. .  • 

2,100 

200,000 

.  . . 

. .  • 

154 

4,714 

... 

. . . 

469 

70.542 

<I12 

<16 



4.022 

860.887 

<178 

<I76 

17,171 

768 

55.000 

... 

. .  • 

879 

48.678 

... 

... 

225.888 

89.880,670 

1,716 

1II6O 

658.502 

225.498 

88,727,078 

8,810 

1.821 

782.007 

Digitized  by  VnOOQlC 

RBLiaiOirS  DENOMINATIONB 


651 


BHODE  ISLAND 


for  the  increase  of  the  year,  where  the  official 
denominational  reports  are  not  ready.  The  al- 
phabetical order  of  arrangement  is  followed,  and 
classification  is  based  on  name  or  historical  rela- 
tion. The  non-Christian  bodies  are  few  and 
easily  separable  from  the  Christian. 

It  is  difficult  for  the  average  reader  to  get  a 
clear  idea  of  the  true  significance  of  the  returns 
unless  he  understands  the  various  principles  of 
classification  on  which  they  are  based.  For  in- 
stance, the  Roman  Catholic  Church  reports  only 
"population,"  which  includes  with  communi- 
cants the  imconfirmed  baptized ;  that  is,  children 
who  have  not  been  admitted  to  confirmation. 
The  rule  adopted  in  the  census  of  1890,  and  fol- 
lowed in  that  of  1900,  deducts  15  per  cent  from 
Catholic  population  and  sets  down  the  remaining 
85  per  cent  as  communicants.  Representatives 
of  Uiat  church  object  to  this  method,  but  as  the 
rule  to  report  only  members  or  communicants  is 
applied  to  all  other  denominations,  there  is  obvi- 
ously no  convenient  way  of  making  an  exception 
in  this  case. 

In  like  manner  the  returns  of  memberships  of 
the  great  Methodist,  Baptist,  Lutheran,  and 
Presbyterian  denominations  do  not  give  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  population  represented  by  those 
denominations.  Moderate  estimates  of  Metho- 
dist authorities,  for  example,  place  the  denom- 
inational population  at  two  and  a  half  times  the 
membership,  which  would  amount  to  about  18,- 
600,000.  The  number  is  rarely  placed  lower 
than  15,000,000  or  16,000,000  by  the  most  con- 
servative estimates. 

The  figures  for  Jewish  members  are  mislead- 
ing, since  that  denomination  makes  no  public  re- 
turns and  nothing  later  than  the  figures  gathered 
directly  by  circular  from  congregations  by  the 
government  in  the  1906  census  is  available.  The 
census  gives  an  even  smaller  number  of  members 
than  this  table,  counting  only  heads  of  families, 
according  to  the  Jewish  rule.  The  number  of 
adults  connected  with  Jewish  congregations  must 
be  more  than  700,000.  No  official  returns  are 
made  by  certain  small  churches,  including  the 
Christian  Catholic  Church  (Dowie)  and  the 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church.  The  Church  of 
Christ  Scientist  has  given  no  membership  re- 
turns since  1907. 

Changes  in  the  totals  for  1914  have  been  made, 
because  in  some  cases  the  denominational  returns 
were  incorrect  and  were  revised  a  year  later  by 
the  same  authorities.  In  other  instances,  esti- 
mates given  in  advance  of  regular  returns  needed 
to  be  slightly  increased  or  decreased. 

The  total  net  gain  of  communicants  for  1915 
is  663,640,  which  is  far  lower  than  that  of  1914, 
the  decrease  being  more  than  128,000,  partly  ex- 
plained by  a  falling  off  among  the  Lutherans  of 
nearly  11,000.  It  is  probable  that  this  is  largely 
owing  to  defective  returns;  the  same  cause 
largely  explains  the  decrease  in  Lutheran 
churches.  Defective  returns  in  1915  for  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  a  vigorous  and  growing  denom- 
ination, compelled  the  use  of  1914  figures.  The 
apparent  loss  of  more  than  11,000  members  and 
160  churches  by  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians 
is  probably  explained  by  more  accurate  returns. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  grand  total  of 
churches  shows  a  loss  of  over  160  as  compared 
with  1914.  The  Southern  Baptists  have  practi- 
cally the  same  number  of  churches  as  in  1914, 
but  have  a  gain  of  more  than  116,000  in  com- 


municants. The  apparent  anomaly  is  largely  ac- 
counted for  by  the  closing  or  consolidation  of 
rural  churches.  The  general  advance  of  the 
churches  between  1890  and  1915  is  distinctly  en- 
couraging. The  total  gains  are  as  follows:  69,- 
671  ministers,  60,037  churches,  and  18,762,411 
communicants,  the  gain  in  communicants  being 
about  91  per  cent.  The  table  on  preceding  page 
gives  the  summary  for  1916  with  'the  net  gain 
over  the  preceding  year. 

BELIGIOXTS  SdlXTGATION.  See  Univebsi- 
TiEB  AND  Colleges. 

BEMEDLAL  LOANS.  See  Loan  Sharks. 
.  BSOBGANIZED  CHXTBCH  OF  JESXTS 
GHBIST  OF  LATTEB  DAY  SAINTS.  This 
is  a  separate  organization  of  Mormons  claiming 
to  be  the  true  successor  of  the  original  church 
founded  in  1830  by  Joseph  Smith.  It  was  re- 
organized in  1862.  In  1916  its  membership 
numbered  73,899,  with  about  1000  ministers,  637 
Sunday  schools,  and  33,062  Sunday  school  pupils. 
Its  headquarters  are  at  Lamoni,  Iowa.  Its  chief 
officers  are:  Edmund  L.  Kelley,  presiding  bishop; 
Richard  S.  Salyards,  general  church  secretary. 

BEPTTLLA.     See  Zo5looy,  Repiilia. 

BESEBVOIBS.     See  Aqueduct;  Daks;  and 

IBBIOATION. 

BEX7NI0N,  or  Boubbon.  A  French  colony; 
an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  covering  1980 
square  kilometers  (764  square  miles)  and  hav- 
ing (1911)  173,822  inhabitants.  St.  Paul  (7 
sq.  km.),  New  Amsterdam  (66),  and  Kerguelen 
(3414)  are  administratively  attached  to  Reun- 
ion. Saint-Denis  (26,689  inhabitants)  is  the 
capital.  Imports  and  exports  (1913),  24,934,- 
943  and  16,692,290  francs  respectively.  Rail- 
ways, 126  kilometers.  Reunion  sends  a  senator 
and  two  deputies  to  the  French  Legislature. 

BEVENTTEy  Federal.  See  articles  on  va- 
rious countries;  on  States  of  United  States;  and 
Financial  Review,  section  so  entitled. 

BHODE  ISLAND.  Population.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  State,  according  to  the  State  cen- 
sus, was,  in  1915,  696,986.  In  1910  the  popu- 
lation was  642,610. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-16,  were  as  follows: 

Aereage  Prod,Bu.  Vahu 

Corn    1915  12,000  616,000  |516.000 

1914  11,000  462.000  458,000 

Oats     1915  2,000  66.000  88.000 

1914  2.000  55,000  82.000 

Potatoes    1915  6,000  550,000  506,000 

1914  5,000  825,000  578,000 

Ha7     1915  57.000  a  71,000  1,598,000 

1914  58,000  68,000  1,874.000 
a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  9000  and 
10,000  valued  at  $1,369,000  and  $1,460,000,  milch 
cows  numbered  22,000  and  23,000  valued  at  $1,- 
694,000  and  $1,633,000,  other  cattle  numbered 
10,000  and  11,000  valued  at  $283,000  and  $295,- 
000,  sheep  numbered  6000  and  7000  valued  at 
$36,000  and  $36,000,  swine  numbered  15,000  and 
16,000  valued  at  $166,000  and  $202,000.  The 
production  of  wool  in  1916  and  1914,  was  30,000 
and  25,000  pounds  respectively. 

Tbansfobtation.  Ilie  miles  of  steam  railway 
operated  in  the  State  in   1914  were  466.    The 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BHODE  ISLAND 


552 


BICHABBS 


New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  had  of  thiB 
454  miles. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  in  1915,  ages  5  to  15,  was  110,198. 
The  total  enrollment  in  the  public  schools  was 
86,505.  The  teachers  numbered  2397.  The  total 
expenditures  for  school  purposes  were  $2,868,- 
854. 

Finance.  The  latest  statistics  available  for 
the  finances  of  the  State  are  for  1913.  There 
was  a  balance  on  January  1st  of  that  year  of 
$68,020.  The  receipts  for  the  period  ending  Jan. 
1,  1914,  amounted  to  $3,459,251,  and  the  pay- 
ments to  $3,511,513,  leaving  a  balance  on  Dec.  31, 
1913,  of  $15,458.  The  funded  debt  of  the  State 
on  Jan.  1,  1914,  was  $5,830,000,  and  the  net  debt 
was  $5,041,571. 

Chabities  and  CoBBBcnoNB.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  of  the  State  include 
the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  House  of  Cor- 
rection, the  State  Alms  House,  the  State 
Prison,  the  Providence  County  Jail,  Sockanosset 
School  for  Boys,  and  the  Oaklawn  School  for 
Girls.  The  Rhode  Island  School  for  the  Feeble- 
minded is  under  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

FOLmcB  AND  Government.  The  Federal  De- 
partment of  Justice  on  January  16th  announced 
that  reports  of  briberv  and  corruption  alleged 
to  have  been  practiced  in  the  election  of  1914 
would  be  investigated,  and  such  investigations 
were  carried  on  during  the  year.  The  results 
had  not  been  made  public  at  its  close. 

State  Govebnment.  Governor,  R.  Living- 
ston Beeckman;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Emery  J. 
San  Souci;  Secretary  of  State,  J.  Frederick 
Parker;  Attorney-General,  Herbert  A.  Rice; 
Treasurer,  Walter  A.  Read;  Adjutant-General, 
Charles  W.  Abbott,  Jr.;  Auditor,  Charles  C. 
Gray;  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools,  Walter 
E.  Ranger;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  Charles 
C.  Gray — all  Republicans. 

JuDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice: 
Clarke  H.  Johnson ;  Associate  Justices,  C.  Frank 
Parkhurst,  W.  B.  Vincent,  William  H.  Sweet- 
land,  Darius  Baker;  Clerk,  B.  S.  Blaisdell. 

State  Leoislatttbb: 


Republicans    86 

Democrats     8 

Republican   majority . .      88 


HOU90 

Joint  Bofloe 

70 

106 

80 

88 

40 


78 


BHODESIA.  A  country  (named  for  Cecil 
Rhodes)  under  the  administration  of  the  British 
South  Africa  Company;  a  British  protectorate, 
which  is  divided  into  Northern  Rhodesia  (esti- 
mated area,  291,000  square  miles;  estimated 
population,  1,001,400)  and  Southern  Rhodesia 
(148,575  square  miles;  760,471  inhabitants). 

Nobthebn  Rhodesia  includes  the  two  former 
provinces  of  Barotseland,  or  Northwestern 
Rhodesia,  and  Northeastern  Rhodesia.  It  was 
constituted  a  single  British  sphere  in  1911.  Le- 
wanika,  the  native  King,  resides  at  Lealui;  the 
administrator  for  the  company  resides  at  Living- 
stone. 

SouTHEBjv  Rhodesia  includes  the  provinces  of 
Mashonaland  (European  population,  12,631), 
and  Matabeleland  (10,975).  Chief  towns:  Sal- 
isbury (the  capital),  with  3479  white  inhabi- 
tants, Umtali,  and  Victoria  in  Mashonaland; 
Bulawayo  (5200  white  inhabitants),  Gwelo,  and 
Selukwe  in  Matabeleland.    The  country  is  well 


adapted  to  stock  raising  and  agriculture.  Crold 
has  been  mined  in  Rhodesia,  supposedly  from 
prehistoric  times.  From  1890,  the  date  of  the 
occupation  by  the  South  Africa  Company,  to 
September,  1898,  the  ffold  production  was  6470 
ounces;  in  1902  the  value  of  the  yield  (bullion) 
was  estimated  at  £687,096;  in  1905,  £1,449,985; 
1908  (fine  gold),  £2,526,007;  1911,  £2,647,896; 
1913,  £2,903,267;  1914,  £3,580,208.  Coal  mined 
in  1911,  212,529  tons;  1913,  243,328;  1914,  349,- 
459.  Silver,  187,641  ounces  in  1911,  142,390  in 
1913,  150,792  in  1914.  Lead,  639  tons  in  1911; 
copper,  1011  tons  in  1914.  Diamonds  are  found. 
Trade  and  financial  statistics  follow: 

*  1907-8         1909-10         1910-11         1918-14 

ImporU  .£1.450.174  £2,214.014  £2,786.821  £8.018,204 
Exports  .  2,474,236  8.178,416  8,190.956  8,505,157 
Revenue.  554,209  620.248  784,908  777,008 
Expend.  .       548,597         614.405        684,688        886,475 

*  Trade  for  calendar,  finance  for  fiscal  years. 
t        "^^-^  ■  '  ■ 

The  total  mileage  of  the  Rhodeslan  railway 
systems  (including  the  Beira  line)  was,  at  the 
end  of  1914,  2468.  Through  connection  exists  be- 
tween Cape  Town  and  the  Congo  border,  a  total 
distance  of  2149  miles;  and  between  Cape  Town 
to  Beira,  over  2000  miles.  Branches  extend  to 
the  mining  districts  and  to  the  burial-place  of 
Cecil  Rhodes  in  the  Matopos.  The  railway  has 
been  extended  beyond  the  Rhodesian  border  163 
miles  to  Elisabethville  in  the  Belgian  Congo. 

BICE.  Estimates  on  rice  production  in  1915 
were  available  for  but  a  few  countries.  The 
Japanese  crop  was  estimated  at  493,570,000 
bushels  and  the  Italian  crop  at  25,970,000  bush- 
els. Japan  was  overstocked  with  rice  in  the  fall 
of  1915,  and  efforts  were  made  to  export  10,000,- 
000  bushels,  the  surplus  on  hand.  The  annual 
consumption  of  the  country  is  about  275,000,000 
bushels.  In  Italy  rice  is  after  wheat  the  most 
important  cereal  for  consumption,  but  a  surplus 
is  produced  and  prepared  rice  in  quantities 
equivalent  to  2,450,000  bushels  on  the  average 
is  exported  annually.  The  United  States,  ac- 
cording to  estimates  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, produced  28,947,000  bushels  on  803,000 
acres,  the  rate  of  yield  being  36.1  bushels  per 
acre.  The  total  production  had  never  before 
been  equaled,  but  the  acreage  was  surpassed  by 
24,000  acres  in  1913.  The  average  yield  per 
acre,  36.1  bushels,  also  constitute  a  record. 
The  total  value  of  the  crop,  based  on  the  farm 
value  of  90.6  cents  per  bushel  on  December  Ist, 
of  the  year,  amounted  to  $26,212,000,  the  hiehest 
in  the  history  of  American  rice  culture.  As  in 
previous  years  the  principal  rice  growing  States 
were  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  California,  and 
South  Carolina,  given  in  the  decreasing  order  of 
production.  In  California  the  industry  has 
made  rapid  strides  since  1912  when  the  first  com- 
mercial crop  was  grown  on  about  1400  acres. 
The  production  is  confined  to  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  valleys.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  in  California  has  thus  far  been  much  above 
that  of  any  other  State. 

BICHABDS,  Theodobe  William.  Ameri- 
can scientist  and  educator,  who  received  in  1915 
the  Nobel  Prize  for  chemistry  for  1914.  He  was 
born  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1868,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Haverford  College  and  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. He  studied  abroad  for  several  years, 
and  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  chem- 
istry in   1894,  and  full  professor  in   1901.    In 


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BOBINSON 


1907  he  served  as  Harvard  exchange  professor 
at  Berlin.  His  chief  contribution  to  science  has 
been  the  revision  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
elements  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  lithium, 
barium,  calcimn,  strontium,  potassium,  iron, 
zinc,  nickel,  copper,  silver,  magnesia,  and  ura- 
nium. He  is  a  member  of  the  International 
Commission  of  Atomic  Weights.  In  1910  he  was 
awarded  the  Davey  Medal  by  the  Royal  Society 
of  England,  and  in  1912  the  Williard  Gibbs 
Medal  of  the  American  Medical  Society.  He  is 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  and  received  honor- 
ary degrees  from  Yale,  Haverford,  Harvard, 
Cambridge,  and  Christiania. 

BIDDEB,  Hebman.  American  editor,  died 
Nov.  1,  1915.  He  was  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1851  and  was  educated  in  the  public  schools.  At 
11  years  of  age  he  began  business  life  as  an  er- 
rand boy.  While  still  a  mere  youth  he  went  to 
work  in  a  Wall  Street  oflSce,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  During  the  next  14  years  he  was  em- 
ployed as  an  insurance  agent,  and  having  ac- 
quired a  considerable  sum  of  money  decided  to 
enter  the  newspaper  business.  He  foimded  first 
the  Katholisches  VolkeUati  in  1878.  Eight 
years  later  he  started  another  paper,  the  Cath- 
olic NetD8,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  he 
had  made  his  second  venture  one  of  the  leading 
organs  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  this  country. 
In  1890  he  purchased  a  considerable  portion  of 
stock  of  the  New  York  Stttata-Zeitung,  then  con- 
trolled by  Oswald  Ottendorfer.  He  became  suc- 
cessively director,  treasurer,  and  manager  of  this 
newspaper.  He  later  rose  to  control  the  paper 
as  chief  owner  of  its  stock.  His  position  and 
influence  among  the  German -Americans  early 
made  him  a  leader.  His  first  appearance  in  pol- 
itics was  in  1893,  when  he  organized  the  German- 
American  Reform  Union,  which  supported  Wil- 
liam L.  Strong  for  mayor  of  New  York. 
Through  the  columns  of  his  paper  and  in  his 
speeches  Mr.  Ridder  was  an  advocate  of  tariff 
reform  and,  although  nominally  a  Democrat,  was 
an  independent  in  politics.  He  supported  Mr. 
Cleveland  in  1884,  but  in  1896  and  in  1900  sup- 
ported McKinley.  In  1904  he  returned  to  the 
Democratic  party,  and  also  supported  Bryan  in 
1908.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  in  Eu- 
rope Mr.  Ridder  began  in  his  paper  a  campaign 
in  advocacy  of  the  German  cause.  He  daily 
published  editorials  in  English  under  his  own 
signature  in  which  he  bitterly  criticised  whatever 
policies  or  utterances  seemed  pointed  against 
Germany.  He  was  severely  criticised  for  this 
course,  but  continued  it  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
Mr.  Bidder  was  conspicuous  in  charitable  and 
church  work,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  and  the  American  Natu- 
ral History  Society.  He  was  perhaps  the  most 
conspicuous  American  of  German  parentage  in 
the  United  States. 

BITTMAN  PBOCESS.  See  Chemistbt,  In- 
dustrial. 

BO.    See   Intebnational   Language. 

BOADS  AND  PAVEMENTS.  In  pave- 
ment construction  a  notable  feature  of  the  year 
was  the  laying  of  brick  directly  on  the  concrete 
foundation  without  an  intermediate  sand  cush- 
ion. The  wisdom  of  this  method  was  rather 
warmly  discussed  in  the  technical  press.  There 
seemed  to  be  general  approval  by  those  who  had 
had  direct  personal  experience  with  the  method, 
but  a  longer  trial  is  needed  before  a  balance  can 


be  struck  between  its  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages. Improved  highway  or  road  construction 
goes  on  apace.  Nearly  every  State  in  the  Union 
and  the  counties  of  many  States  as  well  are  en- 
gaged in  road  building  on  a  large  scale.  For 
the  whole  United  States  it  is  estimated  that 
about  $265,000,000  had  been  expended  by  one 
State  alone  for  better  roads,  either  directly  or 
as  State  aid.  To  this  sum  local  authorities  have 
added  large  amounts,  ranging  from  100  per  cent 
of  the  State  expenditure  downward  in  the  var- 
ious States.  State  aid  to  systematic  road  im- 
provement began  in  New  Jersey,  where  the  first 
actual  payment  was  made  at  the  close  of  1892, 
although  the  first  State  aid  law  was  passed  by 
the  New  Jersey  Legislature  in  1891.  Massachu- 
setts was  only  a  year  behind  in  creating  a  legis- 
lative committee  to  investigate  the  subject  of 
road  improvement,  and  that  State  made  its  first 
road  improvement  appropriation  in  1894.  To 
the  close  of  1915  New  Jersey  had  expended  about 
$8,500,000,  and  Massachusetts  some  $19,000,000 
in  road  improvement.  The  third  State  in  the 
road  list  was  Vermont,  which  made  a  start  in 
1894,  and  to  the  close  of  1915  had  expended 
about  $3,500,000  for  roads.  In  round  numbers 
the  road  expenditures  of  some  of  the  other  States 
to  the  end  of  1915  had  been  as  follows:  New 
York,  $97,000,000;  Pennsylvania,  $27,000,000; 
Connecticut,  $16,000,000;  California,  $15,000,- 
000;  Washington,  $10,000,000;  Ohio,  $8,500,000; 
Maine,  $8,000,000.  The  Office  of  Public  Roads, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  which 
has  been  collecting  and  disseminating  road  in- 
formation since  1893,  and  later  on  has  been 
building  experimental  roads  and  conducting  a 
laboratory,  was  consolidated  with  other  offices 
and  bureaus  in  1915  to  form  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads  and  Rural  Engineering. 

BOBEBTSONy  Morgan.  An  American 
writer,  died  March  24,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Oswego,  N.  Y.,  in  1861,  and  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  York  City,  and  at  Cooper 
Institute.  At  the  age  of  16  he  went  to  sea  and 
made  two  trips  around  the  world.  After  follow- 
ing the  sea  for  10  years  and  filling  nearly  every 
possible  job  on  ship  board,  he  was  for  eight 
years  engaged  in  watch  making  and  diamond 
setting.  He  became  an  expert  in  the  latter 
trade.  In  1894  his  sight  failed,  and  he  was 
forced  to  give  up  this  occupation.  In  1896, 
while  he  was  in  New  York  City,  he  read  one  of 
Rudyard  Kipling's  sea  stories.  This  inspired 
him  to  write  and  in  one  night  he  finished  his 
first  short  story.  After  several  rejections  this 
was  accepted  by  a  magazine.  During  the  year 
which  followed  he  wrote  and  sold  about  20  short 
stories  of  the  sea.  He  continued  to  write  for 
many  years.  His  sea  stories  contain  much  vivid 
and  dramatic  writing.  In  addition  to  his  other 
accomplishments  Mr.  Robertson  was  an  inventor. 
He  devised  in  1905  a  periscope  for  submarines. 
Among  his  best  known  works  are:  Tale  of  a 
Halo;  Spun  Yams;  Futility;  Where  Angels  Fear 
to  Tread;  Masters  of  Men;  Shipmates;  Sinful 
Peek;  Down  to  the  Sea;  and  Land  Ho, 

BOBINSONy  EDWARD  Van  Dyke.  American 
economist  and  educator,  died  Dec.  10,  1915.  He 
was  bom  in  Bloomington,  111.,  in  1867,  and  was 
educated  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He 
studied  afterwards  in  the  University  of  Leipzig, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  After 
teaching  for  several  years  in  Western  colleges  he 
became  professor  of  economics  in  the  University 


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of  MinneBota  in  1907.  He  held  this  position 
until  the  summer  of  1916  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  economics  at  Columbia  University. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  economic  societies. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  and  among  his  published 
works  are  Nature  of  the  Federal  States;  War 
and  Economics;  Text  Book  of  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy; and  the  Cost  of  Qovemmenty  Ifational, 
State,  and  Local. 

BOBINSON,  Edwin  A.  See  Litebatubb, 
English  and  Amebican,  Poetry. 

BOGXEFBLLEB  FOUNDATION.  See  In- 
DUBTBiAL  Relations  Commission;  and  Relief 
FOB  Wab  Victims,  Belgian  Relief  Fund. 

BOCXEFELLBB  INDUSTSIAL  SEPBB- 
SENTATION  PLAN.  See  Abbitbation  and 
Conciliation,  Rockefeller  Plan. 

BOCK  ISLAND  BAILBOAD.  See  Rail- 
ways. 

BOCKS.    See  Geology. 

BOGXT  KOUNTAIN  SPOTTED  FEVEB, 
or  TICK  Fevbb.  Several  scattered  cases  of  this 
disease  were  reported  during  the  year.  The  sec- 
retary of  the  Colorado  State  Board  of  Health  an- 
nounced that  up  to  May  15,  18  cases  had  been 
reported  in  the  State.  Tick  fever  has  been  es- 
pecially prevalent  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley  in 
previous  years.  It  is  now*  occurring  in  other  lo- 
calities. Ticks  are  said  to  be  more  plentiful 
than  ever. 

Since  1902  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  has 
prevailed  in  certain  localities  in  the  Western 
States,  and  Ricketts  and  his  associates  gave  a 
definite  knowledge  as  to  the  means  by  which  the 
disease  is  spread  from  person  to  person  and  place 
to  place.  A  recent  paper  by  Fricks  (in  the 
United  States  Public  Health  Reports,  Jan.  15, 
1915)  states  that  the  disease  is  present  in  nine 
Rocky  Mountains  and  Coast  States,  these  locali- 
ties harboring  infective  wood-ticks  which  transmit 
the  fever  to  human  beings  by  their  bites.  Except 
for  the  Snake  River  Valley,  Idaho,  and  the 
Great  Basin  region,  the  infected  areas  are  rather 
small  and  definitely  outlined,  but  it  is  probable 
that  with  the  opening  up  of  new  localities,  other 
areas  of  infection  may  be  found.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  wood-ticks  remain  near  the  place 
where  they  are  hatched  and  their  period  of  in- 
fection is  not  longer  than  two  w^s,  so  that 
there  is  little  danger  of  their  spreading  the  dis- 
ease in  the  way  that  rats  spread  bubonic  plague. 
If  the  ticks  migrate  they  do  so  when  attached  to 
their  animal  host,  either  domestic  or  wild,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  areas  along  the  water 
courses  in  the  Northwest  seems  to  mdicate  this 
as  the  method  by  which  infection  was  spread  by 
such  large  animals  as  deer,  elk,  buffalo,  and 
range  cattle.  To  some  extent  also  the  shipment 
by  rail  of  elk  and  cattle  may  help  to  spread  the 
disease.  Fricks's  report  points  out  the  value  of 
sheep  grazing  as  a  means  of  eradicating  ticks. 
He  believes  that  close  grazing  tends  to  destroy 
the  ticks,  that  ticks,  principally  by  tangling 
themselves  in  the  wool  of  tiie  sheep,  are  de- 
stroyed, that  the  removal  of  other  animals,  do- 
mestic and  wild,  which  serve  as  hosts  for  adult 
ticks,  serve  a  good  purpose,  and  finally  the  eradi- 
cation of  ticks  is  placed  on  an  economic  basis. 
Experiments  were  made  with  two  bands  of  sheep 
numbering  1500,  and  lasted  from  April  to  July 
when  the  sheep  were  sheared.  The  animals  were 
searched  for  dead  and  live  ticks,  and  it  was  es- 
timated that  over  25,000  were  destroyed  during 
this  period. 


BOENTGBN  BAY&  It  is  weU  known  that 
X-ray  has  a  remarkable  influence  upon  the 
thymus  gland.  This  gland  normally  atrophies 
early  in  childhood,  but  persists  in  many  patients 
with  detriment  to  health  and  sometimes  to  life. 
Kocher  states  that  nearly  50  per  cent  of  exoph- 
thalmic goiter  have  either  an  enlarged  thymus 
or  one  that  has  not  undergone  involution,  and 
he  suggests  that  these  patients  be  prepared  for 
operation  on  the  thyroid  by  irradiation  of  the 
thymus.  Children  suffering  from  thymic  asthma 
have  been  relieved  of  their  symptoms  and 
the  thymus  gland  reduced  in  size  by  this  treat- 
ment. The  action  of  the  rays  is  very  rapid. 
Regaud  and  Cremieu  have  shown  experimentally, 
that  it  was  possible  to  reduce  the  thymus  of 
young  cats  with  a  dose  of  14  Holznecht  units  as 
early  as  the  second  day  after  irradiation,  this 
reduction  being  due  to  necrobiosis  and  absorp- 
tion of  the  thymus  lymph  nodes.  Regeneration 
began  about  the  15th  day  in  the  lymphocytes 
that  remained  intact.  They  found  also  that  the 
thymus  could  be  entirely  destroyed  with  one  ir- 
radiation of  50  Holznecht  units.  Waters  reports 
the  results  of  60  cases  of  exophthalmic  goiter 
treated  by  this  method.  Six  treatments  were 
given  in  each  series,  over  the  anterior  chest  wall, 
starting  in  the  first  interspace  on  the  right  side 
close  to  the  sternal  margin,  through  a  portal 
of  entry  5  cm.  in  diameter.  Irradiations  were 
given  in  the  majority  of  cases  on  six  successive 
days  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  intercostal 
interspaces  along  the  right  and  left  sternal  mar- 
gin; however,  a  number  of  the  patients  received 
six  treatments  at  one  stance.  The  patients  were 
then  allowed  to  wait  until  two  weeks  had  elapsed 
after  the  last  treatment  before  beginning  the 
second  series  of  irradiations.  They  were  again 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  before  and  a  like 
interval  of  time  allowed  before  receiving  the 
third  or  final  series.  Therefore,  no  cases  have 
received  more  than  three  series,  or  18  treat- 
ments, and  some  only  one  and  two  series,  com- 
prising 6  and  12  treatments,  respectively. 
Waters  holds  that  Roentgenization  will  cure^ 
temporarily  at  least,  some  cases  of  Graves's  dis- 
ease and  moreover  it  will  effect  an  apparent  cure 
in  some  cases  when  all  other  measures  have 
failed.  Under  a  strict  and  rigid  technic  no  bad 
effects  are  observed.  The  changes  in  the  blood 
picture  were  marked  and  were  characterized  prin- 
cipally bv  an  increase  in  the  neutrophilic  ele- 
ment and  a  decrease  in  the  small  mononuclear 
lymphocytes.  The  exophthalmic  goiter  offers 
the  greatest  resistance,  but  5  cases  of  00 
treat^  showed  marked  improvement.  The  pulse 
rate  was  lowered,  the  nervous  balance  and  gen- 
eral  health   being  first  to  show   improvement. 

See    T*TfftlITTTM 

BOMAN  CATHOLIC  GHUBCH.  The  great 
war  affected  the  progress  and  the  ordinary  or- 
derly details  of  church  administration  continu- 
ally during  the  year.  Not  only  was  direct  inter- 
course of  the  man^  dioceses  throughout  the 
world  with  the  Vatican  seriously  impeded,  but 
the  missions  suffered  materially.  The  funds  for 
their  support  usually  collected  in  the  warring 
countries  stopped,  and  in  many  instances  the 
missionaries  themselves  had  to  return  to  take 
part  in  the  conflict.  Pope  Benedict  XV  was 
unremitting  in  his  efforts  to  restore  peace  and 
in  his  letters  and  public  addresses  constantly 
counseled  against,  as  he  expressed  it  in  his  allo- 
cution to  the  Consistory  of  December  fith,  the 


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first  of  his  pontificate:  ''the  eontinuatioii  of 
this  shedding  of  blood,  which,  if  prolonged, 
might  mean  the  beginning  of  decadence  for  Eu- 
rope." One  of  his  most  important  acts  was  the 
Motu  Proprio  of  November  4th,  establishing  the 
new  Sacred  Congregation  of  Cardinals  and  their 
assistants,  who  will  have  supervision  of  all  Cath- 
olic seminaries  and  universities. 

At  the  Ccmsistory  on  December  6th,  Pope 
Benedict  created  the  following  cardinals:  Julius 
Tonti,  Apostolic  Nuncio  of  Portugal;  Alphonsus 
Mistrangelo,  Archbishop  of  Florence;  John  Cag- 
Here,  Delegate  Apostolic  of  Central  America; 
Andrew  Fniehwirth,  Apostolic  Nuncio  of  Ba- 
varia; Raphael  Scapinelli  di  Lesuigno,  Apostolic 
Nuncio  of  Austria-Hungary;  George  Gusmini, 
Archbishop  of  Bologna.  This  brought  the  mem- 
bership of  the  Sacred  College  up  to  60,  divided 
as  to  nationality  as  follows:  Italian,  30;  French, 
6;  Spanish,  5;  Austro-Hungarian,  5;  American, 
3;  Gernuin,  2;  English,  2;  Portuguese,  2;  Irish, 
Canadian,  Brazilian,  Dutch,  and  Belgian,  1  each. 
The  two  senior  members  are  Cardinal  Neto  and 
Cardinal  Gibbons,  who  have  been  serving  for  31 
and  29  years,  respectively.  The  youngest  mem- 
ber is  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val,  who  is  51;  six 
have  passed  their  80th  year.  There  are  10  va- 
cancies, and  of  the  present  membership  16  cardi- 
nals wore  created  by  Leo  XIII;  38  by  Pius  X; 
and  6  by  the  reigning  Pope  Benedict  XV.  Dur- 
ing his  reign  10  cardinals  have  died. 

The  list  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  Catholic  world 
shows  there  are  now  846  residential  and  459 
titular  sees;  22  abbacies;  13  delegates  apostolic; 
154  vicariates  apostolic;  and  65  prefectures  apos- 
tolic. During  1915  the  hierarchy  was  increased 
by  3  new  ecclesiastical  provinces — 1  in  Canada, 
and  2  in  Brazil — and  3  new  dioceses,  also  in 
Brazil.  Eleven  sees  were  restored,  several  of 
them  having  historical  importance. 

The  death  list  of  notable  prelates  for  the  year 
is  unusually  larse,  including  9  cardinals  and  9 
members  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  United  States. 
The  cardinals  were:  Agliardi,  Bauer,  Cavallari, 
Di  Pietro,  Dubillard,  Lorenzelli,  Tecchi,  Vaszary, 
and  Serafino  Vannutelli.  The  American  prelates 
were:  Archbishop  Quigley  of  Chicago;  Bishops 
Colton,  Buffalo;  Conaty,  Los  Angeles;  Burke, 
Albany;  Fox,  Green  Bay;  Kozlowski,  auxiliary 
of  Milwaukee;  Maes,  Covington;  Scanlan,  Salt 
Lake;  and  Stariha,  retired.  Lead,  8.  D.  Arch- 
bishop Langevein  of  St.  Boniface,  Canada,  Bishop 
F.  Abati,  0.  S.  F.,  an  Italian,  the  oldest  Catholic 
bishop  in  the  world,  aged  95  years,  and  Abbot 
Don  Anacleto  Salazar,  a  Spaniard,  who  had  been 
a  priest  80  years  and  was  104  years  old,  were 
also  numbered  with  the  year's  dead. 

Changes  amon^  the  hierarchy  of  the  United 
States  were  occasioned  by  the  following  appoint- 
ments: Rt.  Rev.  George  William  Mundelein, 
auxiliary  bishop  of  Brooklyn,  to  be  Archbishop 
of  Chicago;  Very  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  S.  Glass,  C.  M., 
of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  to  be  Bishop  of  Salt  Lake; 
Bishop  Joseph  F.  Busch  changed  from  Lead, 
S.  D.,  to  St.  Cloud,  Minn.;  Very  Rev.  M.  J.  Gal- 
lagher to  be  auxiliary  bishop  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.;  Mgr.  Thomas  F.  Doran  to  be  auxiliary 
bishop  of  Providence,  R.  I.;  the  Rev.  A.  J. 
Schuler,  S.  J.,  to  be  Bishop  of  £1  Paso,  Texas; 
Mgr.  Ferdinand  Brossart,  v.  G.,  to  be  Bishop  oif 
Covington,  Ky.;  Bishop  Dennis  J.  Dougherty  of 
Jaro,  P.  I.,  transferred  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Rt. 
Rev.  Dr.  P.  J.  Hurth  was  made  Bishop  of  Nueva 
Segovia,  P.  I.;  and  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Petrelli  was 


appointed  titular  Archbishop  of  Nisibi  and  Apos- 
toGc  Delegate  to  the  Philippines.  Bishop 
Thomas  F.  Kennedy,  rector  of  the  American  Col- 
lege, Rome,  was  promoted  to  the  titular  ardi- 
bishopric  of  Seleucia.  Mgr.  Edward  P.  Roche 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  St.  John's,  New- 
foundland. Three  new  archdioceses  were  estab- 
lished in  Canada:  Winnipeg,  with  Mgr.  Sinnott 
as  the  first  incumbent;  St.  Boniface,  with  Mgr. 
Beliveau;  and  Resina,  with  Mgr.  Mathieu,  re- 
spectively, as  archbishops. 

The  Very  Rev.  Vladimir  Ledochowski,  an  Aus- 
trian Pole,  was  elected  on  February  17th,  at 
Rome,  Father  General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Fifteen  American  Jesuits  attended  as  delegates 
the  General  Congregation  at  which  he  was 
chosen.  The  Congregation  also  determined  to 
establish  the  office  of  an  American  Assistant- 
General,  and  the  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Gannon  of  New 
York  was  elected  the  first  occupant  of  the  new 
office.  Four  American  Jesuits  were  sent  to  India 
to  replace  the  German  members  of  the  order  who 
had  been  interned  there  on  account  of  the  war. 

The  executive  machinery  of  the  great  lay 
charity  organization,  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  in  the  United  States,  was  reorganized 
by  a  unification  of  its  different  branches,  at  a 
conference  in  Washington,  November  22nd-23rd, 
and  a  National  Council  with  headquarters  in 
Washington  formed,  with  Thomas  M.  Muby  as 
president.  The  subordinate  councils  are  St. 
Louis,  New  Orleans,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Brooklyn.  Other  important 
national  conventions  during  the  year  were:  In- 
dian Congress  in  South  Dakota,  August  7th,  8th, 
and  9th;  third  convention  of  Knights  PEpee 
(deaf  mutes)  at  Buffalo,  August  2nd  to  August 
7th;  national  convention  of  the  Knights  of  Co- 
lumbus at  Seattle,  August  8rd-7th;  the  Central 
Verein  convention  at  St.  Paul,  August  8th-12th; 
41st  convention  Catholic  Y.  M.  National  Union 
at  Pittsburgh,  August  7th-8th;  45th  annual  con- 
vention of  the  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union 
of  America,  at  Pittsburgh,  August  8th-llth; 
Federation  of  Catholic  Societies  annual  conven- 
tion, at  Toledo,  August  15th-18th;  international 
convention  of  the  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters, 
at  Providence,  R.  L,  August  17th-2l8t;  and  In- 
ternational Federation  of  Catholic  AlumnsB,  at 
Chicago,  November  26th-28th. 

Statisticb.  The  Official  Caiholio  Directory 
for  1915  states  that  there  are  16,309,310  Catho- 
lics in  the  United  States,  and  comparing  these 
figures  with  those  in  the  directory  for  1905,  an 
increase  of  3,840,517  is  shown.  In  20  years  ti^e 
increase  has  been  7,231,445.  There  are  14,008 
priests,  with  14,961  churches.  In  the  85  semi- 
naries 6770  young  men  are  studying  for  the 
priesthood,  and  in  the  5488  parish  schools  there 
are  1,456,206  pupils.  There  are  229  colleges  for 
boys  and  680  academies  for  girls;  284  orphan 
asylums  with  45,742  inmates.  The  hierarchy  of 
the  United  States  is  made  up  of  17  archbishops, 
3  of  whom  are  cardinals,  and  102  bishops.  Tlie 
30  States  having  the  largest  number  of  Catho- 
lics are:  New  York,  2,886,824;  Pennsylvania, 
1,756,763;  Illinois,  1,473,379;  Massachusetts,  1,- 
392,000;  Ohio,  793,179;  Louisiana,  586,200;  New 
Jersey,  585,000;  Michigan,  581,000;  Wisconsin, 
576,470;  Missouri,  490,000;  California,  469,480; 
Minnesota,  465,900;  Connecticut,  441,193;  Texas, 
318,576;  Iowa,  279,160;  Rhode  Ishind,  275,000; 
Maryland,  261,000;  Indiana,  245,141;  Kentudcy, 
170,609;  New  Mexico,  140,573;  Kansas,  132,701; 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


BOKAN  CATHOLIC  OHTrBCR 


656 


BUBBEB 


Maine,  131,638;  New  Hampshire,  130,081;  Ne- 
braska,  123,403;   Colorado,  108,331;  North  Da- 
kota,   103,371;    Washington,    93,760;    Vermont, 
82,878;  Montana,  70,000;  Oregon,  66,460. 
BOXAKCB  LANaXTAGES.    See  Philoloqt, 

MODEBN. 

BOPBSy  Chablbs  Joseph  Hardy.  American 
theologian,  died  Jan.  6,  1916.  He  was  horn  in 
Petrograd,  Russia,  where  his  father  was  United 
States  Consul,  in  1861,  and  studied  in  Germany 
and  France.  In  1872  he  graduated  from  Yale. 
After  postgraduate  studies  at  the  University  of 
Tttbingen  he  entered  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  graduating  in  1876.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  Congregationalist  ministry  in  1877.  In 
the  same  year  he  became  pastor  at  Ellsworth, 
Me.  He  was  appointed,  in  1881,  professor  of 
New  Testament  language  and  literature  in  the 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary.  From  1887  to 
1901  and  from  1906  until  his  death  he  was  li- 
brarian of  tiiat  seminary.  He  was  the  author 
of  Morality  of  the  Oreeks  (1872),  and  contrib- 
uted many  articles  to  theological  journals. 

BOTHSCHIIJ),  Nathan  Mater,  first 
Baron.  A  British  banker,  son  of  Lionel  Roths- 
child. He  was  born  in  London  on  Nov.  8,  1840, 
and  died  on  March  3,  1916.  He  succeeded  to  his 
uncle's  baronet<^  in  1876,  and  to  his  father's  title 
as  an  Austrian  baron  in  1879.  He  served  as  a 
Liberal  Member  of  Parliament  from  1866  to  1885, 
when  he  was  made  a  peer.  He  was  the  first  pro- 
fessing Jew — Disraeli  was  a  Jew  by  race  but  not 
by  faith — ^to  sit  in  Parliament  and  to  receive  a 
peerage.  After  1889  he  was  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Buckinghamshire.  A  public  spirited  citizen,  he 
was  not  only  active  m  promoting  Jewish  in- 
terests in  every  quarter,  but  also  contributed 
liberally  to  public  movements  of  all  sorts.  He 
refused  loans  to  Russia  on  account  of  the  treat- 
ment of  Jews  in  that  country.  During  the  Eu- 
ropean war  he  served  as  president  of  the  British 
B/tA  Cross,  which  under  his  direction  raised 
nearly  $7,000,000,  and  his  exertions  in  this  con- 
nection were  considered  to  have  hastened  his 
death.  Frequently  consulted  by  British  states- 
men, he  aided  Disraeli  in  obtaining  possession  of 
the  Suez  Canal  for  Great  Britain.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  tiie  United  Synagogue  of  London,  and 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
Cambridge  University.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
the  family  fortune  of  the  Rothschilds  amounted 
to  about  $2,000,000,000.  His  son,  Lionel  Walter 
(born  1868),  succeeded  to  his  title. 

BOWING.  Rowing  as  a  world  sport  was 
discontinued  in  1916  as  the  result  of  the  Euro- 
pean war.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  pastime  the  English  Henley  had  to  be  post- 
poned. In  the  United  States,  however,  the  oars- 
men had  a  busy  season,  James  A.  Pilkington, 
president  of  the  National  Association  of  Ama- 
teur Oarsmen,  maintaining  that  more  young  men 
manned  the  sweeps  and  sculls  in  open  competi- 
tion in  1916  than  in  several  years  past. 

College  oarsmen  naturally  held  the  centre  of 
the  sti^e,  the  annual  regatta  on  the  Hudson 
River  at  Poughk^psie  attracting  the  greatest  in- 
terest, followed  closely  by  the  Yale-Harvard 
races  on  the  Tham^ts  at  New  London,  Conn. 

Cornell,  under  the  coaching  of  the  veteran 
Courtney,  again  took  its  place  at  the  top  by  win- 
ning the  varsity  and  jnnior  eight-oared  contests 
on  the  Hudson.  Yale  repeated  its  success  of 
1914  by  administering  a  crushing  defeat  to  Har- 
vard. 


A  notable  feature  of  the  Poughkeepsie  regatta 
was  the  excellent  showing  made  by  the  Leland 
Stanford  crew  in  the  Varsity  event.  The  oars- 
men from  the  Pacific  Coast  put  up  a  gallant  bat- 
tle for  first  honors  and  the  Ithacans  managed  to 
finish  in  front  by  a  margin  of  only  a  few  feet. 

The  times  made  by  the  various  eight-oared 
varsity  crews  on  the  Hudson  were:  Cornell, 
19  minutes,  36%  seconds;  Leland  Stanford, 
19:37%;  Syracuse,  19:43%;  Columbia,  20;  Penn- 
sylvania, 20:10%.  The  record  for  the  course, 
18:63%,  was  made  by  Cornell  in  1901. 

Cornell  also  won  the  junior  eight-oared  event 
in  10  minutes  %  second.  The  times  for  the 
other  crews  were:  Pennsylvania,  10:05;  Colum- 
bia, 10:07%. 

The  freshman  eight-oared  race  was  captured 
by  Syracuse,  whose  time  was  9  minutes,  29%  sec- 
onds. The  other  crews  finished  as  follows: 
Cornell,  9:43;  Columbia,  9:47%;  Pennsylvania, 
10:01%. 

Yale  had  an  easy  task  in  defeating  the  Har- 
vard varsity  at  New  London,  crossing  the  finish 
line  some  six  lengths  in  the  van.  Yale's  time 
was  20:62  and  Harvard's,  21:13%. 

The  second  varsity  eight-oared  event  also  went 
to  Yale,  whose  time  was  10:40.  Harvard's  time 
was  10:43.  The  freshman  race  was  somewhat 
marred  bv  darkness,  the  distance  being  neces- 
sarily reduced  to  one  and  a  half  miles.  Here 
again  Yale  was  the  victor,  its  time  being  8:06. 
Harvard's  time  was  8:10. 

In  college  dual  and  triangular  regattas  Yale 
defeated  Pennsylvania;  Yale  defeated  Cornell 
and  Princeton;  Harvard  defeated  Cornell;  Har- 
vard defeated  United  States  Naval  Academy; 
Princeton  defeated  Columbia;  Princeton  defeated 
United  States  Naval  Academy;  Leland  Stanford 
defeated  University  of  Washington  and  Univer- 
sity of  California. 

The  43rd  annual  championships  of  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Amateur  Oarsmen  were 
contested  on  the  Connecticut  River  at  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  the  Duluth  Boat  Club  of  Minnesota 
carrying  off  most  of  the  laurels. 

The  winners  in  the  more  important  events 
were:  Junior  eight-oared  shells,  Duluth  Boat 
Club;  intermediate  four-oared  shells,  Duluth 
Boat  Club ;  senior  four-oared  shells,  Duluth  Boat 
Club;  senior  international  four-oared  shells,  Du- 
luth Boat  Club;  intermediate  eight-oared  shells, 
Duluth  Boat  Club;  senior  quarter-mile  dash 
(single  sculls),  Walter  M.  Hoover,  Duluth  Boat 
Club;  intermediate  single  sculls,  Henry  Heller, 
Metropolitan  Rowing  Club,  New  York;  associa- 
tion single  sculls,  G.  Waldo  Smith,  New  York 
A.  C. 

Robert  Dibble  of  the  Don  Rowing  Club  of  To- 
ronto retained  his  title  in  the  diamond  sculls  by 
defeating  J.  B.  Kelly  of  the  Vesper  Boat  Club  of 
Philadelphia. 

The  12th  annual  regatta  of  the  American  Row- 
ing Association,  popularly  known  as  the  Amer- 
ican Henley,  was  held  on  the  Schuylkill  River. 
The  winners  of  the  principal  events  were:  First 
eight-oared  shells,  University  of  Pennsylvania 
junior  crew;  special  four-oared  shells.  Undine 
Barge  Club,  Philadelphia;  freshmen  eight-oared 
shells,  Syracuse  University;  junior  collegiate 
eight-oared  shells,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
J.  B.  Kelly  of  the  Vesper  Boat  Club  again  won 
the  first  single  sculls. 

BU3BEB.  The  rubber  industry  in  1915, 
as  regards  both  the  production  of  the  raw  ma- 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


BUBBEB 


557 


BT7BBE& 


terial  and  its  manufacture  into  finished  prod- 
ucts, decidedly  felt  the  influence  of  war  condi- 
tions, especially  in  the  United  States.  The  rela- 
tion of  rubber  to  war  was  so  important  that 
early  it  was  made  contraband,  and  in  1914  Great 
Britain  laid  embargoes  on  exports  from  its  va- 
rious colonies,  particularly  Ceylon,  and  Malay- 
sia, where  large  quantities  of  plantation  rubber 
are  shipped,  and  a  large  portion  of  which  comes 
to  America.  Rubber  naturally  figured  exten- 
sively in  war  munitions  and  supplies,  not  only 
for  automobile  and  truck  tires  which  were  re- 
quired in  large  numbers,  both  for  the  new  vehi- 
cles that  were  manufactured  for  military  pur- 
poses and  also  for  replacements.  In  the  second 
place,  life  in  the  trenches  required  vast  num- 
bers of  hip  and  other  rubber  boots,  rubber  cloth- 
ing, and  as  typical  of  this,  orders  for  2,000,000 
hip  boots  and  for  1,000,000  waterproof  capes 
were  issued  during  the  year  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment. Rubber  ground  sheets  or  blankets  were 
required  literally  by  the  million  by  the  combat- 
ing forces,  while  in  the  hospitals  rubber  sheeting, 
air  cushions,  hot  water  bottles,  drainage  tubes, 
and  other  surgical  appliances  were  in  demand. 
Of  these  supplies,  a  large  amount  came  from  the 
United  States,  although  the  Allies  refused  to 
allow  the  shipment  to  Germany  and  Austria  of 
rubber  goods.  In  addition  to  the  war  demands 
in  America  the  automobile  industry  was  active, 
and  in  1915  some  2,400,000  cars  were  in  use  in 
the  United  States,  and  possibly  some  714,000 
elsewhere  in  the  world  outside  the  United  States. 
It  was  estimated  that  the  American  production 
of  cars  would  increase  from  892,000  in  1915  to 
1,200,000  in  1916,  so  that  for  these  3,400,000 
motor  vehicles  which  require  an  average  of  five 
casings  and  five  tubes  each,  there  would  be  re- 
quired some  71,400  tons  of  crude  rubber  for 
tires,  while  for  the  714,000  motor  vehicles  out- 
side of  the  United  States  there  would  be  needed 
some  17,243  tons  of  crude  rubber  for  the  same 
purpose,  so  that  almost  89,000  tons  of  rubber 
would  be  required  for  tires.  This  would  be  ob- 
tained from  a  world's  production  of  crude  rubber 
in  1915  estimated  at  146,000  tons,  so  it  will  be 
apparent  that  for  other  purposes  there  would  be 
a  shortage  and  increased  prices,  the  latter  being 
the  tendency  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Cbude  Rubber.  Considering  the  crude  rubber 
production  and  market  during  1915,  especially  as 
it  concerned  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
which  took  over  one-half  the  world's  product,  the 
first  point  to  be  observed  was  the  lifting  of  the 
embargo  on  January  8th,  so  that  American  man- 
ufacturers by  giving  special  guarantees  to  the 
British  government  could  receive  crude  rubber, 
and  the  first  supplv  on  this  basis  was  200  tons, 
reaching  New  York  on  the  Lusitania  January 
23rd,  which  was  followed  by  other  large  ship- 
ments. This  policy  and  steady  shipments  from 
Brazil  kept  the  rubber  market  steady  during  the 
first  part  of  the  year  and  increased  supplies 
came,  which  the  Rubber  Club  of  America,  Inc., 
agreed  to  handle  and  release  under  the  usual 
guarantees.  In  June  further  arrangements  were 
made  whereby  American  manufacturers  could  re- 
ceive supplies  of  plantation  rubber  consigned  to 
the  local  British  consul,  and  then  pass^  upon 
by  the  Rubber  Club.  Later  in  the  year  the  clos- 
ing of  the  Panama  and  Suez  canals  and  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  Teutonic  submarines  in  the  Medi- 
terranean increased  prices,  and  in  December  the 
British  steamer  LangUm  EM  was  sunk  in  the 


Mediterranean,  having  in  its  cargo  500  tons  of 
rubber.  It  was  also  reported  that  ships  from 
the  Far  East  with  rubber  cargoes  had  been  di- 
rected to  sail  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
As  a  result  at  the  end  of  the  year  plantation 
rubber  sold  for  $1  a  pound,  which  it  had  reached 
from  a  low  point  of  some  57  cents  in  February. 
The  average  prices  at  New  York  for  rubber  over 
a  period  of  six  years  were  as  follows: 


VprivT 

lelande 

Fine         Coarse 

Fine 

Ooaree 

Ommeta 

1915 

.  .10.61%     10.47% 
..      .78%          .47% 

10.55% 

10.80% 

$0.88% 

1914    . 

.68% 

.79% 

.81% 
.86% 

.85% 

1918    , 

..      .87%          .58 
..    1.11%          .89% 

.42 

1912   . 

1.05  Vi 

.59 

.68% 
.70% 

1911    , 

..    1.18  V          .95 

1.10% 
1.89% 

.64 

1910   . 

..    2.01%        1.86% 

.90 

1.00 

The  imports  of  crude  rubber  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  during  1915  were  as  follows: 
Paras,  26,300  tons;  plantation,  58,127  tons;  Af- 
ricans, 2700  tons;  miscellaneous,  8670  tons:  or 
a  total  of  95,797  tons.  The  exports  amounted 
to  2348  tons,  so  that  there  was  retained  in  North 
America  93,449  tons.  The  value  of  rubber 
shipped  to  the  United  States  in  1915  was  esti- 
mate at  $80,000,000.  The  world's  production  of 
crude  rubber  was  estimated  at  the  end  of  the  year 
by  competent  British  authorities  as  follows: 

Tone 

1915  1914  1913 

Ceylon   and   India    20,600  14.800  11.880 

Malaya,    etc 72.800  49,700  86,200 

Amasonas      (Braiil,      BoUvia, 

and    Peru)    80,700  28,845  29,880 

Peruvian  and  Oaucho   6.800  8,655  9.620 

West  Coast,  Africa 2.500  8,650  8.900 

Benguela  and  Moosamedes . . .  1,900  1,500  1,800 

Loanda     600  450  400 

Congo,     French     Congo,     and 

Sndan    8,000  8.900  4.400 

From  other  sources   7,100  10.880  11,410 

Totals     146,000  120.880  108.440 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  were  increases  in  all 
sources  of  supply  except  for  wild  rubber,  espe- 
cially that  known  as  Peruvian  and  Caucho,  and 
that  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  other 
parts  of  Africa.  In  other  words,  during  the 
year  there  was  a  decrease  in  wild  rubber  and  a 
considerable  increase  in  plantation  rubber,  and 
an  estimate  of  the  acreage  of  plantations  in  the 
Far  East  and  Africa  indicated  that  in  1915 
1,345,000  acres  were  planted,  as  compared  with 
1,245,000  in  1914.  The  exports  of  plantation 
rubber  from  the  Federated  Malay  States  for  the 
year  1914  was  44,524  tons,  as  compared  with 
30,697  in  1913,  an  increase  from  2641  tons  in 
1909.  In  December,  1915,  the  greatest  monthly 
production  on  record  was  shipped,  namely,  5111 
tons.  The  annual  receipts  and  shipments  at 
Para  during  the  years  1913  to  1915  are  given 
herewith,  and  are  also  of  interest  in  this  con- 
nection : 


1918 

ReceipU  of   Par4    29.750 

Receipts  of  Peruvian   9.620 

Shipments  of  Par4  and  Peru- 
vian to  Europe 22,110 

Shipments  of  Par4  and  Peru- 
vian to  America 17,050 


Tone 

1914 

28,170 

8,655 


1915 

80,595 

6.800 


15.985     14.440 
21.690     29,960 


Artificial    Rubber.    In    rubber    technology 
chemists  were  at  work,  and  it  was  reported  from 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


BTTBBBB 


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Petrograd  that  artificial  rubber  could  be  made 
frcMii  vodka,  according  to  a  process  invented  by  a 
chemist  named  Ostromvslensky.  In  the  United 
States  a  patent  was  also  granted  for  obtaining 
rubberlike  substances  from  alcohol. 

Another  feature  of  the  year  was  the  increase 
in  the  prices  of  chemicals  and  compounding  in- 
gredients used  in  rubber  manufacture,  due  to  the 
stoppage  of  foreign  supplies  to  the  United 
States.    See  GHEiasTBT,  Indubtbx^l. 

ESTIMATED   WORLD'S  CONSUMPTION  OF 
RUBBER 

1918 

England     18,000 

Germany,  Austria,  etc 16,600 

France     9,000 

Bassia     11,500 

Italy,   etc 1,870 

Japan  and  Australia    2,000 

America   and  Canada    47,200 


Tona 

1914 

1916 

18,000 

24,000 

16,480 

8,000 

5,000 

7.000 

11,610 

16,000 

4,000 

2,500 

2.400 

4,000 

62,940 

89.500 

Totals     105,670  120,880  146,000 

BX7CXEB,  Sib  Abthtjb  Wiluam.  English 
scientist,  died  Nov.  1,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
1848,  and  was  educated  at  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  a  fellow  of  this  college  from 
1871-76.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  and  physics  at  Yorks  College. 
From  1886-1901  he  was  professor  of  physics  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Science  in  London.  He  was 
the  principal  of  the  University  of  London  from 
1901-08.  He  was  knighted  in  1902.  In  1906 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Irish  Universities.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
other  important  commissions,  including  the  Car- 
negie Trust  Fund  for  the  Universities  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  Royal  Commission  of  the  1851  Ex- 
hibition, 1911.  His  published  writings  on  scien- 
tific subjects  include:  On  the  Expansion  of  Sea 
Water  by  Heat  (with  Sir  E.  Thorpe,  1876) ;  and 
Magnetic  Survey  of  the  British  Isles  for  Epochs, 
1886  and  1891, 

BTTH.     See  Liquobs. 

BTTKANIA.  A  European  constitutional  mon- 
archy, bordering  on  the  Black  Sea.  It  includes 
the  former  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia,  with  the  territory  of  the  Dobruja.  The 
country  is  separated  from  Hungary  by  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  and  the  Transylvanian  Alps, 
in  part  by  the  Danube  River  from  Bulgaria,  by 
the  Pruth  from  Russia.  The  capital  is  Bucha- 
rest. 

Abba  aivd  Population.  The  area  of  Rumania 
is  stated  at  137,902  square  kilometers  (53,244 
square  miles).  This  includes  the  area  of  the 
territory  acquired  from  Bulgaria  by  the  Treaty 
of  Bucharest  (Aug.  7,  1913),  7725  square  kilo- 
meters (2983  square  miles) ;  this  territory  now 
forms  two  districts,  Caliaera  and  Durostor.  The 
kingdom  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  State  of 
Arkansfis,  the  area  of  which  is  53,335  square 
miles. 

In  the  table  below  are  g^ven  the  area  and  popu- 
lation of  the  districts  which  compose  the  king- 
dom, according  to  corrected  figures  for  the  cen- 
sus of  Jan.  1,  1913  (Dec.  19,  1912),  as  compared 
with  the  returns  for  1899;  together  with  the  den- 
sity in  1913: 


Sq.km. 

Argesh     4,216 

Bacan     4,410 

BoUwhani     8,077 

Braila    4,286 


1899 

1918 

D, 

207,606 
195,194 
171,487 
X45,884 

242.917 
282.954 
197,404 
X81.688 

68 
58 
64 
42 

t918  D, 

977.977  56 

f  148,856  (  1.. 

i  180,786  !•* 

209,571  80 

171.799  64 

258.878  75 

486,449  67 

184.882  65 

108,896  51 

800.871  44 

242.848  84 
212,669  66 
681.759  182 
295,474  56 
185,216  44 

169.849  48 
171.086  60 
889.914  77 
181.882  54 
168.987  49 
128.165  68 
248.600  70 
161.147  45 
142.884  59 
297,470  65 
170.859  20 
129.819  57 
128.804  67 
282,011  57 
259,895  58 


8q.  km.  1899 

Bniaa    4,986         221.268 

aS^}  T.'»     •.•.•.:•.•. 

OoBBtantaa 6,910  141,056 

OoTurlui     2.668  148.784 

DamboTiUa    8,440  211,666 

Dolj    6,588  865,579 

Dorohol    2,846  159,461 

Falciu     2.120  98.881 

Gorj    4,579  171,800 

lalomitaa     7.095  187.889 

lashi    8,227  192,581 

Ilfov     5.176  541,180 

Mehedintoi 5,820  249,688 

MuBcel    8,058  115,180 

Neamteu     8,977  149,711 

Oh    2.868  148.848 

Prahova     5.040  807,802 

Patna     8.840  151.249 

Ramicv-Sarat    ...  8,824  186.918 

Roman     1,880  111,588 

Romanatsi    8,560  208,773 

Suceava    8,858  181.596 

Tenici    2.408  121.179 

Tel«onnan    4,577  288.628 

Tulcea    '.  8,626  126.752 

TutoTa     2,498  116,877 

Vaslui     2.260  110.184 

Valeea    4.081  190.908 

Ylaahea    4.494  202,759     

Tbtal    187.902      6,956.690      7.509,009     64 

Marriages,  1914,  66,325  (74,542  in  1911); 
births,  327,345  (299,870);  deaths,  182,949  (179,- 
070) ;  stillbirths  (not  included  in  the  forego- 
ing), 8784  (8144) ;  excess  of  births  over  deaths, 
144,397  (120,794).  Population  (1914)  of  Bucha- 
rest, 345,628  (295,213  in  1911);  Jassy  (lashi), 
76,120  (79,680) ;  Qalatz,  72,512  (66,507) ;  Braila, 
65,911  (60,901);  Ploeshti,  57,376  (49,256); 
Craiova,  61,877  (45,780);  Botoshani,  32,874; 
Buzau,  29,483;  Constantsa,  27,662;  Berlad,  25,- 
367. 

EnucATioir.  In  spite  of  progress,  educational 
facilities  remain  inadequate.  Primary  instruc- 
tion is  technicallv  compulsory  between  the  ages 
of  7  and  14.  Although  improvement  has  been 
made,  nearly  60  p^  cent  of  the  inhabitants  over 
7  years  old  are  illiterate.  Secondary  schools 
are  well  attended;  special  schools  are  mainly 
agricultural.  There  are  universities  at  Bucha- 
rest (about  3400  students)  and  Jasqr  (over  500 
students).  The  religion  of  the  country  is  the 
Orthodox. 

PBODUonoN.  By  soil  as  well  as  by  climate 
Rumania  belongs  to  the  Russian  steppes.  The 
blade  earth  of  the  steppes  covers  the  tableland 
of  Moldavia;  the  Dobruja  and  southeastern  Wal- 
lachia  are  suited  for  grazing;  cereals  are  raised 
on  the  fertile  plains,  and  fruits  and  vines  in  the 
hills.  Were  it  not  that  the  rainfall  is  infrequent 
and  after  June  almost  entirely  absent,  Rumania 
would  be  unequaled  in  Europe  as  an  agricultural 
country.  Most  of  the  people  are  enga^d  in  some 
branch  of  agriculture,  and  the  industry  has  pro- 
gressed notably  in  the  last  40  years.  In  1866  (the 
year  in  which  the  late  King  Charles  was  chosen 
Prince  of  Rumania),  the  area  under  sown  crops 
was  but  2,230,000  hectares;  while  in  1906  it  was 
5,520,000  hectares.  Forests  cover  17.5  per  cent 
ojf  the  total  area,  7.8  per  cent  is  under  pasture, 
3.8  under  natural  grasses,  1.4  under  orchards, 
46.1  imder  sown  crops  and  fallow— rrepresenting 
76.6  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  kingdom. 
The  country  amply  feeds  itself  and  is  able  to 
export  grain,  fruits,  and  vegetables  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  total  area  returned  as  productive  in 
1913  was  given  as  6,003,520  hectares,  of  which 
71.73  per  cent  were  holdings  of  leas  than  100 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BlTXAniA 


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hectureSy  and  28.27  per  cent  holdings  of  100 
hectares  or  over.  Under  cereals  were  5,001,041 
hectares,  or  83.30  per  cent;  textile  fibres,  118,- 
715  hectares;  legnmes,  78,345  hectares;  indus- 
trial plants  (beets,  tobacco,  etc.),  24,757  hec- 
tares; market  gardens,  23,001  hectares;  forage 
plants,  509,010  hectares;  vines  and  plum 
orchards,  166,961. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  for  1913-14 
and  (preliminary  figrures)  for  1914-15  the  area 
under  principal  crops,  the  production  in  metric 
quintals,  and  the  yield  in  quintals  per  hectare 
in  1913-14: 


HeetoTM                 1000  Q9. 

«•. 

1918  14     1914  15  191814  191418 

ha. 

WhMt     .  . 

. .  .2,101.727  1.044,448  12,600  20.600 

6.0 

Bre    

. ..       84.067         75.613        406        800 

5.0 

Barley    .. 

. ..     568.422      654,000     6,866     6,160 

0.4 

Oats     .... 

, ..     427,506      480.068     8.678     8,800 

8.6 

Oom     ... 

...2,065.566  2.107.280  27.827  28,000 

18.6 

PUx    

8,867          6,850            0    

1.2 

Beeta  *     . 

...       14.785         18,888     2.240     

152.2 

Vines  t     . 

...       87,088         88,818     

... 

Tobacco    . 

. ..       10.055         18.044           76     

7.0 

Potatoes  . 

...       10.566        11.288        722     

68.4 

Among  cereals,  wheat  has  shown  the  greatest 
increase,  but  the  crop  and  the  export  fluctuate 
considerably  from  year  to  year.  In  1866,  about 
238,360  metric  tons,  valued  at  54,892,000  lei  were 
exported;  in  1905,  1,716,000  tons,  251,342,000 
lei;  in  1911,  1,458,029  tons,  244,803,026  lei;  in 
1912,  1,371,639  tons,  256,496,420  lei.  Viticul- 
ture declined  by  reason  of  phylloxera,  but  re- 
planting is  proceeding  rapidly.  The  production  of 
wine  in  1912-13  (1,518,883  hectolitres)  represents 
a  value  of  about  55,200,000  lei.  Plum  orchards 
cover  about  72,000  hectares;  counting  an  aver- 
age of  600  trees  }>er  hectare,  this  gives  a. total 
of  43,000,000  trees.  In  1912-13  the  plum  or- 
chards yielded  1,844,394  quintals  of  fruit,  valued 
at  over  21,000,000  lei.  Yield  of  legumes,  1912- 
13,  2,407,949  hectolitres;  of  forage  plants,  13,- 
767,915  metric  quintals.  The  exportation  of 
cattle  is  much  less  than  formerly,  and  swine,  of 
which  178,000  head  were  exported  in  1881,  are 
raised  only  in  sufficient  numbers  to  supply  the 
home  demand.  The  live  stock  industry  is  prac- 
tically stationary,  if  not  on  the  decline.  Esti- 
mated number  of  live  stock  in  1907  and  1911  re- 
spectively: horses,  807,704  and  824,714;  mules 
and  asses,  4684  and  4248;  cattle  (including  buf- 
faloes), 2,585,205  and  2,666,945;  sheep,  5,104,- 
606  and  5,269,493;  goats,  190,703  and  186,515; 
swine,  1,123,564  and  1,021,466. 

As  stock  raising  for  exportation  has  declined, 
the  fishing  industry  has  g^own.  In  place  of  the 
large  importation  common  in  former  years,  there 
is  now  an  annual  export  valued  at  about  2,790,- 
000  lei.  The  state  forests  yield  an  average 
revenue  of  30,000,000  lei.  In  1866  the  petroleum 
output  was  5370  tons;  in  1909,  682,000;  in  1910, 
1,352,300.  In  1905  the  export  of  crude  petro- 
leum was  52,000  tons;  of  refined,  120,000;  of 
mineral  oils,  90,000;  of  benzine,  49,000.  The 
total  export  in  1910  of  petroleum  and  bitumens 
was  586,151  tons,  valued  at  38,897,169  lei;  of 
which  France  took  140,159  tons  (13,105,317  lei) 
and  the  United  Kingdom  125,687  (6,619,839). 
The  output  of  petroleum  in  1913  reached  1,885,- 
226  metric  tons — 1,677,759  tons  from  Prahova, 
125,722  from  Buzau,  41,583  from  Dambovitsa, 
40,161  from  Bacau.  Minerals  and  precious 
metals  are  said  to  abound,  but  only  salt,  coal, 


and  petroleum  are  worked.  Salt  is  a  govern- 
ment monopoly. 

GomcEBCB.  The  export  of  wheat  was  pro- 
hibited Oct.  3,  1914,  of  wheat  flour  September 
30th,  of  oats  August  7th,  and  of  rice  August  Ist. 
By  a  decree  of  March  15,  1915,  the  export  of 
barley  and  rye  was  prohibited.  By  an  order 
sanctioned  by  the  law  of  March  23,  1915,  an  ex- 
port duty  was  put  on  maize  after  May  22,  1915. 
By  royal  decree  of  July  30,  1915,  the  prohibition 
of  the  export  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize, 
and  linseed  was  removed  and  an  export  duty 
laid  on  these  products. 

Trade  for  four  years  is  shown  below  in  lei 
(par  value  of  the  leu,  19.295  cents) : 

2907      1909  1910  1919 

Imp.  .480.500,115  868.800.000  400.715,576  687,005,660 
Bzp.  .654,018,681  465,056.610  616,504,872  642,103,788 

The  total  imports  and  exports  for  the  year 
1911  were  valued  at  616,504,872  and  691,720,- 
408  lei,  respectively.  Details  of  the  1912  trade 
are  given  in  the  table  below,  values  in  thousands 
of  lei: 


ImpwU  1000  L. 

Metals    and    mfrs..  157.008 

Textiles    104.741 

Machinery   65,861 

Woolens 54.411 

Vehicles    25,442 

Apiwrel    82.684 

Skins,   etc 28,602 

Silks    21.086 

Wooden  wares    . . .  21,410 


Exports  1000  L. 

Oereals,  ete 486.611 

Petrolenm    66.240 

Legames,  etc   ....  26.788 

Timber,  ete 24,422 

Animal  prodncts  . .   18.758 
Live   animals    ....     8,006 

MetaU,  etc 8,014 

Wool    1.080 

Hides,  ete 8,428 


Cereals  and  their  derivatives  constitute  by 
far  the  largest  export.  This  in  1909  amounted 
to  2,187,763  metric  tons,  valued  at  357,587,891 
lei;  in  1910,  3,230,235  tons,  489,821,008  lei;  in 

1911,  4,017,767  tons,  657,653,135  lei;  in  1912, 
2,940,536  tons,  486,511,471  lei.  Below  are  shown 
the  most  important  cereal  exports  for  1911  and 

1912,  in  thousands  of  lei: 


Exports     1911 

1919 

ExporU 

1911 

1919 

Wheat  ...244.824  256.500 

Oato    .... 

,.    26.886 

24.480 

Maiw    ...188,218 

146.600 

Mfflet    ... 

.      4.227 

2,875 

Barley    ..   50,885 

87.288 

Flour    ... 

.   18.421 

22.607 

Bye 16.606 

0,888 

Bran   .... 

.      2.002 

5,081 

Countries    of 

origin 

and    destination 

(1912 

trade)  follow,  values  in 

thousands  of  lei: 

Imps. 

Exps. 

Imps. 

Exps. 

Germany..  80,068 

40,548 

Russia    . . 

20.160 

152.000 

Aas..Han.  240,486 

42.586 

>8wits.   . . . 



18.088 

Bnlg.     ...188.874 
V.K.   ...   88.001 

04,750 

Netfa 

87.075 

121.066 

48,041 

§r.::: 

12.874 

1,062 

France    ..    16.586 

6.226 

287 

10.170 

Italy 2.048 

8.208 

u.  s 

14.827 

25.860 

BelKiom    .   10,875 
Turkey    ..     6,606 

56 

other    ... 

11.855 

11,450 

52.180 

.     Total,., 

687.806  J 

642.104 

Vessels  entered  in  the  1912  trade  numbered 
36,968,  of  10,806,605  tons;  cleared,  36,729  of 
10,740,173;  1914,  31,726  vessels,  of  9,504,366  tons 
entered,  and  81,333,  of  9,299,976  tons,  cleared. 
The  merchant  marine  included,  Jan.  1,  1913,  117 
steamers,  of  30,762  tons,  and  632  sailing,  of  167,- 
397  tons;  Jan.  1,  1916,  133  steamers,  of  40,949 
tons,  and  624  sailing,  of  197,799— total,  757,  of 
238,748  tons. 

COMMT7NIGATIONS.  In  1876  the  tonnage  trans- 
ported by  rail  was  574,000,  in  1905,  6,723,000; 


Digitized  by 


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BinCANIA 


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passengers  carried  ( 1876) ,  742,000  and  6,590,000 
in  1905.  The  916  kilometers  in  operation  in 
1876  earned  12,800,000  lei  and  the  expenditure 
was  10,000,000  (excess  of  revenue  over  expendi- 
ture, 3032  lei  per  kilometer) ;  in  1905  the  3179 
kilometers  in  operation  earned  71,000,000  lei 
and  expended  37,500,000  (10,516  per  kilometer). 
There  were  in  operation  Sept.  1,  1912,  3690  kilo- 
meters of  railway,  of  which  3473  kilometers  were 
state-owned;  in  operation  Sept.  1,  1913,  3763 
kilometers,  of  which  the  state  owned  3549  kilo- 
meters; Sept.  1,  1914,  3843  kilometers,  of  which 
3709  state-owned.  State  telegraph  lines  in  1913, 
9062  kilometers,  with  25,308  kilometers  of  wires 
and  3143  stations. 

While  consuming  about  40  per  cent  of  the 
total  consiunption  of  fuel  oil  in  Rumania, 
the  railways  transport  all  the  petroleum  prod- 
ucts consumed  in  the  country  for  various 
purposes  or  exported  abroad  from  the  ports  or 
through  the  land  frontiers.  This  was  to  be 
changed  after  the  state  pipe-line  BaiooiCon- 
stantza  commenced  its  operations,  when  a  large 
part  of  the  products  exported  via  Constantsa 
will  be  transported  to  this  port  by  the  pipe-line 
instead  of  by  rail.  During  the  year  1913-14  the 
number  of  engines  used  on  the  Rumanian  rail- 
ways increased  by  61,  making  a  total  of  888,  of 
which  751  were  using  liquid  oil,  and  the  remain- 
der solid  fuel.  In  1913-14  the  Rumanian  rail- 
ways consumed  198,085  tons  of  liquid  fuel,  show- 
ing for  the  first  time  for  a  whole  series  of  years 
a  slight  decrease  of  6378  tons,  or  about  3  per 
cent. 

Finance.  The  leu,  worth  19.295  cents,  is  the 
unit  of  value.  In  the  table  below  are  shown  in 
lei  revenue  and  expenditure  for  comparative 
years: 


ReTenae 
Expend. 


1900-10 
...522.842.668 
481,921,854 


1911  19  1913-14 

478,895.280     608.502,889 
478,895,280     512.258,722 


The  following  table  gives  details  of  the  budget 
for  1915-16,  amounts  in  thousands  of  lei: 


RevMue  1000  M 

Direct  taxes 50,185 

Indirect  taxes 107.950 

Stamps     89,900 

Afonopolies 87.600 

Public  seryices. . . .  169.552 

Domains    83.806 

Bubventions 22.184 

Finance   76,766 

Interior   9,557 

Justice 8.284 

Foreign    affairs    . .         120 

Agriculture    106 

Industry    1.568 

War 558 

Public   works 87 

Instruction    7.120 

Totol    600.288 


Expend.  1000 IH 

War 98,122 

Finance   282.042 

Instruction 58.980 

Interior   60.247 

Public  works 111.675 

Justice 14,966 

Agriculture   12.595 

Industry 5.156 

Foreign  affairs   . . .      8,417 

Council    78 

Extraordinary  ....     8,009 

Total    600,288 


The  capital  of  the  debt  stood,  April  1,  1916, 
at  1,715,386,499  lei. 

Navy.  The  effective  fleet  was  composed  in 
1915  of  1  protected  cruiser  (1320  tons),  1  dis- 
patch boat  (130),  5  gunboats  (607),  1  training 
ship  (350),  1  torpedo  depot  (104),  3  gunboats 
(135),  4  torpedo  gunboats  (128),  3  torpedo 
boats  (150),  4  police  boats  (2720),  8  torpedo 
vedettes  (360). 

Government.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  King,  assisted  by  a  council  of  eight  members. 
The  legislative  body  is  composed  of  a  Senate  of 


120  members,  and  a  Chamber  of  183  deputies, 
elected  by  a  system  of  direct  and  indirect  vote 
based  on  property  qualifications.  Reigning  sov- 
ereign until  1914,  Charles  I,  bom  April  20,  1830, 
elected  to  the  princeship  in  1866,  crowned  King 
May  10,  1881,  died  Oct.  10,  1914.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Ferdinand,  son  of  Prince 
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  and  of  Antonia  (infanta 
of  Portugal ) ,  born  at  Sigmaringen,  Aug.  24, 
1865;  married  Jan.  10,  1893,  to  Princess  Mary 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Heir-apparent, 
Prince  Charles,  born  Oct.  3,  1893. 

HiSTOBT 

Rumania's  Neutbalitt  in  the  War.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  Rumania  was  momentarily 
expected  to  unite  her  forces  with  those  of  the 
Triple  Entente  in  the  war  against  Turkey  and 
the  Central  Powers.  Premier  Bratiano,  to  be 
sure,  still  maintained  a  cautious  reserve,  refus- 
ing to  commit  Rumania  to  intervention ;  but  the 
sentiment  of  the  Rumanian  people  seemed  to  be 
overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  Triple  Entente, 
and  M.  Take  Jonescu,  the  influential  leader  of 
the  Conservative-Democratic  party,  unreservedly 
advocated  war  against  Austria-Hungary.  The 
conclusion  in  January  of  a  $25flQOfi6o  loan 
agreement,  negotiated  by  a  Rumanian  Financial 
Commission  in  London,  strengthened  the  belief  of 
the  press  in  France  and  England  that  within  a 
very  short  time  Rumania  would  openly  throw 
off  the  mask  of  neutrality.  Moreover,  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  Russian  army  in  Bukowina  (con- 
sult the  article  on  the  War  of  the  Nations) 
was  expected  to  exercise  a  specially  potent 
influence  upon  hesitant  Rumania.  For  Buko- 
wina, that  province  of  Austria-Hungary  lying 
just  southeast  of  Galicia,  with  its  capital 
at  Czernowitz,  contained  some  300,000  Rumans 
(out  of  a  total  population  of  over  800,000) 
awaiting  their  "emancipation"  from  Austria  and 
unification  with  Rumania.  As  the  province  con- 
tained almost  as  many  Ruthenians  or  Little  Rus- 
sians as  Rumans,  Russia,  it  was  held,  would 
have  about  as  good  a  claim  to  Bukowina  as 
Rumania  had,  although  historically  Bukowina 
had  been  connected  with  the  Rimian  state  of 
Moldavia  before  its  annexation  to  Austria 
(1777).  The  Entente  Powers  thus  had  some 
reason  to  expect  that  when  the  Russians  invaded 
Bukowina,  Rumania  would  enter  the  war,  out  of 
anxiety  lest  otherwise  the  province  should  be 
claimed  by  Russia.  If  Rumania  entered  the  war 
in  alliance  with  the  Triple  Entente,  she  might 
also  hope  to  acquire  Transylvania,  a  Hungarian 
province  a  little  less  than  half  as  large  as  New 
York  State,  containing  about  1,500,000  inhabi- 
tants of  Ruman  speech  (out  of  a  total  popula- 
tion of  about  2,700,000).  English  and  Russian 
critics  confidently  predicted  that  the  prospect 
of  gaining  Bukowina  together  with  Transylvania 
would  be  sufficient  to  induce  Rumania  to  enter 
the  war.  According  to  the  accepted  opinion, 
Rumania  and  Italy  would  both  declare  war  at 
the  same  time.  This  expectation  was  not  con- 
fined solely  to  the  unofficial  utterance  of  press 
correspondents.  M.  Sazanov,  the  Russian  for- 
eign minister,  pointed  out  that  Rumania  has 
"the  same  interests  as  Italy,  and  both  have  only 
one  enemy  to  fight,  because  Austria  numbers 
among  her  population  large  masses  belonging  to 
the  two  nations  living  on  her  opposite  frontiers." 
The  sam^  vi?W  Wft9  expressed  at  a  dinner  in 


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BUMANIA 


561 


BxrsszA 


Paris,  January  9th,  in  the  presence  of  the  Ru- 
manian, Greek,  Bulgarian,  and  Serbian  minis- 
ters, wlien  a  Rumanian  deputy,  Prince  Brance- 
▼in,  drank  to  the  victory  of  the  Triple  Entente 
and  predicted  that  soon  "the  entire  I^tin  world" 
— Italy,  Prance,  Belgium,  and  Rumania — ^would 
be  united  against  the  Central  Powers. 

Late  in  January,  however,  the  ardent  desire 
of  the  Rumanian  interventionists  to  enter  the 
lists  against  Germany  began  to  cool  perceptibly. 
Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  were  massing 
an  enormous  force,  according  to  a  widely  circu- 
lated rumor,  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  Serbia 
and  punishing  any  nation  which  might  have  the 
hardihood  to  oppose  the  Teutonic  Powers  in  the 
Balkan  theatre  of  war.  At  the  same  time,  news- 
paper reports  indicated  that  Bulgaria's  inordi- 
nate demands  and  Serbia's  stubborn  refusal  to 
cede  all  of  Macedonia  to  Bulgaria  interposed  in- 
superable obstacles  in  the  way  of  reconstructing 
a  Balkan-Rumanian  alliance.  Rumors  prevalent 
in  January  that  the  sovereigns  of  Bulgaria  and 
Rumania  were  to  hold  a  conference  on  Rumanian 
soil,  and  that  a  matrimonial  alliance  was  pro- 
jected to  unite  the  dynasties  of  Bulgaria  and 
Rumania,  were  in  February  declared  to  be  abso- 
lutely mendacious.  Rumania  was  warned  by 
Russia  that  hesitation  might  be  fatal;  the  Rus- 
sian foreign  minister,  M.  Sazanov,  in  a  speech 
before  the  Duma,  February  9th,  referred  to  the 
hesitant  attitude  of  Greece  and  Rumania,  and 
warned  the  governments  of  the  two  nations  that 
"they  alone  will  be  responsible  to  their  respec- 
tive nations  if  they  miss  a  favorable  opportunity 
to  realize  their  national  ambitions."  A  conven- 
tion signed  at  Bucharest,  February  1 8th,  by  rep- 
resentatives of  Bulgaria  and  Rumania,  provid- 
ing for  reciprocal  advantages  in  the  transit  of 
merchandise,  was  probably  devoid  of  political 
significance,  except  in  so  far  as  it  manifested 
general  friendly  relationship  between  the  two 
governments.  The  hope  that  Rumania  would 
intervene  in  favor  of  the  Triple  Entente  again 
revived  at  the  end  of  February,  when  the  French 
General  Pau  visited  King  Ferdinand  at  Bucha- 
rest. The  hope  grew  stronger  early  in  March, 
when  the  Rumanian  Parliament  authorized  the 
government  to  proclaim  a  state  of  siege  when- 
ever occasion  might  arise.  Late  in  March  in- 
formation from  "a  diplomatic  source"  was  pub- 
lished by  Renter's  alleging  that  Rumania  had 
stoutly  refused  to  grant  Germany's  insistent 
demands  for  permission  to  send  a  German  army 
across  Rumanian  territory.  In  May  the  ques- 
tion of  Rumanian  neutrality  again  came  to  the 
fore,  when  Italy,  after  long  hesitation,  at  last 
broke  with  Austria-Hungary.  Would  Rumania 
follow  suit?  The  resignation  of  M.  Marghilo- 
man,  the  leading  opponent  of  intervention,  from 
his  position  as  chairman  of  the  Rumanian  Con- 
servative Party  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  war 
sentiment  was  growing  stronger  in  Rumania. 
M.  Lahovary,  whom  the  Conservatives  chose  as 
provisional  chairman  in  M.  Marghiloman's  stead, 
was  known  to  sympathize  with  the  Entente.  In 
June,  however,  M.  Marghiloman  was  reported  to 
have  retained  his  leadership  of  the  party,  in 
spite  of  the  efforts  of  M.  Lahovary  to  displace 
him.  The  month  of  June  not  only  disappointed 
the  hopes  of  those  who  looked  for  Rumania  to 
follow  Italy's  example;  it  also  brought  rumors 
of  a  formal  agreement  between  Rumania  and 
Bulgaria,  by  which  Rumania  was  bound  not  to 
attaek   Austria   or   Bulgaria.    London   journals 


began  to  assert  the  existence  of  an  influential 
German  propaganda  in  Rumania.  "Many  news- 
papers hScVe  been  subsidized,"  declared  the  Lon- 
don Times;  "new  journals  have  been  founded, 
fiscal  and  railway  officials  have  been  bribed  to 
permit  the  passage  of  contraband  of  war,  and 
no  pains  have  been  spared  (by  Germany's 
agents)  to  sow  discord  between  Rumania  and 
her  Balkan  neighbors." 

The  success  of  the  Austro-German  operations 
against  Russia  in  August  and  September  in- 
stilled new  confidence  into  the  pro-German  party 
in  Rumania  and  made  Rumania's  ultimate  al- 
liance with  the  Entente  still  more  doubtful. 
When  Bulgaria  attacked  Serbia,  October  14th, 
Rumania  diowed  no  inclination  to  attack  Bul- 
garia in  the  rear,  as  she  had  done  in  the  second 
phase  of  the  Balkan  War,  in  the  summer  of 
1913.  Indeed,  the  confident  assertion  of  the 
Bulgarian  premier  (see  Bulgabia,  History)  that 
Rumania  would  not  attack  Bulgaria,  seemed  to 
indicate  that  the  Rumanian  government  had 
come  to  a  friendly  understanding  with  Bulgaria, 
and  possibly  also  with  the  Central  Powers.  Ru- 
mania would  have  powerful  motives  for  coming 
to  such  an  agreement  with  the  Turco-Bulgaro- 
Teutonic  coalition;  the  promise  of  part  of  Tran- 
sylvania and  Bukowina;  the  hope  of  obtaining 
Bessarabia  from  a  defeated  Russia,  and  the  ap- 
parent military  inferiority  of  the  Quadruple 
Entente,  would  be  strong  arguments.  Ruma- 
nia's attitude  during  November  and  Decenaber 
continued  to  be  the  subject  of  much  speculation, 
and  Rumania  was  alternately  represented  as  re- 
fusing to  permit  the  passage  of  German  muni- 
tions through  her  territory,  and  as  preventing 
Russia  from  sending  an  army  across  Rumanian 
territory  to  attack  Bulgaria.  A  military  mis- 
sion sent  by  Rumania  to  the  capitals  of  the  En- 
tente Powers  in  October  led  apparently  to  no 
new  orientation  of  Rumania's  neutrality  policy. 
At  the  close  of  October  King  Ferdinand  publicly 
promised  MM.  Jonescu  and  Filipesco  that  he 
would  abide  by  whatever  decision  the  Rumanian 
Parliament  and  cabinet  might  reach  with  regard 
to  the  realization  of  national  ambitions.  Dur- 
ing November  persistent  but  unfounded  rumors 
asserted  that  a  big  Russian  army  had  crossed,  or 
was  about  to  cross,  the  Rumanian  frontier  on  the 
way  to  Bulgaria.  On  the  occasion  of  the  King's 
speech  to  Parliament,  at  the  beginning  of  De- 
cember, an  uproar  was  caused  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  the  disorderly  remarks  with 
which  an  excitable  interventionist,  M.  Mille,  re- 
peatedly interrupted  the  King.  On  December 
19th  the  suicide  was  reported  of  General  Jonesco, 
commander  of  the  second  army  corps,  who  was 
alleged  to  have  accepted  bribes  from  a  foreign 
power. 

BX7MANIAN    LANaXrAGE.     See    Philoi/ 

OOT,  MODEBIT. 

BX7SAL  CBEDIT.  See  AoRicuLTimAL 
Legislation. 

BX7SSIA.  An  empire  that  includes  a  largto 
part  of  eastern  Europe  and  northern  Asia;  it  ex- 
tends from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Bering  Sea  and 
from  central  Europe  and  Asia  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  covers  one-sixth  of  the  earth's  total 
land  area.    The  capital  is  Petrograd. 

Area  and  Population.  The  first  and  only 
general  Russian  census  was  taken  Jan.  28,  1897. 
The  results  of  that  census  and  the  number  of 
inhabitants  as  calculated  Jan.  1,  1913,  together 
with  the  area,  exclusive  of  the  great  internal 


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BUSBIA                                062  BireSIA 

waters,    in    sqiutre    TersU    (1    square   Ter«t=»  (1914),  186,600;  Tula  (1913),  138,900;  Rostov- 

.489408  square  mile),  are  shown  below:  on-Don  (1911),  124,600;  Kishiner  (1913),  126,- 

100;   Minsk    (1913),    114,400;   Nizhni-Novgorod 

^rea                     PopnloMoii  (1913),  111,400;  Samara  (1913),  106,800;  Niko- 

8q.v0rsu            1897           1918  laiev  (1911),  07,600;  Orenburg  (1911),  93,600; 

Bur<>p;ii    Buuia  4.288.711.7      »J,216.400  iJMJJ.fOO  Orel   (1913),  96,100;  Voronezh   (1913),  92,400; 

?.t"ain;::;::   lllfAl    S;J5i:?g8  lJ:S?§iSS  Berdichev  (iois).  92,800;  Vitebsk  (ioid,  so,. 

SiberU 10.040.644.7        6.690.000      0.788.400  100;    Libau    (1911),   86,000;    Kherson    (1911), 

Toul    19.099.886.0*126,896.200  174.000.600  Russia,    1913,    Baku,    230,600;    Tiflis,    197,300; 

*  21,741,600  BQ.  kilometen;  8.804,018  sq.  milet.  Tashkent,  271,600;  Omsk,  134,000;  Kokand,  119,- 
.  100;    Tomsk,    167,100;    Ekaterinodar,    102,100; 

The  Polish  govemmento  are  the  most  densely  Ussuriisk,  95,700;  Vladivostok  (1911),  93,200; 
populated,  Piotrk6w  having  190  to  the  square  Irkutsk,  92,000;  Namangan,  86,340.  In  1862 
verst;  Siberia  is  the  most  sparsely  populated,  there  were  but  five  cities  (St.  Petersburg — ^Petro- 
Yakutsk  having  but  0.1.  In  European  Russia  grad— Moscow,  Warsaw,  Odessa,  and  Riga)  with 
proper,  Podolia  (107.1)  has  the  greatest,  and  over  100,000  inhabitants;  there  are  now  32. 
Arkangel  (0.6)  the  fewest  inhabitants  per  square  Petrograd  ranks  fifth  among  the  great  European 
verst;  in  the  Caucasus,  Kutais  (56.2)  and  the  cities  in  population,  and  is  the  centre  of  an  in- 
Black  Sea  government  (19.1) ;  in  Siberia,  Tomsk  creasing  industrial  activity.  Moscow,  almost  in 
(5.3)  and  Yakutsk  (0.1),  and  Kamchatka  has  the  geometrical  centre  of  European  Russia,  is 
but  0.03;  in  central  Asia,  Samarkand  (19.7)  and  the  converging  point  for  the  important  highways 
the  Transcaspian  Province  (0.9).  The  density  and  railways  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 
.  of  the  empire  as  a  whole  was  9.1  in  1913.  Of  the  Nizhni-Novgorod  is  the  scene  of  the  great  annual 
total  population  in  1913,  87,230,400  were  male,  Russian  fair.  Perm  is  the  centre  of  an  exten- 
and  86,869,200  female.  The  population  of  the  sive  mining  region  and  a  gateway  for  trade  he- 
towns  was  23,839,900  in  1912,  or  13.0  per  cent  tween  Russia  and  Siberia.  Nikolaiev  is  the 
of  the  whole.  In  European  Russia  the  town  chief  Black  Sea  naval  point,  with  strong  fortifl- 
population  was  13.2  per  cent;  in  Poland,  23.3;  cations,  and  a  floating  dock  able  to  receive  the 
in  the  Caucasus,  13;  in  Siberia,  11.6;  in  central  largest  battleships.  Odessa  is  the  principal 
Asia,  13.6;  in  Finland,  15.1.  Black  Sea  trading  port.    Saratov,   the  largest 

Including   Bokhara    (203,430    square   kilome-  city   of   the   lower  Volga,   is   a   manufacturing 

tors,  1,500,000  inhabitants),  Khiva  (67,430  Irilo-  place.    Warsaw  is  the  converging  point  for  com- 

meters,    800,000    inhabitants),    and   the    inland  mercial  routes  from  all  over  Russia  and  western 

seas  (Caspian,  438,690;  Azov,  37,600;  Aral,  67,-  Europe.     Riga,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga 

770),  the  total  area  of  the  empire  is  22,556,520  on  the  Baltic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dfina,  has  an 

square  kilometers,   or   8,709,116   square  miles;  important  harbor  and  is  strongly  fortified, 

totel  population,  Jan.  1,  1913,  176,399,600.  Ekigbation.    Figures  for  the  migration  into 

Slavs  (including  Great,  Little,  and  White  Rus-  Siberia  are  incomplete.    The  figures  which  follow 

siuiB,   Poles,   ete.)    form  91.8  per  cent  of  the  are   given    by    the    board    of    emigration.    The 

population  of  the  empire;  Letts  and  Lithuanians  total  number  of  emigrante  into  Asiatic  Russia 

3.1.    The  Kalmuks  of  the  Astrakhan  steppes  are  from  1896  to  the  end  of  1909  is  returned  at  3,- 

Mongols.    Tatar    tribes    inhabit    Southern    Si-  616,993,   of   whom   2,920,626   were   actual   emi- 

beria.    The  Cartvelian  tribes  form  14.5  per  cent  grants,  and  696,367  were  forerunners  sent  ahead 

of  the  entire  population  of  the  Caucasus,  and  to  search  out  sites.    Total  number  from   1896 

Turco-Tatars  20.2  per  cent.     Cossacks  are  found  to   the  end   of    1912,   4,783,020.     Emigrants   in 

only  in  the  Cossack  provinces — ^Don   Cossacks,  1910,  352,950   (of  whom  316,163  emigrants  and 

Orenburg,  Amur,  ete.    To  the  Orthodox  Church  36,787  forerunners);  1911,  226,062  (189,791  and 

belong69.90per  cent  (Russians,  Rumanians,  most  36,271);    1912,   2^9,585    (201,027   and   58,558). 

Cartvelians,    some   Turco-Tatars)    of    the   total  The   number   returned   to   European   Russia   in 

population;  to  Islam,  10.83  (most  Turco-Tatars,  1910  was  146,145;   1911,  142,952;   1912,  98,388. 

and  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Caucasus) ;  to  the  Emigrante  to  foreign  countries  in  1913  numbered 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  8.91   (Poles  and  Lithu-  327,430;  number  returning,  110,164.    Emigrante 

anians) ;  Finns,  Germans,  and  some  Lithuanians  to  the  United   States  in    1913,   291,040;    1914, 

are  Protestents.  255,600. 

The  population  increases  in  European  Russia  Edugatioi?.    Primary    education    is    in    the 

alone  at  the  rate  of  1,500,000  annually.    Mar-  hands  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction  and 

riages  (European  Russia),  1911,  942,379;   1910,  of  the  Holy  Synod,  and  to  the  Holy  Synod  is 

978,089;  1907,  985,699.    Births,  1911,  5,265,665;  entrusted  the  expenditure  of  a  large  part  of  the 

1910,  5,233,711;   1907,  5,221,369.     Deaths,  1911,  appropriation  for  education.    Instruction  is  to- 

3,222,275;  1910,  3,598,249;  1907,  3,151,738.    The  tally  .inadequate,  and  in  many  of  the  rural  dis- 

birth  rate  and  the  death  rate  are  high.  tricte  nominal  only;  while  many  of  the  teachers 

A  few  of  the  larger  cities  in  European  Russia  are  without  proper  qualification.    The  total  pri- 

foUow,  with  their  population  as  calculated  in  mary   attendance  in    1911    is   reported   at  only 

the  year  griven  in  parentheses:  Petrograd  (1914),  about   6,000,000    for   the   empire.    The   Central 

2,018,596;    Moscow    (1912),   1,617,157;    Warsaw  Stetistical    Committee    reports    the    number    of 

(1911),  864,000;   Odessa   (1911),  498,100;  Kiev  schools  in  the  empire  Jan.  1,   1912,  at  122,524, 

(1913),   417,800;    Lodz    (1911),   403,720;    Riga  with  7,266,694  pupils,  of  whom  6,512,173  are  pri- 

(1913),    334,600;     Kharkov     (1913),    252,800;  mary.     Finland  has  an  admirable  school  system, 

Saratov  (1913),  210,100;  Vilna  (1911),  188,300;  with   which,  however,   the  Russian  government 

Kazan    (1911),   182,540;   Ekaterinoslav    (1911),  has  been  disposed  to  interfere.    Hiese  are  sec- 

151,200;     Astrakhan     (1912),     150,200;     Revel  ondary  schools  in  the  central  districto;  special 

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BxnasiA 


Bchools  are  few  and  inferior.  The  nniyersities 
have  a  total  attendance  of  about  40,000. 

Agbicultube.  The  principal  occupation  of 
the  yariouB  peoples  of  the  empire  has  oeen  from 
earlieflt  times  agriculture  and  its  branches,  nota- 
bly cattle  raising.  Yet  it  is  only  in  recent  years 
that  any  concerted  attempt  has  been  made  by 
general  and  local  goyemment  to  improye  agrono- 
mic conditions.  Russia  is  at  the  foot  of  the 
list  of  great  grain-producing  countries  in  rate  of 
3ield.  Extensiye  area  and  sparsity  of  popula- 
tion reduce  the  necessity  for  intensiye  cultiya- 
tion.  The  spirit  of  serfdom  was  not  abolished 
by  the  act  of  emancipation;  an  ignorant  and 
oyerburdened  population  does  not  rise  in  one 
century  from  a  condition  of  servitude  to  a  knowl- 
edge and  practice  of  efficient,  scientific,  modem 
methods,  especially  in  a  country  where  distance 
is  BO  formidable  an  obstacle  to  transportation 
inwards  of  machinery  and  supplies,  and  out- 
wards of  the  accumulated  harvest.  Foreign 
markets  being  largely  inaccessible  and  the  capac- 
ity of  home  markets  limited,  the  probability  of 
an  advantageous  disposal  of  increased  harvests 
does  not  present  itself  to  the  laborers  in  these 
remote  fields;  therefore  there  is  no  incentive  to 
increased  efforts  and  improved  methods.  In  the 
more  accessible  regions,  however,  the  peasants 
are  beginning  to  realize  the  necessity  for  agri- 
cultural reforms,  and  government  aid  is  being 
extended.  Agricultural  co5perative  societies, 
which  numbered  only  270  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  had  increased  to  1000  by  the  end  of 
1906,  and  to  3964  by  Jan.  1,  1913.  Unions  es- 
tablished by  the  board  of  agriculture  increased 
from  60  in  1900,  to  902  in  1913;  loan  and  sav- 
ings associations  from  836  in  1903,  to  3034  in 
1913;  credit  cooperative  associations  from  about 
400  in  1903,  to  7881  in  1913.  At  the  end  of 
1913,  therefore,  the  cooperative  associations  con- 
cerned almost  exclusively  with  agriculture  num- 
bered about  16,800.  The  total  state  outlay  for 
agricultural  purposes  was  21,800,000  rubles  in 
1912;  zemstvo  expenditure  in  1911,  11,311,000 — 
not  large  sums  in  proportion  to  area  of  culti- 
vated lands. 

Out  of  the  total  population  censused  in  1897, 
88,300,000,  or  more  than  70  per  cent,  made  their 
living  directly  by  agriculture.  In  addition,  4,- 
600,000,  or  almost  4  per  cent,  were  engaged  in 
cattle  raising.  These  figures,  which  include 
three  quarters  of  the  entire  population,  are  ex- 
clusive of  persons  engaged  in  forestry,  hunting, 
fishing,  etc. 

In  1916,  the  total  area  estimated  as  planted 
to  cereals  otiier  than  oats,  was  71,210,849  des- 
siatines  ( 1  dessiatine  =  2.7  acres) ;  potatoes,  3,- 
266,633;  oats,  16,689,616;  in  natural  meadows, 
30,394,467— a  total  of  121,461,444  dessiatjnes  for 
the  64  reported  governments.  The  infiuence  of 
the  war  of  the  German  invasion  is  shown  by 
the  reduction  of  the  area  imder  cereals  in  the 
western  regions  by  1,769,679  dessiatines  from 
that  of  1914,  but  Siberia  compensates  by  an 
increase  of  2,016,343.  Of  the  total  grain  area, 
27,161,301  dessiatines  were  under  wheat  (winter 
and  spring),  26,667,284  under  rye,  16,689,606 
under  oats,  11,018,918  under  rye  (spring),  2,- 
990,961  under  millet,  1,640,646  under  buckwheat, 
1,601,617  under  corn,  1,128,424  under  legumes, 
201,809  under  polba--a  total  of  87,800,464  des- 
siatines, of  which  31,412,447  dessiatines  under 
winter  and  66,388,007  under  spring  cereals.  In 
comparison  with  1914,  the  area  under  cereals  de- 


creased by  2,860,420  dessiatines;  the  decline  of 
winter  crops  was  143,784  and  of  spring  crops 
2,716,636  dessiatines. 

In  the  table  below  are  given  (official)  figures 
for  the  distribution  of  agricultural  lands  (1909) 
in  dessiatines  (1  dessiatine  =  2.7  acres)  by 
great  divisions: 

Oroi^a        Patture  ForsH 

EaropMn  Ruula*. 74,880,800  28,540,600  189,548,700 

Poland    5,168.700        867.700       2,177,200 

Cftucasiu     7,546,800     1,958,100       4.967,200t 

Siberia     5,278,600     6,568,500  288,189.100t 

Central   Asia    ....   1.788,600     2,597,900     15,870,700t 


*  Fifty    gOTemments. 
foreatry  department. 


t  Foreet   administered   by   the 


In  the  following  table  are  shown  areas  in  the 
great  divisions  under  all  cereals  in  dessiatines, 
the  total  production  of  cereals  in  thousands  of 
poods  (1  pood  =  36.113  pounds)  for  1912,  and 
the  mean  crop  in  thousands  of  poods  for  the 
period  1907-11  (exclusive  of  winter  barley  and 
oats) : 


European  Bnaila 

Poland    

Transcaucasia 
Western    Siberia 
Eastern  Biberia   . 

Steppes   

Turkestan 

Total   


Dm.  p.  1919  P.  1907-11 

.68,848,552  8,896,206  2,852.474 

.   8,182,682  248,280  215,527 

.    1,680,522  85,670  72.684 

.    8,480,100  155,787  126,672 

607,129  27,758  26,844 

.    1.747,682  72.048  85,546 

.   2,057,890  106,815  94,887 

.76,004,657  4,087,007  8,428.674 


In  the  next  table  are  given  official  figures  for 
area  in  hectares  and  production  in  thousands  of 
metric  quintals  of  main  crops  for  comparative 
years,  with  the  production  per  hectare  in  1913- 
14: 


H§ctmr«s 

1000  Q9. 

«•. 

1918-14 

1914-18 

1918-14  1914-18 

Ka. 

Wheat*  a    6,928.686 

9,068,596 

58,478     82.056 

8.4 

"       *  6  18,029,116 

17,081,867 

97,548  126,188 

5.4 

t    5,766,862 

5,881,115 

48,810     89,149 

8.6 

Rye*       a  26,662,072 
^'         *b       248.040 

26,297,867  200,006  289.210 

7.6 

248.772 

1,488       1,842 

5.9 

t            1,287 

1,621 

9,916       7,207 

8.0 

Barley*             12,108 

11,506 

81,842  107,108 

6.8 

t               467 

657 

4.810       8.981 

9.2 

Oato  *                16,407 

16,498 

104,878  189.208 

6.4 

t            2,582 

2,890 

28,601     20,146 

9.1 

Com*                  1,298 

1,622 

20.602     19,001 

17.8 

t           2,861 
Flax              1,888,845 
PoUtoes       8,642,257 

7,027 

10,811     81,902 

4.6 

247,645       

68.0 

*  European  Bnssia,  54  coTemments.  tAsiatic  Rns- 
sia.  10  governments  (9  In  1914).  a  Winter  grain. 
b  Spring  grain. 

Official  returns  for  live  stocic,  giving  number 
on  July  1,  1912,  compared  with  July  1,  1911, 
show  a  notable  decrease  of  all  classes: 


Europe  *  l«<a  f 

1911  1918  1911  1918 

Horses  .24,796,161  28,860.178  7.194,588  6.866,878 
Cattle  ..87,817,182  84.547.848  8.819.074  7.881.247 
Sheep  a  .46.986,702  42,785,567  17,165,204  16,257,786 
Swine    ..12,422,966  11,944,568     1,182,687        918,634 

*  68   governments.     1 10  governments,     a  And  goats. 

Figures  for  1913  show  33,836,000  horses  of  all 
ages  (21,606,000  in  European  Russia  proper, 
1,245,000  in  Poland,  2,072,000  in  the  Caucasus, 
4,464,000  in  Siberia,  4,476,000  in  central  Asia). 
Cattle,  61,355,000  (European  Russia,  32,027,000; 
Poland,  2,261,000;  Caucasus,  6,037,000;  Siberia, 


'  Digitized  by 


Google 


BTT88IA 


664 


BTT88IA 


5,954,000;  central  Asia,  5,076,000).  Sheep  and 
goats,  73,962,000  (European  Russia,  36,376.000; 
Poland.  781,000;  Caucasus,  11,016,000;  Siberia, 
5,195,000;  central  Asia,  19,694,000).  Swine,  14,- 
232,000  (European  Russia,  11,099;  Poland,  550,- 
000;  Caucasus,  1,243,000;  Siberia,  1,191,000; 
central  Asia,  149,000). 

Forests.  The  forests  of  European  Russia 
cover  an  area  estimated  at  346,()00,000  acres 
(exclusive  of  Finland),  of  which  61.8  per  cent 
belong  to  the  state,  25.6  per  cent  to  private 
owners,  7.6  per  cent  to  the  peasants,  3.2  per 
cent  to  the  crown,  and  1.8  per  cent  to  other 
owners.  The  table  below  shows  area  in  des- 
siatines  of  crown  forests  and  area  worked  by  the 
government,  by  great  divisions: 

Total  D.  Worked  D. 

European  Russia 105,888,965  84.801,741 

Poland    778,586  720,878 

Caucasus 4.980,524  8.099,068 

Siberia     217.192,375  77.455.522 

Central  Asia 20,854.292  14,264.890 

Empire    849,094,692  179.851.094 

The  revenue  from  state  forests  for  the  year 
1914  was  given  at  103,141,000  rubles  (92,712,000 
in  1913),  and  the  expenditure  at  41,213,000  (34,- 
587,000).     See  Fobestrt. 

Mining  and  Metals.  The  most  extensively 
exploited  mines  He  in  the  Urals,  the  Altai,  Ob- 
dorsk,  and  Sayan  regions,  and  in  Transbaikalia. 
Some  precious  stones  are  found,  and  marble  is 
quarried  in  Finland  and  the  Crimea.  The  table 
below  gives  the  production  for  comparative  years 
of  the  most  important  products  of  the  mining 
and  metallic  industries,  in  poods: 

1909  1911 

Gold    8,467^  8.584 

Platinum     812%  852% 

SiWer     941  947 

Lead    49.678  75,585 

Zinc     586,484  745.575 

Copper     1.125.885  1.594,087 

Pig  iron 176.122,472  219.118.278 

Iron  and  steel 146.415,257  176,245.287 

ICanganese    45.092.205  48.122.508 

Coal     1.682.218.785  1,784.689.649 

Naphtha     568,002.720  558.748.855 

Salt     148.437,840  122.940.880 

The  average  annual  coal  output  is  estimated 
at  24,200,000  tons.  The  import  of  foreign  coal 
and  coke  into  Russia  in  1910  was  4,652,666 
metric  tons.  Coal  mined  in  1910,  1,555,650,000 
poods;  in  1912,  1,813,910,000.  From  the  Donetz 
basin  (a  region  in  Ekaterinoslav,  covering  about 
16,000  square  miles)  comes  a  large  proportion 
of  Russia's  coal — 12,697,700  tons  in  1910. 
Poland  has  an  annual  output  of  over  5,666,000 
tons.  A  poor  quality  of  coal  is  abundant  in  Si- 
beria. Output  of  pig-iron,  1912,  256,265,000 
poods;  worked  iron  and  steel,  227,540,000;  pe- 
troleum, 565,300,000;  salt,  114,680,000.  Output 
of  petroleum,  1913,  560,000,000  poods. 

Manufactubes.  It  is  only  during  the  last 
few  decades  that  Russia  had  developed  manufac- 
turing industries  of  importance.  Previously 
manufactured  goods  were  mainly  imported  into 
the  country;  but  it  is  rapidly  becoming  inde- 
pendent of  foreign  goods.  Cottons  are  manu- 
factured, chiefly  in  Poland;  other  manufactures 
are  flax  and  silk,  sugar,  tobacco,  hemp,  paper, 
flour,  furniture,  etc.  Distilling  is  a  government 
monopoly  (after  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war 
the  sale   of  alcoholic  liquors  was  prohibited). 


Agricultural  machinery  is  now  made  on  a  large 
scale,  and  peasant  industries  (wood  carving, 
metal  working,  etc.)   are  important. 

One  of  the  largest  undertakings  connected  with 
the  war  is  the  removal  of  industrial  enterprises 
from  regions  threatened  by  the  enemy.  Ques- 
tions concerning  help  for  evacuated  enterprises 
and  the  choice  of  sites  for  their  reconstruction 
are  dealt  with  by  a  special  committee.  The 
zemstvo  and  city  administrations  extend  aid  to 
the  special  committee  in  the  task  of  selecting 
new  sites,  and  often  tender  their  own  land  for 
this  purpose.  Much  care  is  taken  to  sort  out 
workmen  from  the  flood  of  refugees.  This  is  no 
easy  task,  because  the  German  invasion  has 
given  rise  to  what  is  literally  a  wholesale  mi- 
gration of  peoples.  With  reference  to  the  selec- 
tion of  appropriate  spots  for  the  reinstallation 
of  evacuated  industries,  8.  Dunin-Martsinkevich, 
in  the  official  Commercial  and  7t%dustrial  Gazette, 
suggests  that  many  of  these  mills  and  factories 
could  be  at  once  removed  to  Western  Siberia. 
He  points  out  that  since  the  railway  rolling 
stock  proceeding  in  that  direction  is  usually 
more  tiian  half  empty,  the  distance  of  Western 
Siberia  does  not  offer  any  insuperable  obstacle. 
Even  in  peace  time  this  region  possessed  interest 
for  the  industrial  world  in  being  itself  a  market 
of  considerable  magnitude.  Siberia,  though  rich 
in  raw  material  and  fuel,  for  lack  of  local  in- 
dustry has  been  obliged  to  sell  the  former  at  a 
low  price  and  send  it  thousands  of  kilometers 
for  manufacture  in  the  very  factories  and  mills 
now  being  removed,  while  the  products  manu- 
factured from  Siberian  raw  material  have  been 
conveyed  back  to  Siberia  for  consumption.  Novo- 
Nikolaevsk  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  suit- 
able towns  in  which  to  set  up  these  transplanted 
industries,  in  view  of  its  central  situation  in  the 
richest  agricultural  region  of  Siberia  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  navigable  Ob  at  the  point  of  in- 
tersection with  the  Siberian  Railway.  The  con- 
struction of  the  Altai  Railway,  uniting  Novo- 
Nikolaevsk  with  the  Altai  and  the  towns  of 
Barnaul,  Biysk,  and  Semipalatinsk,  has  just 
been  completed.  Moreover,  the  construction  of 
a  railway  connecting  the  district  with  the  rich 
Kolchugin  coal  seams  is  nearing  completion. 
Thus  the  majority  of  the  enterprises  transferred 
thither,  especially  the  manufacture  of  agricul- 
tural machinery,  might  resume  their  activities 
almost  immediately,  being  guaranteed  cheap  and 
convenient  supply  of  all  essential  requirements. 

Fisheries.  The  principal  regions  where  fish- 
ing is  carried  on,  the  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  the  industry,  the  quantity  yielded  in  po^s, 
and  the  value  in  rubles  are  shown  in  the  table 
below  for  1912: 


No. 

Cftspian    172,000 

Upper  Volga 10,000 

Black  Sea   85,000 

Baltic    Sea    21,000 

Lakes   11.000 

Murman  *    14,000 

Total   Rurop.    Rua. .  .268.300 
Total  Asiatic  Russia.  .    88,800 

Total    Empire    296,200 

*  And  White  Sea. 


Commerce.  The  export  of  cereals,  flour,  and 
linseed,  except  to  allied  countries,  was  prohibited 
from  Aug.  8,  1914.    Exceptions  might  be  author- 


P00d9 

Rubles 

28,167,000 
2,916,000 
4,182,000 
2,697,000 
1.909.000 
900.000 

66.867.000 
2.208.000 
6,262.000 
5.294.000 
2.928.000 
2.000.000 

85,671.000 
8.252.000 

65.281.000 
11.924.000 

48.928,000 

97.155,000 

Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


BTT8SIA 


665 


BUSSIA 


ized  for  exports  to  neutral  countries.  By  im- 
perial ukase  of  March  10,  1916,  the  export  of 
foodstuffs  and  of  fodder  has  been  prohibited,  ex- 
cept under  special  permit  given  by  the  govern- 
ment in  each  case.  By  a  decree  dated  May  17, 
1915,  the  export  of  maize  is  permitted  if  des- 
tined for  allied  countries.  In  the  table  below  is 
shown  the  trade  for  comparative  years  by  the 
great  avenues  of  distribution — A,  by  way  of  the 
European  and  Black  Sea  (Caucasus)  frontiers; 
B,  across  the  Asiatic  frontier;  C,  to  and  from 
Finland;  D,  total  across  all  frontiers;  values 
in   thousands  of  rubles: 


Imp9,  1910 

A     897,000 

B     148,100 

C    88,700 

D     1,084,400 

Expts.  1910 

A 1,288,800 

B    177,600 

C    42,800 

D     1,449.100 


1911 

960,800 

159,400 

42,000 


1919 
991,800 
90,700 
42,700 


1918 
1,109.600 
96,200 
61.000 


1,161,700     1,126,200     1,816,700 


1911 
1,840,600 
197,100 
68,700 


1919 
1,877,800 
185,000 
49,200 


1918 
1.865,500 
162.400 
65,800 


1,691,400  1,662,000  1,688,200 


The  statistics  to  follow  relate  to  trade  by  way 
of  the  European  and  Black  Sea  (Caucasus)  fron- 
tiers, and  to  and  from  Finland;  trade  by  great 
classes  is  given  (1911-13),  in  thousands  of 
rubles : 


Jmportt  1911  1919  1918 

FoodBtttffs     184,184  140,198  163.014 

Raw   materials    617,046  616.267  600.906 

Animals    8,457  2,581  8,099 

Manufactures     868,062  876,466  458,455 

Tbtal    1,022,699     1.084,602     1,220,474 

Exports  1911  1918  1918 

Foodstuffs     988,547  788,608  807.201 

Raw   materials    478,486  678,786  650,228 

Animals     25,881  80,068  82.986 

Manufactures    25,878  29,671  80.446 

Total     1,518,787     1,427,088     1,420,855 

The  cereal  export  in  1910  was  much  greater 
in  quantity  than  in  1909  (847,084,000  poods, 
against  760,746,000),  but  the  total  value  was 
somewhat  less.  The  principal  details  of  the 
cereal  export  are  given  below  for  1912  and  1013: 


1000  poodt. 

1919  1918 

Wheat     160,900  203,100 

Rye     80,600  89,500 

Barley     168,800  280.500 

Oate     61,700  86.400 

Corn     46,900  85,600 

Other     89,500  98,800 

Total    547,900  647.800 


1000  ruhl§$ 

1919 

1918 

192.200 

225,100 

29,000 

82.900 

152.800 

186,100 

51.800 

81.800 

87,800 

25,100 

88.000 

88.900 

646,600     689.900 


The  principal  articles  of  imports  for  consump- 
tion and  of  export  of  domestic  produce  follow, 
for  1913,  with  values  in  thousands  of  rubles: 


Imports  1000  r. 

Cotton    100.098 

Machinery     168,789 

Tea    30,607 

Wool    68.116 

Metals    52,781 

Rubber    42,279 

Coal  and  coke  ....   86,656 

Metal    mfrs 18,168 

Silk    27,248 

Pish    86,061 

Timber     49.878 

Hides    57,091 


Exports  1000  r. 

Cereals  and  flour.  .689.942 

Timber     168.610 

Flax  and  tow 86.848 

Eggs     90,639 

Butter    71.159 

Oil  cake    88,580 

Oil,  seeds,  etc 84.426 

Live  animals 82.986 

Petroleum,  ete.   . . .  48,508 

Furs,   etc 52,422 

Hemp 20,261 

Raw  meUls  *    . . . .  19.272 


Imports                  1000  r.  Exports                  1000  r. 

Woolen  yarn 18,960  Manganese  ore. . . .    14,577 

Paper    40,600   Wool    10.541 

Chemical  prods....  69.628   Meat    9.898 

*  Chiefly  platinum. 

The  principal  articles  of  export  across  the 
Asiatic  frontier  are  sugar  and  cotton  goods;  im- 
ports, rice  and  raw  cotton. 

The  next  table  ffives  imports  and  exports  by 
great  countries  of  origin  and  destination,  in 
tiiousands  of  rubles,  for  four  years: 

Imports                         1909  1911  1918        1918 

Germany     854,822  476.889  519.114  642,766 

United  Kingdom    ...128.017  158.875  189,250  170,852 

United    States    57.917  100.818  86.697     74,171 

France     49,002  56,170  66,168     56,015 

Austria-Hungary    ...   26,917  87,784  82,068     84,638 

Finland     82,974  40,002  42,718     60.964 

Netherlands    18,109  17,453  19,149     21.540 

Bast  Indies    18,960  24,414  25,668     29,997 

Exports  1909        1911         1919        1918 

Germany     887,018  490.189  468.748  452.687 

United  Kingdom    ...288,748  886,740  827,187  266.864 

Netherlands    189.198  188.849  168.994  177.455 

France    89,061     90,807     98,001  100.857 

Italy    67,785     52,708     52,476     78,685 

Finland     51,801     68,665     49,185     55,292 

Belgium     64.892     55,846     58,651     64.642 

Austria-Hungary    ...   60,875     67,978     78,400     65,256 
Denmark     86,728     85,605     88,086     85,764 

According  to  data  drafted  by  the  ministry  of 
finance,  Russia's  foreign  trade  by  the  European 
and  Caucasian  Black  Sea  frontiers  and  with 
Finland  for  the  first  six  months  of  1915  was  as 
follows:  exports,  94,984,000  rubles;  imports, 
181,243,000;  total,  276,227,000;  excess  of  im- 
ports, 86,259,000  rubles.  The  figures  show  that 
in  comparison  with  the  corresponding  period  of 
the  previous  year  the  value  of  exports  declined 
by  582,600,000  rubles,  or  86  per  cent,  and  of  im- 
ports by  528,871,000  rubles,  or  74.5  per  cent.  On 
the  other  hand,  for  the  same  period,  the  export 
trade  with  Finland  appreciably  increased,  viz., 
by  33,833,000  rubles. 

The  export  of  cereals  for  the  first  six  months 
of  1915,  as  compared  with  the  same  period  of 
the  previous  year,  amounted  to  only  4  per  cent 
in  quantity,  and  8  per  cent  in  value,  the  bulk 
of  the  cereals  being  exported  to  Finland,  viz., 
10,513,000  poods  (168,208  tons),  out  of  the  total 
of  12,623,000  poods  (201,068  tons).  Of  other 
food  products,  more  wheat,  rye,  and  potato  flour, 
starch,  fruits,  fresh  pork,  and  red  caviar  were 
exported  than  during  the  first  half  of  1914. 

Russian  exports  were  sent  to  the  United  King- 
dom, France,  Rumania,  Sweden,  Serbia,  Norway, 
Denmark,  Italy,  America,  Bulgaria,  Greece,  and 
Finland.  The  exports  to  Finland  and  Serbia 
increased  considerably.  Imports  increased  from 
Sweden,  Japan,  Bulgaria,  and  Finland,  but  from 
all  other  countries  they  declined.  The  largest 
actual  quantity  of  commodities  came  from  the 
United  Kingdom  (54,461,000  rubles)  and  Fin- 
land (34,615,000  rubles). 

Shipping.  Vessels  and  tonnage  entered  and 
cleared  in  the  total  foreign  trade  of  the  empire 
(1912)   are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Entered 
Ports  No.  Tons 

White    Sea 1,088        816,000 

Baltic    7,890     6,666,000 

Black  and  Axov. .   8,705     6,712,000 
Pacific    Coast     . .   2,124        986,000 


Cleared 

No.  Tons 

994         816,000 

7,424     5.674,000 

8,586     5,675,000 


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In  the  table  below  are  shown  number  and  ton- 
nage of  total  merchant  yesaelB  Jan.  1,  1914,  and 
number  of  tonnage  of  steamers  included  in  total : 

Total  «(«MMr« 

No.  Tmm  No.  Tons 

White  8m    ....       SOS  S7.017  80  18.644 

Baltic    902  800,841  366  128,298 

Black  and  Aiot.   1,885  291,489  416  240.617 

Pacific     49  28.986  89  28.628 

Caspian     881  280.184  244  106,721 

Total     8,700         788,019     1.044         518.008 

CoicicuNiOATiONS.  For  April,  1916,  the  re- 
ceipts of  state  railways  totaled  63,874,000  rubles, 
as  against  66,031,868  rubles  for  the  same  month 
the  previous  year;  the  corresponding  figures  for 
the  privately  owned  lines  were  27,601,103  rubles 
and  26,669,138  rubles,  respectively.  For  the 
term  from  January  1st  to  the  end  of  April,  1915, 
and  1914,  the  receipts  of  state  railways  were 
239,006,745  rubles  and  284,573,719  rubles,  re- 
spectively. State  railways  in  1913  had  a  length 
of  35,211  versts;  private  lines,  16,820;  local 
lines,  2257— a  total  of  European  lines  of  54,288 
versts.  Adding  to  this  figure  15,971  versts  in 
Asiatic  Russia,  a  total  is  obtained  of  70,250 
versts  (46,572  miles)  for  the  empire.  State 
telegraph  lines,  212,774  kilometers  (with  570,- 
947  kilometers  of  wire) ;  police  lines,  480  (480) ; 
railway  lines,  17,027  (234,997)— a  total  of  230,- 
281  (806,424),  or  143,090  (501,088)  miles. 
State  telegraph  stations,  5111;  railway  telegraph 
stations,  4415;  wireless  stations,  23,  with  81  on 
board  vessels.  Urban  telephone  lines,  16,398 
kUometers  (807,176  kilometers  of  wire),  or  10,- 
189  (501,555)  miles;  interurban,  4071  (18,830), 
or  2530  (11,706)  miles.  Post  offices,  18,050; 
postal  receipts,  330,635,978  francs;  expenditure, 
220,693,986  francs. 

Ilie  numerous  attempts  made  during  centuries 
to  establish  the  sea  route  to  the  mouths  of  the 
Ob  and  the  Yenisei  have  shown  the  importance 
of  it,  but  the  present  war  has  made  it  still  more 
important.  As  the  Baltic  Sea  is  closed  for  traffic 
and  the  Siberian  Railway  is  largely  or  exclu- 
sively used  for  military  purposes,  this  route 
should  become  an  outlet  for  the  vast  surplus 
stock  of  produce  in  Siberia. 

Petrozavodsk,  on  Lake  Onega,  capital  of  the 
government  of  Olonets,  has  been  selected  as  the 
objective  of  a  railway  from  the  south  to  the 
north,  and  thither  from  the  direction  of  Petro- 
grad  is  advancing  the  new  Olonets  Railway,  the 
construction  of  which  was  to  be  completed  by  the 
end  of  1915.  From  Petrozavodsk  the  rails  are 
being  laid  northward,  at  first  to  the  northern 
terminus  of  Lake  Onega,  then  between  Lakes 
Sego  and  Vyg.  It  reaches  the  shores  of  the 
White  Sea  at  Soroka  Bay,  and,  swerving  a  little 
to  the  northwest,  reaches  the  town  of  Rem,  the 
most  important  administrative  and  industrial 
centre  of  this  district.  Here  ends  the  first  sec- 
tion of  the  new  railway.  The  second  is  being 
laid  between  many  small  lakes  and  amid  swamps, 
marshes,  and  virgin  fir  forests,  to  Kandalaksha, 
a  big  settlement  of  fishermen,  situated  between 
the  sea  and  the  extensive  Lake  Imandra  and 
along  both  banks  of  the  swiftly  flowing  Neva. 
From  Kandalaksha  the  new  route  has  to  inter- 
sect the  Kola  Peninsula,  the  northern  shore  of 
which,  called  the  Murman  coast,  is  washed  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  This  is  the  third  section.  The 
line  will  reach  the  Murman  coast  at  the  small 


town  of  Kola  and  will  be  called  the  Murman 
Railway. 

The  new  railway  leading  from  the  capital, 
Petrograd,  to  Ekaterina,  a  port  in  the  Arctic, 
was  virtually  completed  in  1915,  and  available 
for  war  supplies  traffic.  This  line  was  built  un- 
der the  direction  of  American  engineers,  an  army 
of  10,000  men,  mostly  prisoners,  being  employed 
upon  it.  Its  terminus  is  on  the  northern  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Kola,  where  large  docks  and  sheds 
were  constructed.  In  six  months  1220  miles 
of  this  railway  were  built.  Boats  unable  to 
reach  Archangel  will  be  able  to  go  to  Eka- 
terina at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Ekaterina, 
some  300  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Arch- 
angel, is  an  ideal  terminus  for  a  railway. 
Although  north  of  Archangel,  and  almost  within 
the  Arctic  Circle,  it  is  ice-free  all  the  year  round, 
owing  to  its  beinff  within  the  influence  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  while  the  waters  of  the  harbor 
are  also  calm  when  the  north  Arctic  storms  are 
prevailing.  Archangel  had  been  Russia's  prin- 
cipal port  for  the  delivery  of  munitions  from 
abroad,  but  the  single-track  line  was  unable  to 
handle  the  enormous  munition  traffic  expedi- 
tiously enough.  Even  the  most  powerful  ice- 
breakers could  not  keep  the  White  Sea  open  all 
the  winter,  and  the  Russian  government  accord- 
ingly decided  on  the  construction  of  the  Petro- 
grad-Ekaterina  line.  A  modem  standard  gauge 
railroad  from  Alexandraska  to  Petrograd  was 
being  completed  by  British  capital.  The  former 
place  is  an  open  port  to  the  north  of  Archangel. 
Work  on  the  road  was  being  pushed  rapidly,  but 
it  was  not  expected  that  the  construction  could 
be  completed  before  the  summer  of  1916. 

The  Altai  railway  connecting  Novoikolaievsk 
on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  with  Semipala- 
tinsk,  in  the  Steppes--501  miles  in  length — was 
opened  during  the  summer  of  1915.  The  new 
railway  will  serve  the  richest  agricultural  and 
mineral  r^ons  of  Siberia.  The  Altai  r^on 
has  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  cop- 
per, which  were  worked  in  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteentii  centuries,  but  afterwards  abandoned 
owing  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and 
other  causes.  It  contains  also  the  exceedingly 
rich  Kuznetz  coal  basin,  6000  square  miles  in 
extent.  The  line  was  completed  14  months 
within  the  contract  time.  The  central  offices 
were  to  be  in  Barnaul. 

That  part  of  Russia  under  German  occupa- 
tion naturally  experienced  changes  in  the  way  of 
destruction  as  well  as  construction  of  railway 
facilities,  the  German  officials  repairing  and 
changing  to  German  standard  the  gauge  of  the 
lines  in  occupied  territory  with  great  speed. 
ThejKauge  of  the  Libau-Romny  line  was  adapted 
for  German  cars,  and  as  early  as  September  the 
line  as  far  as  Mitau  was  in  working  order.  The 
bridges  that  had  been  destroyed  were  tempo- 
rarily replaced  by  wooden  ones,  and  later  in 
the  vear  iron  bridges  were  being  built.  The 
Courland  railways  working  at  the  end  of  the 
year  imder  German  control  included  the  Libau- 
Muravievo-Mitau  and  the  Libau-Hazenpoth  lines. 
The  Germans  had  not  repaired  the  Windau- 
Tuckum-Mitau  line.  From  Mitau  trains  went 
as  far  as  Tauerkaln,  and  a  direct  narrow-gauge 
railway  was  built  between  Memel  and  Prdculn. 
In  the  Kovno  province  a  narrow-gauge  line  was 
constructed  from  Tauroggon  to  Shavli,  later  to 
be  extended  to  Bausk. 

With   the  military   activity   at   the   port  of 


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Archangel  there  was  involyed  the  improvement 
of  the  railway  facilities  between  Vologda  and 
Archangel.  Sufficient  progresB  was  made  by  the 
summer  of  1916  so  that  it  was  possible  to  run 
broad-gauge  cars  from  any  part  of  Russia  to 
Archangel,  and  for  part  of  the  distance  from 
Vologda  to  Archangel  the  line  was  double 
tracked,  a  narrow-gauge  line  being  retained  so 
that  the  narrow-gauge  equipment  could  be  used. 
The  line  through  Lapland  between  Kandalaksha 
and  Kola  also  was  being  completed,  so  that  cars 
were  to  be  run  over  the  line  early  in  1916.  Kola 
during  the  winter  season  was  to  be  substituted 
for  Archangel  as  a  port,  as  there  was  no  heavy 
ice  at  the  former  place  as  there  is  at  Archangel. 
Ihiring  the  winter  three  cargo  ice-breakers,  one 
of  2600  tons'  capacity,  and  two  of  600  tons'  ca- 
pacity, were  provided  for  the  run  between  Kan- 
dalakdia  and  Sorotskoe,  the  voyage  taking  about 
24  hours  each  way. 

The  Russian  ^State  Railway  Department  in  the 
summer  of  1914  placed  orders  for  400  locomo- 
tives of  the  Decapod  type  in  America — ^260  with 
the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  100  with  the 
American  Locomotive  Company,  and  60  with  the 
Canadian  Locomotive  Company.  The  first  ship- 
ment of  these  locomotives  was  made  towards  the 
end  of  August,  1916,  the  engines  bein^  built, 
tested,  knoSced  down,  and  padced  for  shipment. 
They  operate  on  a  6-foot-gauge  track  used  on  a 
large  part  of  the  Russian  State  Railways.  Ship- 
ments continued  through  the  year.  During  1916, 
6000  general-service  steel  gondola  cars  were  be- 
ing built  in  the  United  Stetes  for  the  Russian 
State  Railways.  A  test  load  of  164,000  pounds 
was  required.  The  cars  weigh  46,000  poimds 
each,  and  resemble  those  in  use  in  the  United 
Stetes.  The  body  is  40  feet  by  9  feet  6%  inches 
and  4  feet  4  inches  high.  The  Russian  type  of 
Westinghouse  air-brake  equipment  was  used,  the 
couplings  of  hook-and-link  type,  and  the  buffers 
were  of  the  Russian  stendard. 

The  Ministry  of  Ways  of  Communication  sub- 
mitted ite  1916  estimate  for  the  railways.  The 
receipts,  according  to  estimate,  would  amount  to 
$366,286,000,  or  less  by  $89,766,000  than  those 
of  1916.  The  outlay,  according  to  the  estimate 
of  the  Railway  Department,  was  estimated  at 
$342,490,000,  or  $10,300,000  less  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  In  consequence  of  the  increased 
cost  of  labor  on  the  Treasury  railways,  the 
higher  prices  for  Donetz  coal,  the  increased  ex- 
penditure in  maintenance  of  steff,  the  heavier 
repairs  of  locomotives  and  cars,  the  increased  ex- 
penses in  improving  the  roads,  in  compensating 
for  personal  damage,  loss,  ete.,  it  was  estimated 
that  the  increased  expenditure  for  working  the 
Treasury  railways  would  amount  to  about  $21,- 
676,000. 

Finance.  In  the  Imperial  Duma,  on  Aug.  31, 
1916,  A.  I.  Shingarey  reported  on  the  bill  for  the 
expansion  of  the  note-issuing  powers  of  the  Im- 
perial Stete  Bank,  in  part,  as  follows:  "Up  to 
August  Ist  (1914)  war  outlays  had  been  effected 
to  the  amount  of  6,043,000,000  rubles,  and  for 
this  time  credit  operations  were  carried  out  to 
the  face  value  of  6,899,000,000  rubles.  Thus  war 
expenditures  have  been  covered  exclusively  by 
credit  operations.  For  1916,  as  steted  by  the 
minister  of  finance,  is  required  10  milliards  to 
cover  war  outlays  and  the  current  needs  of  the 
stete.  For  this  purpose  since  January  1st 
(1914)  the  sum  of  4,181,000,000  rubles  has  been 
obteined  from  credit  operations,  while  the  re- 


ceipte  of  ordinary  revenue  are  expected  to  be 
2,796,000,000  rubles,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year 
credit  operations  will  be  concluded  for  3,030,- 
000,000  rubles.  The  deficit  in  revenue  amounts 
to  336,000,000  rubles,  and  is  the  result,  on  the 
one  hand,  of  the  war,  and,  on  the  other,  of  the 
prohibition  of  the  sale  of  stete  liquor,  which  has 
enteiled  a  loss  to  the  stete  of  800,000,000  rubles. 
The  income  £ax  will  not  cover  this  amount,  but 
it  constitutes  a  foundation  upon  which  it  will 
be  possible  to  build  a  correct  financial  policy.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  budget  for  1916  the 
minister  of  finance  will  present  a  plan  of  radi- 
cal financial  reform. 

"I  have  often  argued  with  the  ex-minister  of 
finance,  but  I  must  agree  with  his  announce- 
ment in  the  Imperial  Council  that  we  are  enter- 
inff  upon  a  period  of  merciless  taxation.  An 
arduous  war  imposes  upon  the  Russian  stete 
many  obligations.  We  have  already  borrowed 
six  milliards  of  rubles,  which  requires  for  pay- 
ment of  fresh  interest  about  300,000,000  rubles. 
We  shall,  perhaps,  borrow  a  large  sum,  but  the 
Russian  stete  will  conduct  this  war  to  a  vic- 
torious close." 

Gold  is  the  standard  of  value,  and  the  ruble, 
par  value  61.466  cento,  is  the  monetary  unit.  In 
the  teble  below  are  shown  in  rubles  actual  reve- 
nue and  expenditure,  ordinary  and  extraordi- 
nary, for  1913,  and  the  budget  estimates  for 
1914  and  1916: 


1918  1914  1915 

ReT.  ord.   ..8,417,859,680  8,572.169,478  8,080,108.814 
**  extraord.       18,845,256        18,400.000      154,200,100 


Total    ...8,481,204,786 


8,284,808,414 


Exp.  ord.  ..8,094,248,094  8,800.528,517  8,078.814.461 
"  eztraord.     288,665,814      804,045,881      155,498,958 

ToUl     ...8,882,918,408  8.618,569,808  8,284,'808,414 
*  The  toUl,  8,618,569,898  rubles,  indndes  27,999,925 
from  treasttzy. 

The  deteils  of  the  budget  for  1916  are  given 
in  the  teble  below  in  thousands  of  rubles: 


Btvtnu€  1000  r. 

Direct  taxes  ....  842,465 

Indirect   taxes...  694,184 

Customs    508.914 

Royalties    824,172 

Domains 1,068,286 

Land   sales    1,827 

Redemptions    . . .  1.865 

Repayments    ....  128.888 

Various    15.112 

Total   ord.    ...8.080.108 
Extraord.    ....     154,200 


Total     8,284,808 


Eatptnd.  1000  r. 

PubUc   debt 489.707 

Council 6,912 

Holy  Synod 49.189 

Civil   list    16.860 

Foreign  affairs    .  7.790 

War    598.714 

Marine    204.879 

Finance    855,828 

Commerce,    etc. . .  57,480 

Interior    208.701 

Instruction 146,652 

Communications  .  710.688 

Agriculture 146.652 

Justice    101.602 

Audit    12.996 

State   stud 8,838 

Other    10,000 

Total  ord 8.078.814 

Extraord 165.494 

Total   8.284,808 


The  totel  public  debt  stood,  Jan.  1,  1914,  at 
9,888,309,698  rubles. 

Abmt.    See  Military  Prooress. 

Navt.  No  reliable  information  regarding  na- 
val construction  of  belligerent  nations  is  avail- 
able since  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  the  Ger- 
man invasion,  llie  number  and  displacement  of 
warships  built  and  building,  of  1600  or  more 
tons,  and  of  torpedo  craft  of  60  tons  and  over. 


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were,  July  1,  1014,  as  follows:  Battleships, 
dreadnought  i^pe  (having  a  main  battery  of  all 
big  guns,  11-inch  or  more  in  calibre),  none  built 
(7,  of  159,500  tons  estimated,  building) ;  7  bat- 
tleships, predreadnought  type  (of  about  10,000 
or  more  tons  displacement  and  with  main  bat- 
tery of  more  than  one  calibre),  of  08,750  tons; 
2  coast-defense  vessels,  of  10,380;  battle  cruisers, 
none  built  (4,  of  128,000,  building) ;  6  armored 
cruisers,  of  63,500;  0  cruisers,  of  62,845  (and  8, 
of  53,600  tons,  building) ;  01  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, of  36,748  (and  44,  of  53,664  tons,  build- 
ing) ;  14  torpedo  boats,  of  2132;  30  submarines, 
of  6506  (and  10,  of  13,284  tons,  building)— -a 
total  tonnage  built  of  270,861,  and  407,057  build- 
ing; total  tonnage  built  and  building,  678,818. 
Several  powerful  ships  under  construction  in 
1014  should  have  been  in  commission  by  the  time 
the  Baltic  again  became  navigable.  The  Baltic 
fleet  was  commanded  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  bv  Admiral  von  Essen.  The  total  personnel 
was  about  80,000.  Air  craft  included  6  military 
dirigibles  on  hand  and  10  ordered,  and  250  mili- 
tarv  aeroplanes  on  hand,  including  monoplanes, 
biplanes,  and  hydroaeroplanes.    See  Naval  Pbog- 

BESS. 

GovEaiNHENT.  The  Russian  Empire  has  been 
nominally  a  constitutional  monarchy,  but  in  fact 
the  legislative  and  the  judicial  power,  as  well 
as  the  executive,  remains  in  large  part  in  the 
hands  of  the  Czar,  who  bears  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  all  the  Russias.  The  council  of  the 
empire  includes  an  equal  number  of  elected  mem- 
bers and  members  nominated  by  the  Czar.  There 
is  a  national  assembly  (Duma)  of  446  members 
elected  indirectly  for  five  years.  Reigning  Czar, 
Nicholas  II,  born  May  6  (18),  1868,  succeeded 
his  father,  Alexander  III,  Oct  20  (Nov.  1),  1804. 
On  Nov.  14  (26),  1804,  he  married  Princess  Alix 
of  Hesse.  The  heir-apparent,  Grand  Duke 
Alexis,  was  born  July  30  (Aug.  12),  1004. 

HiSTOBT 

The  Febbuabt  Session  of  the  Duma.  On 
Feb.  0,  1015,  the  Duma  was  convoked  in  its  first 
session  since  the  historic  debates  of  August, 
1014,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  Premier 
Goremykin  expressed  unwavering  confidence  in 
the  ability  of  the  army  to  achieve  ultimate  vic- 
tory. "Our  heroic  army,"  he  said,  "the  flower 
and  the  pride  of  Russia,  strong  as  never  before 
in  its  might,  notwithstanding  all  its  losses, 
grows  and  strengthens."  He  dwelt  with  evident 
satisfaction  on  the  beneflcial  results  of  the  abo- 
lition of  the  sale  of  vodka.  With  the  working 
classes  emancipated  from  alcohol,  he  predicted, 
and  with  more  favorable  conditions  assured  for 
the  exportation  of  Russian  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, as  a  result  of  the  war  Russia  would  make 
mighty  strides  towards  prosperity  and  wealth. 
The  majority  of  the  Duma  appeared  to  share 
the  premier's  optimism;  the  only  sign  of  dissent 
was  given  by  a  Socialist  deputy,  who  delivered 
an  ill-received  demand  for  peace.  The  Duma's 
sitting  on  the  afternoon  of  February  0th  was 
signalized  by  a  very  important  speech  of  the 
foreign  minister,  M.  Sazanov.  After  passing  in 
review  the  events  of  the  past  six  months,  and 
summarizing  once  again  the  circumstances  under 
which  Russia  had  token  up  arms  in  defense  of 
the  rights  of  smaller  nations,  M.  Sazanov  took 
pains  to  deny  the  stories,  which,  he  said,  the 
German  diplomats  had  maliciously  circulated  in 


regard  to  Russian  affairs.  Most  emphatically 
he  denied  the  ''malevolent  German  invention" 
that  Russian  troops  had  organized  pogroms  or 
massacres  of  the  Jews.  "I  seize  this  opportunity 
of  speaking  in  the  parliamentary  tribune,"  he 
said,  "to  deny  this  calumny  categorically,  for  if 
the  Jewish  population  in  the  theatre  of  war  is 
suflTering,  that  is  an  inevitable  evil,  since  the 
inhabitants  of  regions  where  hostilities  are  pro- 
ceeding are  always  severely  tried.  Moreover, 
eyewitnesses  are  unanimous  in  stating  that  the 
greatest  devastation  in  Poland  is  the  work  of 
the  Germans  and  Austrians."  In  respect  of  the 
ambitions  of  Russia  for  southward  expansion  at 
the  expense  of  Turkey,  M.  Sazanov  made  the 
cryptic  but  much-quoted  statement  that  "the 
events  on  the  Russo-Turkish  frontier  while  cov- 
ering the  Russian  arms  with  fresh  glory,  will 
bring  Russia  nearer  to  the  realization  of  the 
political  and  economic  problems  boimd  up  with 
the  question  of  Russia's  access  to*  the  open  sea." 
As  for  the  Armenians,  he  made  the  following 
promise:  "The  Russian  government  disinterest- 
edly endeavored  to  alleviate  the  lot  of  the  Ar- 
menians, and  the  Russo-Turkish  agreement  of 
Jan.  26,  1014,  is  a  historical  document  in  which 
Turkey  recognizes  the  privileged  position  of 
Russia  in  the  Armenian  question.  When  the 
war  ends,  this  exclusive  position  of  Russia  will 
be  employed  by  the  Imperial  government  in  a 
direction  favorable  to  the  Armenian  population." 
M.  Sazanov  denied  that  the  invasion  of  Persia 
by  Russian  troops  was  a  violation  of  Persian 
neutrality;  he  also  made  the  significant  declara- 
tion that  Anglo-Russian  relations  in  the  Persian 
question  were  "more  than  ever  based  on  mutual 
and  sincere  confidence  and  cooperation,  which 
are  a  guarantee  of  the  pacific  settlement  of  any 
eventual  oonfiict.  Russia's  relations  with  Japan 
were  characterized  by  the  greatest  cordiality; 
Japan's  demands  upon  China  (see  China)  con- 
tained nothing  contrary  to  Russian  interests. 
The  sitting  was  concluded  with  speeches  by  Pro- 
gressist, Octobrist,  and  Nationalist  representa- 
tives, and  the  following  resolution  was  passed 
by  the  Duma:  "The  Duma,  saluting  the  glori- 
ous exploits  of  our  soldiers,  sends  to  the  Rus- 
sian army  and  navy  a  cordial  greeting,  and  to 
our  allies  an  expression  of  sincere  esteem  and 
sympathy.  It  expresses  its  firm  conviction  that 
the  great  national  and  liberating  objects  of  the 
present  war  will  be  achieved,  and  declares  the 
infiexible  determination  of  the  Russian  nation  to 
carry  on  the  war  until  conditions  shall  have 
been  imposed  on  the  enemy  assuring  the  peace 
of  Europe  and  the  restoration  of  ri^t  and  jus- 
tice." Before  adjourning,  the  Duma  expressed 
its  desire,  (1)  that  the  government  take  meas- 
ures for  the  relief  of  provinces  suffering  from 
the  effects  of  the  war;  (2)  that  the  government 
work  out  a  scheme  of  complementary  pensions 
for  the  support  of  the  children  deprived  of  fa- 
thers by  tiie  war;  (3)  that  military  reserves 
doing  police  duty  be  summoned  to  the  colors  and 
replaced  by  soldiers  still  capable  of  serving  as 
police;  (4)  that  a  commission  be  appointed  to 
investigate  violations  of  international  law  and  of 
the  customs  of  civilized  warfare  committed  by 
the  Germans,  Austro-Hungarians,  and  Turks, 
and  to  ascertain  the  damages  sustained  there- 
from by  private  persons  and  public  organiza- 
tions. 

Financial  Questions.    The  financial  commit- 
tee of  the  Duma  in  February  was  confronted  by 


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serious  problems.  Under  ordinary  circumstances 
it  woula  have  been  difficult  enough  to  raise  stu- 
pendous sums  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war; 
it  was  doubly  difficult  since  the  war  had  dislo- 
cated Russian  industry  and  commerce,  and  the 
prohibition  of  the  sale  of  vodka  had  deprived 
the  government  of  the  revenue  from  that  source. 
To  supply  the  deficiency,  the  finance  committee 
on  February  6th  recommended  the  establishment 
of  a  government  monopoly  of  tea,  tobacco,  oil, 
matches,  and  insurance.  New  taxation  would 
help  to  defray  the  current  ordinary  expenses  of 
the  administration  and  cover  the  interest  on  the 
public  debt;  but  to  raise  the  enormous  sums 
disbursed  for  the  conduct  of  the  war,  it  was  nec- 
essary to  resort  to  borrowing.  In  consideration 
of  Russia's  financial  weakness,  France  and  Great 
Britain  lent  valuable  assistance  in  sustaining  the 
credit  of  the  Russian  government.  In  February 
the  Russian  finance  minister,  M.  Barck,  con- 
ferred at  Paris  with  the  finance  ministers  of 
France  and  Great  Britain,  and,  as  it  subse- 
quently appeared,  agreed  that  Russia  was  to 
receive  very  considerable  extensions  of  credit 
in  Paris  and  in  London.  The  Russian  govern- 
ment also  received  credit  to  the  amount  of  $25,- 
000,000,  it  was  reported,  from  a  group  of  New 
York  bankers. 

Effects  of  Defeat.  The  defeat  of  the  Rus- 
sian armies  in  Galicia  in  May  and  June  (con- 
sult Wab  of  the  Nations)  produced  a  very 
marked  effect  upon  the  political  situation  in  Rus- 
sia. Patriots  accused  the  military  leaders  of 
incompetence  and  the  government  of  inefficiency. 
The  shortage  of  munitions,  to  which  the  Russian 
defeat  was  frequently  ascribed,  would  never  have 
existed,  it  was  alleged,  if  the  minister  of  war 
had  properly  organized  the  munitions  industry. 
An  early  reconvocation  of  the  Duma  and  the 
construction  of  a  really  representative  "na- 
tional" ministry  were  demanded.  As  far  as  the 
high  command  of  the  Russian  armies  was  con- 
cerned, Grand  Duke  Nicholas  Nicolaievitch  still 
commanded  the  confidence  of  the  nation ;  but  the 
retirement  of  General  Ruzsky  from  the  command 
of  the  northern  armies;  and  the  appointment  of 
General  Alexiev  as  his  successor,  were  regretted 
in  certain  quarters;  the  chief  complaint,  how- 
ever, was  against  some  of  the  less  conspicuous 
generals  and  against  the  ministry.  As  a  con- 
cession to  the  government's  critics.  Premier 
Goremykin  dismissed  his  unpopular  minister  of 
the  interior,  M.  Makarov,  and  appointed  a  more 
liberal  statesman.  Prince  Cherbatov,  in  his  stead. 
A  few  days  later,  June  25th,  Gen.  W.  A.  Souk- 
hbmlinov,  the  minister  of  war,  resigned,  and  was 
superseded  by  General  Polivanov.  Early  in  July 
it  was  reported  that  the  reactionary  minister  of 
justice,  M.  Stcheglovitov,  and  ihe  procurator  of 
the  Holy  Synod,  M.  Sabler,  had  been  replaced 
by  M.  Khvostov  and  M.  Samarin,  respectively. 
New  assistants  were  appointed  to  the  minister  of 
war,  including  General  Beliaev  and  Prince  Vol- 
konsky.  These  changes  enabled  the  cabinet  to 
avoid,  or  rather  to  postpone,  the  impending 
crisis. 

Annivebsabt  of  the  Wab.  On  August  1st, 
the  anniversary  of  the  outbreak  of  war,  the 
Duma  assembled  to  hear  a  series  of  notable  ad- 
dresses by  M.  Rodzianko,  president  of  the  Duma, 
M.  Barck,  minister  of  finance,  and  M.  Goremykin, 
president  of  the  ministerial  council.  In  the  elo- 
quent opening  address  of  M.  Rodzianko  two 
themes  were  dominant.    First  of  all,  he  gave 


(9  BTTSSIA 

voice  to  the  tremendous  devotion  and  patriotism 
of  the  Russian  people,  and  expressed  his  belief 
that  "the  steel  breasts  of  her  sons"  would  un- 
failingly protect  **holy  Russia"  from  the  enemy. 
However,  and  this  was  the  second  theme,  the 
government  must  collaborate  with  the  people  in 
a  more  democratic  spirit.  "A  change  of  the 
spirit  itself  and  the  administration  of  the  exist- 
ing system  is  necessary."  The  premier,  in  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  speeches  of  the  war, 
frankly  admitted  that  "the  war  threatens  to  be 
protracted  and  requires  ever  fresh  efforts  and 
sacrifices.  .  .  .  That  which  we  have  hitherto  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  is  insufficient."  As  a  result  of 
her  insufficient  preparation  for  war,  Russia  la- 
bored under  a  very  serious  handicap.  "The  war 
has  shown  that  we  had  insufficiently  prepared 
for  it  in  comparison  with  our  foe.  Having  ac- 
cumulated, under  the  treacherous  guise  of  friend- 
ship and  peace,  unlimited  stores  of  military 
equipment,  the  enemy  attacked  us  at  the  moment 
when  he  was  best  prepared  in  war  technique." 
M.  Goremykin  in  outlining  his  programme,  fore- 
shadowed measures  (1)  to  render  additional  re- 
serves available  for  aictive  service,  (2)  to  author- 
ize new  loan  issues,  (3)  to  "unite  in  a  single 
institution  and  materially  to  extend  the  share 
of  the  representatives  of  the  legislative  assem- 
blies, public  institutions,  and  Russian  industry 
in  the  business  of  supplying  the  army  with  mu- 
nitions, the  guarantee  of  industrial  fuel,  and 
the  co5rdination  of  measures  for  the  feeding  of 
the  army  and  the  country."  While  he  aimed 
thus  to  conciliate  the  Duma  by  promising  it  a 
fuller  cooperation  in  the  work  of  national  de- 
fense, Premier  Goremykin  renewed  Russia's 
promise  to  emancipate  the  Poles:  "His  Maj- 
esty the  Emperor  has  deigned  to  authorize  me 
to  announce  to  you,  gentlemen  of  the  Duma,  that 
His  Majesty  has  commanded  the  Council  of  Min- 
isters to  draft  a  bill  to  confer  upon  Poland 
after  the  war  the  right  of  free  organization  of 
her  national,  cultural,  and  economic  life  on  the 
principles  of  autonomy,  under  the  autocratic 
sceptre  of  the  Russian  ruler,  and  with  the  re- 
tention of  a  single  imperial  authority."  Fur- 
thermore, in  regard  to  the  Jews  and  other  dis- 
contented elements  within  Russia,  "our  policy 
must  be  imbued  with  the  principle  of  impartial 
and  benevolent  attention  to  the  interests  of  all 
true  citizens  of  Russia,  without  distinction  of 
race,  language,  or  religion."  Premier  Goremy- 
kin concluded  this  appeal  for  unanimous  support 
with  the  exclamation:  "May  there  be  in  Rus- 
sia for  the  entire  duration  of  the  war  no  parties 
save  one  alone — ^the  party  of  war  to  the  end 
— and  no  programme  save  one  alone — ^to  con- 
quer." 

Financial  Diffigxh^ties.  At  the  same  his- 
toric session  of  the  Duma,  Aug.  1,  1915,  Minis- 
ter of  Finance  Barck  summed  up  the  financial 
difficulties  confronting  the  nation  and  the  plans 
of  the  government  for  their  solution.  During 
the  first  year  of  the  war,  he  declared,  Russia  had 
spent  altogether  5,500,000,000  rubles,  or  about 
16,700,000  rubles  (about  $8,000,000)  a  day, 
for  military  purposes.  For  the  future,  how- 
ever, the  daily  expenditure  would  be  not  less 
than  19,000,000  rubles  (almost  $10,000,000). 
The  deficit  in  the  budget  for  the  past  year 
amounted  to  673,600,000  rubles,  principally  due 
to  the  reduction  of  the  receipts  from  the  liquor 
traffic.  To  place  the  finances  upon  a  sounder 
basis  for  the  future,  the  minister  advocated  an 


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income  tax,  which  coald  be  made  "the  comer- 
■tone  of  taxation  reform." 

Pbobogation  of  the  Duma.  The  central  fea- 
ture of  Premier  Qoremykin's  plan  to  enlist  the 
enthusiastic  cooperation  of  the  nation,  namely, 
the  creation  of  advisory  boards  including  ex- 
perts and  delegates  from  the  towns,  from  the 
semstyos,  from  the  Duma,  and  from  the  Council 
of  Empire,  to  assist  the  ministers  of  war,  com- 
merce, communications,  and  agriculture,  was 
readily  assented  to  by  the  Duma.  The  premier's 
concessions  were  not  enough,  however,  to  satisfy 
the  more  democratic  of  the  nation's  representa- 
tives, who  demanded  that  the  ministry  itself 
should  be  reorganized  so  as  to  cooperate  more 
closely  with  the  Duma.  Late  in  August  the 
leaders  of  the  moderate  groups  in  the  Dlima  and 
in  the  Council  of  Empire  conferred  tosether  and 
finally  agreed  upon  a  programme  of  r^orms;  the 
first  wedk  in  September  saw  the  formation  of  a 
hloe,  including  all  the  groups  of  the  Duma  with 
the  exception  of  the  I^tionalists  and  Reaction- 
aries on  the  Right,  and  the  Social  Democrats  on 
the  extreme  Left,  on  a  platform  calling  for  (1) 
the  reconstruction  of  the  cabinet  with  a  view  to 
the  appointment  of  ministers  able  to  command 
the  nation's  confidence;  (2)  the  adoption  of  a 
governmental  programme  calculated  to  recon- 
cile discontented  nationalities  and  conciliate  ag- 
grieved classes;  (3)  the  reform  of  local  adminis- 
Nation;  (4)  the  punishment  of  criminally  in- 
efficient commanders  and  officials;  (6)  the  vigor- 
ous prosecution  of  the  war.  M.  Milinkov  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  reform  movement.  The 
''progressive  bloc,**  however,  had  hardly  formu- 
lated its  programme,  when  an  Imperial  ukase 
was  issuea,  September  16th,  unexpectedly  sus- 
pending the  session  of  the  Duma.  Protests  were 
heard  throughout  the  coimtry,  especially  in  the 
larger  cities,  and  in  Moscow,  where  a  congress 
of  the  zemstvos  was  in  session,  against  this 
arbitrary  exercise  of  the  prerogative.  The  ac- 
tion was  the  more  impopular  because  the  Czar 
had  but  a  short  time  oefore,  September  5th,  re- 
moved the  national  hero,  Grand  Duke  Nicholas, 
from  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian  army, 
and  sent  him  to  the  Caucasus,  the  Czar  himself 
assuming  conmiand  of  the  army. 

The  New  Minister  of  the  Intebiob.  Early 
in  October  Prince  Cherbatov  was  superseded  as 
minister  of  the  interior  by  Alexis  Khvostov,  a 
member  of  the  party  of  the  Extreme  Right  in  the 
Duma.  Obviously  the  premier  was  &nt  upon 
curbing  the  liberal  spirit  which  had  become  so 
powerful  in  the  recent  session  of  the  Duma. 
M.  Khvostov,  on  October  20th,  announced  his 
policy:  "We  must  strengthen  the  apparatus  of 
authority.  We  need  benevolent  but  firm  author- 
ity, which  is  essential  to  people  of  various  views 
and  parties  who  alike  love  their  country.  It  is 
necessary  in  order  to  facilitate  peaceful  and 
productive  labor."  M.  Khvostov  was  willing, 
however,  to  allow  a  certain  amount  of  liberty  to 
the  press  and  to  the  labor  unions,  in  consider- 
ation' of  their  unquestioned  loyalty.  One  of  the 
main  features  of  his  policy,  he  declared,  would 
be  to  assure  the  food  supply,  and  to  emancipate 
Russian  industry  from  its  thraldom  to  German 
capital,  by  encouraging  the  investment  of  British 
capital  in  Russia. 

False  Report  of  a  Cabinet  Crisis.  The 
critical  political  situation  in  Russia,  with  an 
aged  and  reactionary  premier  engaged  in  a  con- 
test with  popular  opinion,  gave  rise  to  a  false 


rumor  early  in  November,  which  received  wide- 
spread credence,  tiiat  Premier  Goremykin  had 
been  appointed  "Imperial  Chancellor,"  and  that 
the  foreign  minister,  the  imperial  treasurer,  and 
the  minister  of  agriculture  had  tendered  their 
resignations.  The  resignation  of  the  minister  of 
agriculture,  M.  Krivocheyn,  to  be  sure,  was  con- 
firmed a  few  days  later,  but  the  resignation  of 
M.  Sazanov,  and  the  revival  of  the  office  of 
Imperial  Chancellor,  were  officially  denied  in 
Le  Temps,  November  6th.  On  November  10th, 
the  resignation  of  M.  S.  V.  Rukhlov,  minister 
of  communications,  was  reported  from  Petro- 
grad.  General  Gregoriev,  about  the  same  time, 
was  condemned  to  military  degradation  and 
to  forced  labor  for  neglecting  to  take  proper 
measures  for  the  defense  of   the  Kovno   fort- 


Thb  Monoouan  Agbeehent.  The  protracted 
negotiations  between  Russia,  China,  and  Mon- 
golia, with  regard  to  the  status  of  the  Chinese 
Province  of  Outer  Mongolia,  were  concluded  in 
June,  1915,  with  the  signature  of  a  treaty  and 
a  convention,  on  June  6th-7th,  at  Khiakhta, 
whereby  the  autonomy  of  Outer  or  Western  Mon- 
golia was  jointly  guaranteed  by  China  and  Rus- 
sia. Although  the  new  arrangements  marked 
the  success  of  the  Russian  policy  of  virtually 
detaching  Outer  Mongolia  from  China  in  order 
that  Russian  infiuenoe  might  become  supreme  in 
the  province,  nevertheless  China  was  permitted 
to  maintain  a  shadowy  suzerainty  over  Outer 
Mongolia,  and  a  Chinese  representative,  with  an 
ample  military  guard,  was  to  reside  in  Urga. 
In  this  connection  it  riiould  be  noted  that  East- 
em  Inner  Mongolia  had  already  been  assigned  to 
Japan  for  exploitation,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, by  the  Chino-Japanese  treaties  of  May, 
1915.    See  China. 

Otheb  Events.  For  the  attitude  of  the  So- 
cialists toward  the  Russian  government,  see 
SociALisic.  For  other  information  connected 
with  Russian  affairs,  consult  articles  Wab  of 
THE  Nations,  The  RuMiant  in  Oalicia  and  Buko- 
ffina:  January-AjnH,  and  passim;  Wittb;  Mon- 
golia; and  Stoessel. 

BirSSIAN  lilTB&ATUBE.  Current  litera- 
ture in  war-ridden  Russia  has  naturally  taken 
the  same  course  as  in  all  other  belligerent  coun- 
tries: there  is  much  less  literature  being  pub- 
lished, and  of  what  is  publiehed  far  less  is  real 
literature.  The  reasons  for  these  qualitative 
and  quantitative  changes  are  obvious;  for  in 
Russia,  no  less  than  elsewhere,  some  of  the  best 
writers  have  fallen  under  the  spell  of  "contem- 
poraneous interest,"  abandoning  literature  for 
war  journalism.  Many  good  Russian  writers 
have  gone  to  the  front,  and  of  those  who  j-esisted 
the  temptation  few  could  close  their  ears  to  the 
din  of  battle.  And,  as  if  to  make  matters  worse 
for  the  writers  of  genuine  literature,  several 
thick  Russian  peri^icals — such  as  Rus9ko4 
BogdUtvd — in  which  much  of  the  best  literature 
generally  first  appears,  have  suspended  publica- 
tion, while  those  that  still  survive  give  less  and 
less  space  to  belles  lettree.  The  results,  all  told, 
are  anything  but  encouraging  from  the  literary 
standpoint.  The  older  and  better  writers  hav- 
ing turned  to  the  production  of  war  literature, 
the  literary  novices  try  very  hard — and  for  the 
most  part  in  vain — ^to  supply  the  needs  of  less 
ephemeral  literature;  and  it  is  the  industrious- 
ness  of  these  writers,  whose  work  in  ante-bellum 
days  might  go  unnoticed  if  not  unpublished,  that 


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helps  to  create  the  impression  of  continuity  in 
present-day  Russian  literature. 

That  there  was  an  overabundance  of  war  liter- 
ature in  the  year  under  review,  has  already  been 
clearly  intimated.  Its  ratio,  however,  to  the 
more  genuine  brand  has  appreciably  decreased 
since  1914,  when  every  day  brought  forth  new 
poems,  new  dramas,  and  new  stories  crammed 
full  of  war  impressions  or  war  experiences. 
While  the  bulk  of  this  output  seldom  rose  above 
mere  journalism,  some  of  it — the  work,  in  most 
instances,  of  well  known  writers — ^was  nearer 
literature  than  journalism. 

By  far  the  best  work  of  the  latter  kind  was 
done  during  the  year  by  Yakov  Okunev,  a  young 
writer  hitherto  unknown,  whose  collection  of  war 
sketches.  With  the  First  Poaitiona,  gives  a  most 
vivid  picture  of  warfare  as  it  is  actually  experi- 
enced by  the  rank-and-file;  by  S.  Kondwueshkin, 
a  maturer  writer,  whose  work  shows  the  great 
general  psychological  uplift  and  transformation 
resulting  from  the  present  national  crisis;  and 
by  Alexis  Tolstoy,  a  veteran  of  the  pen,  whose 
At  the  Front  presents  a  striking  contrast,  by  its 
calm  and  distant  attitude,  to  Okunev's  intimate 
and  intense  descriptions.  But  just  as  many 
good  war  correspondents  fail  in  deliberate  war 
sketches,  so  many  of  the  best  writers  of  belles 
lettrea  make  a  poor  showing  as  war  correspond- 
ents. Okunev  is  an  example  of  the  former,  and 
Tolstoy  and  Chirikov  of  tiie  latter. 

Between  semi-literary  war  sketches  and  litera- 
ture dealing  with  war  situations  the  line  is 
hard  to  draw.  Here  we  have  Lensky's  The  Heart 
of  Man,  an  excellent  story  with  a  war  setting, 
and  full  of  human  interest;  Tolstoy's  On  the 
Mountain  and  The  Average  Man,  excellent  im- 
pressionist pictures  of  tiie  sobering  spiritual 
effects  of  the  war;  Boris  Zaitsev's  unsurpassed 
bit  of  realism,  Mother  and  Kate;  F.  E>yukov's 
Costly  Graves,  a  story  centring  about  evangeli- 
cal love  aroused  in  a  Red  Cross  nurse  by 
the  war;  Ivan  Shmelev's  Trying  .Days,  a  hasty 
piece  of  work  from  a  first-class  writer,  depicting 
the  general  reaction  of  the  people  to  the  great 
calamity;  Artsybashev's  The  Jew,  a  story  ren- 
dered worthless  by  a  deliberate  attempt  to  drag 
in  war  atmosphere;  and,  of  course,  no  end  of 
others.  If  to  this  list  of  contemporaneous  fic- 
tion we  add  several  dramatic  works — such  as 
Tolstoy's  comedy.  On  the  Day  of  Battle,  and 
Artsybashev's  War — the  enumeration  of  the  more 
characteristic  war  literature  will  be  practically 
complete,  for  in  poetry  and  other  departments  of 
Russian  literature  the  war  has  so  far  yielded 
little  of  distinctly  contemporaneous  importance. 

When  we  turn  from  war  literature  to  less 
ephemeral  work,  the  list,  as  might  be  inferred, 
is  shorter  but  much  better.  Beginning  with  fic- 
tion, by  far  the  most  important  literary  event 
of  the  year  was  the  completion  of  Kuprin's  three- 
volume  novel,  The  Pit,  begun  in  1909.  This 
somewhat  Zolaesque  work,  a  sympathetic  picture 
of  prostitution  relieved  by  an  element  of  uplift- 
ing idealism,  has  provoked  considerable  discus- 
sion by  its  boldness  and  uniqueness.  Less  sen- 
sational novels  were  Potapenko's  serial  New 
Blood,  an  intensely  interesting  story  up  to  the 
author's  best  work;  N.  Krasheninnikov's  Amelia, 
a  story  of  childhood  and  youth  concerned  with 
racial  affinity;  and  S.  Ghevkin's  Vostrov  and 
Son,  in  which  the  author  wrestles  with  the  old 
problem  of  "the  two  generations"  from  a  some- 
what new  point  of  view.    Besides  these,  special 


mention  should  here  be  made  of  Gorky's  All  Over 
RiMsia,  a  collection  of  stories  in  his  best  vein; 
and  K.  Trenev's  His  Excellency,  an  unusually 
interesting  collection  of  stories  by  a  very  promis- 
ing new  writer,  dealing  with  the  provincial  life 
of  South  Russia. 

To  dramatic  literature  the  year  has  made  at 
least  two  noteworthy  contributions — The  Qreen 
Circle,  by  Z.  N.  Hippius,  and  Bigns  of  Autumn, 
by  I.  Surgutchev.  The  former  is  a  meritorious, 
if  unconvincing,  picture  of  the  younger  genera- 
tion, still  very  ^een,  that  has  come  up  into 
conscious  being  since  the  revolutionary  days  of 
1906;  and  the  latter,  an  original  and  powerful 
psychological  comedy  involving  imaginary  mari- 
tal infidelity.  Both  have  proved  great  literary 
and  theatrical  successes  and  have  naturally  pro- 
voked much  discussion.  In  this  connection,  it  is 
worth  noting  that  the  most  successful  plays  pro- 
duced in  Russia  during  the  year  were  not  war 
plays,  but  true  classic  drama;  that,  while  such 
mediocre  things  as  Andriev's  For  King,  Law,  and 
Liberty,  and  Artsybashev's  War  soon  tired  Rus- 
sian audiences,  revivals  of  Dostoyevsky,  Pushkin, 
Turgenev,  Shchedrin,  Calderon,  and  Oscar  Wilde 
proved  deservedly  popular.  It  would  seem  that 
Russia's  stay-at-homes  seek  the  distraction  of 
the  theatre  to  forget  the  woes  of  war.  At  any 
rate,  the  tendency  to  turn  for  comfort  and  con- 
solation to  old  literary  masters  promises  well 
for  post-bellum  literature  in  Russia. 

The  annual  collections  of  verse,  still  few  in 
number,  to  be  sure,  suffered  no  qualitative  fall- 
ing off  in  1916,  when  all  the  tried  and  true  con- 
temporary Russian  poets  were  represented  by 
one  volume  or  more.  It  is  difficult  to  single  out 
the  very  best  of  these,  for  the  choice  lies  among 
Feodor  Sologub  {War),  Ivan  Bunin  {The  Cup 
of  Love),  and  Alexander  Bloch  {Poem^  on  Rus- 
sia)— all  poets  of  the  first  rank  and  each,  under 
stress  of  wtense  national  emotion,  having  seem- 
ingly excelled  himself.  While  most  of  this  po- 
etry was  naturally  inspired  by  the  great  crisis, 
all  of  it  is  remarkably  free  from  cheap  sentimen- 
talism  and  national  hysteria  of  any  kind.  Along 
with  these  collections,  mention  should  be  made 
here  of  a  new  edition  (the  6th)  of  Vladimir 
Soloviov's  ^^cellent  Poems. 

Among  the  reminiscent  literature  of  the  year, 
Chekhov's  fifth  posthumous  volume  of  letters  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  important.  Next  come 
the  Turgenev  Sbomik  ("collection"),  edited  by 
N.  K.  Piskanov,  which  sheds  much  new  and  in- 
valuable light  on  the  life  of  the  greatest  Rus- 
sian novelist;  and  the  Memoirs  of  Sergei  Mi- 
khailovitch  Soloviov,  which  furnishes  precious 
material  for  biographers  and  literarv  historians. 
Here,  too,  should  be  included  Gorky  s  My  Child- 
hood, an  important  and  very  interesting  auto- 
biography already  available  in  an  English  trans- 
lation. 

Of  the  other  important  works  published  in  the 
last  twelve-month,  space  permits  but  the  men- 
tion of  The  Children  and  the  War,  a  very  inter- 
esting symposium  by  a  number  of  educational 
writes;  Aikhenvald's  About  Chekhov,  an  im- 
portant critical-biographical  study  called  forth 
by  the  above-mentioned  new  Chekhov  volume; 
Tugendkhold's  Problems  and  Characteristics,  an 
interesting  collection  of  literary  and  critical 
papers;  Kariev's  Historiology,  a  valuable  dis- 
cussion of  the  theory  of  the  historical  process; 
FersoVs  Peter  the  Third  and  Catherine  the 
Second;  Borodkin's  History  of  Finland  in  the 


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Time  of  Nicholaa  the  First;  and  Vengerov'B 
four-volume  Rueaian  Literature  in  the  Twentieth 
Century,  a  scholarly  compilation  on  original 
lines  composed  of  numerous  critical  essays  and 
semi-autobiocraphical  studies. 

In  conclusion,  we  might  call  attention  to  the 
revival  of  interest  in  Russian  literature  in  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
new  general  interest  in  all  things  Russian  stim- 
ulated by  the  present  war.  This  was  shown  dur- 
ing the  year  by  the  numerous  new  translations 
and  new  editions  of  Russian  works.  The  list 
includes,  besides  some  sensational  things  by 
Andre^v  and  Artsybashev,  Chekhov's  Ruseian 
Silhouettes;  Dostoyevsky's  The  House  of  the 
Dead;  Gogol's  Tartis  Bulha,  and  Dead  Soule; 
Gontcharov's  Ohlomov;  Gorky's  Tales  of  Two 
Countries  and  the  autobiography  already  men- 
tioned; Lermontov's  A  Hero  of  Our  Time;  and 
Feodor  Sologub's  Sweet  Scented  Name  and  Other 
Fairy  Tales,  and  The  Old  House  and  Other  Tales. 
That  such  a  list  speaks  well  for  the  taste  of 
English  readers  goes  without  saying. 

BITTOEBS  COIiLEOE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  in  1766,  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  486.  This 
IS  exclusive  of  the  summer  session  and  short 
courses,  which  would  make  a  total  of  about  1200. 
The  faculty  numbered  about  60,  exclusive  of  ex- 
tra instructors  for  the  summer  session  and  short 
courses.  There  were  no  notable  changes  in  the 
membership  of  the  faculty  during  the  year.  In 
1916  the  John  Howard  Ford  dormitory  was  com- 
pleted and  furnished  at  a  cost  of  about  $126,000. 
Other  gifts  were  received  to  the  amount  of  about 
$60,000.  The  library  contained  about  80,000  vol- 
umes. 

BYB.  Practically  all  of  the  world's  rye  crop 
is  produced  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  the 
average  for  the  five-year  period,  1010-14,  ac- 
cording to  estimates  by  the  International  Insti- 
tute of  Agriculture,  amounting  to  99.9  per  cent 
of  the  total  production.  In  considering  the 
world's  crop,  therefore,  figures  are  approximately 
correct  even  though  the  yield  of  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  is  disregarded.  Although  rye  pro- 
duction has  undergone  a  marked  increase  south 
of  the  equator  since  1910,  the  average  total  pro- 
duction for  the  last  five  harvests  amounted  to 
only  1,682,000  bushels.  Estimates  from  the 
source  above  mentioned  placed  the  production 
of  rye  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  in  1916  at 
1,898,140,000  bushels,  or  over  10  per  cent  greater 
than  in  1914,  6.6  per  cent  above  the  five-year 
average,  and  16.3  per  cent  above  the  average  for 
the  last  10  years.  Official  data  on  the  rye  crop 
of  1916  were  not  reported  by  most  of  the  coun- 
tries engaged  in  the  European  war  as  well  as  a 
number  of  neutral  countries,  and  in  the  estimate 
of  the  world's  production  the  yields  of  these 
countries  were  taken  as  the  average  for  the  last 
five  years  and  in  some  instances  for  only  four 
years,  the  four-year  average  being  assumed  as 
representing  also  the  yield  in  1914.  Only  about 
67  per  cent  of  the  estimate  of  the  world's  rye 
crop  in  1916  was  based  on  official  data  pertain- 
ing to  tiie  crop  of  the  year.  The  consumption 
of  rye  during  the  year  1916-16  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  as  based  on  the  average  consump- 
tion for  the  years  1910-11  to  1914-16,  inclusive, 
was  estimated  at  1,763,343,000  bushels,  so  that 
the  production  of  1916  appeared  fully  adequate 
to  meet  the  year's  requirements.    International 


commerce  in  rye  had  practically  ceased  in  1916. 
In  common  with  wheat  and  other  cereals,  the 
exportation  of  rye  was  prohibited  by  all  bel- 
ligerent nations  as  well  as  by  many  neutral 
countries.  According  to  data  published  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  United  States 
produced  49,190,000  bushels  of  rye  on  2,866,000 
acres,  or  at  the  rate  of  17.2  bushels  per  acre, 
and  the  total  value  of  the  crop,  based  on  the 
farm  value  per  bushel  on  December  Ist, 
amounted  to  $41,296,000.  All  of  these  figures 
constituted  records  in  the  rye  production  of  the 
country.  The  rye  crop  of  Canada  amounted  to 
2,478,600  bushels  from  112,300  acres,  the  rate 
of  yield  being  22.07  bushels  per  acre,  as  com- 
pared with  about  16  bushels  in  1914. 

8A.FETY  AT  SEA.  In  addition  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  Eastland  disaster,  which  is  fully 
treated  here,  information  on  this  subject  will 
be  found  in  the  articles  Lusttania,  Navai. 
Pboobess,  and  under  Uifrrs)  States  akd  the 
Wab. 

Eastland  Disaster.  The  excursion  steamer 
Eastland,  while  moored  alongside  of  a  wharf  in 
the  Chicago  River,  capsized  on  Saturday  morn- 
ing, July  24,  1916,  and  some  1600  persons  were 
either  thrown  into  the  water  or  were  imprisoned 
within  the  boat.  Eight  hundred  and  twelve  lives 
were  lost.  The  Eastland  was  a  steel  hull  lake 
vessel,  built  in  1902,  266  feet  in  length,  38  feet 
beam,  23  feet  draft,  and  net  tonnage  1218.  She 
had  been  used  for  several  years  in  excursion 
business  from  Chicago  to  Soutii  Haven,  Mich., 
and  for  five  years  was  in  excursion  service  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  Built  on  fine  lines  for  high 
speed,  the  Eastland  bore  a  reputation  for  lade 
of  stability  which  was  well  justified.  On  the 
morning  of  the  accident  the  passengers,  most  of 
them  employees  of  the  Western  Electric  Com- 
pany, had  gone  aboard  the  craft  for  a  day's  ex- 
cursion on  the  lake.  There  was  no  ballast  in 
the  tanks  when  the  boat  arrived  at  the  Clark 
Street  dock,  and  as  she  had  a  list  to  starboard 
the  engineer  started  to  fill  the  tanks,  No.  2  and 
3,  on  the  i>ort  side,  there  being  ^ve  ballast  tanks 
on  each  side  of  the  vessel.  As  the  passengers 
crowded  on  the  boat  the  load  shifted  so  as  to 
give  a  list  to  port  and  the  engineer  attempted 
to  pump  out  tank  No.  3.  As  the  boat  did  not 
then  right  herself,  he  attempted  to  fill  the  tank 
on  the  starboard  side,  but  it  was  too  late,  as  not 
only  was  most  of  the  ballast  on  the  port  side, 
but  it  was  on  this  side  apparently  that  the 
crowd  of  people  predominated.  The  result  was 
that  the  boat  gradually  listed  away  from  the 
wharf,  snapped  the  hawsers,  and  turned  over, 
throwing  the  passengers,  many  of  whom  were  on 
the  upper  decks,  into  the  river.  The  scene  that 
followed  the  disaster  was  indescribable.  All 
available  boats  were  impressed  for  saving  the 
passengers  in  the  water,  while  oxyacetylene 
torches  were  put  to  work  to  cut  holes  through 
the  plates  so  as  to  rescue  those  imprisoned 
within.  Few,  however,  were  saved  alive,  except 
those  that  were  taken  immediately  from  the 
water,  and  the  loss  of  life  came  from  drowning 
and  suffocation. 

This  disaster  occasioned  much  discussion,  both 
on  the  part  of  the  general  public  and  the  engi- 
neering profession.  Indictments  for  manslaugh- 
ter were  returned  against  the  oflicials  of  the 
owning  company  and  the  captain  and  engineer 
of  the  ship,  the  latter  being  accused  of  criminal 
negligence  in  the  handling  of  the  vessel,  passen- 


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gers,  and  ballast.  The  Goyernment  Inspection 
Service  was  criticised  both  by  the  Cook  County 
grand  jury  and  by  the  public  at  large  and 
through  the  daily  press,  and  a  large  number  of 
inquiries  were  set  on  foot  to  apportion  the  blame, 
and  to  secure  the  pimishment  of  those  guilty, 
and  to  render  similar  accidents  impossible  in  the 
future.  It  was  generally  admitted  that  the  un- 
derlying cause  of  the  disaster  was  the  design  of 
the  vessel,  her  general  construction,  and  espe- 
cially that  of  her  ballast  tanks.  The  Eastland, 
like  other  boats  in  passenger  service  in  the 
United  States,  was  lacking  in  stability,  and  al- 
tiiough  this  condition  previously  had  been 
pointed  out,  the  conditions  governing  the  inspec- 
tion and  license  made  it  impossible  to  prevent 
the  use  of  such  vessels.  It  was  claimed  that 
fixed  ballast  sufficient  for  proper  stability  should 
have  been  required  by  the  inspectors  and  owners 
of  the  vessel,  and  that  the  tajiks  used  for  trim- 
ming purposes  were  not  sufficient,  especially  as 
under  such  conditions  the  safety  of  the  boat  de- 
pended very  largely  on  the  quick  wit  and  the 
judgment  of  the  engineer  and  the  captain,  and 
the  proper  operating  condition  of  the  valves, 
pumps,  and  sea  cock,  any  one  of  which  could 
easily  have  been  clogged  and  rendered  possible 
such  a  disaster. 

There  was  general  criticism  on  the  work  of 
government  inspectors,  and  in  some  cases  it  was 
stated  that  these  officials,  particularly  on  inland 
waters,  were  not  technically  trained  men  compe- 
tent to  make  stability  calculations,  to  conduct 
inclining  tests,  and  to  determine  the  stability  of 
a  vessel  in  various  loading  and  other  service  con- 
ditions. It  was  further  stated  that  the  filing 
of  plans  for  boats  to  be  built  or  reconstructed 
with  the  Steamship  Inspection  Service  had  only 
been  required  within  a  few  years,  and  that  no 
such  plans  of  the  Eastland  were  on  record. 

Three  weeks  were  required  to  raise  the  wrecked 
excursion  steamer  Eastland  to  an  approximately 
upright  position,  as  it  was  necessary  first  to  seal 
the  openings  under  water  and  then  pump  the 
water  from  the  hull,  floating  the  steamer  with 
the  aid  of  pontoons  which  were  filled  with  water. 
Cables  slimg  between  the  pontoons  were  passed 
beneath  the  vessel.  On  removing  the  water  from 
the  pontoons,  the  Eastland  was  slowly  raised  and 
fioated  after  four  hours,  so  that  she  could  be  re- 
moved and  towed  to  the  ship  yard.  The  vessel 
was  then  repaired,  and  was  sold,  being  eventually 
turned  over  to  the  uses  of  the  naval  militia  of 
the  State  of  Illinois. 

ST.  CHBISTOPHEB.  See  St.  Kitts  and 
Nevis. 

ST.  HELENA.  An  island  in  the  south  At- 
lantic Ocean;  a  British  possession.  Area,  47 
square  miles;  population  (1911  census),  3520. 
'Ae  capital  and  only  town  is  Jamestown  (1430 
inhabitants).  Imports  (1913),  £43,394;  ex- 
ports, £7568;  shipping  entered  and  cleared,  200,- 
462  tons;  revenue,  £11,411;  expenditure,  £10,- 
632.  Steamers  arrive  from  England  every  four 
weeks,  the  time  from  Southampton  being  17 
days. 

ST.  KITTS  AND  NEVIS.  A  presidency  of 
the  Leeward  Islands  colony,  consisting  of  the 
islands  of  St.  Kitts  (or  St.  Christopher,  67 
square  miles),  Nevis  (50  square  miles),  and 
Anguilla  (35  sqiuire  miles),  with  their  depend- 
encies. Basseterre,  the  capital,  in  St.  Kitts,  has 
over  8000  inhabitants;  Charlestown,  the  princi- 
pal town  in  Nevis,  about  1500.    The  main  indus- 


try of  the  islands  is  the  production  of  sugar, 
molasses,  and  riun.  Salt  and  cotton  also  are 
exported.  Trade  and  finance  statistics  are 
given  in  the  following  table: 

1907-8     1909-10     191011      1918-14 

Imports     £180,847  £172,220  £195.277  £200,086 

Exports     189,908     182,446     205,698     208,626 

Revenue    60.885       48.112       62.748       58,880 

Expenditure  ...  47,170  48,689  49,872  56.061 
Skipping*     620,485     592,982     625,686     660,628 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 

See  Leeward  Islands. 

ST.  LUCIA.  A  British  West  Indian  island; 
one  of  the  Windward  Islands  colonies.  Area, 
233  square  miles;  population  in  1911,  48,637. 
The  capital  is  Castries,  with  6266  inhabitants; 
Soufri^re  has  about  2300.  Most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants speak  a  French  patois.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  sugar,  cacao,  logwood,  spices,  rubber, 
and  limes.  The  island  has  a  much  exaggerated 
reputation  for  unhealthfulness  (the  death  rate 
being  about  20  per  1000)  and  for  a  superabun- 
dance of  reptiles.  Trade  and  finance  statistics 
are  given  in  the  following  table: 

1907-8       190910       1910-11      1918-14 
ImporU  *  . .  £810.809  JB266.227  £277,208  £288,405 

Exports 264.402   250,674   288.955   274,459 

Revenue  67.851    65,789    65.066    67.490 

Expend 64,840    64,446    67,288    68,858 

Shipping  t     ..2,627,218  2,515.914  2,792,859  8,546.690 

*  Trade  figures  are  for  calendar,  financial  for  fiscal 
years,     t  In  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

SAINT-PIEBBE  AND  MIQITELON.  Is- 
lands off  the  southeastern  coast  of  Newfound- 
land, which,  with  a  number  of  islets,  constitute 
a  French  colony.  Area,  241  square  kilometers 
(93  square  miles) ;  population  in  1911,  4209. 
Imports  and  exports  (1912),  5,179,422  and  6,- 
002,982  francs,  respectively.  In  1911  the  budget 
balanced  at  503,000  francs. 

ST.  THOMAS.  See  Sao  THOMfi  and  Pbin- 
ciPE;  and  Danish  West  Indies. 

ST.  VINCENT.  A  British  West  Indian 
island;  one  of  the  Windward  Islands  colonies. 
It  occupies  between  140  and  150  square  miles, 
and  had,  in  1911,  41,877  inhabitants  (estimate 
of  March  31,  1912,  43,117;  March  31,  1913,  44,- 
434;  March  31,  1914,  45,605).  Kingstown,  a 
port  of  registry  situated  at  the  southwestern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  had  4300  inhabitants  in 
1911.  Other  towns  are  Georgetown  and  Bar- 
rouallie.  St.  Vincent  is  of  volcanic  origin;  the 
Soufri^re  was  in  eruption  intermittently  dur- 
ing 1902,  and  in  March,  1903.  The  Grenadines, 
a  chain  of  small  islands,  chief  of  which  is  Be- 
quie,  are  comprised  in  the  government  of  St. 
Vincent.  Products  for  export  are  sugar,  rum, 
cacao,  arrow  root,  ground  nuts,  and  spices. 
Trade  (for  calendar  years)  and  financial  (fiscal 
years)  statistics  follow: 

191011      1911-18     1918-18     1918-14 

Importe     £97.787  £110,926  £129,142  £122.886 

Exports     101.180     118,626     111,684     115.201 

BeTenue    30.125       84,852       88.088       84,878 

Expenditure 80,848       88,785       88,998       88.178 

Shipping*    290,917     298,976     822.449     278,789 

*Tonnsge  entered  and  cleared. 

SAKHALIN.  An  island  off  the  eastern  coast 
of  Siberia,  divided  by  the  50th  parallel,  between 
Russia  and  Japan.    The  Russian  portion  consti- 


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tutes  a  province,  with  an  estimated  area  of  14,- 
668  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  14^ 
500.  Japanese  Sakhalin,  called  Karafuto,  has 
an  area  estimated  at  13,166  square  miles;  its 
population  in  1014  was  40,463,  mostly  Japanese. 
Coal  and  alluvial  gold  occur,  and  there  are  large 
forests  of  coniferous  trees.  At  present  the  most 
important  industry  is  the  herring  fishing,  but 
the  government  encourages  the  development  of 
agriculture. 

SALT   SOLUTION.    See  Antisepticb. 

BALZBUBG.    See  Austbia-Hunoakt. 

SALVADOR.  A  republic  of  Central  America, 
situated  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  bounded  by 
Guatemala  and  Honduras.  The  capital  is  San 
Salvador. 

Abka,  Population,  ktc.  The  area,  according 
to  a  planimetric  calculation,  is  21,160  square  kilo- 
meters (8170  square  miles),  an  area  slightly 
smaller  than  the  State  of  New  Jersey.  The  pop- 
ulation in  1014  was  calculated  at  1,264,121. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  people  are  mestizos  and 
nearly  one-sixth  Indians.  Although  the  white 
element  is  small,  the  republic  has  achieved  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  economic  development  and  po- 
litical stability.  Town  populations  have  been  re- 
cently reported  as  follows:  San  Sidvador,  64,- 
604;  Santa  Ana,  60,421;  San  Miguel,  29,874; 
Zacatecoluca,  26,064;  San  Vicente,  26,370;  Ahua- 
chupftn,  24,161;  Chalchuapa,  23,308;  Nueva  San 
Salvador,  22,101.  Marriages  in  1013  and  1014, 
4762  and  4013;  births,  50,006  and  61,860;  deaths, 
26,141  and  26,413.  Illiteracy  is  common.  The 
government  has  undertaken  to  increase  the  num- 
ber and  improve  the  character  of  the  public 
schools.  In  1013  there  were  711  government 
primary  schools;  the  total  number  of  primary 
schools  was  866,  with  an  enrollment  of  60,660 
pupils  and  an  average  attendance  of  38,121. 

Pboduction  and  Comkbbce.  Salvador's  lead- 
ing crop  is  coffee.  The  reported  yield  in  1014 
was  770,000  quintals,  of  which  643,087  were  ex- 
ported. Other  agricultural  products  are  cacao, 
bananas,  sugar  cane,  rice,  tobacco,  and  indigo. 
Rubber  and  balsam  also  are  produced.  The  min- 
erals include  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  mer- 
cury. Mining,  especially  that  of  gold  and  silver, 
is  increasing  in  importance. 

In  1013  imports  were  valued  at  $6,173,646  and 
exports  at  23,627,782  pesos  (silver);  in  1014, 
imports,  $4,068,614,  and  exports,  26,001,237 
pesos.  The  peso  in  1013  was  worth  about  42.2 
cents,  and  in  1014  about  36.6  cents.  The  prin- 
cipal imports  are  cotton  goods,  hardware,  drugs 
and  medicines,  machinery,  and  flour.  Leading 
exports  in  1014:  coffee,  clean,  21,060,000  pesos; 
coffee  in  parchment,  603,362;  gold  bullion,  1,284,- 
666;  gold  and  silver  ore,  1,006,334;  auriferous 
silver,  261,464;  cattle  hides,  121,363.  The  ex- 
ports go  mostly  to  the  United  States,  Germany 
(until  the  war),  France,  and  Italy.  The  im- 
ports come  chiefly  from  the  United  States  ($2,- 
027,732  in  1014)  and  the  United  Kingdom  ($1,- 
283,636). 

(Communications.  Salvador  has  more  than 
2000  miles  of  good  roads.  The  railway  in  opera- 
tion in  1014  is  reported  at  426  kilometers  (264 
miles).  Telegraphs  in  1014,  216  offices,  with 
3877  kilometers  of  line;  post  offices,  117. 

Finance.  The  silver  peso  was  worth  about 
44.6  cents  in  1012,  42.2  in  1013,  36.6  in  1014. 
Revenue  and  expenditure  in  1013  amounted  to 
13,734,133  and  16,178,010  pesos  respectively;  in 
1014,  12,422,763  and  16,086,210.    Import  duties 


constitute  somewhat  more  than  half  the  total 
receipts.  The  largest  expenditures  are  for  the 
public  debt,  war,  and  the  departments  of  the  in- 
terior and  f omen  to.  For  the  fiscal  year  1016, 
the  estimated  revenue  was  12,064,000  pesos,  and 
the  estimated  expenditure,  12,373,603  pesos. 
Public  debt  Jan.  1,  1014:  foreign,  16,666,610 
pesos;  internal,  8,486,837;  treasury  bonds,  3,841,- 
812;  total,  27,803,260. 

Government.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  single  chamber,  the  National  Assembly,  con- 
sisting of  42  members  (3  from  each  of  the  14 
departments)  elected  annually  by  direct  vote. 
The  President  with  a  Vice-President,  is  elected 
by  direct  vote  for  four  years.  Upon  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  President,  Carlos  Mel^ndez,  Alfonso 
Quifi6nez  Molina  became  President  on  Aug.  20, 
1014,  for  the  remainder  of  the  term,  ending 
March  1,  1016.  Meltedez  and  Quiei6nez  Molina 
were  elected  President  and  Vice-President  re- 
spectively, and  were  inaugurated  March  1, 
1016. 

SALVABSAN  AND  NEOSALVABSAN. 
The  supply  of  these  drugs  was  practically  cut 
off  by  the  war  and  substitutes  were  sought.  Two 
of  these,  one  made  in  Great  Britain,  and  the 
other  in  France,  are  kharsivan  and  neokharsi- 
van,  and  nevarsenobenzol  ("Billon").  These 
drugs,  although  chemically  identical  with  the 
original  salvarsan  and  neosalvarsan  and  reported 
to  be  slightly  more  toxic,  are  believed  to  oe  not 
as  efficacious  as  the  preparation  of  Ehrlich. 

Intraspinal  medication  is  one  of  the  most 
notable  achievements  of  modem  medicine,  al- 
though the  clinicians  are  as  yet  at  variance  as 
to  the  best  method  of  employment.  Enough  re- 
markable reports  of  improvement  and  cure  of 
syphilitic  affections  of  the  nervous  syst«n  by 
the  intraspinal  injection  of  salvarsanized  serum 
have  been  made  to  warrant  a  thorough  trying 
out  of  the  method,  especially  where  other  medi- 
cation has  failed.  According  to  Hough:  "The 
researches  of  Ehrlich  and  others  have  shown  that 
salvarsanized  serum  has  a  distinct  power  of 
killing  the  spirochetes,  greater  than  that  exer- 
cised by  salvarsan  itself."  It  seems  certain 
that  the  syphilitic  process  can  be  arrested,  but 
it  is  equally  certain  that  nerve  tissue,  which  has 
been  destroyed,  cannot  be  restored  by  any  treat- 
ment. 

SALVATION  AJtmr.  There  were  in  1016  in 
the  United  States  and  its  possessions  2061  min- 
isters, 041  places  of  worship,  and  27,664  com- 
municants, a  gain  of  63  ministers,  37  places  of 
worship,  and  207  communicants  over  1014.  The 
United  States  is  divided  into  two  departments. 
The  national  headquarters  are  in  New  York  City, 
and  the  headquarters  of  the  department  of  the 
Western  States  are  in  Chicago.  For  tiie  year 
ended  Sept.  30,  1014,  there  were  004  corps  and 
outposts,  100,836  indoor  meetings,  with  an  at- 
tendance of  7,603,337;  open-air  meetings,  162,- 
667,  with  an  attendance  of  16,077,203;  converts, 
40,112;  local  officers  and  bandsmen,  6662;  com- 
pany attendance,  1,161,011;  junior  meetings,  67,- 
060,  with  an  attendance  of  1,807,000;  numbers 
of  the  War  Cry  published,  3,074,768;  working- 
men's  hotels,  86,  with  accommodation  for  7221; 
industrial  homes,  130;  children's  homes,  6;  res- 
cue and  maternity  homes,  34.  In  the  slum  work 
there  were  16  posts,  33,023  families  visited,  8 
nurseries,  and  46,674  children  sheltered.  In 
prison  work  there  were  11,408  hours  spent  in 
visiting,  20,626  prisoners  prayed  with  and  ad- 
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yised,  2100  assisted  on  discharge,  and  413  situa- 
tions found. 

There  were  in  the  world  in  June,  1914,  68 
countries  and  colonies  occupied;  there  was 
preaching  in  36  languages;  there  were  9608  corps 
and  outposts,  1191  social  institutions,  and  16,- 
519  officers  and  cadets. 

SAMOA.    See  German  Samoa. 

SAMOS.  One  of  the  Anatolian  isUnds.  For- 
merly it  was  a  principality,  autonomous,  but 
tributary  to  the  Porte  in  the  annual  sum  of  200,- 
000  piasters.  In  November,  1912,  the  National 
Assembly  of  Samos  proclaimed  the  union  of  the 
island  with  Greece;  and  in  March,  1913,  the  is- 
land was  occupied  by  Greek  troops,  and  has  since 
been  administered  through  a  Greek  prefect — J. 
Hadjiloucas  in  1915.  The  area  is  stated  at  468 
square  kilometers  (181  square  miles).  Recent 
population  figures  are  not  available,  but  in  1902 
the  inhabitants,  who  are  mostly  Orthodox,  num- 
bered 53,424,  exclusive  of  some  15,000  natives  of 
Samos  living  on  the  Anatolian  mainland.  The 
capital  is  Vathy,  with  about  8000  inhabitants. 
For  1909  the  reported  value  of  imports  was  29,- 
673,545  piasters,  and  of  exports,  27,835,312  pias- 
ters; for  1911,  imports,  37,036,352  piasters  and 
exports,  19,741,212  (wine,  8,595,000;  tobacco, 
2,875,000;  leather,  2,764,000;  cigarettes,  1,492,- 
000).  The  budget  estimates  for  1910  were 
3,651,660  piasters  revenue,  and  3,627,496  piasters 
expenditure;  public  debt,  2,570,500  piasters. 

SAN   DIEOO   EXPOSITION.    See   Exfosi- 

TIONB. 

SANITATION.  See  Entomoloqy;  Gasbags 
AND  Rebttsb  Disposal;  Htoiene;  Insects, 
Pbopagation  of  Disease  bt;  Militabt  Pboo- 
BEss;  PBosTTrunoN;  Sewagb  Pubiucation  ; 
Sewerage;  Smoke  Abatement;  Stbeet  Clean- 
ing; Water  Pueipioation. 

SANSKRIT.    See  Philology,  Modern. 

SANTO  DOMINGO.  See  Dominican  Refub- 
Lie. 

SAO  THOM^  AND  PSINGIPE.  Two  is- 
lands off  the  coast  of  French  Equatorial  Africa, 
composing  a  Portuguese  colony.  Area,  039 
square  kilometers  (363  square  miles) ;  popula- 
tion (1909),  68,221.  Cacao  is  the  principal 
product  of  the  islands,  their  output  constituting 
a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply.  Owing, 
however,  to  foreign  interference  with  the  syst^ 
of  coercion  of  indentured  laborers,  the  trade  has 
fallen  off.  Total  imports  in  1909,  2,912,035 
escudos;  exports,  8,150,632;  in  1910,  3,197,830 
and  9,896,000;  in  1913,  1,727,478  and  7,245,027. 
Revenue  in  1909-10,  931,429  escudos;  expendi- 
ture, 703,315;  1913-14  (budget),  1,028,305  and 
912  092. 

SARATOGA  SPBINGS.  The  city  diarter 
obtained  during  the  year  puts  the  government 
of  this  resort  on  a  better  footing,  and  assures 
closer  cooperation  of  city  with  State  in  the 
utilization  of  the  mineral  waters.  The  charm- 
ins  city  park  of  10  acres,  miles  of  beauti- 
fully shaded  streets,  excellent  stone  or  asphalt 
surfaced  roads  leading  to  Lakes  Luzerne,  George, 
and  Saratoga,  as  well  as  to  the  historic  points 
in  old  Saratoga,  combine  to  offer  attractions 
that  were  more  popular  this  year  than  for  over 
a  decade.  The  Commissioners  of  the  State  Res- 
ervation were  able  to  show  more  on  the  surface 
of  the  work  that  has  gone  forward  for  six  years 
in  preparing  the  Lincoln  Park  of  60  acres  and 
the  Geyser  Park  of  260  acres  available  for  the 
use  of  invalids,  with  walks  and  climbs  for  the 


Stokes-Oertel  exercise.  The  funds  for  the  elab- 
orate bath  house,  which  the  State  will  even- 
tually erect,  not  being  available,  the  old  Lin- 
coln Sprinff  house  was  equipped  for  baths  and 
neurovascular  training,  massage,  and  colon  irri- 
gation, and  with  rest  rooms,  so  that  400  treat- 
ments could  be  given  during  the  choicest  hours 
of  the  day.  A  private  bath  house  was  bought 
and  refitted  and  renovated,  so  that  the  same 
treatments  could  be  given,  except  colons,  and 
with  facilities  also  for  general  hydrotherapy  and 
electric  light  treatment.  This  house  also  offers 
Turkish  and  Russian  baths,  and  a  swimming 
pool  indoors.  Two  swimming  pools  were  con- 
structed out  of  doors  at  the  Lincoln  bath  house. 
Over  10,000  baths  were  given  during  the  short 
1915  season.  It  is  proposed  to  have  a  "cure" 
season  from  May  1st  to  July  31st,  a  racing 
season  for  August,  and  a  "cure"  season  from 
September  1st  to  December  1st.  The  Congress 
spring  has  been  restored,  and  is  available  in  a 
beautiful  sunken  garden  in  the  city  park.  The 
Hathom,  Coesa,  and  Orenda  cathartic  waters 
and  the  Minnonebe  and  Geyser  table  waters  are 
bottled,  and  the  Karista  and  Columbian  iron 
springs  are  available  at  their  sources,  as  well  as 
many  others.  The  commissioners  are:  Frederick 
W.  Cameron,  George  C.  Van  Tuyl,  Jr.,  and 
Frank  N.  Godfrey,  who  serve  without  compen- 
sation. The  staff  is  Composed  of  Dr.  Albert 
Warren  Ferris,  director;  Charles  G.  Anthony, 
consulting  engineer;  Herbert  Ant,  chemist;  and 
Louis  W.  Noland,  secretary.  See  also  Hygiene. 
SARAWAK,  llie  northwestern  portion  of 
the  Island  of  Borneo;  a  British  protectorate. 
The  area  is  about  42,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, about  500,000 — no  census  has  ever  been 
taken.  The  capital  is  Kuching  (25,000  inhabi- 
tants) ;  Sibu  has  a  large  Chinese  population, 
mostly  traders,  and  the  Rejang  River  has  a  raft 
population  of  some  90,000.  Chinese  are  em- 
ployed in  the  gold  mines  of  Paku  and  the  Batang 
Lupar  Residency.  Gold  export,  1912,  1,070,200 
Straits  Settlements  dollars  (1910,  951,119  dol- 
Urs);  1909,  1,139,440  dolhirs;  1906,  1,415,470; 
1903,  1,784,600.  Coal  output,  1912,  39,588  tons 
(1910,  32,073  tons).  The  export  of  timber  in 
1912  was  valued  at  27,891  dollars  (1910,  25,241 
dollars).  Statistics  below  are  in  Straits  Set- 
tlements dollars  (shipping  in  tons  entered  and 
cleared) : 

1907            1909  1911            1919 

ImporU     7,821,766  7,811.566  8.572,624  8.299,458 

Exports     8,220.896  8,098,142  9,668,486  8.865.168 

Revenue    1,441.195  1,846,962  1,420,420  1,462,082 

Expenditure    .1,859.274  1,152,787  1,841,761  1,899,481 

Shippinff     ...     110,726      111,907  58,856         68,874 

Rajah,  Sir  Charles  Johnson  Brooke  (bom 
1829);  acting,  Charles  Vyner  Brooke  (Rajah 
Muda),  the  heir   (born  1874). 

SABJLAILy  Maubicb.  A  French  soldier. 
He  had  held  various  commands  before  1913, 
when  he  was  in  charge  of  an  infantry  divi- 
sion in  the  sixth  army  corps  at  Reims.  When 
the  great  European  war  broke  out  in  1914,  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  troops  in  the 
Argonne.  He  was  then  placed  in  command  of 
the  third  army  based  on  Verdun.  In  the  re- 
treat to  the  Mame,  General  Joffre  (q.v.)  de- 
pended on  Sarrail  for  the  execution  of  many  of 
his  pivotal  maneuvers.  Although  he  commanded 
inferior  forces,  he  later  held  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Germany  on  the  Meuse,  whUe  other  armies 


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were  fighting  the  battle  of  the  Marne.  In  this 
manner  he  kept  the  fortress  of  Verdun  from  fall- 
ing into  German  hands.  In  August,  1915,  when 
Gen.  H.  J.  E.  Gouraud  was  incapacitated,  Sar- 
rail  succeeded  him  as  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army  in  the  Near  East.  This  consisted  of  the 
French  exp^litionary  force  fighting  in  the  Dar- 
danelles campaign.  Later  in  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  allied 
expeditionary  force  which  landed  at  Saloniki, 
Greece,  to  stem  the  Teutonic  drive  through  the 
Balkans.  He  arrested  the  consuls  from  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  and  Bulgaria  stationed 
at  Saloniki,  and  confined  them  on  a  French  war 
vessel.    See  Wab  of  the  Nations. 

BABBIENy  Jean  Masis  Febdinand.  French 
statesman,  died  Nov.  28,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
1840,  and  in  the  Franco-German  War  served  as  a 
captain  of  militia.  In  1876  he  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  became  minister 
of  posts  and  telegraphs  in  1886;  minister  of  in- 
terior in  1887;  vice-president  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1896;  minister  of  the  interior  again 
in  1898;  and  minister  of  justice  in  the  same 
year.  In  1906  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  was  de- 
feated. He  was  also  defeated  as  a  candidate  for 
the  presidency  of  the  republic,  by  M.  Fallitees. 
In  1906  he  served  as  premier,  but  took  no  active 
part  in  politics  after  that  date. 

SASKATCHEWAN.  A  province  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  established  Sept.  1,  1906. 
The  area  is  261,700  square  miles,  more  than  six 
times  as  large  as  Ohio.  Population  at  the  1911 
census,  492,432;  1914  estimate,  691,000.  The 
capital  is  Regina,  which  had  in  1914  an  esti- 
mated population  of  60,000.  Estimated  popula- 
tion of  Moosejaw  in  1914,  30,000;  Saskatoon, 
30,000;  Prince  Albert,  16,000.  Saskatchewan  is 
administered  by  a  Lietenant- Governor,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  Governor-General  of  the  Do- 
minion and  who  acts  through  a  responsible  ex- 
ecutive council.  There  is  a  unicameral  Legis- 
lative Assembly  of  66  members,  elected  for  five 
years.  In  1916  Richard  S.  Lake  was  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  in  succession  to  George 
William  Brown.  Premier  and  minister  of  edu- 
cation in  1916,  Walter  Scott.    See  Canada. 

SAULTE     STE.     MABIE     CANALS.     See 

SAVINGS  BANK  INSUBANCE.  See  In- 
surance. 

SAVINGS  BANKS.  The  commercial  sav- 
ings banks  of  the  United  States  are  of  two 
classes,  mutual  and  stock;  postal  savings  banks 
are  treated  separately  below.  The  mutual  sav- 
ings banks  are  found  almost  exclusively  in  New 
England  and  the  Eastern  States.  In  1916  there 
were  2159  stock  and  mutual  savings  banks  in  the 
United  States  with  nearly  10,000,000  depositors 
and  approximately  $6,000,000,000  in  individual 
deposits.  Since  the  year  1916  i$  to  be  commem- 
orated by  the  savings  bank  section  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bankers'  Association  as  the  centenary  of 
the  establishment  of  the  first  savings  bank  in  the 
United  States  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in 
1820  there  were  10  savings  banks  with  8636  de- 
positors and  $1,138,000  deposits.  The  saving 
bank  section  planned  a  campaign  of  education  m 
thrift  for  1916  partly  for  its  general  popular 
effects  and  partly  to  increase  the  supply  of  cap- 
ital available  for  industrial  and  commercial  ex- 
pansion. 

The   mutual    institutions   numbered    639,    of 


which  nearly  two-thirds  were  in  New  England 
and  all  of  the  remainder  in  the  Eastern  States 
except  21  in  Middle  Western  States,  1  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  1  in  West  Virginia.  Their  depos- 
itors numbered  nearly  9,000,000  and  the  savings 
accounts  aggregated  $3,960,000,000.  The  stock 
savings  banks  which  are  found  in  greatest  num- 
bers in  Middle  Western  and  Western  States 
numbered  1629.  Their  depositors  numbered 
about  660,000  and  their  aggregate  deposits  were 
$1,047,000,000.  Of  all  savings  bank  depositors 
nearly  4,000,000  were  in  New  England  and  about 
3,260,000  in  New  York;  or  70  per  cent  of  all  de- 
positors were  in  these  seven  States,  and  they 
were  credited  with  nearly  76  per  cent  of  all 
savings  bank  deposits. 

Postal  Savings  Banks.  According  to  the 
report  of  the  Postmaster  General  there  were 
9646  postal  savings  depositories  in  operation  in 
the  United  States  on  June  30,  1916.  The  total 
deposits  were  $66,684,000,  as  compared  with 
$43,444,000  oh  June  30,  1914,  an  increase  of  61.2 
per  cent.  The  number  of  depositors  increased 
from  388,611  on  June  30,  1914,  to  626,414  on 
June  30,  1916,  an  increase  of  36.2  per  cent;  and 
the  average  deposit  which  was  only  $67  in  1911 
increased  from  $112  in  1914  to  $126  in  1916. 
The  system  had  $60,086,000  at  interest  in  6007 
national  and  State  banks  on  June  30,  1916.  The 
interest  received  from  banks  during  the  year 
amounted  to  $1,268,000;  and  that  granted  de- 
positors was  $613,700.  There  were  put  out  dur- 
ing the  year  the  eighth  and  ninth  issues  of 
postal  savings  bonds,  making  the  total  of  such 
issues,  $6,260,000  of  registered  bonds,  and  $1,- 
046,000  of  coupon  bonds.  During  1916  the 
amount  of  deposits  surrendered  for  bonds  was 
$1,799,000.  Experience  showed  that  the  system 
of  selling  postal  savings  cards  and  stamps  for 
10  cents  each  was  amply  justified,  especially  for 
school  children,  since  $640,410  of  cards  and 
stamps  had  been  sold  since  the  system  started, 
$167,424  being  sold  in  1916.  It  was  found  that 
with  reference  to  the  nativity  of  depositors,  68.7 
per  cent  of  them  were  bom  outside  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  this  foreign  group  owned  71.8 
per  cent  of  the  total  deposits.  Natives  of  Rus- 
sia owned  20.7  per  cent  of  the  total;  Italians, 
14.2  per  cent;  British,  including  British  col- 
onists, 8.8  per  cent;  Austrians,  8.7  per  cent; 
Hungarians,  4.3  per  cent;  Germans,  4.1  per  cent; 
Swedes,  2.2  per  cent;  and  Greeks,  1.8  ner  cent 
The  seven  cities  with  more  than  a  million  de 
posits  on  June  30,  1916,  with  the  number  of  de« 
positors  and  balance  to  their  credit  were  as  fol- 
lows: New  York,  108,274,  $13,164,696;  Brook- 
lyn, 38,024,  $4,012,252;  Chicago,  22,624,  $3,267,- 
532;  Boston,  16,361,  $1,619,706;  Detroit,  8338, 
$1,168,023;  San  Francisco,  7794,  $1,082,267;  and 
Portland,  Greg.,  7231,  $1,004,699. 

As  a  result  of  vigorous  urging  by  the  Post 
master-General,  Congress  rais^  the  limit  of  the 
maximum  deposit  from  $600  to  $1000;  but  this 
change  was  vetoed  by  the  President  because  the 
Senate  had  included  an  amendment  which  en- 
abled State  banks  and  trust  companies  to  receive 
postal  savings  deposits  whether  or  not  they  were 
members  of  the  Federal  Reserve  system.  The 
Postmaster-General  had  advocated  that  the  max- 
imum deposit  be  raised  to  $2000,  with  the  pro- 
viso that  interest  should  not  be  paid  on  more 
than  $1000  for  any  one  account.  It  was  gener« 
ally  agreed  that  the  $600  limit,  which  was  purely 
experimental^  was  too  low,  and  that  if  increased 


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SAVINGS  BANKS 


677 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITEBATUBE 


it  would  have  the  effect  of  restoring  to  circula- 
tion much  of  the  $50,000,000  estimated  to  be 
secreted  by  foreigners.  When  the  system  was 
first  introduced  it  was  opposed  by  bankers  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  withdraw  money  from  the 
regular  channels  of  trade;  but  the  American 
Bankers'  Association  later  declared  officially  that 
there  had  been  no  complaint  anywhere  on  this 
score.  The  deposits  are  restored  to  regular  fi- 
nancial channels  by  being  deposited  in  national 
and  State  banks  which  are  government  depos- 
itories. In  1915  deposits  were  made  in  3628 
national,  1499  State,  291  savings,  and  21  private 
banks  and  668  loan  and  trust  companies.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Postmaster-General's  estimate 
fully  $10,000,000  were  added  to  the  deposits  as 
a  direct  result  of  the  war,  between  August,  1914, 
and  April,  1915. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  Postal.  See  Savings 
Banks,  Po8ial  Savings  Banks. 

SAWYEBy  RoLUN  Augustus.  An  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  clergyman  and  writer,  died  Jan. 
18,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Sawyerville,  Quebec, 
Canada,  in  1830.  In  1841  he  removed  to  Ohio, 
where  he  graduated  from  Western  Reserve  Col- 
lege in  1851.  For  the  four  years  following  he 
was  principal  of  the  Granville  Academy.  He 
graduated  from  the  Union  Theological  Seminary 
in  1857,  and  in  the  following  year  was  ordained 
in  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  He  filled  pastor- 
ates in  several  cities  in  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Connecticut.  From  1893  to  1908  he  was  lecturer 
on  literature  in  the  Bloomfield  Theological  Sem- 
inary. He  was  for  many  years  contributing  edi- 
tor of  the  New  York  Evangelist,  and  the  Chris- 
iian  at  Work,  He  served  as  presiding  .officer  in 
three  synods  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  published  sermons  and 
addresses. 

SAXONY.    See  Germany. 

SCABIES.    See  Vetebinabt  Medicine. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITEKATUBE.  At 
present  Scandinavian  literature  is  at  an  ebb,  due 
partly,  perhaps,  to  the  distractions  of  the  Eu- 
ropean war,  but  certainly  to  some  extent  also  to 
conditions  inherent  in  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries themselves.  Comparatively  little  creative 
genius  has  of  late  manifested  itself  in  the  field 
of  letters.  Within  a  few  years  the  writers  of 
towering  greatness  have  been  lost  by  death;  the 
older  writers  who  still  remain  are  for  the  most 
part  silent,  and  of  the  younger  generation  but 
few  have  jiven  us  any  works  of  noteworthy 
promise.  The  literary  efforts  of  to-day  are  look- 
ing toward  the  past:  we  find  an  increase  in  mem- 
.oirs,  editions  of  letters,  and  biographical  works. 
Particularly  do  we  notice  a  constantlv  increas- 
ing interest  in  literary  history  and  literary 
criticism,  and  an  abundance  of  translations 
— even  from  one  Scandinavian  language  to  an- 
other. 

Danish.  Drama,  In  his  tragedy  Qnsket  (The 
Wish),  treating  the  Faust  theme,  the  well-known 
Icelandic  dramatist,  J6hann  Sigurjdnsson  (see 
Icelandic  Literature,  New  International  En- 
OTCLOPEDIA,  second  edition,  vol.  11),  succeeds  in 
making  the  old  Icelandic  intellectual  and  relig- 
ious life  with  all  its  superstitions  live  again  be- 
fore us.  Niels  Hoffmeyer's  En  lUle  Mor  (A  Lit- 
tle Mother)  is  based  on  the  Pyramus  and  Thisbe 
theme.  ItiB  sentimentality  is  greater  than  its 
dramatic  power.  In  Einar  Christiansen's  Man- 
den  paa  H^jriis  (The  Man  at  H^jriis),  an  en- 
deavor at  portraying  peasant  life,  the  conflict  is 

Y.  B.— 19 


brought  about  by  the  jealousy  between  father 
and  son. 

Fiction.  Johannes  Buchholtz  made  a  very 
promising  d4but  with  Egholms  Oud  (Egholm*8 
God),  which  reminds  us  of  the  days  of  natural- 
ism. The  hero,  who  in  many  ways  resembles 
Ekdal  in  Ibsen's  Wild  Duck,  is  his  own  god.  In 
Thlt  Jensen's  Btcerkere  end  Tro  (Stronger  Than 
Faith),  we  read  the  tragic  story  of  a  powerful 
and  apparently  successful  clergyman,  whose 
downfall  is  caused  by  his  sexual  passion,  which 
proves  stronger  than  his  faith.  Christian  Hou- 
mark's  Veje,  der  skilles  (Parting  Ways)  tells 
the  story,  often  found  in  Scandinavian  litera- 
ture, of  a  man  who  deserts  the  girl  whom  he 
has  seduced  in  order  to  marry  in  his  own  station 
in  life. 

Science,  Literature,  etc.  The  first  volume  of 
a  series  dealing  with  historical  subjects,  Oemt  og 
glemt  (Things  Hidden  and  Forgotten),  edited  by 
Bob^  and  Dumreicher,  constitutes  a  valuable 
help  toward  an  imderstanding  of  former  times. 

Norwegian.  Drama.  Collett  Vogt's  Therese 
is  the  story  of  a  factory  girl  who  marries  her  em- 
ployer. It  shows  the  influence  of  both  Ibsen  and 
Strindberg.  Other  plays  deserving  mention  are 
Oskar  Braaten's  Borgen  (The  Castle),  a  three 
act  comedy  with  very  skillful  character  delinea- 
tion, and  Erling  Moen's  Hermenn  (Warriors), 
written  in  Landsmaal  (see  New  International 
Encyclopedia,  second  edition,  vol.  xiii). 

Fiction,  Gunnar  Gimnarson's  Den  unge  #m 
(The  Young  Eagle)  is  the  fourth  book  treating 
the  family  history  of  the  Borgs.  It  is  not  as 
strong  a  book  as  Ocest  den  enfiede  (One-Eyed 
Quest),  of  which  it  is  the  sequel.  In  Raising- 
folke  {The  People  of  Rdysing),  written  in  Lands- 
maal, Kristoffer  Uppdal  shows  an  intimate  im- 
derstanding of  the  people  whose  life  he  describes. 
A  picture  of  the  present  submarine  warfare  is 
given  in  0vre  Richter  Frich's  Kaperens  kl^ 
(The  Pirate's  Claws).  Johan  Vinsnes,  whose 
last  year's  book  Et  gatekryds  (A  Street  Comer) 
came  out  in  a  third  edition,  this  year  wrote  Bro- 
remand,  and  Hans  £.  Kinck  gave  us  Mot  kame- 
val  (Toward  Carnival  Time). 

Science,  Literature,  etc.  Halvdan  Koht's  So- 
eialdemokratie  (Social  Democracy),  written  in 
Koht's  peculiar  form  of  Landsmaal,  is  a  review 
of  the  history  of  socialism.  Johannes  Steen- 
strup's  Historieskrivningen  (The  Writing  of  His- 
tory) discusses  the  development,  characteristics, 
and  aims  of  historiographical  writing.  The  sec- 
ond volume  of  the  Edda,  which  was  launched  last 
year  (see  1914  Year  Book)  does  not  disappoint 
the  hopes  which  it  called  forth. 

Swedish.  Drama.  Mikael  Lybeck's  Bror  och 
syster  (Brother  and  Sister)  is  a  tragedy  of  char- 
acter. Feeling  that  his  failure  to  care  for  his 
sister  has  driven  the  latter  to  steal,  the  brother 
assumes  the  guilt.  Like  so  many  plays  since 
Ibsen,  it  resembles  an  epilogue  of  events  preced- 
ing the  play.  The  live  characters  in  Hjalmar 
Berger's  Parisina  were  well  received  at  Drama- 
tiska  Teatem,  Tor  Hedberg,  best  known  for  his 
novels,  this  year  gave  us  Borga  gard  (The  Borg 
Estate). 

Poetry.  Swedish  poetry  has  at  present  its 
strongest  representatives  in  Finland.  Among 
these  Jacob  T^engren  occupies  no  mean  place. 
His  work  this  year,  lYy  var  {Neic  Spring),  is 
dedicated  to  Nature,  particularly  spring.  Arvid 
Morner,  another  Finlander,  wrote  Hav>ets  vdr 
(The  Spring  of  the  Sea),  which  has  its  main 


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mature  work  of  the  author,  who  evinces  par- 
ticular skill  in  handling  the  sonnet  and  the  old 
ballad.  In  Matt  Magnus  Granstrom's  Viaori 
hyn  (Village  Songs)  man's  relation  to  nature 
is  one  of  the  chief  motifs. 

Fiction,  An  enthusiastic  reception  was  ac- 
corded Selma  Lagerlof's  KeJ8am  av  Portugallien 
(The  Emperor  of  Portugal),  a  psychologic-patho- 
logic novel  portraying  a  father's  excessive  love 
for  his  daughter.  Else  Kleen's  Sldktens  kvinnor 
(The  Women  of  the  Family),  a  work  with  a  fem- 
inistic tendency,  pictures  generations  of  women 
in  their  quiet  submission  to  a  race  of  overbear- 
ing tyrannical  men.  In  his  Romanti^ka  hrev 
(Romantic  Letters),  Martin  Koch  shows  a  gain 
in  firmness  and  clarity  of  style,  but  a  loss  in 
power  of  psychologic  description.  It  is  the  story 
of  an  idealist,  a  believer  in  socialism  and  the 
workingman,  who  becomes  disillusioned  and  loses 
his  faith  in  both.  Henning  Berger's  Den  andra 
eidan  (The  Other  Side),  though  a  creditable 
work,  is  below  the  author's  regular  standard. 
Varbrytning  (The  Advent  of  Spring),  the  first 
work  of  Karin  Smirnoff,  the  daughter  of  Strind- 
berg,  describes  a  phase  in  a  young  woman's  de- 
velopment. Among  short  stories,  Anna  Lenah 
ElgstrSm's  collection  Stjaman  vara  namn  fir 
malort  {The  Star  Whose  Name  is  Worm  Wood) 
deserves  particular  mention.  Instead  of  the 
realistic  short  stories  for  which  this  author  is 
known,  she  now  gives  us  a  series  of  stories  with 
romantic  coloring,  touching  mainly  woman's 
love.  Erik  Fahlman  in  his  Teckningar  (Sketches) 
gave  us  a  number  of  fragments  of  stories,  sub- 
jective sketches,  etc.  In  Birger  M5rner's  Frin 
Ardfias  irrfdrder  {From  Arafia*s  Wanderings) 
the  material  from  the  Orient  is  treated  with  ex- 
ceptional sympathy  and  understanding.  Hanna 
Sjiderlund-Hammar  made  her  d^but  with  Hard 
mark  (Hard  Soil),  which  takes  its  title  from  the 
rough  and  harsh  exterior  of  the  Swedish  people 
portrayed  in  it. 

Science,  Literature,  etc,  Fredrik  Book's  Es- 
say er  och  kritiker  (Essays  and  Critiques) 
evinces  deep  critical  insight.  Sven  Hedin's 
Frhn  fronten  i  vastem  {From  the  Front  in  the 
West)  is  an  excellent  description  of  events  of  the 
war. 

Concerning  Scandinavian  Litebatube,  see 
also  Philology,  Modebn. 

SCANliANf  Lawbence,  American  Roman 
Catholic  bishop,  died  May  10,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  County  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1843,  and 
graduated  from  All  Hallows  College,  Dublin,  in 
1868.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ordained  a  priest 
and  for  two  years  was  assistant  pastor  of  St. 
Patrick's  Church,  Dublin.  He  served  as  pastor 
of  St.  Mary's  Cathedral  in  San  Francisco  for 
one  year.  He  Uien  filled  several  pastorates  in 
California  and  Nevada,  until  in  1873  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  Salt  Lake  City,  and  of  the 
whole  Territory  of  Utah.  In  1887  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Lerenda,  in  partihus,  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Utah.  He  was  appointed 
first  bishop  of  Salt  I^ke  City  in  1897.    . 

SCHECmTEB,  Solomon.  American  Hebrew 
scholar  and  educator,  died  Nov.  19,  1915.  He 
was  born  at  Fokshan,  Rumania,  on  Dec.  7,  1847, 
and  was  educated  in  the  universities  of  Vienna 
and  Berlin.  He  graduated  as  a  rabbi  in  Vienna 
in  1887,  having  made  a  specialty  of  divinity  and 
Semitics.    In   1890  he  was  elected  lecturer  in 


MIC     UCA.V     JCa>A       tCWAWU      aiUlU     MI«V    u*»»»v»B«.j    •»« 

honorary  degree  of  M.A.    In  1892  he  was  elected 
reader  of  Rabbinic,  and  in  the  following  yw 
obtained   the   Worth   studentghip.    He  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  examined  Hebrew  manuscripts  ia 
all  the  important  libraries.    In  1894  he  delivered 
a  series  of  lectures  in  University  Hall,  Undot 
which  attracted  the  attention  of  Hebrew  KhoUn 
all  over  the  world.     In  1896  he  discovered  the 
first  leaf  of  the  original  Hebrew  maniucript  of 
Ecclesiasticus,    A     little    later    he   went  to 
Egypt  and  collected  many  fragments  of  other 
Hebrew  manuscripts,  which  threw  light  on  Jewish 
history  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  centnnei 
These  were  published  in  collaboration  with  Dr 
Charles  Taylor  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  the  collection   was  presented  to  the  Ciin 
bridge  University  library.    From  1899  until  1901 
Dr.  Schechter  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Ui 
versity  College,  London.    He  came  to  the  Umt*^ 
States  in  1902,  as  president  of  the  Jewish  ThH^ 
logical  Seminary,  and  remained  in  that  positK* 
imtil  his  death.     He  received  honorary  degrees 
of  Litt.D.  from  Cambridge  in  1898  and  Hamrd 
in  1911.    His  published  writings  include:  A^J 
de  Rabbi  Nathan  (1887) ;  Studies  in  Jvdmm- 
series,  1896-1908) ;  Wisdom  of  Ben  8iro  (im 
Midrash  Ha-Qadol    (1902);  SaadyaiM  [W^' 
Some  Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology  (im)*f 
Documents     of     Jewish     Sectaries     (2   ^^ 
1911). 

SCHICK  TEST.     See  Diphthebu. 

SCHINDLEB,  Solomon.  American  J«'^ 
rabbi  and  writer,  died  May  5,  1915.  He  9Jj 
born  in  p^eisse,  Germany,  in  1842,  and  in  l^ 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Breslau.  Mf 
took  postgraduate  courses  in  German  um"^ 
sities  and  in  1871  removed  to  the  United  S^* 
He  was  minister  to  congregations  in  Hob»^ 
and  in  Boston.  In  the  latter  city  he  wm  b» 
ister  of  congregation  Adath  Israel,  from  18/*^: 
In  the  latter  year  he  resigned  the  p<»t  as  n^' 
to  become  superintendent  of  the  Jewish  Fedflv 
tion  of  Charities  of  Boston.  This  position « 
held  until  1899  when  he  became  superint€B<l«' 
of  the  Leopold  Morse  Home.  He  retired  r* 
this  position  in  1909.  From  1884  to  m^ 
was  a  member  of  the  Boston  School  Board.  » 
was  the  author  of  Mesaianic  ExpectaOo**  ^ 
Modem  Judaism;  Dissolving  Vieu^  of  i^  ^'f 
tory  of  Judaism;  and  Young  West,  a  sequ^' ', 
Bellamy's  Looking  Backward.  He  contribut^- 
many  articles  to  periodicals.  ^^ 

SCHOOL    ADMINISTRATION.    See  E? 

CATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  , 

SCHOOL  BUILDINGS.     See  ABCHirK^nJ^ 

SCHOOLS.  For  facts  concerning  elein®^; 
and  secondary  schools,  see  Education  is  " 
United  States;  for  professional  and  t^ch'^ 
schools,  see  Univebsities  and  Colleces  r 
Agbioultubal  Education.  For  rural  fio'^*'' 
see  Hygiene.  _, 

SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS,  SfisooND  F^' 
American.    See  Sociology.  ^^^ 

SCOFOLAMIN-MOSPHIN  TRBATX**' 
IN  LABOE.     See  Twilight  Sleep. 

SCOTLAND.     See  Gbeat  Britain'. 

SCHWAETZ,  JoosT  Mamus  Willem  va>  ^^ 
PooBTEN.    See  Maabtens,  Maabtes. 

SCXriiPTUEE.  See  Painting  a!«o  S^^^^ 
tube. 

SEALS.  See  Alaska,  Fur,  Seals;  Fish  i> 
FiSHEBiES;  and  Fub. 


SEAIiSKIHS 


679 


SS&BIA 


SEALSKINS.    See  Fus. 

SEAMAKy  William  Henby.  American  jurist, 
died  March  8,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  New  Berlin, 
Wis.,  in  1842,  and  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools.  From  1859  to  1861  he  worked  as  a 
printer.  Enlisting  in  the  First  Wisconsin  In- 
fantry in  1861  he  served  until  1864.  In  1868 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  was  engaged  in 
practice  until  1883,  and  in  1905  he  became  cir- 
cuit judge  of  the  seventh  circuit.  From  1893  to 
1898  he  was  president  of  the  Wisconsin  State 
Bar  Association. 

SEAMAN'S  ACT.     See  La.bob. 

SEAMEN'S  LAW.    See  Shippino. 

SEAPLANE.    See  AJgBONArmcs. 

SEAEGHLIGHT.     See  Electbic  Lighting. 

SEDGWICK,  Abthub  Geobge.  American  law- 
yer and  writer,  died  July  14,  1915.  He  was  born 
in  New  York  City  in  1844,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  1864.  He  served  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  A  confine- 
ment in  Libby  Prison  resulted  in  an  illness, 
which  disabled  him  from  further  service.  He 
returned  to  Boston,  and  practiced  law  until  1872. 
With  O.  W.  Holmes,  Jr.,  he  edited  the  American 
Law  Review,  In  1875  he  removed  to  New  York 
City,  where  he  was  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
law  imtil  1881.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the  New 
York  Evening  Post,  and  the  Nation,  and  con- 
tinued an  active  contributor  to  those  publica- 
tions until  1905.  In  1885  he  was  lecturer  of  law 
before  the  Lowell  Institute  of  Boston,  and  in 
1909  he  was  Godkin  lecturer  at  Harvard.  He 
was  the  author  of  Treatise  on  the  Principle  and 
Practice  Governing  the  Trial  of  Title  to  Land 
(with  F.  S.  Wait) ;  of  Elements  of  Damages; 
the  editor  of  several  editions  of  his  father's  book. 
Measure  of  Damages;  and  also  one  of  the  au- 
thors of  the  Essays  on  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. 

SEDIMENTATION.     See  Geology. 

SEISMOLOGY.     See  Eabthquakes. 

SELANGOE.  A  state  on  the  western  coast 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula;  one  of  the  Federated 
Malay  States  (q.v.).  It  has  a  coast  line  of 
about  125  miles.  Kuala  Liunpur  (46,718  inhabi- 
tants in  1911)  is  the  capital  of  the  state  and 
the  administrative  headquarters  for  the  federa- 
tion. The  chief  port  is  Port  Swettenham.  Im- 
port duties  are  levied  on  opium,  spirits,  beer, 
and  petroleum.  Tin  mining  is  the  main  in- 
dustry, the  exports  in  1913  being  258,825  piculs, 
valued  at  26,692,609  Straits  Settlements  dollars. 
Area  actually  under  rubber  in  1913,  208,714 
acres;  alienated  for  rubber  cultivation,  313,142 
acres.  The  value  of  the  tin  export  (1909)  was 
18,088,479  Straits  Settlements  dollars.  Area 
alienated  for  mining,  68,918  acres;  Chinese 
miners  employed,  73,885.  A  native  Sultan 
is  administrator,  advised  by  a  British  resi- 
dent. 

SELENIUM.     See  Physics. 

SENEGAL.  One  of  the  constituent  colonies  of 
the  government-general  of  French  West  Africa. 
The  capital  is  Saint-Louis.  The  estimated  area 
is  191,640  square  kilometers  (73,992  square 
miles).  The  population  was  recently  reported  at 
1,247,979,  consisting  of  4229  French,  646  for- 
eigners, 1,239,503  natives  (French  subjects),  and 
3601  natives  (not  French  subjects).  The  na- 
tives (French  subjects)  included  888,467  Moham- 
medans, 346,336  fetishists,  and  4500  Roman 
Catholics.  Tlie  principal  races  are:  the  Wolof 
(Mohammedan),  about  466,000;  the  Serer   (fet- 


ishist), 183,000;  the  Peulh  (mostly  Mohamme- 
dan), 168,000;  the  Touoouleur  (Mohammedan), 
139,000.  There  are  considerable  numbers  also  of 
Diola,  Mandingo,  Bambara,  and  Fulah.  Princi- 
pal towns:  DfJcar,  the  capital  of  French  West 
Africa,  with  25,630  inhabitants  (of  whom  2397 
French);  Saint-Louis,  22,276  (896);  Rufisque, 
12,490  (311);  Tivavouane,  3443  (96);  Thite, 
2397  (129). 

In  recent  years,  agriculture  has  developed  not- 
ably. By  far  the  most  important  crop  com- 
mercially is  peanuts,  which  constitute  the  chief 
export  Other  crops  are  millet,  com,  and  ma- 
nioc. There  is  some  production  of  gum,  rubber, 
wax,  and  palm  kernels.  Grazing  is  practiced, 
especially  among  the  Peulh,  Toucouleur,  and 
Serer.  In  1912,  imports  and  exports  of  mer- 
chandise were  valued  at  67,859,907  and  66,019,- 
804  francs  respectively.  The  chief  exports  were: 
peanuts,  41,161,966;  gums,  2,315,494;  rubber, 
1,077,011;  palm  kernels,  705,514;  cattle,  263,500 
(2108  head).  Of  the  total  trade  54.64  per  cent 
was  with  France. 

From  mid-July  to  early  October  the  Senegal 
River  is  navigable  to  Kayes  (in  the  colony  of 
Upper  Senegal  and  Niger).  Dakar  has  rail  con- 
nection with  Saint-Louis,  264  kilometers  (170 
miles).  From  Thite,  91  kilometers  from  Dakar, 
a  line  starts  for  Kayes;  it  has  been  completed  as 
far  as  Koulougadougou,  348  kilometers  (216 
miles). 

SEBBIA.  A  kingdom  of  eastern  Europe, 
divided  from  Hungary  by  the  Danube  and  the 
Save,  and  bordered  by  Bulgaria  on  the  east,  by 
Albania  and  Montenegro  on  the  west,  and  by 
Greece  on  the  south;  one  of  the  Balkaii  States. 
Belgrade  (Biograd,  the  "white  fortress")  is  the 
capital. 

Abba  and  Population.  The  table  below 
shows  area  by  departments,  population  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  Dec.  31,  1910,  population  as 
calculated  Dec.  31,  1911,  and  density  (1911)  per 
square  kilometer: 


Department  8q.  kme, 

Belgrade  *    12 

Belgrade   2,025 

KragnjevaU    2.296 

Krajina     2,909 

Kmshevats     2,710 

Morava   2,900 

Mish     2,658 

Ushitae    8,288 

Pirot    2,419 

Podrinje     8.851 

Pozharevata    4,157 

Rudnik    1,569 

Smederivo 1,277 

Cheehak    8.798 

Timok    8,196 

Toplitsa 2,889 

ValjeTO    2,459 

Vranja    4,842 

48,808t 
*  Gity.     1 18,650  square 


According  to  religions  the  censused  population 
was  divided  into  Greek  Catholics,  2,881,220; 
Roman  Catholics,  8435;  Mohammedans,  14,335; 
Jews,  6997;  Protestants,  799;  and  other  relig- 
ions, 915.  The  marriages  in  1912  niunbered  13,- 
289  (30,453  in  1911) ;  births,  114,257  (107,229) ; 
deaths,  63,358  (64,415).  Belgrade  had  (1911) 
90,890  inhabitants;  Nish,  24,949;  Kragujevats, 
18,452;  Lescovats,  14,266;  Pozharevats,  13,411; 
Vranja,  11,439;  Pirot,  10,737.  Bitolj  (Mona- 
stir)    had    in    1910    a    population    of    69,866; 


2920 

2922 

D, 

89,876 

92,288) 
158,878  f 

128 

165.815 

. . . 

189,025 

192,124 

84 

112,142 

113,128 

89 

167,871 

170,858 

63 

208.688 

206.547 

71 

198.768 

201,762 

79 

146.768 

149,112 

45 

112.814 

114,115 

47 

288,275 

242.029 

68 

259.906 

262,208 

68 

85,840 

87,187 

66 

148,216 

144,829 

119 

188.911 

141,267 

87 

149,538 

150.965 

47 

110,218 

112,610 

40 

157,648 

160,878 

65 

252,987 

257,087 

59 

2,911,701  2.957,207       61 


Digitized  by 


Google 


SE&BIA 


580 


SE&BIA 


Skoplje   (UskUb),  47,384;  Prilip  <Perlepo),  21,- 
783;  Prizren,  21,244;  Prishtina,  18,174. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  (July 
25,  1913),  Serbia  gained,  as  the  result  of  the 
wars  in  the  Balkans,  the  eastern  part  of  Novi- 
bazar,  Kossovo,  and  Central  Macedonia.  The 
new  territories  have  an  area  estimated  at  30,000 
square  kilometers,  and  are  composed  of  the  fol- 
lowing territories:  Bitolj,  with  345,750  inhabi- 
tants; Ishtib,  unknown;  Debar,  82,476;  Kava- 
dar,  07,763;  Kumanovo,  166,939;  Novibazar, 
133,401;  Plevlje,  62,601;  Prishtina,  239,386; 
Prizren,  227,425;  Skoplje  (Uskfib),  163,293;  Te- 
tovo, 157,249. 

Primary  instruction,  nominally  compulsory; 
actual  attendance,  less  than  25  per  cent.  More 
than  80  per  cent  of  the  adult  population,  illit- 
erate. On  the  other  hand,  with  nearly  every 
peasant  occupying  and  cultivating  his  own  free- 
hold, varying  from  10  to  30  acres,  there  was 
practically  no  pauper  population. 

Production.  The  most  fertile  and  densely 
populated  among  the  Balkan  States,  Serbia  is 
essentially  an  agricultural  country,  and  stock 
raising  has  been  the  most  important  occupation 
of  the  people.  Tilled  fields  alternate  with  oak- 
covered  hills  which  maintain  great  herds  of 
swine.  Of  the  total  area  (1904),  1,865,392  hec- 
tares were  under  cultivation,  and  1,646,000  under 
forests.  Cereals,  plums  in  large  quantities,  and 
vines  were  grown'.  No  returns  for  area  and 
production  of  main  crops  have  been  available 
since  the  wars  in  the  Balkans.  There  were  966,- 
208  cattle  in  the  country,  Dec.  31,  1910,  3,808,815 
sheep,  152,617  horses,  836,644  swine,  and  627,- 
427  goats.  The  mineral  resources  include  coal 
and  lignite,  copper  ore,  and  gold.  The  manufac- 
tures include  milling,  brewing,  distilling,  sugar 
refining,  carpet  weaving,  and  meat  packing.  In 
the  year  1915  there  were  no  reports  to  be  made 
upon  peaceful  industries,  no  returns  of  tilled 
fields  yielding  their  golden  harvest;  there  re- 
mains only  the  record  of  a  famished  and  home- 
less people,  of  valiant  armies  gone  out  desper- 
ately and  nobly  to  annihilation,  of  field  and  for- 
est and  hamlet  and  town  laid  waste  and  deso- 
late by  the  invading  hordes  of  the  Central 
Powers. 

CoMMBatCE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS.  Trade,  for- 
merly largely  with  Austria-Hungary,  is  at  a 
standstill.  Totals  for  1912  give  106,093,000  di- 
nars imports  and  84,221,000  exports  (wheat  17,- 
771,000;  meats,  15,280,000;  corn,  7,396,000; 
hides,  7,332,000;  poultry,  3,761,000;  live  ani- 
mals, 2,130,000;  prunes,  1,764,000;  etc.).  Im- 
ports for  consumption  and  exports  of  domestic 
produce  for  1911  are  given  below,  with  totals  for 
1910  and  1909,  values  in  thousands  of  dinars 
(1  dinar  =19.3  cents): 


Imps.  Bxp9,  Imp;  Exp: 

Foodatufffl,  Stone,  etc.     1,619  182 

etc.    .  . .    22.769  108.776  Glau     .  . .      1.520 

MetalB     .  .   20.804  9.667  Machinery    12,860  28 

Minerals  .     6.986  718  Other 

Drun  . . .      7.578  288  mdse.    .      1.041  48 

Textiles,  

etc.    ...    81.416  2.148  T'l.  '11.115.425  116.916 

Hides,  etc.     4.575  87  T'l.  '10.    84,697  98.888 

Luxuries.       2,809  66  T'l.  '09.    75.585  92,982 

Paper    . .  .      2,518  28 


Countries  of  origin  and  destination  follow  in 
the  1912  trade  witli  values  in  thousands  of  di- 
nars: 


/mjM.  B9P9,  Imps.  Exps. 

Aus.  H.     .  82.659  86.076  Belgium    .         914  7.178 

Germany  .  81.117  18,279  Rumania  .     2.172  5.777 

IT.    K.     .  .  8,511  2  Bulgaria  .         779  1.590 

France    .  .  8.718  2.978  Other    . . .    19.768  1.366 

Italy     ...  3,631  3.785                         

Turkey     .  2,784  7.190  Total     .106,098  84.221 

Railways  have  never  been  efficient  for  the 
proper  development  of  the  country.  At  the  end 
of  1913  there  were  in  operation  555  kilometers 
of  standard  and  414  of  narrow  gauge  railway: 
in  tlie  acquired  territory,  387  kilometers  of 
standard  gauge,  111  local  line,  and  105  indus- 
trial line,  l^ere  were  under  construction  344 
kilometers.  Telegraph  lines  in  1912,  4403  kilo- 
meters, with  8355  kilometers  of  wires;  State  tele- 
graph stations,  211 ;  post  offices,  1556.  The  Dan- 
ube, the  Save,  and  the  Drina  are  the  navigable 
rivers.  The  roads  are  badly  in  need  of  repair, 
many  being  nearly  impassable. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1914  was  reported 
to  balance  at  214,321.000  dinars.  Revenue  from 
direct  taxes,  57,347,000  dinars;  monopolies,  63,- 
743,000;  state  railways,  26,330,000;  customs,  15.- 
011,000;  etc.  Expenditure  by  the  ministry  for 
war,  54,321,000;  finance,  25,768,000;  public 
works,  34,710,000;  worship  and  instruction,  14,- 
504,000;  pensions  and  subventions,  9,918,000; 
justice,  4,053,000;  interior,  7,658,000;  agricul- 
ture and  commerce,  7,648,000;  debt  charge,  45,- 
075,000;  etc.  The  public  debt  stood,  Jan.  1, 
1913,  at  654,050,600  dinars. 

Government.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  King  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  eight 
responsible  heads  of  departments.  After  the 
murder  of  Alexander  I  (Obrenovitch),  May  29, 
1903  (o.  8.),  Peter  Karageorgevitch,  grandson  of 
the  celebrated  Kara  George,  and  son  of  Alex- 
ander Karageorgevitch,  was  elected  King  (June 
2,  1903  o.  s.)  under  the  name  Peter  I.  He  was 
born  June  29,  1844  (o.  s.),  married  (1883) 
Princess  Zorka  of  Montenegro,  and  has  two  sons : 
,George  (born  1887),  who  was  forced  in  1909  to 
renounce  his  right  of  succession  on  account  of 
incompetence  and  violence,  and  Alexander  (bom 
1888),  the  heir-apparent. 

The  NarodnaSkupshtina  (160  members)  is 
the  legislative  body.  Previous  to  1878  Serbia 
was  an  autonomous  Turkish  dependency;  in  No- 
vember, 1912,  she  recaptured  from  Turkey  her 
old  capital,  UskQb. 

History.  The  campaign  of  December,  1914, 
cleared  Serbia's  soil  of  invading  armies  (see  the 
Year  Book  for  1914,  article  on  War  of  the 
Nations),  but  left  the  nation  exhausted,  with- 
out the  means  to  care  for  the  thousands  of 
wounded  soldiers,  and  without  even  sufficient 
food  for  the  civilian  population.  Peasants  had 
deserted  their  farms  in  panic  before  the  approach 
of  the  Austrian  troops,  and  were  now  left  des- 
titute in  the  towns.  Typhus  and  other  dread 
diseases  played  havoc  among  civilians  and  sol- 
diers alike.  Again  and  again  Serbia  sent  out 
desperate  pleas  for  assistance  in  her  misery.  As 
in  the  case  of  Belgium,  the  response  was  most 
generous.  Subscription  lists  were  started  in 
England,  France,  and  America  for  the  Serbian 
Relief  Fund;  provisions  and  medical  supplies 
were  freely  contributed;  doctors,  nurses,  and 
sanitary  experts  rendered  heroic  voluntary  serv- 
ice in  the  plague-ridden  country;  the  starving 
peasants  were  taken  back  to  tlieir  farms  and  sup- 
plied with  seed  to  plant  their  fields.     A  corps  of 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


their  desolate  fields.    Meanwhile  there  was  lit- 
tle activity  of  moment  along  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  frontier,  only  occasional  skirmishes  be- 
tween   outposts.    Serbian    relations    with    Bul- 
garia were  embittered  by  Serbia's  reluctance  to 
accede  to  Bulgaria's  demands  for  the  cession  of 
Serbian  Macedonia  as  a  preliminary  step  toward 
the  reconstitution  of  the  Balkan  alliance.    While 
Bulgaria  claimed   that   the  inhabitants   of   the 
Ma^onian  territory  annexed  by  Serbia  in  1913 
were  largely  Bulgar  in  race  and  sympathy,  Ser- 
bia persisted  in  regarding  her  new  subjects  as 
loyal  Serbian  citizens.    In  an  order  of  the  day 
published  Dec.  30,  1914,  Prince  Alexander  of  Ser- 
bia promised  that  "our  brothers  whom  we  have 
delivered  from  the  Turks,"  having  shown  their 
patriotism   by   fighting   in   the   Serbian   armies 
against  Austria-Hungary,  "will  enjoy  the  polit- 
ical and  constitutional  rights  which  Serbia  the 
liberator  enjoys.     In  its  first  sitting  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  the  Skupshtina  will  take  all 
the  necessary  measures  to  put  this  decision  into 
effect."     From  Bulgarian  sources,  however,  came 
frequent  reports  of  unrest  in  Serbian  Macedonia, 
due,  said  the  Bulgarians,  to  the  harsh  methods 
which  the  Serbian  authorities  were  employing  to 
stamp  out  all  traces  of  Turkish  and  Bulgar  na- 
tionality in  that  region.     The  Valandova  Inci- 
dent (consult  the  article  on  Bulgaria,  History), 
which  the  Serbian  government  regarded  as  a  Bul- 
garian raid  into  Serbian  territory,  was  repre- 
sented by  the  Bulgarian  government  as  an  in- 
surrection of  discontented  inhabitants  of  Serbian 
Macedonia.    Notwithstanding       the       irritation 
caused  by  the  Valandova  affair,  negotiations  con- 
tinued  in   respect  of   the  new  Balkan   alliance 
which   the  Entente  diplomats  had  so  much  at 
heart.    The  Skupshtina  had  no  sooner  been  con- 
vened, August  16th,  than  a  secret  session  was 
ordered  for   the  consideration  of  the  proposals 
which  the  Quadruple  Entente  had  secretly  made 
to  Serbia  regarding  the  relations  of  the  Balkan 
State.     Although   neither   the   text  of  the   En- 
tente's advices,  nor  the  results  of  the  Skupsh- 
tina's   deliberations,   were  made   public,   it  was 
generally  believed  that  the  Entente  advised  com- 
pliance, and  that  the  Skupshtina  authorized  par- 
tial compliance  with   Bulgaria's  demands.     The 
Skupshtina  signified  its  complete  confidence  in 
the  cabinet  by  an  overwhelming  vote,  and  au- 
thorized a  new  war  credit  of  $50,000,000.     In 
October    Austro-German    forces    again    invaded 
Serbia;   Bulgaria  declared  war  on  Serbia,  Octo- 
l>er    14th;    and  the  Serbian  armies  were  swept 
ffom  the  field  before  the  close  of  November.     A 
few  thousand   Serbian  soldiers,  and  throngs  of 
frightened  civilians,  fled  across  the  frontier  into 
Albania  or  Montenegro;   a  small  Serbian  army 
in  the  extreme  south  attempted  in  vain  to  coop- 
erate with  the  Anglo-French  force  which  early  in 
December  advanced  against  the  Bulgarian  forces 
in   Serbian  Macedonia;   by   December   14th   Ser- 
bia was  completely  in  the  hands  of  the  victorious 
Bulgar s  and  Teutons.     King  Peter  and  the  of- 
ficials of  the  Serbian  government  escaped  into 
Montenegro,  and  Italian  dispatches  asserted  that 
the   seat  of   the   Serbian   government   would   be 
removed  to  Italy. 
SEBUMS.     See  Cholera. 
SEBUM   THEBAPY.     There   is   a   growing 


serotherapy.  Spiethoff  reinjected  the  patient's 
own  blood  or  serum  in  various  skin  affections, 
especially  in  eczema,  in  which  disease  he  inserts 
a  canula  into  a  vein,  withdraws  from  100  or 
200  c.  c.  of  blood  and  immediately  reinjects  it 
into  the  tissue.  The  procedure  may  be  repeated 
daily  or  for  weeks.  Itamond  and  Goubert  used  a 
similar  technic  in  50  cases  of  typhoid  fever. 
Their  results  were  very  favorable  in  38  per  cent 
of  the  cases,  and  negative  in  44  per  cent.  Net- 
ter  adds  new  testimony  to  the  value  of  sero- 
therapy in  cerebrospinal  meningitis.  Of  226 
cases  treated  since  1907  the  mortality  was  only 
12.5  per  cent,  in  cases  of  pure  meningococcus  in- 
fection; whereas  before  the  introduction  of  the 
serum  treatment  it  varied  from  48.5  per  cent  to 
83.3  per  cent.  Netter  says  that  the  efficacy  of 
the  senun  is  evident  not  only  in  the  mortality 
reduction,  but  in  rapid  recovery  and  rarity  of 
complications. 

SEBVIA.  See  Serbia.  The  form  Serbia  has 
been  generally  adopted  at  the  request  of  the 
Serbian  government. 

SETTLEMENTS  AKD  SETTLEMENT 
WOBK.    See  Charities. 

SEVENTH  DAY  ADVENTISTS.     See  Ad- 

VENTISTS. 

SEVENTH  DAY  QEBMAN  BBETHBEN. 

See  Bbethben,  Church  of  the. 

SEWAGE  PUBIFICATION.  Some  prog- 
ress was  made  with  fine  screening,  many  Imhoff 
tanks  were  completed  or  put  under  way,  and 
much  attention  was  paid  to  the  possibilities  of  a 
new  form  of  aeration,  known  as  the  activated- 
sludge  process.  If  the  latter  proves  to  be  as 
successful  as  some  who  are  studying  it  think  it 
will  be  then  a  new  era  in  sewage  treatment  will 
arrive.  Before  going  further  the  present  status 
of  sewage  treatment  may  well  be  outlined,  with 
particular  relation  to  the  degree  of  treatment  re- 
quired to  meet  various  local  conditions.  A  small 
amount  of  the  coarser  suspended  solids  is  often 
removed  by  coarse  screens,  generally  in  the  form 
of  inclined  bars  of  iron  or  steel  placed  in  a  chan- 
nel through  which  the  sewage  is  passed.  Finer 
screens,  of  wire  mesh  or  perforated  sheet  metal, 
are  used,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with 
coarse  screens,  to  remove  a  larger  amount  of 
solid  matter  than  the  coarse  screens  will  in- 
tercept. During  the  year  a  few  units  of  a  Ger- 
man type  of  fine  screens  known  as  the  Reinsch- 
Wurl  were  put  under  construction  in  the  United 
States,  notably  at  Brooklyn,  New  York  City,  and 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  these  screens  the  liquid 
passes  through  perforated  metal  plates.  Some 
of  the  solids  are  retained  by  the  plates,  which  are 
inclined  revolving  disks,  with  a  portion  of  their 
area  protruding  above  the  surface  of  the  sew- 
age. From  this  protruding  portion  revolving 
brushes  sweep  the  retained  solids  from  the  disk. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  remove  all  the  settleablc 
solids  from  sewage  sedimentation  tanks  are  em- 
ployed. If  in  addition  to  removing  the  solids  by 
settlement  it  is  considered  advisable  to  reduce 
the  volume  of  the  sediment  or  sludge,  the  tanks 
are  so  designed  as  to  retain  the  sludge,  letting 
the  more  or  less  clarified  liquid  pass  on.  The  re- 
tained sludge  is  digested  through  the  action  of 
anaerobic  bacteria;  gases  and  water  are  given  off, 
and  a  residue  produced  which  resembles  garden 


SEWAGE  PtnSlinOATION 


682 


SEWAGE  FOBIinOATION 


mold.  These  are  known  aa  septic  tanks.  A 
later  or  improved  type  was  called  the  Travis  or 
hydrolytic  tank  and  an  improvement  on  this  is 
known  as  the  ImhofT  or  Emscher  tank.  Both 
Travis  and  ImhofT  tanks  are  often  called  two- 
story  septic  or  settling  tanks,  because  the  sludge 
passes  from  an  upper  or  settling  chamber  down 
a  sharply  sloping  V-shaped  bottom  and  through 
slots  into  a  digesting  chamber.  Since  some  of 
the  settleable  solids  are  inorganic,  as  sand  from 
street  surfaces,  and  cannot  be  digested,  it  is  fre- 
quently found  advantageous  to  remove  them  in 
small  settling  tanks  called  grit  chambers,  before 
the  sewage  goes  to  the  septic  tank.  Either 
screened  or  settled  sewage  still  contains  very 
finely  divided  organic  matter  in  suspension,  and 
also  organic  matter  in  solution.  This  organic 
matter  is  liable  to  offensive  decomposition  unless 
brought  into  contact  with  a  sufficient  volume  of 
oxygen  to  effect  more  or  less  complete  nitrifica- 
tion. If  a  sufficiently  large  volume  of  natural 
water  can  be  reached  by  an  outfall  sewer,  the 
free  oxygen  in  the  water  affords  the  simplest 
of  means  of  oxidizing  or  nitrifying  the  organic 
content  of  the  sewage  and  rendering  it  non-pu- 
trefactive. Otherwise,  oxidation  may  be  had  by 
applying  the  sewage  to  intermittent  sand  filters, 
percolating  or  sprinkling  filters,  or  contact  beds. 
Where  a  very  high  degree  of  treatment  is  neces- 
sary two  filter  beds  may  be  used  in  succession, 
as  double  contact  beds  or  percolating  filters  fol- 
lowed by  sand  filters.  Percolating-filter  effluents 
are  sometimes  passed  to  secondary  settling  tanks 
and  may  even  go  to  sand  beds  after  that.  Where 
a  reduction  or  virtual  elimination  of  the  bac- 
terial content  of  sewage  is  deemed  necessary  re- 
liance cannot  be  plac^  in  any  of  the  processes 
named  or  in  all  of  them  combined — except  in- 
termittent sand  filters,  operated  at  a  low  rate. 
Even  then,  for  economy  and  efficiency,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  the  sewage  a  preliminary  treatment 
by  one  or  more  of  the  methods  described.  The 
most  certain  method  of  ba'cterial  removal  is  dis- 
infection by  hypochlorite  of  calcium  or  lime,  hy- 
pochlorite of  sodium,  or  chlorine  gas,  the  latter 
as  evolved  on  liberating  liquid  chlorine  stored 
in  pressure  cylinders.  Any  one  of  these  disin- 
fecting agents  may  be  employed.  Until  recently 
one  of  the  hypochlorites  (generally  calcium)  was 
used,  but  liquid  chlorine  is  rapidly  growing  in 
favor  because  of  its  greater  convenience,  and  also 
because  its  price  has  not  been  increased  nearly  so 
much  by  the  European  war  as  has  that  of  hypo- 
chlorite. Thus  far  disinfection  has  not  been 
much  used,  except  at  relatively  small  sewage- 
treatment  plants.  To  obtain  high  efficiency  with 
certainty  it  is  generally  necessary  to  remove  a 
large  percentage  of  the  organic  matter  before 
applying  the  disinfectant,  else  a  large  part  of 
the  agent  will  be  used  in  oxidizing  the  organic 
matter. 

In  new  sewage-treatment  works  to-day  the 
most  common  practice  is  to  use  coarse  or  fine 
screens  where  the  removal  of  onlv  a  small  per- 
centage of  solid  matter  is  demanded;  plain  sed- 
imen&tion  or  else  two-story  or  Imhoff  tanks  if 
it  is  essential  to  remove  all  or  nearly  all  the 
settleable  solids;  sprinkling  filters  if  a  non-pu- 
trefactive effluent  is  called  for;  intermittent 
sand  filters  (where  suitable  sand  can  be  found) 
for  a  still  higher  degree  of  oxidation  or  for 
bacterial  removal;  and  disinfection  as  a  finish- 
ing disinfecting  process.  Various  combinations 
of  these  methods  may  be  used  to  meet  local  sani- 


tary and  economic  conditions.  The  foregoing 
review  has  made  clear,  it  is  hoped,  that  there 
are  many  methods  or  combinations  of  methods 
of  sewage  treatment  rather  than  one  single  and 
best  method,  and  that  a  choice  depends  upon  the 
degree  of  treatment  required  and  upon  the  capi- 
tal and  operating  costs  as  affected  by  local  con- 
siderations. 

The  largest  installation  of  Imhoff  tanks  yet 
built  in  America  was  completed  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  during  1915,  and  some  of  them  were  put  in 
use.  Nearly  250  Imhoff  tanks  had  been  built  or 
put  under  construction  in  Germany  and  the 
United  States  by  the  close  of  1915,  of  which 
about  70  were  in  the  United  States.  See  "Eight 
Years'  Design  and  Operation  of  Imhoff  Tanks," 
by  Dr.  Karl  Imhoff  {Engineering  Neioe,  Jan.  6 
and  13,  1916). 

Activated  Sludge.  Ever  since  it  was  under- 
stood that  oxidation  is  nature's  favorite  way  of 
transforming  the  organic  matter  in  sewage  l&om 
an  unstable  putrefiable  condition  to  a  stable,  in- 
offensive, and  non-putrefactive  state,  attempts  at 
forced  aeration  have  been  pursued  with  an  ardor 
that  has  been  only  temporarily  quenched  by  re- 
peated failure  to  find  a  method  tiiat  would  give 
the  desired  results  at  reasonable  cost.  The  va- 
rious types  of  filters  are  all  oxidation  beds,  but 
the  air  is  introduced  by  natural  means.  Forced 
aeration  of  oxidation  or  bacteria  beds  has  been 
tried  but  has  not  yet  been  in  use  on  a  working 
scale.  Direct  aSration  of  sewage  in  tanks  has 
also  been  tried,  but  until  recently  it  has  seemed 
to  be  impracticable.  In  1913,  after  observing 
some  experiments  with  forced  aeration  of  sew- 
age in  bottles  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Sta- 
tion of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health, 
Dr.  Gilbert  J.  Fowler,  a  well  known  English 
chemist  and  sewage^works  expert,  went  back  to 
Manchester,  England,  and  began  a  new  line  of  ex- 
periments. He  aerated  sewage  in  a  receptacle, 
removing  some  of  the  liquid  from  time  to  time, 
but  retaining  the  sludge  until  he  had  accumu- 
lated a  considerable  quantity  and  this  had  be- 
come laden  with  and  "activated"  by  oxidizing 
bacteria.  The  process  of  aSration  was  then  con- 
tinued, both  liquid  and  sludge  being  removed 
from  the  receptacle  from  time  to  time.  His  ex- 
periments at  Manchester  were  repeated  elsewhere 
in  England.  Knowledge  of  them  reached  the 
United  States.  In  the  latter  part  of  1914,  and 
the  first  half  of  1915,  a  similar  line  of  experi- 
ments was  taken  up  at  some  10  places  in  the 
United  States  and  one  or  two  in  Canada,  Dr. 
Fowler  himself  being  retained  as  consultant  by 
the  city  of  Milwaukee,  where  the  experiments 
have  been  conducted  on  a  more  varied  and,  in 
part,  on  a  larger  scale  than  anywhere  else.  The 
State  Water  Survey  of  Illinois,  acting  with  the 
University  of  Illinois  at  Urbana,  went  deeply 
into  a  study  of  the  new  process.  The  United 
States  Public  Health  Service  took  it  up,  both 
in  its  laboratory  at  Washington  and  in  codpera- 
tion  with  the  city  of  Baltimore.  At  the  latter 
place  an  Imhoff  tank  was  modified  for  use  as  an 
activated-sludge  tank.  Other  places  where  the 
process  was  being  studied  in  1915  were  CSiicago, 
by  the  Sanitary  District  and  by  the  padcing 
houses;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  the  Lawrence  Experi- 
ment Station;  Brodcton,  Mass.;  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.;  Houston,  Texas;  and  Regina,  Saskatche- 
wan, Canada.  Milwaukee  and  Cleveland  let  con- 
tracts for  working  units  of  a  capacity  of  about 
2,000,000  gallons  a  day,  and  a  plant  for  Hous- 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


SEWAGE  PXTBIFIOATION 


683 


BHIPBUILDINO 


ton  was  under  consideration.  The  war  put  a 
damper  on  the  activitated-sludge  process  in  Eng- 
land, but  plans  for  several  working-scale  in- 
stallations have  been  made.  What  is  this  new 
process?  It  consists  of  blowing  air  under  low 
pressure  up  through  the  bottom  of  a  tank  con- 
taining sewage  and  an  accumulation  of  sludge 
about  25  per  cent  in  voliune  of  the  holding  ca- 
pacity of  the  tank.  The  air  is  distributed 
through  porous  blocks  or  plates  (diff users),  lo- 
cated in  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  As  the  air  rises 
it  forces  the  accumulated  sludge,  actuated  by 
myriads  of  bacteria,  up  through  the  sewage, 
keeping  it  in  suspension  so  the  particles  of  sew- 
age are  brought  in  contact  with  the  particles  of 
bacteria-laden  sludge.  A  portion  of  the  treated 
supernatant  liquid  is  removed — either  from  time 
to  time  or  all  the  while,  according  as  the  tank  is 
operated  on  the  fill-and-draw  or  on  the  contin- 
uous plan.  The  suspended  matter  in  the  re- 
moved liquid  settles  with  surprising  rapidity, 
leaving  a  remarkably  clear  sewage  effluent.  Un- 
der the  best  conditions,  the  nitrification  of  or- 
ganic matter,  and  also  the  removal  of  bacteria, 
is  high.  Both  analyses  of  the  activated  sludge 
and  careful  observations  of  its  effects  on  plant 
growth  have  been  made  at  the  University  of  Il- 
linois with  highly  promising  results.  The  pack- 
ing house  industries  at  Chicago  are  said  to  be 
much  interested  in  the  process  as  of  possible  ap- 
plication to  their  great  waste-disposal  problem. 
The  economic  practicability  of  the  process  is  not 
yet  fully  determined.  It  is  known  that  it  ef- 
fects a  high  degree  of  purification,  and  can  read- 
ily be  adapted  to  almost  any  range  of  purifica- 
tion, but  the  cost  of  operation  and  the  effect  of 
very  cold  weather,  as  well  as  a  number  of  other 
questions,  have  yet  to  be  settled.  Several  Brit- 
ish and  one  American  patent  on  the  process  have 
been  taken  out.  The  American  patent  has  been 
dedicated  to  the  public.  See  Engineering  Neva, 
April  1,  July  15,  22,  and  29,  and  Dec.  9,  1915. 
For  a  new  and  comprehensive  book  on  sewage 
treatment  see  Metcalf  and  Eddy,  American  Sew- 
age Practice,  vol.  iii.,  Sewage  Disposal  (New 
York). 

SEWEJ3ULGE.  Modern  ideas  of  convenience 
and  sanitation  demand  running  water  in  every 
city  or  village  house,  and  the  quick  removal  of 
the  used  and  soiled  water  from  both  the  house 
and  the  city.  Many  cities  of  considerable  size 
are  still  largely  without  sewerage  systems,  and  a 
few  very  backward  ones  have  no  sewers  at  all. 
As  a  rule,  however,  even  our  smaller  cities  have 
made  at  least  a  beginning  of  a  sanitary  sewerage 
system,  using  small  sewers  for  the  removal  of 
house  and  industrial  wastes  only,  and  postpon- 
ing the  construction  of  storm  sewers  for  carry- 
ing off  the  rain  water  that  accumulates  on  the 
street  surfaces.  Vitrified  clay  pipe,  commonly 
known  as  sewer  pipe,  is  still  the  material  almost 
universally  used  for  small  sewers,  but  for  large 
sewers  brick  and  stone  are  rapidly  giving  way  to 
reinforced  concrete  or  to  terracotta.  The  rein- 
forced concrete  is  more  generally  in  the  form  of 
separately  molded  sections  of  pipe,  provided  with 
hub-and-socket  joints;  but  frequently  segmental 
blocks,  molded  to  the  size  and  form  of  the  sewer, 
are  employed.  Segmental  blocks  of  terra  cotta 
are  also  used.  During  1915  the  second  and  third 
volumes  of  Metcalf  and  Eddy's  American  Sew- 
erage Practice  (New  York)  were  published.  The 
three  volumes  are  as  follows :  I.  Design  of  Sew- 
ers.   II.  Construction  of  Sewers,    III.  Disposal 


of  Sewage.  See  also  the  article  Sewage  Puri- 
fication. 

SEX  DETE&IOKATION.  See  Zoology, 
Sex  Determination. 

SEX  HYGIENE.     See  Hygiene. 

STTABP,  Benjamin.  American  zoologist  and 
explorer,  died  Jan.  24.  1915.  He  was  born  in 
German  town,  Philadelphia,  in  1858,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  Swarthmore  College.  He  studied  med- 
icine at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  receiv- 
ing his  degree  in  1879.  He  took  postgraduate 
courses  in  Germany  and  Italy.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  invertebrate  zoology  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  holding  this 
chair  for  two  years.  From  1890  to  1901  he  was 
life  member  and  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia, 
for  which  he  made  expeditions  in  the  Caribbec 
Islands  in  the  winter  of  1888-89.  He  also  con- 
ducted exploration  parties  to  the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands, the  Arctic  region,  Alaska,  and  Siberia. 
He  was  zoologist  in  the  first  Arctic  expedition  of 
Admiral  Peary  in  1891.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  scientific  societies  and  contributed  to  mag- 
azines on  the  subjects  of  his  expeditions  and 
on  fishing,  and  history.  He  was  also  well  known 
as  a  lecturer.  From  1910-15  he  was  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  Massachusetts. 

SHATTUCKy  Samuel  Walkeb.  American 
educator,  died  February,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Groton,  Mass.,  in  1841,  and  graduated  from  Nor- 
wich University  in  1860.  He  took  postgraduate 
studies  in  civil  engineering,  receivii]^  his  degree 
in  1871.  From  1861  to  1865  he  served  in  the 
Civil  War,  rising  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  military  tactics  in 
Norwich  University.  He  was  appointed  adjunct 
professor  and  president  pro  tempore  of  Norwich 
University.  In  1868  he  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  instructor  in  mili- 
tary tactics  at  the  University  of  Illinois.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  this  university  as 
professor  of  civil  engineering,  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  mathematics,  and  professor  of  mathe- 
matics until  1912,  when  he  was  made  professor 
emeritus.  From  1906  to  1912  he  was  controller 
of  the  university.  He  was  a  member  of  many 
learned  and  patriotic  societies. 

SHAW,  Dr.  Anna  Howabd.  See  Litebatube, 
English  and  Amebican,  History. 

SHAW,  Geoboe  Bebnabd.  See  Dbama,  Ameb- 
ican AND  English. 

SHEEP.  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat  Pro- 
duction. 

SHEBMAN,  Fbank  Asbubt.  American 
scholar  and  educator,  died  Feb.  26,  1015.  He 
was  bom  at  Knox,  Me.,  in  1845,  and  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  Ck>llege  in  1870.  He  served  in 
the  Civil  War  from  1862  to  1865.  He  was  sev- 
eral times  wounded  and  lost  his  left  arm  in  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness.  In  1870-71  he  was  in- 
structor in  mathematics  at  the  Worcester  Poly- 
technic Institute,  and  the  latter  year  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  at  Dartmouth 
College  and  continued  to  hold  this  position  im- 
til  1911,  when  he  became  professor  emeritus. 

SHTPBTTILDINO.  Shipbuilding  statistics  for 
1915,  so  far  as  Europe  was  concerned,  were  at 
best  fragmentary  and  unsatisfactory.  The  re- 
turns for  the  United  Eangdom  included  abso- 
lutely no  warship  work,  but  for  the  other  coun- 
tries referred  to  in  the  following  list  from  the 
Glasgow  Herald  there  is  included  alU-warship    j 

Digitized  by  VjOOSIC 


SHIPBUILDIlirO 


584 


SHZPBXTILDINO 


work  reports  of  which  have  been  received.  The 
purely  British  production,  notwithstandinff  the 
war,  was  enormously  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  country,  and  were  the  warships  and  other 
government  vessels  building  included,  naturally 
the  totals  would  be  increased.  The  Clyde  alone 
had  a  production  almost  equal  to  that  of  Hol- 
land. 

Summary  of  the  world's  shipbuilding  for  1915: 

VesteU  Tont  I.H.P. 

United   Kingdom    617  649,886  640,594 

United    States    127  270.124  822,168 

Holland 890  217.692  114,510 

The  Clyde 126  215,060  180,603 

Germany 46  179.804  188.166 

The  Tyne    86  124,299  92,420 

Tho  Tees 40  111,298  91,980 

The  Wear 31  111.226  70.619 

Japan    127  96.218  182,089 

The  accompanying  table,  also  from  the  Annual 
Shipbuilding  Review  of  the  Glasgow  Herald,  sum- 
marizes the  shipbuilding  returns  of  non-British 
yards  for  1915,  as  compared  with  the  previous 
vear: 


YmmI,  2Vp«  MMt  BuOdtrs 


ToKi 


Meiningen  (paBsenmr  air.),  J.  0.  Taeklenborg. .  11,000 
AehillM  (steam  eoIlTer),  The  Maryland  Co 10,650 


Vestels 

United  States 127 

Holland     890 

Germany 46 

Japan    127 

Norway    66 

Denmark 40 

France 82 

Sweden    88 

Italy     4 

Spam 7 

China     60 

Russia     13 

Total    955 

Ve99els 

United  Stotes 166 

Holland 674 

Germany 184 

Japan    164 

Norway 67 

Denmark 89 

France     98 

Sweden    29 

Italy    54 

Spain 9 

China    68 

Russia     14 

Austria    28 

Belgium     16 

Total    1,600 


— 1915 — 

Tons 

270,124 

217.502 

179,804 

98,213 

61,477 

51,861 

41,488 

25.927 

20,280 

14,806 

8.078 

792 


I.H.P. 

822,168 

114,510 

188.156 

182.039 

41,926 

32,042 

20.960 

82.680 

20,000 

18.750 

6,400 

640 


989.887  975,010 


-2914- 


Tona 

270,962 

279,684 

505.719 

136.809 

64,108 

83,463 

196,540 

14,657 

41.792 

21.197 

16,664 

38,976 

78,457 

10,596 


I.HJP. 

806,465 

116.618 

572,658 

125.614 

89,556 

19,661 

208,630 

18,760 

85,466 

88,000 

12,120 

61,000 

68,800 


1.694,028       1,697.721 


The  condition  of  the  shipbuilding  industry  in 
1915  throughout  the  world  was  reflected  in  the 
small  number  of  large  vessels  launched.  Where 
in  1014  the  colossal  German  liner  Bismarck,  of 
56,000  tons,  had  been  put  into  the  water  at  Ham- 
burg, and  the  second  largest,  the  White  Star 
liner  Britannic,  of  50,000  tons,  had  been  launched 
at  Belfast,  in  1915  there  were  launched  only 
nine  vessels  of  10,000  tons  measurment  or  more, 
and  of  these,  three  were  built  in  Great  Britain, 
five  in  Germany,  and  one  in  the  United  States. 
They  were  as  follows: 

Vessel,  Type  and  Builders  T<ms 

Aotearoa   (geared  turbine),  The  Fairfield  Co....  15,000 

Ausonia   T twin-screw  turbine),  Blohm  ft  Yoss.  .  14,000 

Aurania  (geared  turbine),  Swan,  Hunter,  etc...  18,400 

Weisenfels  (cargo  str.).  The  Weser  Co 12,000 

Altenfela  (cargo  str.).  J.  C.  Tecklenborg 11.000 

Aschenburg  (cargo  str.).  J.  C.  Tecklenborg ... .  11,000 


San  Gennaro  (T.  s.  str.),  Palmers  <>>.. 


10,800 


In  Great  Britain  shipbuilding  in  1016  was  in 
very  much  the  same  position  as  the  iron  and 
steel  industries,  and  the  various  yards  were  cor- 
respondingly organized  and  used  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage of  the  Empire.  The  various  private 
works  were  linked  together  so  as  to  eodperate  in 
the  interests  of  the  navy  and  the  transport  serv- 
ice, and  in  at  least  four  important  yards,  namely. 
Brown's  on  the  Clyde,  Armstrong  on  the  Tyne, 
Vicker's  at  Barrow,  and  Gammeirs  at  Birken- 
head, the  building  of  merchant  ships  was  sus- 
pended, except  for  such  vessels  as  could  be  trans- 
ferred into  serviceable  craft  for  naval  use.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  there  was  naturally  no  in- 
formation forthcoming  as  to  the  ships  that  had 
been  transferred  to  the  Admiralty  or  the  war- 
ships that  were  building.  The  effect  of  the  war 
was  to  hold  up  on  the  Clyde  the  construction  of 
some  large  liners,  but  a  few  vessels  of  consider- 
able tonnage,  including  the  Aotearoa,  a  geared 
turbine  vessel  for  the  Union  Steamship  Com- 
pany of  New  Zealand  built  in  the  Fairfield  yard, 
were  launched  during  the  year.  It  was  also  re- 
ported that  at  the  end  of  the  year  there  were  a 
fair  number  of  vessels  on  the  stocks.  The  Tyne, 
where  a  large  number  of  tramp  steamers  ordinar- 
ily are  constructed,  was  also  engaged  in  naval 
work,  so  that  its  yards  were  unable  to  take  up 
the  construction  of  many  merchant  vessels  that 
owners  would  have  been  only  too  glad  to  put 
under  way.  At  Belfast,  Harland  and  Wolff 
launched  no  merchant  steamers  during  the  12 
months,  but  they  completed  the  Briiaunic,  which 
became  the  largest  ship  afloat,  it  being  about 
50,000  tons  displacement,  900  feet  in  length,  with 
an  extreme  breadth  of  about  94  feet,  as  compared 
with  the  Aquitania,  which  has  a  length  of  865 
feet  and  breadth  of  97  feet.  It  was  reported 
at  the  end  of  1916  that  the  British  government 
had  given  permission  in  certain  cases  for  mer- 
chant vessels  in  course  of  building  to  be  com- 
pleted. 

The  decrease  in  British  output  was  most 
ntarked  in  Scotland,  especially  on  the  Clyde, 
the  accompanying  summaries  showing  the  com- 
parative figures  for  1915  and  1914: 


VssssU 

ayde     126 

Forth     21 

Tay    10 

Dee,  etc 50 

Total    207 

f 
TssssU 

Clyde 807 

Forth 18 

Tay    18 

Dee,  etc Ill 

Total    464 


— 1915 — 
Tons 
216,060 
6,427 
4.895 
8.119 

288.501 


— 1914 — 
Tons 
460,258 
19.788 
18.885 
15,619 

508.945 


I.H.P. 

180,503 

6.285 

4.160 

14.840 

205.288 


I.E.P. 

496,120 

9.440 

10,200 

24.680 

540.200 


A  similar  decrease  was  to  be  observed  in  the 
output  of  English  yards  where  the  production 
of  mercantile  vessels  fell  from  967,000  to  384,000 
tons  and  the  indicated  horse  power  from  639,000 
to  310,000.  The  accompanying  table  shows  the 
English  mercantile  tonnage  for  the  last  two 
years: 


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SHIFBTriliDINa 


686 


SHIPBUHiDINO 


Tyne    

Tees 

YwtU 

85 

. .  . .        40 

Toiu 

124,299 

111,298 

111,225 

26.098 

6,857 

2.807 

1.160 

688 

/.H.P. 

92.420 
91,980 

Wear 

81 

70.619 

Humber 

. . . .        79 

45.105 

Mersey    

Thames    

Bristol  Channel   . . . 
English  Channel    . . 

52 

84 

2 

25 

. . . .      298 

8.780 

4,770 

270 

1.680 

Total    

884.417 

810,574 

Te9MeU 
91 

Trne    

Ton9 

815.896 

250,688 

278,587 

65.574 

45,076 

11,768 

8.867 

5,988 

966,889 

IM.P. 
196.465 

Tees 

Wear   

99 

74 

165.400 
148,865 

Humber     

Mersey     

Thames 

117 

166 

. . . .      179 

60,601 
87.777 
18,095 

Bristol  Channel   . . . 
English  Channel    . . 

Total    

20 

72 

817 

105 
12.756 

689.654 

A  revival  of  shipbuilding  took  place  in  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1916,  and  from 
July  to  December  there  was  a  large  and  espe- 
cially notable  increase  in  addition  to  the  con- 
struction durini?  the  government's  fiscal  year  end- 
ing June  30th,  and  summarized  in  the  commis- 
sioner of  navigation's  statistics  (see  Shipping). 
On  July  1,  1916,  46  vessels  of  a  net  tonnage  of 
282,718  tons  were  building  or  under  contract  in 
American  yards,  and  within  six  months  further 
orders  were  given  for  62  vessels,  with  a  gross 
tonnage  of  323,602  tons.  Of  this  amoimt  over 
67  per  cent  were  designed  for  buUc  oil  carriers, 
27  per  cent  for  general  freight  carriers,  about  8 
per  cent  for  colliers,  and"  the  remainder  for  pas- 
senger and  freight  ships.  From  July  1st  187 
vessels,  of  63,829  net  tons  were  added  to  the 
American  registry.  The  gross  additions  were 
469  vessels  with  net  tonnage  of  144,736.  From 
these  deductions  had  to  be  made  for  vessels  lost, 
abfudoned,  or  sold  to  aliens  amounting  to  272 
with  a  net  tonnage  of  90,907  tons.  The  American 
registry  is  shown  to  have  covered  on  December 
1st  26,888  vessels  with  8,443,268  net  tons.  In 
American  yards  there  were  building  in  December 
not  only  ships  for  American  owners  but  four 
vessels  of  3600  tons  each  for  Norwegian  owners, 
and  two  others  of  6000  tons  ea<£  for  other 
foreign  owners,  a  total  of  24,000  tons  for  foreign 
capital. 

The  vear  1915  in  American  shipbuilding  was, 
as  a  whole,  one  of  imparalleled  activity,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  year  it  was  reported  that  there 
were  over  200  large  merchant  vessels  totaling 
700,000  gross  tons  under  construction.  In  pri- 
vate ship  yards  there  were  in  addition  about  69 
government  vessels  aggregating  168,162  tons  dis- 
placement imder  way,  while  at  the  government 
navy  yards  12  vessels  aggregating  176,010  tons 
displacement,  were  building,  making  a  total  of 
71  government  vessels,  of  344,162  tons  displace- 
ment. These  statistics  did  not  include  the  ton- 
nage of  40  submarines,  11  of  which  were  build- 
ing for  foreign  navies,  as  the  particulars  of 
American  submarines  under  construction  were 
not  being  disclosed.  The  various  merchant  ves- 
sels being  constructed  were  classed  as  follows: 
116  of  643,476  gross  tons,  were  large  sea-going 
vessels,  for  the  most  part  over  3000  tons;  13 
of  these  were  over  10,000  tons  each;  26  ranged 
from  7000  to  10,000  gross  tons;  27  from  5000  to 
7000  gross  tons;  10  from  4000  to  6000  gross  tons; 


and  42  from  2000  to  4000  gross  tons.  As  re- 
gards their  application,  they  were  grouped  as 
follows:  48  oil  tankers,  of  343,861  gross  tons; 
63  freighters,  of  228,041  gross  tons;  9  colliers, 
of  39,836  gross  tons;  6  passenger  and  freight 
steamers,  of  31,728  gross  tons. 

The  aggregate  tonnage  of  large  sea-going  nior- 
chant  vessels  built  in  the  United  States  was  less 
than  for  several  years.  Considering  the  type  of 
vessels  over  100  gross  tons,  there  were  completed 
during  the  year  129  sea-going  merchant  vessels 
aggregating  about  173,223  gross  tons,  in  addi- 
tion to  18  government  vessels  aggregating  48,146 
tons  displacement.  Two  of  the  sea-going  mer- 
chant vessels  in  the  above. group  were  over  10,- 
000  tons;  4  between  7000  and  10,000;  10  be- 
tween 6000  and  7000;  2  between  4000  and  6000; 
6  between  3000  and  4000.  Of  these,  19,  aggre- 
gating 62,039  gross  tons,  were  freighters;  6,  of 
38,400  gross  tons,  colliers;  6,  of  33,238  gross 
tons,  oil  tankers;  10  passenger  and  cargo  steam- 
ers, of  16,014  gross  tons;  and  9  oil  ^rges,  of 
3963  gross  tons. 

These  statistics  for  work  actually  completed 
indicate  commercial  and  shipping  conditions  of 
an  earlier  year,  as  few  contracts  for  merchant 
vessels  were  made  in  1914,  with  the  result  that 
the  deliveries  in  the  following  year  were  exceed- 
ingly small.  Regarding  the  work  put  imder 
way  in  1915,  first  in  importance,  as  well  as  in 
point  of  time,  were  the  large  oil  tankers,  and 
these  were  soon  followed  by  large  freight  carry- 
ing steamships.  *  All  of  the  large  ship  owners 
desired  export  vessels  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
soon  the  capacity  of  the  yards  was  so  taxed  that 
it  was  impossible  to  place  contracts  for  large 
merchant  vessels  on  the  sea  coast  for  delivery 
within  two  years.  The  greatest  output  of  mer- 
chant vessels  in  1916  was  from  the  yard  of  the 
Maryland  Steel  Company  at  Sparrows  Point, 
and  second  on  the  list  was  the  New  York  Ship- 
building Company,  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  which,  if 
government  vessels  be  included,  enjoyed  the  repu- 
tation for  the  largest  output  of  the  year.  For 
tonnage  imder  construction  the  Newport  News 
Shipbuilding  Company  held  the  record,  with  16 
merchant  vessels,  of  120,399  gross  tons  imder 
construction,  followed  by  the  New  York  Ship- 
building Company  with  22  vessels,  of  107,639 
gross  tons.  The  William  Cramp  and  Sons'  Ship 
and  En^ne  Building  Company  had  13  vessels,  of 
71,600  gross  tons,  and  the  Union  Iron  Works  had 
10  vessels,  of  69,240  tons. 

The  list  might  be  continued  so  as  to  include 
practically  all  American  yards  capable  of  modern 
ship  construction,  and  to  the  merchant  steam- 
ships might  be  added  the  government  construc- 
tion, of  which  5  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  dis- 
placement tonnage  of  63,450  gross  tons,  were 
building  at  the  New  York  Shipbuilding  Com- 
pany, and  2  vessels,  of  63,400  tons,  at  the  New- 
port News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry  Dock  Company. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  Union  Iron  Works  of 
San  Francisco  built  during  the  year  2  vessels  of 
about  6000  gross  tons,  each  fitted  with  Curtis 
turbines,  also  a  launch  oil  tanker,  of  7446  gross 
tons,  fitted  with  Curtis  turbines,  of  2600  horse 
power.  This  yard  had  under  construction  in 
the  same  year  6  large  oil  tankers,  2  being  8000 
gross  tons;  and  4  of  7445  gross  tons  each,  a 
twin  screw  turbine  driven  passenger  and  freight 
steamer,  of  9728  gross  tons,  for  the  Matson  Navi- 
gation Company,  and  a  freighter  of  5900  gross 
tons,  with  Curtis  turbines,  for  the  Hind-Rolph 


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Company.  At  Seattle,  2  freight  steamers,  of 
3900  gross  tons  each,  for  the  New  York  and 
Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Company,  were  under  con- 
struction, as  well  as  some  submarines  and  a 
destroyer  for  the  United  States  navy. 

On  the  Great  Lakes  the  largest  vessels  being 
built  were  four  bulk  freighters  at  Lorain,  Ohio, 
at  the  yards  of  the  American  Shipbuilding  Com- 
pany, of  6400  gross  tons.  The  American  Ship- 
building Company  completed  during  the  year 
the  self-unloading  bulk  freighter  W.  F,  White^ 
of  7180  gross  tons,  for  the  Limestone  Transpor- 
tation Company.  At  Detroit,  Mich.,  the  Great 
Lakes  Engineering  Company  delivered  10  ves- 
sels aggregating  9603  gross  tons,  in  1915,  and 
had  under  construction  11  vessels,  of  31,347 
gross  tons;  3  passenger  cargo  steamers,  of  1414 
gross  tons  each,  for  the  Clyde  Steamship  Com- 
pany, were  part  of  its  output,  while  the  work 
in  hand  at  the  end  of  the  year  included  a  bulk 
freighter,  of  7800  gross  tons,  and  a  self  unloading 
freighter  of  4810  gross  tons,  as  well  as  2  cargo 
steamers  of  2500  gross  tons  each. 

The  construction  of  ships  in  Germany  to  re- 
place those  captured  by  the  Allies  was  not  very 
active,  and  the  merchant  ships  launched  during 
the  war  were  ordered  before  the  commencement 
of  hostilities.  German  naval  yards  were  pros- 
perous with  naval  orders,  but  the  shipbuilding 
industries,  and  especially  the  smaller  yards,  were 
said  to  have  suffered  from  the  great  lack  of 
skilled  labor,  the  very  great  increase  in  the  cost 
of  material,  and  the  difficulty  ef  procuring  the 
latter.  As  a  result  the  smaller  yards  were  work- 
ing on  an  average,  56  hours  per  week;  while  the 
large  shipbuilding  yards,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
busy  day  and  night. 

In  Japan  some  43  ships,  ranging  from  7300 
to  1100  tons,  were  under  construction  during  the 
year  in  various  ship  yards,  which  were  operating 
day  and  night.  At  the  Mitsu  Bishi  yard  m 
Nagasaki,  4  ships  with  a  tonnage  of  7300  eacli 
and  2  of  3700  tons  each  were  being  built.  At  the 
Kobe  yards  of  the  same  company,  1  1800-ton 
and  2  5300-ton  vessels  were  on  the  ways.  At 
Kobe,  the  Kawasaki  yards  were  building  I  1700- 
ton,  1  3000-ton,  2  4000-ton  and  3  7300-ton 
boats. 

Other  important  work  being  executed  at  the 
different  ship  yards  was:  Osaka  Iron  Foundry, 
Osaka,  6  7300-ton,  1  5000-ton,  12  3200-ton  and  1 
1100-ton  craft;  Uraga  Dockyard  Co.,  Uraga,  4 
2200-ton  vessels. 

SHIPPING.  The  shipping  interests  of  the 
world  during  1915  presented  a  most  striking  and 
interesting  situation.  Here  more  than  anywhere 
were  illustrated  the  commercial  aspect  of  the 
war,  and  the  change  in  conditions  due  to  the 
interference  with  the  ordinary  routine  of  com- 
merce. The  merchant  marine  of  Germany  and 
Austria  had  been  driven  from  the  sea,  destroyed, 
or  forced  to  intern  in  their  own  or  neutral  ports, 
over  6,000,000  tons  being  rendered  useless  in 
this  way,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  subma- 
rines and  commerce  raiders  of  the  Teutonic 
allies  had  destroyed  freight  and  passenger  ves- 
sels, and  had  produced  a  condition  which  had 
its  effect  on  freight  and  insurance  rates,  and  also 
restricted  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  passenger 
travel,  which  shrunk  to  the  most  meagre  dimen- 
sions. While  the  amount  of  shipping  destroyed 
by  the  German  submarines  did  not  bulk  large  in 
determining  the  grand  total,  yet  it  had  to  be 
considered.    The  interference  due  to  ''blockades," 


and  the  establishment  of  war  zones,  had  their 
effect  on  neutral  shipping,  as  did  also  embargoes 
and  the  definition  of  various  contraband  arti- 
cles, as  well  as  the  sale  of  war  supplies  by  neu- 
tral powers  to  belligerents.  The  blockade  of 
German  ports  naturally  restricted  a  certain 
amount  of  the  world's  commerce  that  hitherto 
had  gone  to  and  from  the  Teutonic  empires 
and  neighboring  countries,  while  the  increased 
demands  made  upon  the  United  States,  both  for 
mimitlons  of  war  and  for  ordinary  supplies  from 
Europe,  as  well  as  from  South  America  and 
Africa,  which  previously  largely  had  been  sup- 
plied from  Europe,  led  to  an  increase  of  ocean 
traffic  so  far  as  the  United  States  was  con- 
cerned. A  change  in  the  shipping  laws  brought 
about  by  the  Ship  Registry  Act  of  Aug.  18,  1914, 
brought  under  the  United  States  flag  a  greater 
increase  in  tonnage  and  values  than  ever  previ- 
ously had  been  added  to  the  American  merchant 
fleet. 

ToiNNAGE  Lost  in  1915.  While  shipbuilding 
(q.v.)  was  active  in  the  United  Statei9  and  in 
some  of  the  European  countries,  though  not 
coming  up  to  tlie  normal  average,  yet  the  ques- 
tion of  the  change  in  tlie  world*8  total  tonnage, 
due  to  the  losses  of  ships  in  the  war  was  an  im- 
portant consideration  of  the  year.  According 
to  records  obtained  from  the  best  official  and 
commercial  sources,  and  published  in  the  New 
York  Journal  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Bul- 
letin, in  the  first  17  months  of  the  war,  ended 
Dec.  31,  1915,  approximately  990  merchant  ves- 
sels of  all  classes  and  types,  with  an  estimated 
gross  tonnage  of  1,878,003  tons,  had  been  de- 
stroyed directly  or  indirectly;  these  figures  being 
presented  as  conservative,  as  in  certain  cases  the 
tonnage  of  ships  destroyed  was  not  available. 
The  flag  under  which  these  ships  sailed,  and  the 
number  and  tonnage  actually  destroyed,  as  well 
as  the  number  and  tonnage  owned  in  each  coun- 
try, are  given  in  the  accompanying  summary. 
Ihe  tonnage  given  in  the  tonnage  owned  by  each 
of  the  nations  is  gross  for  the  steam  vessels  and 
net  for  the  sailing  vessels  included  therein: 

Steam  and  SaiHnff  Otobb  Ton» 
Vess§U  of  Soil  and 
Owned  Accord-  Steam  Vot- 
ing to  Lloyd's  sol*  Dootroyod 
BsffUtor  Book,  in  War 
19151916  (27  Months) 

. * ^      , ' . 

Flag                            No.           Tons  No,       Tons 

Un.    Kingdom 9,285  19,541,864  l^no  i  loo  Rfii 

BritUh   Colonies 2,068     1,782,700  }  ®"^  l.l»A&6l 

*  United    SUtet    . . .   2,560     8,522,918  7        14.087 

AuBtria-Hunsary  ...       483     1,018,210  6        13,240 

Danish     885        854.966  29        88,298 

Dutch     809     1,522.547  21        86,848 

French     1.539     2,285,728  54      125.978 

German     2.166     4.706.027  65       161,888 

Italian     1,177     1,786,545  24        60.217 

t  Japanese     1,155     1,826,029  8         16.415 

Norwegian     2,174     2,529,188  77       108.028 

Russian      1,256     1,054.762  81        84.198 

Spanish     642         899,204  

Swedish     1,462     1,122,888  85        82,667 

*  Excluding  vessels  trading  on  the  Great  Lakes  of 
North  America,  f  Japanese  sailing  vessels  are  not  in- 
serted in  Lloyd's  "Register  Year  Book,"  and  are  there- 
fore not  included  in  these  tables. 

In  the  table  are  included  vessels  of  all  types, 
but  the  total  niunber  of  ships  lost  by  Great 
Britain,  602,  may  be  divided  into  338  merchant 
steamers  and  264  trawlers,  sailing  vessels,  etc. 
The  loss  in  tonnage  by  Great  Britain,  whose 
merchant    marine    aggregated    21,274,061    tons 


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during  the  17  months  of  the  war  was  1,192,551 
tons,  while  Germany,  whose  gross  tonnage  on 
the  same  date  aggregated  4,706,027,  had  lost 
through  actual  destruction  only  about  65  vessels 
of  approximately  161,888  tons,  but  a  large  num- 
ber of  German  and  Austrian  vessels  were  hur- 
ried to  safety  in  various  neutral  ports  at  the 
outbreak  of  tiie  war  and  were  there  at  the  close 
of  1915.  The  war's  destruction,  affecting  as  it 
did  all  nations,  involved  a  loss  of  50  steamers 
of  over  5000  tons,  whose  names  are  given  in  the 
accompanying  summary,  as  many  of  these  ves- 
sels are  familiar  for  their  transatlantic  asso- 
ciations or  otherwise. 

Large  merchant  steamers  destroyed  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  war,  August,  1914,  to  December,  1915: 


Qro99 
tonM 
Lusitania  ( Br. )  . .  .  80,896 
Cap       Trafalir&r 

(Ger.)      18.710 

Kr.      Wilhefan      der 

Orosse     (Ger.) ..  .18,952 

Oceanic    (Br.)    17,274 

Vandyck  (Br.) ...  .10,828 
La  Correntina  (Br.)  8,260 
Elafnore  (Br.)  ....  6.542 
Navarra  (Ger.)  ...  5.974 
City    of    Wineheatar 

(Br.)   6,601 

Baden    (Ger.)     7,676 

Kaipara   (Br.)    7,892 

Cormorant  (Br.)  . .  7.695 
Highl'd    Brae    (Br.)  7.684 

Lovat  (Br.)    6.102 

San    Wilf'do    (Br.).    6.468 

Troilns     (Br.) 7.662 

Princeia  Irene  (Br.)   6,000 

India    (Br.)    7.940 

Royal  Edward  (Br.)11.117 

Iberian    (Br.)     6,228 

Armenian    (Br.)     . .   8,826 

Arabic    (Br.)    16.801 

Windaor  (Br.) 6,066 

Baron  Ervkine  (Br.)  6.586 
Hesperian  (Br.)  . .  9,599 
Urbioa   (Br.)    6.661 


QroM 
tons 

Marquette    (Br.)    ..  7.057 

Calif ornian    (Br.)    .  6.228 

Lumina    (Br.)    ....  6.218 

Commodore    (Br.)..  5,858 

Floride   (Fr.)    6,629 

(Guatemala    (Fr.)    . .  6.913 

Yunnan    (Fr.)     6.474 

A  m  i  r  a  1      Hamelin 

(Fr.)    6,050 

Ancona    (ItaL)    ....  8.210 

Porto  Said    6.167 

Yaaukini        IC  a  r  u 

(Jap.)    6.118 

Tasaka  Maru    8,297 

Maryland  (Dan.)..  5,186 
Konigin       £  m  m  a 

(Dutch)     9.181 

Eemdyk  (Dutch)  ..  6,180 
R  e  c  h  i  d      Paaha 

(Turk.)     8.000 

Orterie   (Br.)    6.685 

Persia    (Br.)    7,974 

Glensyle   (Br.)    9,895 

Dante       Alegbieri 

(Itol.)    9,754 

Ville    de    la    OroUt 

(Ft.)    6  878 

Dagla   (Fr.)    6,600 


While  no  figures  were  forthcoming  as  to  the 
value  of  the  cargoes  lost  with  these  vessels,  yet 
a  summary  of  losses  of  the  British  War  Risk 
Association  showed  that  during  the  first  12 
months  of  the  war  the  value  of  cargoes  lost  in 
British  ships  amounted  to  about  $35,000,000, 
with  an  estimated  value  of  cargoes  carried  dur- 
ing the  same  period  of  $7,500,000,000,  or  .48  per 
cent  of  the  total  value. 

Fbshoht  Rates.  Everywhere  during  1915 
freight  rates  increased,  as  did  also  insurance, 
and  for  those  who  owned  merchant  steamers, 
tramps^  as  well  as  liners,  and  even  sailing  ves- 


example,  in  England  th< 
Navigation  Company,  w 
160,  showed  a  gain  of 
From  American  ports  f 
available  far  in  excess  o: 
ing  them,  and  late  in  t 
ticularly  at  the  harbor 
at  various  other  Atlant 
condition,  affecting  local 
merce,    and    leading   to 
freight  from  the  interio 
United  States  for  foreigi 
the  year,  and  the  operat 
nal   until   closed  by   sli 
effect  on  American  oomi 
coasts  and  the  insular 
Asia  and  South  Americ 
the  Isthmian  traffic  (see 
ever,  was  a  very  serious 
of  the  year,  as  much  shi 
could  have  been  profitab 
sels  were  required  to  mi 
the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
consumption  of  time,  whi 
far  more  profitably  emph 
Some  idea  of  the  increa 
be  had  from  the  accompai 
parative  rates  for  wheal 
United  SUtes  to  Great 
five  and  six  years. 


Whsmt,  iMT  H& 

*ToU.E. 

XoL'i 

Avtragt  for       {for 
a  months       ordsrs) 

S!\ 

(Sept.NoT.)      csnts 

esw 

1915    86.1 

87. 

1914    88.2 

9. 

1918    89.5 

5. 

1912    29.5 

10. 

1911    20.9 

6. 

1910    19.9 

8. 

At.  for  year — 

1914    21.0 

7. 

1918    ....     21.0 

5. 

1912    24.1 

7. 

1911    18.8 

4.: 

1910    17.6 

8. 

*To   United   Kingdom    (foi 

Ores.,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle. 

•                            _    ... 

World's  Shipping   in 
panying  table  are  given  th 
gross  tonnage  of  steam  t 
over   100  tons,  of  the  se\ 
world,    as    recorded    in 
1915-16. 


Flag 

British :  Numbsr 

United  Kingdom 8,676 

Colonies    l*^*** 

Total     10,218 

American   (U.  8.): 

a^a       1,288 

Northern   lakes 669 

Philippine   Islands    61 

Total     1,868 

24S 

Austro-HUDS 159 

Bfcl«»a«      •     • 891 

Chilean     ["'['.",    .  79 

Chinese ^2 

Cuban     


Stsaim 
Nsttons 
11,760,277 
980.764 


Gross  tons 

19,286,705 

1.695,218 


SaQ 
Numbsr       NH  torn 


610 
625 


805,661 
187,48'. 


12,691.041     20.830,918      1,185  448,15C 


1.655.718 

1.681.788 

26,549 


110,199 

680,840 

170,961 

182.228 

68.749 

61.889 

21.748 


2,679,646 

2,281,074 

44,029 


1,847 

81 

8 


948,286 

92,823 

2,280 


8,864,065       4,864,748      1,886      1,087,891 


188.771 

1,016,695 

269.252 

802.518 

100,820 

97.686 

86,896 


72 

11 

5 

52 

80 

2 

6 


88,762 

1.616 

7,175 

14,901 

28.272 

648 

2,487 


loogle 


SHIPPING 


588 


SHIPPING 


l^lag  Number 

D»ni8h 5f6 

Dutch _  J  JO 

French   J-gJ? 

German    i.JJJ 

Greek Jf  J 

Italian    «56 

Japanese l.^JJ 

Mexican   ,    *2 

Norwegian    l.ojg 

Peruvian    JJ 

Portuguese     *"* 

Rumanian    JJ 

Kuaaian    2  JJ 

Spanish    588 


Swedish 

Turkish    

Uruguayan     

Other    countries:     Albania,     Bul- 

Eiria.  Colombia,  OosU  Rica, 
cuador,  Egypt.  Haiti,  Hon- 
duras. Liberia,  Montenegro,  Nic- 
aragua, Oman,  Panama,  Persia, 
Salvador.  Samos,  Sarawak, 
Siam,  Tunis,  Venesuela,  Zanai- 
bar,    etc 


145 
40 


82 


Steam. 

Net  tons 

474.278 

922.860 

1.090.809 

2,661,946 

561,880 

925,464 

1.162.881 

28.803 

1.179.668 

15,126 

55.610 

80.560 

498.105 

589,134 

594.808 

67.168 

22,253 


88.098 


SaU 

Total 

Oroee  tone 

Number 

Net  ton* 

Number 

Tonnage 

803,701 

249 

51.295 

885 

854,996 

1,498,519 

99 

24,028 

809 

1.522.547 

1,909,609 

628 

876.119 

1.589 

2.285.728 

4,419,167 

269 

286.860 

2.166 

4,706.027 

892,991 

77 

15.784 

510 

908.725 

1.518,681 

622 

222,914 

1,177 

1,786.545 

1,826.068 

1,155 

1.826.068 

89.294 

io 

8.888 

52 

42.682 

1,977.809 

516 

651,879 

2.174 

2,529.188 

28.608 

48 

25.141 

66 

58.749 

92,425 

102 

80.801 

206 

122.726 

54.210 

1 

898 

84 

54,603 

851.951 

512 

202,811 

1.256 

1.054.762 

885,755 

54 

18.449 

642 

899.204 

1,021.796 

872 

101.087 

1.462 

1.122.883 

115.842 

67 

17,820 

212 

138.162 

36,561 

12 

11,179 

52 

47,740 

65,628 


The 


^orld     24.508       28.159.895     45,729,208 


80 
6,212 


28,967 


162 


94.590 


8.582,561      80,720         49,261.769 


Comparison  of  American  merchant  marine  of 
1914  and  1915,  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Navigation  report,  1915: 


ClaeeifieoHon  1914  1915 

No.     Oroestons  No.     OroMtons 
Barret — 

Wood     1,088      116,878  1,090 

MeUl     16  5,831  16 


126,660 

5,474 


ClauificaHon 


1914  1915 

No.     Oroeetone     No.     OroMtona 
Oeoffraphieal 
distribution 

^*!i«U    ."*... ^""16.767  8.796.622  1..591  4.295.886 
Porto  Rico      105  7,882         100        14.111 

r^dSc^^Mi  ;::::  4.778  losmm  4.972 1.109.259 

TT.wKil  48         16,886  44         18,861 

Northern    uicM  '  ".  *. '.    8,406  2,882,922     8,161  2.818.009 
Western    rivers     .  .    1,844      141,486     1,888      188,804 

Total     26,948  7.928,688  26,701  8,889.429 

Power  and  material 
Sail* 

Wood     6.817  1.166,401 

Metal     142      267,189 


ToUl    1,049      121,709     1.106      182.134 

Total 
registered    .    2,406  1,076,152     2,794  1,871,643 


Enrolled  and  licensed: 
Sail— 

Wood     5,861      960.820 

Metal     126      242.651 


5,162 
128 


Total     5,987  1.202,971 

Steam — 

Wood     12.567  997,976 

Metal     2,040  8,704,677 


758,621 
236.290 


5,285      994.911 

4.435   838.086 
1,950  8,614,858 


5,706  1,088,091 
160   296.883 


Total  14,607  4,702,652  6,385  4,447,944 


Gas( 


Total     6,459  1,482,540     6,866  1,884,474 


Wood     8,887 

Metal     69 


^^wShI     18.272  1,081.848 

MeuS     2.219  4,846,178 


4.671      904.899 
2,281  4,877.017 


Total     15,4915.427,526     6.952  5.781,416 


Total     8,456 

Canal,  wood 

Barges — 
Wood     . . . 


186.151 
9.869 


146,020 


700         76,454        560        61,979 


Wood     8,925 

Metal ^ 

Total      8,996 

Canal,    wood    ...       700        76,454        560 


Barges : 

Wood     4,091 

Metal     202 


872,558  b  4,117 
119,610       210 


1S2.86O 
10,084 

162,894 

61.979 


877,880 
121,286 


MeUl 


8,058 
186 


756,180  6  8.027 
114,279         194 


751.220 
115.812 


Total     8.244      870,459     8,221      867.032 

Total  enrolled 

and  licensed. 24,588  6,852,586  28,907  6.517.886 


Total     4,244      992,168     4.827      999.166 


Grand    total. 26,948  7,928,688  26,701  8,889.429 

CON8TBT7CTIOM   DURING   THI  TRAB 

Geoffraphieal  dietribuHon 
Atlantic     and     Gulf 


Grand  total    . 

Trado 
Registered: 
Ssil— 

Wood     

Metal     

.26.948 

456 
16 

7,928,688  2 

205,081 
24,488 

229,569 

88,878 
641,501 

724,874 

6,701 

644 
37 

581 

286 
881 

567 

588 
2 

8,889,429 

829.470 
60.098 

389,563 

71.813 
1,262,159 

1,888,472 

16,209 
165 

coasts 
Porto    Rico     /.'.'.'.". 

Pacific   coast    

Hawaii    

Northern    lakes    .  . . 
Western    rivers    .  . . 

Total      

554 
3 

880 
2 

180 

182 

215,141 

64 

86,420 

75 

56,541 

8,009 

540 
5 

818 
8 

147 

144 

171.422 

35 

81,601 

98 

16,467 

5.499 

1,151 
51 

816,250 
13,749 

1,157 
51 

225.122 

Power  and  material 
Sail: 
Wood     

Total     .  . .  . 
Steam — 

472 

705 
179 

8.021 

Wood     

Metal     

Metol     

Total     ." 

Steam: 

Wood     

Metal     

.  . .  •  •     . 

Total      .  . . . 

Gaso — 
Wood 

884 

51 

677 
101 

13,749 

28.614 
195,611 

51 

82 
59 

8,021 

14.852 
127.597 

Metal     

ToUl     

Total 

540 

16,874 

778      224,225         141 

Digitized  by  VnOO 

142.449 

Qle 

SHIFPIKG  689  SHIPPING 

ClauifieaHon  1914  1915  tries  engafired  in  war,  was  also  a  topic  actively 

Q^.^  ^^-    ^^o''^o^    ^«-    Gross  ions  discussed  during  the  year.    Regulations  or  stat- 

Wood    601       11,114  utes  were  put  in  force  in  Great  Britain,  France, 

Metal    9         1^427  and  Germany,  forbidding  or  regulating  the  trans- 

q,  .  ,  ZTI  — 7^777  fer   to  enemies,   or   even   to   neutrals,   and   the 

^  ®^"       "'*"  United  States   Bureau  of  Navigation  compiled 

Barlw-^*^    ^^        ^'^^^         ^°         *''*^'^  during  the  year  summaries  of  the  various  laws 

Wood    276       66,898       808       55,828  a^d  rules  on  this  subject.     An  important  publi- 

Metal    21         9,820  7         li826  cation  wa«  also  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 

_  ,  ,  — ZZZ  — --  _,o       777  — 77777  gation  dealing  with  the  conditions  and  regula- 

Total     397        75,718         815         57.654  v.         #  v  •  a        •      xv  •  j,  • 

! L_  tion  for  ship  registry  in  the  various  countries 

Total    construe-  of  the  world. 

tio*^    1.151     316,250    1,157     225.122        j^  FoLLETTE  Seamen's  Law.    The  La  Follette 

a  Included  in  steam  prior  to  1915.  Seamen's  Law  enacted  March  4,  1915,  provoked 
b  Includes  2  concrete  barges  of  565  gross  tons.  ^^^^  discussion  during  the  year.  So  far  as 
_.  A  ■«_  r™  American  ships  were  concerned  it  became  eflfect- 
Tbansfebs  TO  Ai^iraiCAN  FLAG.  The  passage  .^^  ^^  ^^^  ^  ^gig  ^^^  for  foreign  vessels  on 
byCongressoftheActof  Aug.  18,  1914,  involved  ^arch  4,  1916.  This  act  required  a  language 
changes  of  serious  importance  to  the  American  ^^^  ^^^^j  ^hat  75  per  cent  of  the  crew,  on 
merchant  marine.  In  fact  the  situation  was  American  owned  or  operated  ships,  should  "un- 
compared  with  that  existing  m  1863  and  1864,  ^erstand  any  order  given  by  the  officers  of  such 
when  523,064  tons  of  American  shipping  was  ^^^y*.  that  66  per  cent  of  the  deck  crews  em- 
sold  to, foreigners  to  escape  risk  of  capture  by  pj^y^^  ^^  American  vessels  should  ultimately  be 
the  Confederate  cruisers.  On  the  other  hand  ^^le  seamen,  having  passed  physical  and  pro- 
m  the  fiscal  year  1915  148  vessels  of  623  361  Sessional  examinations  by  government  officers; 
gross  tons  were  transferred  from  other  nation-  ^^^de  less  serious  the  oflfeSse  of  desertion  by 
ahties  to  the  American  flag  and  registered.  Of  members  of  a  ship's  crew  under  special  condi- 
thwe,  96  of  332,258  gross  Jons,  were  formerly  ^ions;  required  hilf  payment  of  wages  to  the 
under  the  British  flag;  30  of  147,742  gross  tons,  ^rew  in  every  port;  ind  required  a  refusal  of 
under  the  German  flag;  6,  of  17,401  gross  tons,  clearance  to  a  vessel  where  upon  information  to 
under  the  Cuban  flag;  6,  of  10,549  gross  tons,  the  collector  it  was  stated  that  the  provisions  of 
under  the  Belgian  flag;  5,  of  5452  gross  tons,  the  act  relating  to  language  and  full  quota  of 
under  the  Mexican  flag;  1,  of  5275  gross  tons,  ^ble  seamen,  had  not  been  complied  with.  This 
under  the  Rumanian  flag;  1,  of  1352  gross  tons,  ^ct,  which  it  was  alleged  had  been  passed  largely 
under  the  Uruguayan  flag;  1,  of  1381  gross  tons,  ^t  the  demand  of  the  Seamen's  Union  and  other 
under  the  Chilean  flag;  2,  of  1349  gross  tons,  un-  persons  interested  in  the  cause  of  labor,  was 
der  the  Norwegian  flag.  These  148  vessels  were  f^^^^^  to  possess  many  impractical  provisions, 
owned  by  63  different  owners,  the  Standard  Oil  g^  that  the  construction  of  its  language,  as  made 
Company  of  New  Jersey  owning  25,  of  130,322  i,y  the  Denartment  of  Commerce,  which  was 
gross  tons;  the  United  Fruit  Company,  24,  of  charged  with  its  enforcement,  essentially  modi- 
113,243  gross  tons;  and  the  United  States  Steel  fted  it  in  many  respects,  but  at  the  same  time 
Products  Company,  10,  of  48,271  gross  tons:  ^id  not  entirely  eliminate  criticism,  and  several 
and  44  individuals  or  corporations  owning  each  American  steamship  lines  sold  their  ships,  claim- 
a  single  ship.  jug  that  it  was  impossible  to  carry  on  business 
In  many  cases,  however,  the  transfer  of  these  under  the  changed  conditions.  The  solicitor  of 
vessels  did  not  involve  a  change  in  the  actual  the  Department  of  Commerce  presented  an  opin- 
beneficiary  ownership,  as  they  really  belonged  to  ion  which  was  endorsed  by  the  Attorney  General 
Americans  but  were  operated  under  foreign  flags  stating  that  a  section  of  the  law  relating  to 
for  superior  advantages  so  conferred.  They  were  equipment  did  not  apply  to  vessels  of  foreign 
said  to  represent  an  investment  of  $33,393,275.58,  nations  having  laws  "approximating"  the  laws 
though  probably  nine-tenths  of  this  capital  had  in  the  United  States,  and  also  that  the  provisions 
been  invested  by  Americans  long  before  the  out-  of  the  Seamen's  Act  did  not  apply  to  vessels 
break  of  the  war.  This  addition  gave  the  United  granted  American  registry  under  the  merchant 
States  second  place  in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  ship  registry  act  of  August,  1914.  Furthermore, 
world,  as  shown  by  the  preceding  table,  and  the  department  construed  rather  liberally  the 
of  the  305  large  ocean  steamers  in  excess  of  3000  language  test,  so  that  only  the  ordinary  orders 
tons  flying  its  flag  in  1916,  90  were  registered  necessary  to  navigation  given  by  officers  need 
in  the  10  months  from  September,  1914,  to  June,  be  understood.  The  act  was  publicly  approved 
1916.  While  the  tonnage  under  the  American  by  Secretary  of  Labor  Wilson,  by  several  econo- 
flag  increased  by  460,471  gross  tons,  the  number  mists,  by  its  labor  sponsors,  and  others,  but  was 
of  vessels  decreased  242,  as  593  sailing  vessels  regarded  in  the  main  as  a  makeshift  measure, 
less  were  shown  on  the  list,  and  the  decline  in  which,  even  if  its  good  intentions  were  approved, 
the  number  with  the  increase  in  total  tonnage,  is  was  badly  drawn  and  would  require  amendment 
a    tendency    of    modern    water    transportation,  or  repeal. 

Whether  there  would  be  a  general  transfer  back        The  shipping  situation  so  far  as  it  concerned 

again   to   foreign    flags   of   vessels   admitted   to  American  exports  was  in  a  serious  condition  in 

American  registry  was  one  of  the  questions  that  1915.     According  to  the  secretary  of  the  treas- 

was    discussed    during    the    year.     Such    action  ury  in  a  report  made  Jan.  25,  1915,  ocean  freight 

would  be  possible  under  the  existing  law,  but  it  rates  on  grain  from  New  York  to  Rotterdam  had 

was  not  anticipated  in   view  of  the  change  of  been   increased  since  the  outbreak   of  the  war 

conditions  in  Europe  and  the  increased  taxation  900  per  cent — on  flour  500  per  cent — on  cotton 

likely  to  result.  700  per  cent— and  from  New  York  to  Liverpool 

The   transfer    of   ships   from   citizens   of   one  the  rates  on  the  same  commodities  were  increased 

nation  to  another,  and  especially  of  those  coun-  from  300  to  500  per  cent ;  and  from  Galveston  to 

Digitized  by  V:r005lC 


SHIFPIKO 


690 


SIA3C 


Liyerpool  the  rates  on  grain  were  increased  174 
per  cent — cotton  361  per  cent — and  from  other 
ports  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  in  much  the  same 
ratio.  It  was  proposed  that  the  goyemment 
should  bnild  or  purchase  merchant  ships  to  be 
used  in  times  of  peace  as  merchantmen,  and  in 
.  time  of  war  as  naval  auxiliaries,  and  Mr.  Mc- 
Adoo,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  outlined  a  pro- 
gramme for  adoption  by  Congress  which  con- 
templated the  building  of  merchant  vessels  of 
500,000  gross  tons.  This  or  a  similar  measure 
which  figured  in  President  Wilson's  message  of 
December  6th  was  likely  to  be  considered  by 
Congress  in  1016,  notwithstanding  its  failure  in 
the  previous  Congress.  It  was  opposed  by  ship- 
ping interests  generally,  and  by  those  who  ob- 
jected to  government  ownership  and  control,  the 
latter  claiming  that  the  necessary  tonnage  would 
not  be  forthcoming  in  time  to  assist  in  removing 
the  conditions  causing  so  much  trouble  in  1015, 
while  under  its  conditions  ordinary  laws  of 
supply  and  demand  would  govern,  and  that 
legislation  encouraging  the  growth  of  an  Ameri- 
can merchant  marine  could  take  some  more 
practical  and  direct  form. 

After  the  enactment  of  the  Seamen's  Law,  the 
Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  the  Kobert 
Dollar,  and  the  Great  Northern  Steamship  Com- 
pany announced  that  they  would  have  to  give 
up  the  Pacific  trade.  As  a  result,  the  number  of 
Japanese  steamers  increased  from  22  in  Novem- 
ber, 1914,  to  42  on  a  corresponding  date  in  the 
following  year,  with  an  increased  tonnage  from 
89,932  to  141,262.  The  situation  seemed  to  be 
that  until  further  adjustment  of  shipping  stat- 
utes was  made  the  American  transpacific  trade 
would  be  in  the  hands  of  Japan,  and  possibly 
of  ships  operated  under  the  flag  of  China  or  other 
nations. 

^  The  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company  which, 
since  ^  1848,  had  been  an  important  factor  in 
American  commerce,  decided  to  abandon  the 
operation  of  its  Pacific  fleet  and  went  into 
liquidation.  The  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany sold  to  the  International  Mercantile  Marine 
Company,  for  use  on  the  Atlantic  Transport  line, 
its  five  large  transpacific  steamers — Manchuria, 
Mongolia,  Siberia,  Corea,  and  China,  for  which 
the  International  Merchant  Marine  paid  $5,250,- 
000;  while  its  fleet  of  seven  smaller  vessels, 
ranging  from  3900  to  7800  tons,  and  operated 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  was  secured  by  the  Ameri- 
can International  Corporation,  a  new  American 
company  formed  during  the  year,  with  a  capital 
of  $50,000,000,  for  $1,260,000.  The  latter  com- 
pany announced  that  they  had  secured  the  co- 
operation of  W.  R.  Grace  ft  Company,  for  many 
years  in  the  South  American  shipping  business 
and  trade,  to  operate  the  vessels  of  the  new  line. 

For  matters  concerned  with  the  subject  of 
shipping,  see  also  section  Oommerce  under  vari- 
ous countries. 

SHIP  BBQISTBY.    See  Shipbuilding. 

SHLPWiiECKS.    See  Safety  at  Sea. 

SHOES.    See  Boots  and  Shoes. 

SHOOTING.  The  national  rifle  shooting 
matches  in  1916  were  held  at  State  Camp,  near 
Jacksonville,  Fla.,  the  winners  being  as  follows: 
Individual,  Sergeant  J.  S.  Stewart,  Ist  C.  C, 
Massachusetts,  score,  315;  team,  class  A.,  Na- 
tional Trophy,  United  States  Infantry,  score, 
3646;  class  B.,  Hilton  Trophy,  Pennsylvania, 
score,  3563;  class  C,  Marathon  Trophy,  Ken- 
tucky, score,  3518;  pistol,  1st  Lieutenant  J.  D. 


Garland,  3rd  Indiana  Infantry,  score,  721;  united 
service.  National  Guard  team,  score,  2228. 

The  any-revolver  championship  was  won  by 
D.  A.  Atkinson  of  Pittsburgh  with  a  score  of 
475,  while  the  pocket  revolver  title  went  to  J.  H. 
Snook  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  who  made  a  score  of 
214.  In  the  target  pistol  contest  George  Arm- 
strong of  San  Francisco  established  a  new  rec- 
ord of  478. 

W.  H.  Cochrane  of  Bristol,  Tenn.,  won  the 
Interstate  Association  Southern  trap-shooting 
tournament  with  a  score  of  97  out  of  a  possible 
100.  The  winner  of  the  Western  tournament, 
William  J.  Raup  of  Portage,  Wis.,  made  the 
same  total  in  capturing  this  fixture.  The  Grand 
American  trap-shooting  tournament  was  held  at 
Chicago,  L.  B.  Clark  of  that  city  being  the  vic- 
tor in  the  handicap  match  with  a  total  of  96 
out  of  a  possible  ICK).  The  other  winners  were: 
amateur  championship,  C.  H.  Newcomb,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  with  90  ex  100;  amateur  at  double 
targets,  G.  V.  Deering,  Columbus,  Ohio,  with 
91   ex   100. 

SHI7BTLEFF,  Roswell  Mobse.  An  Ameri- 
can artist  and  illustrator,  died  Jan.  6,  1915.  He 
was  bom  at  Rindge,  N.  H.,  in  1838,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1857.  In  the 
same  year  he  began  work  as  an  architect.  He 
attended  evening  classes  in  drawing  at  the 
Lowell  Institute  m  1859.  In  1860-61  he  worked 
as  an  illustrator  and  attended  the  Academy  of 
Design  in  New  York  City.  He  enlisted  in  April, 
1801,  in  the  99th  New  York  Volunteers,  and  was 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant.  Taken  prisoner,  he 
spent  nearly  eight  months  in  Southern  hospitals 
and  prisons,  and  was  finally  released  on  parole. 
After  the  war  he  was  engaged  for  several  years 
as  an  illustrator  for  magazines  and  books  in 
New  York  City.  In  1870  he  began  to  paint  in 
oils,  at  first  animal  nictures,  later  landscapes, 
in  both  oils  and  water  colors.  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  in  1881, 
and  a  member  in  1890.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  American  Water  Color  Society. 

SIAM.  An  independent  kingdom  of  south- 
eastern Asia.  It  extends  approximately  from 
the  6th  to  the  20th  degree  of  north  latitude  and 
from  the  97th  to  the  106th  degree  of  east  longi- 
tude; its  length  from  north  to  south  is  approxi- 
mately 1020  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth, 
480  miles.  The  coast  line  is  1300  miles  in  length. 
Total  area,  about  198,900  square  miles.  Bang- 
kok is  the  capital. 

Population,  etc.  The  country  is  divided  into 
17  monthons  (circles),  subdivided  into  79  muangs 
(provinces),  which  are  again  subdivided  into  409 
amphurs  (districts) ;  these  are  in  turn  made  up 
of  3093  tambons  (villages),  divided  into  mu  bans 
(hamlets).  According  to  an  official  report  is- 
sued in  November,  1910,  the  population  of  the 
kingdom  was  7,561,977;  of  whom  lay  males  num- 
bered 3,707,466  and  lay  females  3,729,021,  and 
persons  in  holy  orders,  142,636.  A  later  report 
raised  the  number  of  inhabitants  to  8,149,487. 
Chinese  coolie  immigration  1912,  68,361;  emigra- 
tion, 45,986.  There  are  upwards  of  200  Euro- 
peans and  Americans  resident  in  Siam,  mostly  in 
Bangkok.  That  city  has  628,676  inhabitants,  of 
whom  197,918  are  Chinese.  There  are  govern- 
ment-aided private  schools,  and  several  missions. 
The  religion  of  the  court  is  Buddhism,  and  large 
educational  powers  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
Buddhist  monks. 

pBODUcnoN.    Agriculture  is  carried  on  under 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


SIAM 


591 


SIEBBA  LEONE 


primitive  conditions.  Wooden  plows  are  used, 
drawn  by  water  buffaloes  in  the  stiff  lowland 
clays  and  by  bullocks  on  the  sandier  highlands. 
Irrigation  is  practiced,  and  rice  is  the  leading 
crop.  Some  of  the  varieties  grown  are  consid- 
ered by  experts  to  be  among  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  product  next  in  importance  after 
rice  is  teak.  The  forests  in  which  this  species 
occurs  are  situated  for  the  most  part  in  the 
monthons  of  Bayap,  Nakonsawan,  and  Pitsanu- 
lok,  and  are  leased  to  private  companies  for  a 
term  of  years,  usually  15.  Rosewood  and  other 
valuable  timbers  are  found  in  lower  Siam,  and 
efforts  are  being  made  to  work  them  upon  a  com- 
mercial basis. 

The  only  minerals  worked  on  a  commercial 
scale  are  tin  and  wolfram.  Seven-eighths  of  the 
tin  comes  from  the  Puket  monthon.  Since  the 
cession  to  the  French  of  the  Pailin  district 
(1907)  the  gem  industry  has  ceased  to  be  of 
importance;  gems  are  found  near  Krat  and  else- 
where, but  their  value  is  negligible. 

GOMMEBOE.  The  total  imports  for  1912-13 
were  valued  at  76,225,000  ticals,  and  the  ex- 
ports at  81,971,000.  The  United  Kingdom  con- 
tributed imports  valued  at  20,622,000  ticals  and 
received  exports  valued  at  3,013,000  ticals; 
China,  16,286,000  and  212,000;  British  India, 
8,222,000  and  2,008,000;  Germany  5,668,000  and 
4,194,000;  Singapore,  5,326,000  and  36,870,000; 
Dutch  East  Indies,  5,959,000  and  475,000;  Hong- 
kong, 1,445,000  and  25,343,000;  Switzerland,  561,- 
000  and  13,000;  other  countries,  13,136,000  and 
9,843,000.  The  export  of  rice  in  1912-13  was 
valued  at  65,320,000  ticals  (1  tical  =  37.085 
cents) ;  teak,  5,600,000  ticals.  Total  imports 
1911-12,  73,189,000  ticals  (United  Kingdom,  17,- 
971,000;  Singapore,  11,078,000;  China,  10,024,- 
000;  Hongkong,  8,741,000;  British  India,  5,034,- 
000;  Germany,  4,788,000;  Dutch  possessions,  3,- 
026,000);  total  exports,  84,634,000  (through 
Singapore,  40,111,000;  Hongkong,  25,618,000). 
Rice  exports  1911-12,  65,841,000  ticals;  teak,  6,- 
113,000.  Import  of  cotton  goods  in  the  1910-11 
trader  11,808,211  ticals;  silk  goods,  3,744,304; 
gunny  sacks,  3,453,391;  provisions,  4,775,442; 
oil,  3,636,652;  machinery,  hardware,  etc.  Ex- 
port of  rice  in  1910-11,  17,588,349  piculs,  valued 
at  91,060,879  ticals;  buffalo-  and  cow-hides,  1,- 
267,040  ticals;  bullocks,  248,820;  buffalo  horns, 
190,571;  other  horns,  39,732;  hogs,  226,923;  fish 
(platoo),  849,613;  other  fish,  729,723;  dried 
mussels,  460,012;  pepper,  689,070;  rough  rubies, 
30,000;  tin  oxide,  15,943;  etc. 

There  were  entered  at  the  ports  in  the  1912-13 
trade,  664  steamers,  of  566,172  tons;  cleared,  677, 
of  569,316.  Entered  1911-12, 735  steamers,  of  624,- 
608  tons.  The  merchant  marine  in  1913  included 
33  steamers,  of  8621  tons,  and  45  sail,  of  3612. 

CoMinTNiGATioNS.  State  railways  had  a  length 
in  1912  of  1024  kilometers  (636  miles).  The  to- 
tal length  (April,  1911)  of  state  and  private  rail- 
ways was  1093  kilometers,  of  which  106  kilo- 
meters were  privately  owned  narrow-gauge  lines 
and  987  belonged  to  the  state,  as  follows :  Bang- 
kok to  Korat,  264  kilometers;  the  Lopburi  line, 
42  kilometers,  which  constitutes  a  section  of  the 
projected  Northern  Railway;  the  Southwestern, 
151.5  kilometers,  from  Bangkok  via  Nakonchaisi 
to  the  Mekong,  thence  south  to  Petchaburi;  an- 
other section  of  the  Northern,  118  kilometers, 
Lopburi  to.  Paknampoh,  with  extension  to  Pit- 
sanulok,  138  kilometers.  The  first  section  of  the 
Eastern  line,.fiom  Bangkok  to-Petriu,  63  kilo-- 


meters,  was  opened  in  Januarv,  1908;  the  sec- 
tion of  the  Northern,  from  Pitsanulok  to  Ban 
Dara,  67.7  kilometers,  on  Nov.  11,  1908;  the 
section  Ban  Dara,  Utaradit,  Pang  Ton  Phung, 
52.5  kilometers,  Aug.  15,  1909,  together  with  a 
branch  from  Ban  Dara  to  Sawankalok,  29  kilo- 
meters. The  Pang  Ton  Phung  to  Meh  Puak  line, 
19  kilometers,  replaced  the  caravan  route  from 
Utaradit  to  Phrae  over  the  Kao  Plung  Pass. 
The  ultimate  terminus  of  the  Southern  Railway 
is  the  Kelantan  boundary,  by  an  extension  from 
Trang,  a  total  distance  of  970  kilometers  (dis- 
tance from  Petchaburi  to  Trang,  676  kilometers) . 
A  survey  of  the  Siamese  Southern  Railway  to 
the  Kelantan  boundary  was  completed  to  a  point 
at  Kampong  Rantaji  Panjang.  This  deter- 
mined where  this  line  would  link  up  with  the 
Federated  Malay  States  system,  which  previ- 
ously had  completed  its  line  to  the  Golok  River, 
the  frontier  between  Siam  and  Kelantan.  Tele- 
graph lines,  9457  kilometers  (5876  miles),  with 
10,628  kilometers  (6604  miles)  of  wires  and  152 
stations.    Post  offices,  223. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1913-14  estimated 
the  revenue  at  65,093,654  ticals  and  the  expendi- 
ture at  79,827,482  (65,599,423  ordinary,  15,228,- 
059  extraordinary).  The  estimated  revenue  in 
1911-12  was  62,321,000  ticals.  Ordinary  ex- 
penditure, 62,235,539;  for  railway  construction, 
9,660,670;  for  irrigation,  2,014,399 — ^total  ex- 
traordinary, 11,675,069;  making  a  total  esti- 
mated expenditure  of  73,910,608.  The  public 
debt  Dec.  31,  1914,  stood  at  £6,257,000;  paper 
currency  (March  31,  1913),  26,051,070  ticals. 
The  reserve  fund,  established  under  the  Gold 
Standard  act  (1908),  stands  at  £945,941,  held 
entirely  in  gold,  and  reserved  absolutely  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  the  stability  of  exchange. 

GovEENHENT.  The  government  is  an  absolute 
monarchy,  and  succession  is  limited  to  the 
princes  of  the  blood  ranking  highest  among  the 
icing's  sons.  The  present  King  being  without 
male  issue,  the  succession  passes  presumptively 
through  the  line  of  the  Queen-Mother's  sons  ac- 
cording to  their  repective  ages.  Reigning  King 
(Somdetch  Phra  Paramindr),  Maha  Vajiravudh; 
bom  Jan.  1,  1881;  proclaimed  successor  and 
crown  prince,  1895;  succeeded  to  the  throne  Oct. 
23,  1910. 

SIEBBA  LEONE.  A  British  colony  and  pro- 
tectorate on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  bounded 
by  French  Guinea  and  Liberia.  The  area  of  the 
colony  is  about  4000  square  miles;  population 
(1911),  75,572,  of  whom  702  white.  Freetown, 
the  capital,  with  the  best  harbor  in  West  Africa, 
had  34,090  inhabitants.  In  1913  the  birth  rate 
in  Freetown  was  17,  and  the  death  rate  23.  The 
protectorate  has  an  area  of  about  27,000  square 
miles;  its  population  in  1911  was  placed  at 
1,327,560. 

Sierra  Leone's  leading  export  is  palm  kernels, 
valued  in  1913  at  £920,943;  the  export  of  kola 
nuts  amounted  to  £328,003;  other  exports  are 
palm  oil,  ginger,  and  piassava.  Statistics  of 
trade  and  finance  for  successive  years : 

1911  1912  1918  1914 

£  £  £  £ 

Imports     1,274,081  1,424,864  1,760.808  1,405,049 

Exports     1,807,088  1,640,754  1.781,252  1.260.478 

Revenue    467,759      569,856      618.588      676,689 

Expend 482,448      524,417      622.489      680.146 

Shipping*     ..2,487,577  2,676,4712,981,085    

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


SISB&A  LBOKE 


592 


BILK 


A  government  railway  (the  first  railway  in 
British  West  Africa)  extends  east  southeast 
from  Freetown  to  Pendembu,  near  the  Liberian 
frontier,  227^  miles.  From  Boia  Junction  (64 
miles  from  Freetown)  a  branch  runs  northeast 
to  Makene,  about  83  miles  (completed  in  1913), 
and  a  further  extension  to  Ba^  is  under  con- 
struction. Telegraph  and  telephone  line,  468 
miles. 

SILESIA.  See  Austbia-Hungaby  ;  and  Ger- 
many. 

SILICATES.    See  Minebaixwy. 

SILK.  The  year  1914,  because  of  the  war,  had 
been  somewhat  disastrous  to  the  silk  industry. 
As  the  business  in  Europe  was  stopped,  de- 
mand was  curtailed,  and  in  the  United  States  a 
drop  in  raw  silk  values  and  depreciation  in  man- 
ufactured goods  resulted.  The  shipments  to  the 
United  States,  however,  had  continued  about  the 
same  in  amount,  so  that  at  the  opening  of  the 
year  1915  American  manufacturers  were  ready 
to  undertake  new  business,  and  for  the  first  six 
months  of  1915  slightly  more  raw  silk  was 
shipped  to  the  Unit^  States  than  in  the  cor- 
responding period  for  1914,  with  a  notable  in- 
crease in  Italian  silk,  amounting  to  72  per  cent, 
and  a  decrease  of  17  per  cent  in  Japanese  silk. 
Canton  silk  had  increased  some  76  per  cent 
and  China  silk  about  6  per  cent.  Tussah  silks 
had  increased  almost  double.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Europe,  for  the  season  1914  to  1915,  the 
principal  silk  conditioning  works  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Switzerland  reported  a  decrease  in 
material  treated  in  the  season  1914-15,  when  the 
amount  was  11,309,474  kilos,  from  21,563,168 
kilos  in  1913-14.  These  figures  do  not  take  into 
consideration  similar  plants  in  Germany  and 
Austria,  which  in  1913-14  had  treated  1,522,994 
kilos,  and  the  minor  works  of  France  and  Italy, 
which  in  the  same  year  handled  980,982.  In 
1915  the  silk  crop  of  Italy  was  far  below  normal, 
due  to  the  war  conditions,  adverse  weather,  and 
other  misfortunes,  so  that  the  crop  was  esti- 
mated at  36  per  cent,  with  shortages  in  Pied- 
mont, Lombardy,  and  Veneto,  and  in  Central  and 
Southern  Italy. 

The  total  production  of  the  leading  European 
sources  of  raw  silk  was  estimated  as  follows,  in 
the  annual  review  of  the  American  Silk  Journal: 

1916  1914 

KiUM  KUos 

Italy     2,900.000  against  4,060,000 

Prance     100,000         "  400,000 

Anstria-Hangary    150,000         "  800,000 

Spain    50,000  "  70,000 

8,200,000  4,880.000 

War  conditions  naturally  affected  the  Levant, 
and  the  crop  of  Brutia  was  much  reduced,  as 
was  also  that  of  the  Caucasus  and  Turkestan, 
which  was  only  40  per  cent  of  normal,  although 
the  total  was  not  a  matter  of  extraordinary  im- 
portance. In  Japan,  the  first  crop  was  lower 
than  expected,  the  second  crop  normal,  and  the 
third,  or  autumn  crop,  poor,  so  that  in  place  of 
200,000  bales  for  1914,  the  1916  production  was 
estimated  at  not  over  160,000  to  170,000  bales. 
In  China  the  production  of  steam  filatures  was 
expected  in  1915  to  run  as  in  1914,  while  the 
Tsatlee  crop  fell  short  of  normal,  and  the  Tussah 
crop  was  about  20  per  cent  short.  In  Canton  the 
first  three  crops  yielded  but  17,000  bales  in  1915, 
as  against  23,000  bales  in  1914. 


SiUc  manufacturers  in  the  United  States  dnr- 
ing  the  year  enjoyed  increased  prosperity,  es- 
pecially as  regards  the  broad  silk  industry,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year  an  improvement  was 
looked  for  in  ribbons.  The  demand  for  silk  and 
cotton  mixtures  continued  to  increase,  for  knit- 
ting and  other  purposes,  and  fashion  seemed 
favorable  to  the  extensive  use  of  silk.  The 
throwing  mills  all  over  the  country  were  re- 
ported active  and  every  spindle  turning,  and 
large  new  mills  were  being  erected,  as  well  as  ad- 
ditions to  existing  plants.  (See  Textile  Manu- 
FACTUBiNO.)  In  Europe  it  was  reported  that 
the  silk  industry  in  France  and  Switzerland  was 
returning  to  a  normal  condition,  with  60  per 
cent  of  full  capacity  being  maintained  by  the 
mills  at  Lyons,  and  with  even  better  reports 
from  mills  at  Zurich  and  Como.  In  the  United 
States  the  dyestuff  situation  assumed  a  serious 
character  early  in  the  year,  and  manufacturers 
were  warned  by  the  committee  on  dyestuffs  of 
the  United  Silk  Association  to  be  very  careful  in 
assuming  guarantees  for  the  delivery  of  dark 
colored  material  and  to  encourage  the  use  of 
light  shades.  The  embargo  on  logwood,  an- 
nounced during  the  year,  was  also  a  serious  mat- 
ter and  manufacturers  were  interested  in  every 
effort  to  establish  an  American  dye  industry. 
Silk  mills  during  1916  continued  the  tendency 
to  concentrate  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  some  nine-tenths  of  the  construction  for 
the  year  was  in  that  section.  The  establishment 
of  new  plants  at  Shamokin  and  Kulpmount,  Pa., 
and  Paterson ;  the  building  of  a  large  new  weav- 
ing mill  at  Hazleton  and  a  40,000-8pindle  throw- 
ing mill  at  Dorrancetown,  Pa.,  and  a  new  plant 
at  Port  Jervis,  N.  Y.,  were  features  of  the  year. 
Many  idle  mills  had  been  reorganized  and  started 
up  and  there  were  many  small  concerns  started 
in  the  tenement  mills  of  Paterson.    See  also  Ag- 

RICULTUBE. 

The  statistics  offered  in  the  accompanying 
table  are  estimates  of  the  American  Silk  Asso- 
ciation. The  second  table  provides  information 
concerning  silk  imports. 

Thk  Qa*K  Crop  or  thiT  Wobld 

8Uk  19141915  19181914 

Crop  in  Povndt  Pminds  Pounds 

Europe    10.714.000  9.887.000 

Via.  Italy    8.095,000  7,804,000 

France    898.000  772,000 

Austria    672,000  580.000 

Spain    154.000  181,000 

Levant     8,428,000       5.004.000 

Aaia.  toUl  quantity  exported..   82.218,000  42.874,000 

Vb.  China,    Shancrhai     ....     6.604,000  9,975.000 

China.  Canton    4.168,000  6,995,000 

Japan.  Yokohama    ....   21,858,000  26.660,000 

Indian,    estimated    88,000  254.000 

TV>tal.  ponndB 46,860.000     67,216,000 

Tussah,  raw 2,108,000       2,767,000 

Orand  total,  pounds.   48,468,000     59,972.000 

IvpoETS  ov  Silks  into  thb  Uiotsd  EhrATBS  vob  ths 
Fiscal  Ysabs  10181914  and  1914-1915 
19141B  19181914 

Poundt         Value  $        Pounds  Folnef 

European  2,788,660  10,542,545  2,054,800  8.892.876 
Japans  .17.888,419  60.249.516  19,830.768  78.598.186 
Cantons..  2,282.969  6.152,487  1.978,405  6,216.871 
Chinas  ..  2,090,888  6,858,208  2,546,582  8,697,798 
Tussahs  ft 
Doppioni     876,295        988,191     1,216,878     1,864,548 

ToUls. 25,867,226  84,785.897  27,126.878  99,366,274 


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SILVXB 


593 


SILVBB.  The  prodacti<m  of  silver  in  the 
United  States  in  1914  was  72,455»100  fine  ounces, 
▼alued  at  $40,067,700.  This  is  an  increase  of 
$5,653,600  over  the  production  of  1913,  but  a  de- 
crease in  commercial  value  of  $280,400.  Nevada 
was  the  largest  producer  in  1914 — 16,456,491  fine 
ounces.  Idaho  was  second — 12,479,616.  The 
total  silver  production  in  1915  was  67,485,600 
fine  ounces,  a  decrease  of  4,969,600  ounces  from 
1914.  The  greatest  losses  in  silver  were  in  Idaho 
and  Nevada,  the  other  large  silver-producing 
States  very  nearly  holding  their  own.  The  fol- 
lowing table  from  the  United  States  Mint  shows 
the  production  of  silver  in  the  United  States  in 
1914  and  1916  by  States: 

8Uv4r:nn4  09. 

1914  1915 

Alabama    300            

Alaska 866,900  888.100 

Arixona 4,480.500  5,078,100 

California   2,020.800  2,110,000 

Colorado    8.804,400  7,805.100 

Georgia    100  100 

Idaho    12.578,800  10,505.800 

Illinois    1,000  2,200 

Maryland    100  100 

Michigan     416,500  406,400 

Missouri    60,000  56.400 

Montana    12,586,700  12.690,200 

Nevada    15,877.200  18.708,000 

New  Mexico   1,771,800  1,007,100 

North    Carolina 1,500  1.400 

Oklahoma    6,200            

Oregon    147.400  126.500 

Soath  Carolina 

South    Dakota 170,800  105,400 

Tennessee     102,800  141.000 

Texas     574,700  720,400 

Utah    11,722,000  11,168,500 

Vermont    100 

Virginia    1,600  1,100 

Washington     841.800  154.000 

Wyoming    100  700 

Continental  United  States 72,444,800     67,471,000 

Porto  Rico   

Philippines    10,800  14,500 

Totals    72,466,100     67,486.600 

The  table  below  shows  the  average  price  of 
silver  by  months,  in  New  York  in  1916: 

MONTHLY  AVERAGE  PRICE  OF  SILVER 

N9W  York 

Month  1914  1915 

January    57.572  48.855 

February     67.506  48.477 

March    58.067  50.241 

April    58.519  60.250 

May     58.175  40.016 

June    56.471  40.084 

July     54.678  47.510 

August     54.844  47.168 

September 58.200  48.680 

October   50.654  40.885 

November    40.082  61.714 

December    40.876  64.071 

The  imports  in  silver  in  1914  were  valued  at 
$26,969,187,  and  the  exports,  $51,6<>3,0(H).  See 
also  Metaixubot. 

SINGAPORE.  One  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments  (q.v.). 

SING  SIHO  PRISON.  See  Penology,  Ot- 
borne  and  Sing  Sing. 

SKATING.  The  international  outdoor  ama- 
teur championships  were  held  at  Saranac  Lake 
in  February.  Russell  Wheeler  of  Montreal  made 
the  best  showing,  capturing  the  220-yard,  440- 
yard,  half-mile,  and  two-mile  races — of  260 
points.  The  one-mile  was  won  by  H.  Cody  of 
Toronto,  Canada,  and  the  three-mile  race  by 
Anton  CVSicky  of  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


In  the  international  indoor  championships  con- 
tested at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Wheeler  made  prac- 
tically a  sweep  of  tiie  more  important  races. 

The  world's  championships  were  not  held  be- 
cause of  the  European  war. 

Ice  skating  as  a  recreation  reached  a  stage  of 
popularity  in  1916  never  before  attained.  In 
New  York  City  alone  the  number  of  rinks  open 
to  the  public  increased  from  12  to  40  and  some 
of  the  larger  hotels  were  forced  by  the  demand 
of  their  patrons  to  construct  "ice  palaces."  So- 
ciety took  up  the  craze  and  for  the  time  the 
music  of  the  tango  was  drowned  in  the  clinking 
of  skates.  Hockey  (q.v.)  more  than  ever  found 
its  way  into  all  the  leading  colleges  and  pre- 
paratory schools,  and  various  amateur  and  pro- 
fessional leagues  were  formed  by  lovers  of  this 
sport. 

SXBIABIN,  Albxandeb  Nicholaevioh.  Rus- 
sian composer,  died  April  27,  1916.  He  was 
born  on  Jan.  10,  1872.  He  early  showed  remark- 
able talent  in  music,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Safonoff, 
who,  during  his  term  as  conductor  of  the  Im- 
perial Musical  Society  in  Moscow,  brought  Skria- 
bin  to  that  city  to  produce  some  of  his  composi- 
tions. The  latter  had  already  become,  known  as 
a  composer  through  the  efforts  of  Joseph  Hoff- 
man. In  1891-93  he  was  professor  of  piano 
music  at  the  Moscow  Conservatory,  and  received 
a  gold  medal  from  this  institution  in  1892.  He 
wrote  several  minor  pieces  for  the  piano,  and 
three  symphonies.  His  Prometheus  was  played 
at  the  Queen's  Hall,  London,  in  1914,  with  the 
composer  at  the  pianoforte,  and  on  this  same  oc- 
casion of  Skriabin's  first  appearance  in  Eng- 
land was  heard  his  pianoforte  concerto  (Op.  No. 
20),  his  compositions  creating  a  sensation  in 
London. 

SKTSCBAPEBS.  See  Abohitecture,  and 
Tall  Buildings. 

SLAVIC     LANGT7AOB&     See     Philoloot, 

MODEBN.  

SIiESPING  SICKNES&  While  the  tsetse  fly 
is  known  to  transmit  the  trypanosomes  which 
cause  sleeping  sickness,  many  of  its  habits  are 
as  yet  unknown,  although  they  have  been  studied 
for  several  years.  That  it  sucks  the  blood  of 
individuals  infected  with  trypanosomes  and  be- 
comes the  carrier  and  transmitter  of  them,  is 
unquestioned.  The  question  has  arisen  as  to 
whether  the  tsetse  flies  feed  entirely  on  blood,  or 
whether  other  varieties  of  food  are  acceptable 
to  them.  With  the  object  of  solving  the  ques- 
tion, the  members  of  the  Scientific  Commission 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  directed  by  Sir 
David  Bruce,  examined  the  alimentary  tracts  of 
a  large  number  of  flies  caught  in  Nyassaland. 
Microscopic  inspection  show^  that  the  food  of 
one  variety  of  tsetse,  Olotaina  mortttoiM,  un- 
doubtedly consisted  mainly  of  mammalian  blood. 
Of  600  flies  examined,  288  were  found  to  contain 
blood  in  a  recognizable  state,  although  much  al- 
tered by  the  digestive  process.  There  seemed  to 
be  a  predominance  of  a  small  type  of  corpuscles, 
characteristic  of  the  blood  of  the  hartebeest, 
waterbuck,  and  other  antelopes.  Nucleated 
blood  was  recognized  in  only  one  ner  cent  of  the 
specimens,  and  this  was  probably  from  birds 
rather  than  reptiles.  No  vegetable  matter  was 
found  in  the  intestinal  contents,  so  that  it  may 
be  safely  concluded  that  mammalian  blood  is  the 
natural  food  of  this  fly. 

SLEEPLESSNESS.  See  Psychoixmt,  Dream 
and  Sleep, 


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8MITH80NIAV  Ul  UTIT  U  TiO V 


BUfATJiPOX.  An  interwting  ocmtribiitioii  to 
our  knowledge  of  thiB  disease  is  Qitarantine  Serv- 
ice Publioatum  No.  S  of  the  Australian  Com- 
monwealth, which  gives  a  history  of  smallpox 
in  Australia  from  ito  settlement  in  1788  to  1908. 
Interesting,  though  imperfect,  acooimts  are  given 
of  three  distinct  and  fatal  epidemics  among  the 
aborigines,  and  of  11  epidemics  among  the  white 
population.  The  later  epidemics  have  been 
smaller,  the  largest  comprising  only  about  164 
cases.  In  almost  all  instances  smallpox  has 
been  introduced  by  vessels,  although  the  disease 
has  been  endemic  to  a  slight  extent  since  its 
first  introduction.  As  early  as  1872  Dr.  McCrae 
of  Victoria  suggested  that  flies  might  be  con- 
cerned in  the  spread  of  smallpox.  Estimates 
made  from  the  data  available  indicate  that  in 
the  last  50  years  about  32  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion had  been  vaccinated.  The  effects  of  vacci- 
nation in  the  epidemics  recorded  are  in  line  with 
the  history  of  vaccination  in  other  countries,  the 
vastly  larger  percentage  of  the  mortality,  which 
has  not  been  great,  occurring  among  the  unvac- 
cinated,  next  among  those  not  revaccinated 
within  the  recognized  period  of  immunity,  and 
least  among  the  recently  vaccinated  or  those  re- 
vaccinated  within  a  proper  interval  before  ex- 
posure. Among  the  latter  it  is  said  that  almost 
permanent  immunity  is  attained.  See  Vital 
Stattstigs. 

SMITH,  F(RANCis)  HoPKiNSON.  American 
engineer,  painter,  and  novelist.  He  was  bom 
at  Baltimore,  Md.,  on  Oct.  23,  1838,  and  died  on 
April  7,  1915.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Francis 
Hopkinson,  the  revolutionary  poet.  Early  in 
life  he  was  employed  as  a  clerk  in  an  iron 
works,  and  later  was  educated  as  a  mechanical 
engineer.  Becoming  an  engineer  and  contractor, 
he  built  the  sea-wall  around  Governor's  Island, 
and  that  at  Tompkinsville,  S.  I. ;  erected  the  Race 
Rook  Lighthouse  oif  New  London,  Conn.;  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  Bartholdi  Statue  of 
Liberty.  Smith's  work  as  an  artist  consisted, 
for  the  most  part,  of  charcoal  work,  landscapes 
in  water  colors,  and  illustrations.  For  his  art 
work  he  was  awarded  a  bronze  medal  at  the 
Buffalo  Exposition  in  1901,  a  silver  medal  at 
the  Charleston  Exposition  in  1902,  and  in  the 
latter  year  also  gold  medals  from  the  Phila- 
delphia Art  Club,  and  from  the  American  Art 
Society.  Equally  gifted  as  an  author,  his  writ- 
ings include:  Old  Lines  in  New  Black  and 
White  (1885);  WelUWom  Roods  (1886);  A 
White  Umbrella  in  Mexico  (1889)  ;  A  Book  of 
the  Tile  Club  (1890);  Colonel  Carter,  of  Car- 
tersville  (1891);  A  Day  at  Laguerre^e  (1892); 
American  Illustrators  (1892);  A  Gentleman 
Vagabond  and  Some  Others  (1895);  Tom  Oro- 
gan  (1896) ;  Venice  of  To-day  (1896) ;  Gondola 
Days  (1897);  Caleb  West  (1898);  TKe  Other 
Fellow  (1899);  The  Fortunes  of  Oliver  Horn 
(1902);  The  Under  Dog  (1903);  OoUmel  Car- 
ter's Christmas  (1903);  At  Close  Range 
(1905);  The  Wood  Fire  in  No.  S  (1905);  The 
Tides  of  Bamegat  (1906);  The  Veiled  Lady 
(1907)  ;  The  Romance  of  an  Old  Fashioned  (Gen- 
tleman (1907);  Old  Fashioned  Folk  (1907); 
Captain  Thomas  A.  Scott ,  Master  Diver  (1908) ; 
Peter  (1908);  Forty  Minutes  Late  (1909); 
Kennedy  Square  (1911) ;  Arm  Chair  at  the  Inn 
(1912);  Charcoals  of  New  and  Old  New  York 
(1912);  In  Thackeray's  London  (1913);  In 
Dickens's  London  (1914);  Felix  O' Day  (1915); 
Outdoor  Sketching  (1915).    Smith's  works  were 


published  by  Scribner  in  the  Beacon  editicm  in 
20  volumes,  and  in  the  Library  of  Modem  Au- 
thors series  in  18  volumes,  and  by  Houghton  in 
the  Uniform  edition  in  9  volumes. 

SKITH  COLLBaB.  An  institution  for  higher 
education,  founded  in  Northampton,  Mass.,  in 
1871.  The  enrollment  in  all  departments  in  the 
autumn  of  1916  was  1924.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 165.  There  were  no  notable  changes  in  the 
membership  of  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and 
no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  received.  The 
productive  funds  of  the  college  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  1914-15  amounted  to  $2,182,296,  and 
the  income  for  that  year  to  $136,310.  The  li- 
brary contained  approximately  50,000  Toliunea. 
The  president  in  1915  was  Marion  L.  Burton. 

SMITH-HUOHES  BHiL.  See  Education  in 
THK  Unitbd  States,  Federal  Aid  for  Voeatiottal 
Training,  

SMXTH-LEyBB  ACT.  See  Aobioultdiui. 
Extension  Wobk;  Aobicultueal  Legislation; 
and  Education  in  the  United  States,  Federal 
Aid  for  Vocational  Training. 

BMITHSONLOr  EZPEBITIOir.  See  Ex- 
ploeation,  Asia.  

SMITHSONIAV  IKSTXTUTIOV,  The.  A 
scientific  organization,  created  by  an  act  of  Con- 
gress in  1846,  for  the  advancement  of  human 
knowledge  through  research  and  investigation. 
As  a  part  of  the  world-wide  activities  of  the  In- 
stitution, its  secretary,  Charles  D.  Walcott,  con- 
tinued his  geological  explorations  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  Canada  and  Montana,  paying  par- 
ticular attention  to  fossil  algal  remains,  of  which 
large  collections  were  made.  For  the  season  of 
1915  Walcott  planned  investigations  in  Yellow- 
stone Park. 

During  the  summer  of  1914  E.  0.  Ulrich  and 
R.  S.  BMsler  of  the  museum  engaged  in  strati- 
graphic  studies  in  Central  Tennessee.  They  dis- 
covered that  the  black  shale  in  Northern  Ten- 
nessee passes  into  the  overlying  Mississippian 
(Kinderhook)  shales,  and  found  that  the  Stones 
River  or  Lower  Chasyan  rocks  of  Central  Ten- 
nessee are  succeeded  immediately  by  the  lowest 
Black  River  or  Lowville  formation. 

Frank  Springer  in  1914  made  collections  of 
fossil  echinoderms  along  the  new  Erie  Canal  in 
Western  New  York  for  the  Springer  collection  in 
the  museum.  In  Montana  Charles  W.  Gilmore, 
of  the  National  Museum,  discovered  the  frag- 
mentary remains  of  a  fossil  bird  related  to  Hes- 
peromis  in  the  Judith  River  formation. 

The  collecting  expedition  of  H.  C.  Raven  in 
Borneo  was  completed,  after  nearly  two  years, 
in  September,  1914.  The  work  yielded  about 
3000  valuable  specimens  of  birds  and  mammals. 
The  zoological  explorations  in  Manchuria  and 
Northeastern  China  were  continued  by  Arthur  de 
C.  Sowerby. 

In  preparation  of  unpublished  volumes  of 
Birds  of  North  and  Middle  America,  Robert 
Ridgway  conducted  careful  studies  of  bird  life  in 
Southern  Illinois.  It  was  found  in  this  region 
that  the  passenger  pigeon,  wild  turkey,  'and 
ruffled  grouse  had  completely  disappeared,  and 
that  several  other  species  were  nearly  exter- 
minated. 

The  expedition  of  John  B.  Henderson,  a  regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  his  yacht, 
Eolis,  to  Western  Cuba,  resulted  in  a  large  col- 
lection of  marine  organisms  from  Cardenas  Bay, 
as  well  as  land  shells  from  the  Cubitas  Moun- 
tains. 


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SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 


505 


SKOKE  ABATEMENT 


The  South  American  botanical  explorations, 
carried  cm  by  J.  N.  Roee  with  the  cooperation  of 
the  Carnegie  Institution,  yielded  3000  specimens 
of  cacti  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1914  from 
explorations  in  Peru  and  Chile.  Early  in  1915 
Rose  began  inyestigations  on  the  east  coast  of 
South  America. 

Anthropological  expeditions  were  sent  to  Af- 
rica under  Dr.  V.  Schtick,  and  to  Siberia  under 
Dr.  Poniatowski.  For  discoveries  In  anthropol- 
ogy and  ethnology  during  the  year,  see  Anthso- 

POLOOY. 

Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  research  associate  of 
the  institution,  practically  completed  his  studies 
of  the  big  bears  of  America  in  1916. 

In  connection  with  the  work  of  the  Langley 
Aerodynamical  Laboratory,  the  advisory  com- 
mittee, as  originally  organized,  was  discontinued 
for  legal  reasons,  and  instead  an  act  of  Congress 
was  obtained  in  1915  authorizing  a  national  ad- 
visory committee  for  aeronautics.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Langley  Laboratory  a  niunber  of 
excellent  reports  and  papers  were  published. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  the 
publications  of  the  institution  included  6753 
printed  pages  and  665  plates  of  illustrations. 
Of  the  various  pamphlets  and  publications,  132,- 
010  copies  were  distributed.  The  latest  addition 
to  the  ContHhuiioiM  to  Knowledge  series,  which 
now  contains  160  memoirs,  was  the  "Langley 
Memoir  on  Mechanical  Flight."  In  the  Miscel- 
laneous Collections  series  14  new  papers  were  is- 
sued, including  a  paper  on  Cambrian  geology,  by 
Secretary  Walcott.  The  accessions  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Library,  deposited  in  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress, numbered  24,713  items  on  June  30,  1915, 
making  a  total  number  of  entries  of  521,616. 
The  work  of  the  International  Exchange  Service 
(for  interchange  of  official  government  docu- 
ments), and  of  the  International  Catalogue  of 
Scientific  Literature,  althuogh  continued  as  usu- 
al, was  greatly  curtailed  by  the  European  war. 
See  also  United  States  National  Museum. 

SMOKE  ABATEMENT.  The  event  of  the 
year  was  the  publication  in  December  of  a  huge 
volume  entitled  Smoke  Abatement  and  Electri- 
fication of  Railway  Terminals  in  Chicago.  The 
volume  is  the  result  of  more  than  four  years' 
investigation  by  a  large  and  representative  com- 
mittee of  the  Chicago  Association  of  Commerce, 
of  which  Prof.  Wm.  F.  M.  Goss  of  the  University 
of  Illinois  was  member  and  chief  engineer.  The 
committee  was  assists  by  a  large  staflf  of  en- 
gineering and  other  experts.  As  to  the  electri- 
fication of  the  steam  railways  entering  Chicago 
the  report  is  adverse.  Figures  are  presented  to 
show  that  only  12  per  cent  of  the  fuel  burned 


in  Chicago  is  consumed  in  locomotive  furnaces; 
22  per  cent  of  the  visible  smoke  of  the  city  is 
produced  by  locomotives;  while  considerably  less 
of  the  solid  and  gaseous  constituents  of  Chicago 
smoke  arises  from  this  class  of  fuel  burners. 
(See  accompan3dng  table.)  It  is  estimated  that 
the  substitution  of  electric  for  steam  power  on 
the  railways  of  Chicago  would  reduce  the  visible 
smoke  of  the  whole  ci^  by  20  per  cent;  the  solid 
constituents  of  the  smoke  of  the  city  by  5  per 
cent;  and  the  saseous  constituents  by  5  per  cent. 
Moreover,  and  this  is  the  serious  point,  the 
steam  railways  of  Chicago  would  require  a  cap- 
ital outlay,'  after  deducting  salvage,  of  $178,- 
000,000.  With  terminal  betterments,  the  outlay 
would  be  raised  to  $275,000,000.  The  annual 
capital  charges  on  the  smaller  sum,  after  deduct- 
ing allowances  for  benefits,  are  estimated  at 
$14,600,000,  which  is  held  to  make  electrification 
financially  impracticable.  The  feasibility  of  the 
electrification  of  individual  roads  was  not  con- 
sidered. The  report  should  not  be  regarded  as 
conclusive  as  to*  individual  railways  in  Chicago 
or  elsewhere,  since  a  variety  of  conditions  affect 
each  railway  electrification  problem.  The  report 
contains  a  summary  of  the  previous  literature 
of  smoke  abatement,  from  which  it  is  concluded 
that  although  the  effect  of  "polluted  air"  on 
health  is  generally  agreed  to  be  deleterious, 
"there  exists  no  accurate  method  of  measuring 
this  harm,"  nor  of  determining  how  much  of  the 
harm  is  due  to  smoke.  It  is  also  concluded  that 
the  direct  effects  of  smoke  in  such  amounts  as 
"may  ordinarily  pervade  the  atmosphere  of  a 
smoky  city,  are  not  shown  to  be  detrimental  to 
persons  in  normal  health,"  but  that  the  long-con- 
tinued breathing  of  polluted  air  lowers  the  "gen- 
eral physical  tone"  of  human  beings.  The  direct 
effect  of  a  smoky  atmosphere  on  the  sick  has  been 
extensively  studied  as  regards  tuberculosis  and 
pneumonia.  Smoke  does  not  seem  to  directly 
hasten  the  onset  or  prevent  recovery  from  tuber- 
culosis, but  it  is  "seriously  detrimental"  to  pneu- 
monia patients.  Finally,  the  committee  recom- 
mends for  future  action,  the  creation  by  the  city 
of  Chicago  of  a  Pure  Air  Commission,  with  am- 
ple funds.  This  commission  should  investigate 
all  sources  of  air  pollution,  devise  remedies,  and 
liave  power  to  enforce  them.  Materials  used  for 
street  pavements  should  be  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  commission,  and  it  should  have 
supervisory  control  of  street  cleaning,  the  erec- 
tion and  wrecking  of  buildings,  roof  cleaning, 
and  the  installation  of  boilers  and  other  fur- 
naces. It  should  also  "be  charged  with  the  duty 
of  investigating  present  practice  in  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  domestic  furnaces,"  with  a 


BeLATIVX  IMPOBTANCK  OT  FUSlrOONBUMINa  SbBVICXS  A8    PRODUCXBS    OT  VMIBLK    SUOXa   AKD   OF   SOLID  AND 
OABKOUB   GONSTITUXNTS    OF    SUOKS   AT   OhIOAGO  * 

Solid  Oa»4ou8  OonstUusntt  of  Smoks 

Vitibls  Oon*tiiu^nt9 

Smoke  o/«mol;«t  ToUd  Oarhon  Sidphmr 

Steam  locomotives    3206  7.47  10.81  10.11  18.22 

Steam  Yessels 0.74  0.88  0.60  0.65  0.46 

High-pressure    steam,    stationary    power    and    heating 

*pT»nte    77 *        44.49  19.84  44.96  40.68  58.70 

Low-pressure  steam  and  other  stationary  heating  plants. 

Gas   and  coke  plants    8.98  8.60  28.00  28.06  19.78 

Furnaces  for  metallurgical 0.15  0.00  00.00  00.00  00.00 

manufacturing  and  other  processes 28.68  64.26  21.13  26.60  7.90 

100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00 

*  From  Smoke  Abatement  and  Eleetrifleation  of  Railwav  Terminale  in  Ohieaffo. 

t  Soot,  cinders  and  dust;  41  n«r  cent  are  of  non-fuel  origin,  but  are  conveyed  into  the  atmosphere  by  the 
smoke  from  furnaces  used  for  metallurgical  ana  other  manufacturing  processes. 

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view  to  improved  practice,  or  if  necessary,  to  a 
change  in  the  character  of  the  fuels  used  so  as  to 
reduce  smoke. 

SOAP.  See  Chemistbt,  Industrial,  Soap 
from  Sugar, 

SOCIAIi  ECONOMICS.  Since  1900  there  has 
come  into  general  use  the  term  Social  Economics, 
to  distinguish  a  new  point  of  view  for  the  study 
of  economic  problems.  This  viewpoint  lays  spe- 
cial stress  on  the  humanitarian  aspects  of  in- 
dustry. It  holds  with  Ruskin  that  "there  is  no 
wealth  but  life."  It  consequently  lays  stress 
upon  the  more  just  distribution  of  wealth,  upon 
the  dangers  of  industrial  occupations  to  health, 
life,  and  limb,  and  upon  the  social  importance 
of  raising  wages  and  elevating  the  standards  of 
living  of  unskilled  labor.  It  consequently  con- 
trasto  sharply  in  many  respects  with  the  tradi- 
tional viewpoint  of  economists  and  business  men, 
which  assumed  that  the  end  of  economic  effort 
was  to  increase  the  volume  of  production,  espe- 
cially the  volume  of  exports.  The  new  viewpoint 
largely  rejects,  therefore,  the  laistez  faire  doc- 
trine, and  relies  on  investigation  of  conditions 
and  their  causes,  education,  and  legislation,  as 
means  of  raising  the  life  values  of  the  industrial 
population. 

Other  material  coming  within  the  scope  of 
this  subject  will  be  found  under  the  following 
headings:  Child  Labor;  Labor;  Labor  Legis- 
lation; Minimum  Wage;  Occupational  Dis- 
eases ;  Old- Age  Pensions  ;  Pensions  for  Moth- 
ers; Prostitution;  Women  in  Industry;  and 
Workmen's  Compensation. 

Bibliography.  A.  L.  Bowley  and  A.  R.  Bur- 
nett-Hurst, Livelihood  and  Poverty.  A  Study  in 
the  Economic  Conditions  of  Working-class  House- 
holds in  Northampton,  Warrington,  Stanley,  and 
Reading;  Walter  E.  Clark,  The  Cost  of  Living; 
E.  T.  Devine,  Normal  Life;  Thomas  D.  Eliot,  The 
Juvenile  Court  and  the  Community;  Fabian 
Franklin,  Cost  of  Living;  H.  Gehrig,  Die  begrun- 
dung  les  primips  der  sozialreform ;  W.  H.  Ham- 
ilton, ed..  Current  Economic  Problems.  A  Se- 
ries of  Readings  in  the  Control  of  Industrial  De- 
velopment; C.  R.  Henderson,  Citizens  in  Indus- 
try; Frederick  C.  Howe,  The  Modem  City  and 
Its  Problems;  P.  U.  Kellogg,  Wage- Earning 
Pittsburgh;  Clyde  L.  King,  Lower  Living  Costs 
in  Cities;  W.  I.  King,  The  Wealth  and  Income 
of  the  People  of  the  United  States;  Louis  Levine, 
Labor  and  Social  Revolution  in  the  United 
States;  W.  H.  Mallock,  Social  Reform  as  Related 
to  Realities  and  Delusions;  Massachusetts  Bu- 
reau of  Statistics  and  Amy  Hewes,  Industrial 
Home  Work  in  Massachusetts;  National  Civic 
Federation,  Social  Insurance  Department,  Re- 
port of  the  Committee  on  Preliminary  Foreign 
Inquiry;  I.  M.  Rubinow,  A  Standard  Accident 
Table  as  a  Basis  for  Compensation  Rates,  Dis- 
tribution of  100,000  Accidents;  F.  Shurtleff  and 
E.  L.  Olmstead,  Carrying  Out  the  City  Plan; 
John  Spargo,  Socialism  and  Motherhood;  Upton 
Sinclair,  Cry  for  Justice;  William  Engli^  Wall- 
ing, The  Socialists  and  the  War;  a  Documentary 
Statement  of  the  Position  of  the  Socialists  of 
All  Countries  with  Special  Reference  to  Their 
Peace  Policy;  and  G.  P.  Watkins,  Welfare  as  an 
Economic  Quantity. 

SOCIAL  HYGIENE.     See  Prostitution. 

SOCIALISM.  According  to  the  most  recent 
statistics  available,  the  total  voting  strength  of 
the  Socialists  in  all  countries  was  well  over  II,- 
000,000;  the  aggregate  membership  of  Socialist 


organizations  throughout  the  world  was  about 
3,000,000.  In  almost  every  parliament  the  So- 
cialists had  representatives:  in  the  (German 
Reichstag,  110;  in  the  French  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, 102;  in  the  Swedish  Second  Chamber,  87; 
in  the  Austrian  Abgeordnetenhaus,  83;  in  the 
Belgian  Chamber,  30;  in  the  Italian  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  77;  in  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons, 8  (not  including  several  Socialists  elected 
as  Labor  representatives).  Before  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  of  the  Nations  in  1014,  there  were 
Socialist  parties'  in  27  countries,  all  affiliated 
with  the  International  and,  in  the  interim  be- 
tween International  Socialist  Congresses,  repre- 
sented by  the  International  Socialist  Bureau  at 
Brussels.  The  effect  of  the  war  in  disrupting 
this  international  organization  and  in  destroy- 
ing, temporarily  at  least,  the  world-wide  solidar- 
ity of  the  Socialist  movement,  was  discussed  at 
length  in  the  Yeab  Book  for  1914.  The  present 
article  deals  first  with  the  endeavors  of  the 
Socialists  during  the  vear  1915  to  reconstruct 
the  International,  and  then  with  the  activi- 
ties of  the  Socialists  in  the  separate  coun- 
tries. 

International  Confebences.  Acting  upon 
the  conviction  that  the  Socialists  of  all  nations 
should  exert  themselves  to  restore  peace  to  the 
world,  the  Socialist  Party  of  the  United  States 
in  September,  1914,  sent  appeals  to  the  Socialists 
of  Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  Italy,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  with  the  proposal 
that  an  international  Socialist  peace  conference 
should  be  held.  The  American  invitation  availed 
nothing,  however,  since  it  was  obviously  impossi- 
ble to  bring  the  Socialists  of  the  warring  nations 
together  in  a  peaceful  convention.  The  Swiss 
and  the  Scandinavian  Socialists  then  took  up 
the  idea  of  an  international  conference,  with  this 
modification,  that  only  the  Socialists  of  neutral 
nations  were  to  be  invited.  In  order  to  avoid 
strife,  moreover,  the  conference  would  refrain 
from  all  discussion  of  the  causes  of  the  war  as 
well  as  of  the  conduct  of  the  Socialists  in  the 
belligerent  countries.  Only  the  terms  of  peace 
and  the  means  of  hastening  a  peace  were  to  be 
considered.  Such  a  programme  might  shield  the 
German  Socialists,  who  were  accused  of  sup- 
porting their  country  in  an  aggressive  war,  but 
it  was  bound  to  antagonize  all  those  who  saw 
in  German  militarism  a  menace  which  must  be 
destroyed  before  any  just  peace  could  be  made. 
Not  only  in  France  and  England  was  this  ob- 
jection urged.  The  Spanish  Socialists  most  em- 
phatically affirmed  their  belief  that  a  victory 
for  the  Teutonic  Powers  would  be  disastrous  for 
the  future  of  Socialism ;  that  the  triumph  of  the 
Allies  would  enable  Socialism  to  make  greater 
progress  even  in  Germany  and  in  Austria;  and 
that  peace  conference  proposals  were  inoppor- 
tune while  the  outcome  of  the  struggle  against 
Austro-German  imperialism  was  still  in  doubt. 
The  American  Socialist  Party  had  intended  to 
send  Morris  Hillquit  as  its  delegate  to  the  con- 
ference. Upon  learning,  however,  that  the  So- 
cialists of  Spain,  Switzerland,  Italy  (then  neu- 
tral), Bulgaria  (then  neutral),  and  Rumania 
would  in  all  probability  hold  aloof  from  the  en- 
terprise, and  that  the  only  neutral  nations  rep- 
resented would  be  the  three  Scandinavian  states 
and  the  Netherlands,  Mr.  Hillquit  determined 
not  to  participate.  The  four  countries  in  ques- 
tion, he  believed,  would  have  certain  sectional 


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interests  which  might  not  be  representative  of 
neutral  opinion  in  general. 

"America  alone  has  no  interest  in  this  war 
except  in  its  speedy  termination,  and  American 
Socialists  above  all  others  must  studiously  avoid 
even  the  slightest  appearance  of  bias  or  dis- 
crimination among  their  unfortunate  comrades 
in  Europe.  This  war  will  end  sometime,  and 
when  it  ends  somebody  will  have  to  initiate  the 
work  of  reconstructing  the  shattered  Interna- 
tional of  the  workers.  This  great  task  will  logi- 
cally fall  to  the  Socialists  of  America,  the  So- 
cialists of  the  most  important  and  least  con- 
cerned nation.  I  fear  that  this  mission,  the 
largest  that  will  ever  come  to  our  movement,  may 
be  jeopardized  by  the  participation  in  a  some- 
what one-sided  conference,  and  therefore  have 
concluded  not  to  go  to  Copenhagen." 

Notwithstanding  such  rebuffs,  the  Scandina- 
vian and  the  Dutch  Socialists  persevered  and 
held  their  peace  conference  at  Copenhagen  in 
January,  1915.  Sixteen  delegates  attended,  rep- 
resenting Norway,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Sweden.  Capitalism,  militarism,  imperial- 
ism, and  secret  diplomacy  had  caused  the  war, 
declared  the  conference,  and  the  same  Social 
Democrats  who  had  in  the  past  incessantly 
warned  Europe  against  the  policies  that  led  to 
war  should  now  exert  all  their  energies  to  hasten 
the  restoration  of  peace.  All  Socialists  were 
called  upon  to  help  formulate  just  peace  pro- 
posals, to  work  for  the  democratization  of  diplo- 
macy, to  labor  for  ultimate  disarmament,  and 
to  urge  their  several  governments  to  initiate 
pacific  negotiations.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  although  the  Scandinavian  and  Dutch  So- 
cialists had  been  suspected  of  a  tendency  to  con- 
done unduly  the  actions  of  the  Qerman  Social 
Democrats,  the  conference  in  its  resolutions 
strongly  condemned  the  violation  of  Belgian 
neutrality,  and  protested  in  advance  against  the 
forcible  annexation   of  anj  conquered   peoples. 

Quite  a  different  sort  of  international  congress 
was  held  at  London  in  February  by  the  So- 
cialists of  the  Allied  Powers.  Victory,  rather 
than  immediate  peace,  was  the  chief  concern  of 
this  gathering.  The  sentiment  was  vehemently 
expressed,  perhaps  in  rather  extreme  terms,  by 
M.  Vaillant,  one  of  the  French  delegation: 
*'France  was  forced  into  the  struggle  and  will 
not  draw  back  until  Prussian  militarism  has  re- 
ceived its  death-blow.  We  have  the  following 
message  for  the  German  people:  that  we  are 
fighting  for  your  emancipation  as  well  as  for 
our  own  national  freedom." 

The  London  Conference  was  quite  impartial 
in  reproaching  all  the  Powers  for  their  aggressive 
imperialism,  which  had  caused  the  war;  it  cen- 
sured Germany  and  Russia  alike  for  oppressing 
the  Poles;  it  specifically  reprobated  the  arbitrary 
methods  employed  by  the  Russian  government 
against  Socialists,  Jews,  Poles,  and  Finns.  At 
the  same  time,  the  London  Conference  was  con- 
vinced that  the  worst  enemy  of  freedom  was 
Germany.  "A  victory  of  German  imperialism 
would  mean  the  defeat  and  annihilation  of  de- 
mocracy and  freedom  in  Europe."  The  Socialists 
of  the  Allied  Powers  were  fighting,  so  they  de- 
clared, not  against  "the  people  of  Germany  or 
Austria,  but  only  against  the  governments  of 
these  countries,  which  oppress  their  peoples." 
Against  the  governments  of  Austria  and  Ger- 
many, the  Socialists  were  determined  to  fight 
until  Tictory  was  won;  then,  in  order  to  right 


past  wrongs  and  to  prevent  future  wars,  Belgium 
must  be  emancipatcKi  and  indemnified,  the  Poles 
roust  be  permitted  to  become  either  autonomous 
or  independent,  and  ''all  nations  which  have 
been  forcefully  annexed  should  be  given  back  the 
right  of  disposing  of  their  own  fre^om."  Secret 
diplomacy  and  the  private  manufacture  of  arms 
for  profit  must  be  done  away  with.  Henceforth 
nations  must  be  compelled  to  settle  their  dis- 
putes by  arbitration.  In  this  way  the  victory 
of  the  Allies  would  be  a  triumph  tor  the  people 
and  prepare  the  wav  for  a  peaceful  federation  of 
the  united  states  oi  Europe,  and  the  world. 

Neither  the  Copenhagen  Conference  nor  the 
London  Conference  had  realized  the  hope  which 
many  Socialists  still  cherished  of  demonstrating 
the  undestroyed  international  solidarity  of  the 
Socialist  proletarians;  the  former  had  repre- 
sented only  a  minor  group  of  neutrals,  the  latter 
had  been  frankly  belligerent.  An  International 
Congress  held  by  Socialist  women  at  Berne  in 
April  was  a  demonstration  of  solidarity»  but  did 
not  represent  the  Socialist  parties.  The  Swiss 
Socialist  Herr  Greulich  therefore  proposed  to 
hold  a  veritable  Socialist  Peace  Congress  at  The 
Hague  and  outlined  a  remarkable  peace  pro- 
gramme including  disarmament,  the  participation 
of  neutral  nations  in  the  peace  negotiations  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  the  establishment  of  a 
United  States  of  Europe  with  a  central  parlia- 
ment, the  neutralization  of  the  seas,  and  the 
abolition  of  tariffs.  Although  Herr  Greulich's 
initiative  came  to  nought,  a  peace  conference 
was  held  in  September,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Italian  party.  At  Zimmerwald  in  Switzerland, 
on  September  16th,  Italian,  Rumanian,  Bul- 
garian, German,  French,  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
Swiss,  Polish,  Dutch,  and  Russian  Socialists  met 
and  agreed  to  issue  a  manifesto  'To  the  Prole- 
tarians of  All  Nations."  Capitalists  and  "jin- 
goes" had  brought  about  the  war  and  trans- 
formed Euroiie  into  a  monstrous  slaughter-house. 
No  longer  deceived  by  the  fair  promises  of  the 
selfish  ruling  classes,  the  workers  of  the  world 
must  cry  out  in  protest  against  the  crime  of 
war;  they  must  condemn  the  ruthless  violation 
of  Belgian  neutrality  and  demand  the  restora- 
tion of  Belgian  independence;  they  must  lift 
their  voices  in  warning  against  any  annexations 
of  unwilling  peoples  at  the  close  of  the  war. 
The  appeal  to  the  working  classes  was  signed 
by  G.  Ledebour  (German),  A.  Hoffman  (Ger- 
man), A.  Bourderon  (French),  A.  Merrheim 
(French),  G.  F.  Modigliani  (Italian),  C.  Lazzari 
(Italian),  N.  Lenin  (Russian),  Paul  Axelrod 
(Russian),  M.  Babroff  (Russian),  and  W.  Ko- 
larow  (Bulgarian),  besides  del^ates  from  the 
Polish,  Rumanian,  Scandinavian,  Dutch,  and 
Swiss  Socialists.  To  be  sure  the  German  and 
French  signers  did  not  represent  the  major  So- 
cialist parties  of  Germany  and  France,  and  the 
entire  absence  of  British  delegates  was  con- 
spicuous (the  British  government  had  refused 
passports  to  prospective  delegates  from  the  In- 
dependent Labor  Party  and  the  British  Socialist 
Party) ;  nevertheless  the  Zimmerwald  Confer- 
ence may  be  regarded  as  a  very  important  indi- 
cation of  the  continued  vitality  of  international 
Socialism.  Consciously  reverting  to  the  words 
of  the  Communist  Manifesto,  the  Socialists  at 
Zimmerwald  once  more  sent  out  the  old  appeal 
— "Proletarians  of  all  nations,  unite!" 

Internationalism  and  the  German  Social 
Democrats.    Two  facts  of  supreme  importance 


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in  respect  of  the  German  Social  Democratic 
Party  seemed  to  be  well  eatablished  at  the  close 
of  the  year  1915.  In  the  first  place,  it  was 
manifest  that  whatever  their  earlier  attitude  may 
have  been,  the  more  radical  members  of  the 
party  were  now  thoroughly  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  war  policy  of  the  German  government  and 
unwillinff  to  support  longer  what  they  regarded 
as  clearly  a  war  of  conquest.  In  the  second 
place,  it  was  apparent  that  the  majority  of  the 
Social  Democratic  Deputies  in  the  Rieichstag 
were  not  only  heartily  in  favor  of  supporting 
the  government,  but  were  doggedly  determmed  to 
enforce  party  discipline  andoompel  the  radical 
anti-war  minority  either  to  conform  to  the  ma- 
jority opinion  or  to  secede  from  the  party.  In 
other  words,  the  conflict  between  international- 
ism and  nationalism  threatened  to  split  the  Ger- 
man Sodal  Democratic  Party.  The  nationalist 
position  was  well  defined  by  Herr  Wolfgang 
Heine,  a  member  of  the  Social  Democratic  group 
of  the  ReichstiiHS»  ui  >^  speech  at  Stuttgart,  Feb. 
22,  1915.  The  time  to  talk  about  peace,  he  be- 
lieved, had  not  yet  come;  for  the  present  the 
German  people  must  trust  in  the  prowess  of  the 
German  army  and  in  the  peace-loving  disposi- 
tion of  the  German  Emperor.  In  declaring  that 
workingman  and  employer  had  a  common  inter- 
est in  upholding  the  state  and  in  fighting  for  the 
prosperity  of  German  export  trade,  Herr  Heine 
did  not  hesitate  to  advocate  imperialism,  withal 
in  the  interests  of  the  working  classes.  Although 
his  views  in  regard  to  imperialism  were  pr^ 
ably  somewhat  extreme,  certainlv  in  his  staunch 
support  of  the  German  "war  of  defense,"  Herr 
Heine  voiced  the  common  sentiment  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Socialist  Reichstag  members.  Even 
after  the  brilliant  German  successes  against 
the  Russians  had  removed  all  immediate  £uiger 
of  foreign  invasion  and  had  given  German 
strategy,  in  appearance,  at  least,  an  aggressive 
character,  one  of  Herr  Heine's  colleagues,  Dr. 
Albert  SfiddLum,  was  credited  with  Uke  state- 
ment that  the  Social  Democrats  would  stand  by 
the  flag  to  the  finish  and  fight  until  the  foes 
of  the  German  nation  were  ready  to  propose 
peace.  The  leading  antaf^onist  of  this  pro-war 
spirit  and  the  boldest  critic  of  the  government 
was  Dr.  Karl  Liebknecht,  a  member  of  the  So- 
cial Democratic  group  in  the  Reichstag  and  also 
a  representative  in  the  Prussian  Landtag.  He 
alone  had  voted  against  the  second  war  loan  on 
Dec.  2,  1914  (consult  the  Yeab  Book  for  1914) ; 
in  a  New  Year's  Message  to  the  Socialists  of 
Great  Britain  he  had  advertised  to  the  world  the 
confusion  that  reigned  within  the  rsiiks  of  the 
German  Socialists  and  the  smotiiered  popular 
repugnance  to  the  war.  In  consequence  of  his 
rebellion  against  the  majority  opinion.  Dr.  Lieb- 
knecht was  severely  censured  by  his  Socialist 
colleagues  in  the  Reichstag  on  the  triple  charge 
of  inn-inging  party  discipline,  of  injuring  the 
interests  of  German  Social  Democracy,  and  of 
disseminating  misleading  information  abroad. 
A  minority  of  the  group  sympathized  with  Lieb- 
knecht's  views  about  the  war.  The  great  So- 
cialist journal  VoncaertSf  moreover,  which  had 
cautiously  but  pretty  consistently  opposed  the 
war  policy,  even  at  the  risk  of  suppression,  gave 
evidence  of  sympathy  with  Dr.  Liebknecht.  In 
reporting  a  violent  speech  which  Liebknecht  de- 
livered in  the  Prussian  Landtag  March  2,  1915, 
attacking  the  undemocraUc  Prussian  franchise, 
VortcaertB  printed  the  following  comment: 


"But  even  if  the  government  .  .  .  refused  to 
heed  these  words  of  the  Socialist  leader,  the  peo- 
ple will  listen  to  him.  We  demand  the  democ- 
ratization of  the  government.  .  .  .  Democratic 
control  of  the  government  by  the  people  would 
have  prevented  the  war." 

The  dissensioii  in  the  Sodal  Democratic  Party 
became  still  more  noticeable  when  the  thiird  war 
loan  was  voted  upon  by  the  Reichstag  in  Mardi, 
1915.  Herr  Scheidemann  cast  the  vote  of  the 
Social  Democratic  eroup  in  favor  of  the  loan, 
but  30  members  of  the  group  absented  themselves 
from  the  sitting,  showing  that  they  were  willing 
neither  to  approve  the  war  loan  nor  to  reb^ 
against  their  party.  Dr.  Liebknecht  again  voted 
against  the  majority,  and  this  time  he  was  joined 
by  another  Social  iJemocraty  Herr  Otto  Ruehle. 
(See  Gebmant,  Eittory,)  The  controversy 
which  ensued  in  the  Socialist  press  served  to 
divide  the  two  wings  of  the  party  still  more 
sharply.  Liebknecht  himself  (according  to  a 
letter  from  Dr.  Liebknecht's  law  firm,  prmted  in 
the  Ameriocm  Booialitt  for  May  29th)  had  been 
called  to  the  colors.  But  Eautsky,  Haase,  Bern- 
stein, and  other  leading  Socialist  polemists  took 
up  the  attack  on  the  pro- war  majority.  Herr 
Haase,  while  denying  any  desire  to  "desert  the 
Fatherland,"  considered  it  a  serious  mistake 
for  the  Socialists  to  vote  the  war  budgets,  thus 
identifying  themselves  with  the  government's 
policies.  Local  Socialist  groups  in  Stutteart, 
in  Charlottenburg,  and  other  places,  rallied  to 
the  Liebknecht  partv.  It  was  pointed  out  that 
whereas  the  war  had  begun,  ostensibly,  as  a  war 
of  defense  against  autocratic  Russia,  it  had  be- 
come more  and  more  a  war  against  democratic 
France  and  England.  The  (Germans  had  not  only 
defended  themselves  but  had  actually  conquered 
large  portions  of  the  enemies'  territory.  As  a 
war  of  conquest,  the  war  was  indefensible  and 
should  not  be  supported  by  Socialists.  A  mani- 
festo against  the  war  was  circulated  by  the  anti- 
war Socialists.  The  patriotic  wins  meanwhile 
had  continued  to  declare  its  qualified  love  of 
peace.  In  the  Reichstag  on  March  20th  Herr 
Scheidemann  had  said,  '*Now  when  we  are  strcmg 
and  victorious  is  the  time  to  tell  the  country 
through  the  press  that  we  favor  peace  on  a  rear 
eondble  baeie."  Just  what  constituted  a  reason- 
able basis  for  peace  was  discussed  by  a  conference 
of  German  and  Austrian  Socialists  at  Vienna 
in  April.  The  conference  expressed  itself  in 
favor  of  compulsory  international  arbitration, 
parliamentary  ratification  of  all  international 
agreements  and  treaties,  concerted  disarmament 
by  treaty  agreements,  and  the  right  of  every 
nation  to  determine  its  own  destiny.  In  June, 
shortly  after  the  German  Imperial  chancellor 
in  his  speech  of  May  28th  had  hinted  at  the  in- 
tention of  the  German  government  to  annex 
certain  conquered  territories  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  war,  Bernstein,  Haase,  and  Eautsky  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  declaring  that  since  the  war 
had  become  frankly  aggressive,  the  duty  of  So- 
cialists was  to  abandon  their  support  of  the 
government,  disregard  the  "civic  truce"  between 
parties,  and  resume  the  class  struggle.  An 
"open  letter"  signed  by  nine  Reichstag  Deputies, 
three  Prussian  Landtag  Representatives,  and 
about  200  other  prominent  Socialists,  rebuked 
the  majority  of  the  Social  Democratic  Group 
in  the  Reichstag  for  failing  to  protest  against 
the  violation  of  Belgian  neutralitv  and  against 
the  chancellor's  annexationist  poucy.     The  re- 


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joinder  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  So- 
cial Democratic  Party,  published  at  the  end  of 
June,  declared  that  although  ardently  desirous 
of  peace,  and  uncompromisingly  hostile  to  ag- 
gressive conquests,  the  Executive  Committee 
nevertheless  remained  firm  in  the  eonviction  that, 
for  the  reasons  stated  on  Aug.  4,  1914  (see  Yeab 
Book,  1914)  the  Social  Democrats  must  con- 
tinue to  support  the  Cerman  government  in  the 
war,  especially  since  the  English  and  French 
Socialists  had  traitorously  allied  themselves  with 
the  Russian  Czar  to  crush  Germany.  The  true 
views  of  the  patriotic  wing  of  the  German  So- 
cial Democratic  group  were  revealed  in  August, 
when  Dr.  Eduard  David,  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  pro-war  Socialists,  was  chosen 
to  approve  the  new  war  credits  in  the  name  of 
the  Socialist  group.  Presently  it  became  known 
that  before  taking  this  action,  the  Reichstag 

Soup  and  the  Party  Executive  had  spent  three 
ys  in  stormy  debate  over  the  question  of  their 
attitude  towards  the  war.  David  and  the  pro- 
war  majority  had  triumphed  over  Bernstein  and 
the  anti-war  minority,  and  had  persuaded  the 
majority  to  adopt  a  declaration  of  policy  which 
was  nothing  less  than  a  frank  acceptance  of  im- 
perialism, with  some  socialistic  modifications: 
Alsace-Lorraine  was  not  to  be  returned  to 
France;  "in  order  to  secure  free  economic  de- 
velopment for  the  German  nation,"  the  Social 
Democrats  demanded  the  Open  Door  in  all  col- 
onies, most-favored-nation  treatment  by  all  the 
belligerents,  freedom  of  the  seas,  and  interna- 
tionalization of  important  commercial  straits; 
"in  the  interests  of  Germany's  security  and  eco- 
nomic freedom  of  action,"  they  were  willing 
even  to  support  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey 
against  partition;  no  new  territory,  however, 
was  to  be  annexed;  an  international  arbitration 
court  was  to  be  set  up;  and  the  benefits  of  social 
legislation  were  to  be  augmented  and  equalized. 
Dr.  David  furthermore  expressed  the  hope  of  the 
Social  Democratic  patriots  that  a  more  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  the  food  problem  might  be  found, 
that  war  profits  might  be  taxed,  and  that  the 
German  people,  having  proved  its  loyalty  in  the 
war,  might  be  admitted  to  a  greater  share  in  the 
government.  The  Socialist  discussion  of  the  war 
reached  its  climax  in  the  winter  session  of  the 
Reichstag,  which  began  on  November  30th.  Dr. 
Eiirl  Liebknecht,  whose  extreme  pacifism  had 
already  alienated  him  from  the  majority  of  his 
colleagues,  attempted  to  embarrass  the  govern- 
ment by  asking  a  series  of  searching  questions: 
(1)  whether  the  government  was  prepared  to 
enter  immediately  upon  peace  negotiations;  (2) 
whether  the  government  would  abandon  secret 
diplomacy  in  favor  of  public  control;  (3) 
whether  the  government  would  lay  before  the 
nation  the  history  of  the  German  entry  into 
Belgium  and  Luxemburg;  (4)  whether  the  gov- 
ernment would  take  measures  for  the  alleviation 
of  economic  distress  among  the  masses  and  seri- 
ously undertake  to  reform  its  internal  policy. 
Herr  Haase,  who  resigned  his  position  as  one  of 
the  two  leaders  of  the  Social  Democratic  group 
in  the  Reichstag,  voiced  his  desire  for  peace 
based  upon  the  rejection  of  all  schemes  of  con- 
quest. A  substantial  minority  of  the  Reichstag 
group  manifested  its  sympathy  with  this  point 
of  view  by  opposing  the  war  credits.  The  patri- 
otic majority  of  tiie  Social  Democratic  group, 
however,  not  only  continued  to  support  the  gov- 
ernment,  but   also   insisted   upon   reading   Dr. 


Liebknecht  out  of  the  party  and  repudiating  the 
party  organ,  Varwaeria,  for  rebelling  asainst 
party  discipline.  The  Socialist  int^pellation 
of  the  government,  in  resard  to  Germany's  peace 
terms,  is  discussed  in  the  article  on  Gebmant, 
History f  The  Debates  on  Peace  Terms. 

AusTBiA-HuNOABT.  In  man^  respects  the  at- 
titude of  the  Austro-Hunganan  Socialists  re- 
sembled that  of  their  German  comrades.  Writ- 
ing in  the  ArhMer  Zeitung  in  February,  one  of 
the  foremost  Austrian  Socialists,  Victor  A^er, 
justified  the  stand  of  the  (German  Socialists  and 
expressed  the  two-fold  desire  of  both  German 
and  Austrian  Socialists  to  preserve  their  coun- 
tries from  defeat  and  to  bring  about  peace  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  Austrian  Socialists  had 
tried  in  vain  to  prevent  the  war;  they  had 
fought  loyally  after  the  war  broke  out;  they 
were  now  anxious  for  peace;  and  they  could  not 
understand  the  passionately  anti-German  atti- 
tude of  the  French  Socialists.  Le  Matin  on  De- 
cember 6th  printed  a  dispatch  from  Geneva, 
quoting  from  the  Volksreoht  what  purported  to 
be  a  manifesto  secretly  circulated  by  the  Social 
Democratic  Party  in  Austria;  the  most  striking 
passages  from  the  manifesto  are  here  reproduced, 
but  the  indirect  means  by  which  the  information 
was  obtained  renders  the  genuineness  of  the 
manifesto  highly  problematical: 

"When  the  civilized  world  learns  what  has 
really  occurred  in  Austria  and  the  way  in  which 
justice  there  has  been  subverted,  it  will  shudder 
with  horror.  We  will  not  speak  of  the  long 
series  of  death-sentences  passed  upon  Czech  citi- 
zens, but  simply  of  the  sentences  passed  against 
Socialists  for  no  other  offense  than  the  inter- 
diange  of  ideas.  Langer  was  condemned  to  be 
hanged  for  publishing  a  pamphlet  demanding 
peace.  That  is  how  the  Austrian  government 
acts,  while  it  pretends  to  be  fighting  against  bar- 
barism. .  .  .  We  are  goingto  begin  to  fight  for  a 
democratic  republic.  .  .  .What  we  wan^  at  this 
moment,  is  not  war  but  revolution.  After  the 
war,  we  will  imitate  the  French  nation,  which  was 
able  to  establish  a  republic  through  revolution." 

Fbanck.  The  attitude  of  the  majority  of 
French  Socialists  has  already  been  made  suffi- 
ciently clear.  The^  were  determined  to  fight 
to  the  bitter  end  m  what  they  regarded  as  a 
struggle  for  democracy  against  German  militar- 
ism. If  they  won,  and  th^  regarded  it  as  the 
duty  of  all  Socialists  to  help  win,  they  would 
vindicate  the  principle  that  each  nation  has 
the  right  to  independence;  they  would  allow 
Alsace-Lorraine  to  return  to  France;  thqr  would 
guard  sgainst  future  wars  by  establishing  obli- 
gatory international  arbitration,  democratic  di- 
plomacy, and  an  international  police  force.  The 
National  Council  of  the  Unified  Socialists,  meet- 
ing in  Paris  in  the  middle  of  July,  showed  an 
overwhelming  majority  in  favor  of  supporting 
the  war  against  Germany,  and  only  a  minority 
in  favor  of  immediate  peace.  M.  Sembat,  the 
principal  orator,  declared  that  the  reconstruction 
of  the  International  and  action  for  peace  were 
impossible  until  the  Germans  had  been  defeated. 
The  Allies  must  present  a  united  front.  The 
meeting  summed  up  its  attitude  by  passing  a 
resolution,  with  only  one  dissenting  voice,  ex- 
pressing the  determination  of  the  French  So- 
cialists to  fieht  stanchly  against  German  im- 
perialism. Inis  determination  was  manifested 
in  the  participation  of  the  French  Socialists 
in   the  Allied   Socialist  Conference   in   London 


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{9Upra),  as  well  as  in  the  rejection  of  an  invi- 
tation to  send  delegates  to  an  International  So- 
cialist Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague.  ( Regard- 
ing the  criticism  of  the  French  government  by 
Socialists  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  see 
FiUNCE,  HUtory,)  In  this  connection  it  may 
also  be  noted  that  a  meeting  of  French  labor  or- 

Snizations  in  August,  predominantly  Syndical- 
t  rather  than  Socialist  in  complexion,  declared 
its  desire  for  peace,  its  advocacy  of  compulsory 
arbitration,  its  detestation  of  secret  diplomacy 
and  militarism,  its  belief  in  the  principles  of 
nationalism  and  internationalism,  and  its  inten- 
tion of  accepting  the  proposal  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  for  the  convocation  of  an 
international  labor  congress  on  the  same  date 
and  at  the  same  place  as  the  diplomatic  consreas 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  A  congress  of  the 
Unified  Socialists  late  in  December  approved  the 
action  of  the  three  Socialists  who  had  accepted 
cabinet  offices. 

Gkeat  Britain.  Certain  of  the  English  So- 
cialists unreservedly  adopted  the  point  of  view 
that  the  war  was  a  fight  to  the  finish  against 
Prussian  militarism.  A  "Socialist  National  De- 
fense Committee,"  supported  by  such  influential 
Socialists  as  H.  G.  Wells  and  Robert  Blatchford, 
insisted  that  "the  human  menace  of  Prussian 
militarism"  must  be  "destroyed  to  its  very 
roots";  at  the  same  time  it  was  stipulated  that 
"the  British  Federation  of  Free  States,"  i.e. 
presumably,  the  British  Empire,  should  be  pre- 
served. Practically  all  British  Socialists  agreed 
with  the  ordinary  British  patriot  in  abhorring 
German  militarism  and  in  demanding  an  in- 
demnity for  Belgium  as  well  as  a  pUotMte  in 
Alsace-Lorraine  on  the  question  of  reannexation 
to  France.  The  Independent  Labor  Party,  how- 
ever, was  by  no  means  willing  to  give  docile  sup- 
Sort  to  the  government.  Insistently  its  members 
emanded  national  control  of  industries,  tax- 
ation of  the  rich,  and  increased  expenditure  on 
social  welfare.  The  annual  convention  of  the 
I.  L.  P.  at  Norwich  early  in  April  desired  that 
peace  should  be  secured  "at  the  earliest  possible 
moment  on  such  conditions  as  provide  tiie  best 
opportunities  for  the  reSstablishment  of  amicable 
relations  between  the  workers  of  Europe."  More 
important  was  the  resolution  in  which  the  con- 
vention expressed  its  "strong  disapproval  of  the 
action  of  I.  L.  P.  members  of  Parliament  speak- 
ing from  platforms  on  which  attempts  were  made 
to  justify  the  war,  and  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
Liberal  government  which  led  to  the  war."  The 
I.  L.  P.  was  not  quite  willing,  however,  to  put 
itself  on  record  as  dogmatically  opposed  to  any 
support  of  the  war,  for  by  a  vote  of  120  to  121 
the  conference  rejected  a  resolution  that:  "This 
Conference  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Socialists 
of  all  nations  should  agree  that  henceforth  the 
Socialist  parties  should  refuse  support  to  every 
war  entered  into  by  capitalistic  governments, 
whatever  the  ostensible  object  of  the  war,  and 
even  if  such  war  is  nominally  of  a  defensive 
character."  The  division  of  the  British  Social- 
ists on  this  fundamental  (question  was  quite  com- 
parable with  the  dissension  within  the  German 
party.  The  British  Socialist  Party  (it  should 
be  remembered  that  there  were  three  Socialist 
organizations  coexistent  in  the  United  Kingdom: 
the  British  Socialist  Party,  the  Independent 
Labor  Party,  and  the  Fabian  Society)  was 
strongly  pacifist  in  temper,  and  vehemently 
deprecated  the  idea  of  a  "fight  to  a  finish."    In 


its  annual  conference  of  1015,  the  B.  S.  P.  re- 
solved  that  "This  Conference  of  the  British  So- 
cialist Party  condemns  the  cry  raised  by  the 
capitalist  parties  in  every  belligerent  country 
for  a  fight  to  a  finish  .  .  .  and  declares  unhesi- 
tatingly that  it  is  the  supreme  duty  of  the  So- 
cialist parties  throughout  the  world  to  work  for 
an  immediate  peace  on  such  terms  as  will  pre- 
vent the  repetition  of  a  similar  war."  In  Par- 
liament the  British  Socialists  and  Laborites 
pressed  with  ever-increasing  importunity  for  a 
clear  and  frank  statement  of  the  terms  upon 
which  the  British  government  would  accept 
peace.  In  the  country,  it  should  be  noted,  the 
mass  of  the  trade-unionists  (bv  no  means  all 
Socialists)  were  apparently  willing  to  support 
the  war,  but  bitterly  opposed  to  conscription  (see 
discussion  under  the  article  on  Geeat  Bbitain, 
History)  and  very  anxious  to  safeguard  the 
rights  of  labor  even  in  the  stress  and  confusion 
of  war-times.  In  this  connection  the  strikes  of 
the  Welsh  miners  are  specially  significant  (con- 
sult the  article  on  Strikes  ). 

ITALT.  Although  the  Italian  Socialists 
strongly  sympathized  with  France  and  the  En- 
tente Allies  in  the  war,  throughout  the  spring 
they  offered  futile  resistance  to  the  rising  tide 
of  warlike  enthusiasm  in  Italy.  Just  on  the  eve 
of  the  Italian  declaration  of  war  against  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, the  Party  Executive  issued  a 
manifesto.  May  22,  1915,  declaring  that  Italy's 
entry  into  the  war  was  contrary  to  the  will  of 
the  people,  and  exhorting  the  Socialists  of  Italy 
to  remain  true  to  their  convictions,  in  the  ex- 
pectation that  after  the  war,  "the  curse  of  the 
mothers,  the  wives,  the  woes  of  the  victims  of 
the  unavoidable  economic  crisis,  will  give  new 
and  stronger  impulses  to  the  class  struggle.  It 
is  for  the  conflicts  of  that  struggle  that  we  are 
preparing  popular  sentiment.  The  Socialist 
proletariat  does  not  disarm,  it  merely  waits." 
The  attitude  of  the  Socialists  after  the  outbreak 
of  war  was  difficult  to  ascertain,  inasmuch  as 
the  Italian  government  exercised  a  rigid  censor- 
ship, and  press  reports  were  frequently  contra- 
dictory. 

Russia.  In  January  a  communication  was 
made  public  which  four  Socialist  members  of 
the  Duma  were  alleged  to  have  sent  to  Copen- 
hagen. The  Russian  Socialists,  according  to  this 
document,  were  unable  to  attend  the  Socialist 
Congress  at  Copenhagen,  because  they  had  been 
arrested;  all  Socialist  organizations  had  been 
suppressed  by  the  police;  the  report  of  the 
Duma's  proceedings  had  been  mutilated  by  the 
government  in  order  to  conceal  the  protest  of 
the  Socialists  against  the  war  credits.  Subse- 
quent reports  indicated  that  one  member  of  the 
Socialist  group  in  the  Duma  had  been  expelled 
from  the  Socialist  majority  organization. 

United  States.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year 
the  Socialists  boasted  31  members  in  13  State 
Legislatures:  George  W.  Downing  (Cal.),  L.  A. 
Spengler  (Cal.),  E.  W.  Bowman  (Idaho),  C.  M. 
Madsen  (111.),  J.  M.  Mason  (111.),  G.  D.  Brewer 
(Kan.),  C.  H.  Morrill  (Mass.),  A.  O.  Devoid 
(Minn.),  J.  W.  Woodfill  (Minn.),  L.  A.  Bechtel 
(Mont.),  Alexander  Mackel  (Mont.),  W.  C. 
Tharp  (N.  Mex.),  M.  J.  Scanlan  (Nev.),  C.  A. 
Steele  (Nev.),  S.  W.  Hill  (Okla.),  C.  H.  Ingham 
(Okla.),  D.  S.  Kirkpatrick  (Okla.),  T.  H.  Mc- 
Lemore  (Okla.),  N.  D.  Pritchett  (Okla.),  G.  E. 
Wilson  (Okla.),  J.  H.  Maurer  (Pa.),  J.  A.  Bevan 
(Utah),    L.    A.    Arnold    (Wis.),    H.    O.    Kent, 


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(Wis.),  Frank  Metcalf  (Wis.),  Carl  Minkley 
(Wis.),  W.  L.  Smith  (Wis.),  George  Tews 
(Wis.),  James  Vint  (Wis.),  Frank  J.  Weber 
(Wis.),  Edward  Zinn   (Wis.). 

The  Socialist  legislators  gave  special  promi- 
nence to  the  unemployment  question.  In  Cali- 
fornia, Mr.  Lewis  A.  Spengler  introduced  a  bill 
for  free  State  employment  agencies  and  free 
transportation  of  workers;  his  colleague,  Mr. 
Downing,  introduced  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment empowering  the  State  to  employ  citizens 
in  productive  industrial  enterprises.  Mr.  Bow- 
man, in  the  Idaho  Senate,  similarly  brought  the 
problem  of  unemployment  to  the  fore.  Congress, 
too,  was  deluged  with  Socialist  petitions  for 
measures  against  unemployment.  Second  only 
to  their  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  labor  at 
home  was  the  interest  taken  by  American  Social- 
ists in  the  War  of  the  Nations.  Mr.  Hillquit's 
decision  not  to  participate  in  the  Copenhagen 
Peace  Conference  {supra)  gave  rise  to  interest- 
ing debates  in  the  Socialist  press.  Mr.  Gustavus 
Myers,  writing  for  a  New  York  journal,  on  Jan- 
uary 24th,  declared  that  "for  the  present,  the 
International  Socialist  movement  is  bankrupt. 
...  No  thinking  Socialist  attempts  to  deny  that 
the  International  Socialist  Movement  is  in  a 
desperately  sundered  condition."  Mr.  Victor 
Berger,  former  Socialist  Congressman  from  Mil- 
waukee, replied  to  Mr.  Myers's  strictures  on 
Socialist  solidarity.  Mr.  Berger  emphatically 
denied  that  the  Socialist  movement  was  bank- 
rupt, or  that  the  war  would  mark  the  decline  of 
the  movement;  on  the  contrary,  he  believed  that 
International  Socialism  would  emerge  stronger 
than  ever  and  would  lead  the  nations  of  the 
world  to  federation  and  peace.  In  the  February 
issue  of  the  New  Review,  Mr.  William  English 
Walling,  author  of  an  admirable  volume  on  So- 
cialism and  the  war,  animadverted  upon  the  na- 
tionalism of  Mr.  Morris  Hillquit  (see  Year 
Book  for  1914,  Socialism,  United  States).  Mr. 
Hillquit 's  classic  statement  of  patriotic  Social- 
ism, Quoted  in  the  Yeas  Book  for  1914,  was  in- 
verted by  Mr.  Walling  to  affirm  the  internation- 
alist conviction  that:  "Class  feeling  stands  for 
existence  primarily,  for  the  chance  to  earn  a 
livelihood.  It  stands  for  everything  we  hold 
dear — home,  family,  and  friends.  The  workman 
has  a  class  as  well  as  a  country.  Even  before 
he  has  a  country."  Mr.  Hillquit  himself  was 
meanwhile  exhorting  the  United  States  not  only 
incessantly  to  urge  peace  upon  the  European  bel- 
ligerents, but  also  to  set  them  an  example  of  a 
nation  at  peace  with  the  world  because  at  peace 
with  itself.  "Let  us,"  he  said,  "make  social 
peace  at  home,  and  we  shall  be  at  peace  witii  the 
world  and  the  world  will  follow  in  our  lead." 
Other  prominent  Socialists  were  reluctant  to 
exert  their  influence  in  favor  of  immediate 
peace.  Mr.  Eugene  V.  Debs,  to  cite  but  one 
instance,  was  credited  in  the  American  Socialist 
with  these  words:  "We  cannot  stop  the  Euro- 
pean war.  We  can  and  will  intervene  token  the 
time  comes  and  do  all  in  our  power  to  restore 
peace.  To  end  the  war  prematurely,  were  that 
possible,  would  simply  mean  another  and  per- 
haps even  a  bloodier  catastrophe."  February 
12th  was  observed  as  "national  unemployment 
day"  by  Socialists  throughout  the  United 
States.  Late  in  the  same  month  a  monster  pe- 
tition, bearing  100,000  signatures,  was  sent  to 
Congress,  asking  for  the  establishment  of  na- 
tional food  supply  depots  and  such  other  facili- 


ties as  were  necessary  to  obtain  a  just  market 
for  the  producer  and*  a  fair  purchase  price  for 
the  consumer.  On  March  4th,  Mr.  Meyer  Lon- 
don, the  sole  Socialist  member  of  the  national 
I^tegislature,  took  his  seat  as  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  On  the  same  day, 
Mr.  Pat  Quinlan  began  to  serve  his  term  in  the 
Trenton  (N.  J.)  State  prison  for  alleged  insti- 
gation of  riots.  His  condemnation  evoked  pro- 
tests from  Socialist  journals,  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  innocent  of  the  crime  charged  against 
him.  Early  in  April,  two  Socialists,  Mr.  Wil- 
liam E.  Rodriguez  and  Mr.  John  C.  Kennedy, 
were  elected  aldermen  from  the  15th  and  27th 
wards,  respectively,  in  Chicago,  111.  The  Na- 
tional Committee  of  the  Socialist  Party,  meet- 
ing in  Chicago,  May  13th,  decided  that  the  na- 
tional convention  of  the  Socialist  Party  should 
be  held  in  that  citv  in  1916,  and  elected  Mr.  Mor- 
ris Hillquit  of  New  York  as  chairman,  and  Mr. 
Walter  Lanfersiek  of  Kentucky  as  secretary.  A 
programme  of  resolutions  and  proclamations 
calling  attention  to  the  dangerous  propaganda 
of  the  militarists,  advocating  the  repudiation  of 
war  debts,  and  pledging  the  Socialists  to  labor  in 
behalf  of  a  prescribed  peace  programme  at  the 
end  of  the  war,  was  adopted  by  majority  vote 
despite  objections  raised  by  ex-Mayor  Lunn  of 
Schenectady,  and  Mr.  Victor  Berger  of  Mil- 
waukee. The  first  week  in  May  was  henceforth 
to  be  observed  annually  as  Socialist  Week.  The 
National  Committee  adopted  a  draft  of  a  Peace 
Programme  of  which  the  most  important  items 
were:  no  indemnities  at  the  close  of  the  war; 
no  transfer  of  territories  except  by  consent  of 
the  inhabitants;  "all  countries  under  foreign 
rule  must  be  given  political  independence  if  de- 
manded by  the  inhabitants  of  such  countries"; 
an  international  congress  with  permanent  com- 
mittees; a  special  commission  to  consider  inter- 
national disputes;  international  ownership  of 
strategic  waterways  (Gibraltar,  Suez,  Panama, 
etc.);  neutralization  of  the  high  seas;  abolition 
of  the  manufacture  of  arms  for  private  profit; 
no  increase  in  existing  armaments;  no  military 
or  naval  appropriations;  eventually,  universal 
disarmament;  political  democracy;  abolition  of 
secret  diplomacy;  industrial  democracy.  In  No- 
vember, Rev.  George  R.  Lunn  was  reelected  mayor 
of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and  Dr.  Charles  P.  Stein- 
metz,  the  noted  electrician,  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  common  council  of  the  same  city. 
Mr.  Charles  H.  Morrill  was  reelected  to  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  from  the  town  of 
Haverhill.  A  Socialist  Assemblyman  was  re- 
turned to  the  New  York  State  legislature  from 
a  Brooklyn  constituency.  Candidates  nominated 
for  the  presidency  by  Socialist  locals  included 
Mr.  Eugene  V.  Debs  of  Indiana,  Mr.  Job  Harri- 
man  of  California,  Mr.  Morris  Hillquit  of  New 
York,  Mr.  John  C.  Kennedy  of  Chicago,  Mr. 
Meyer  London  of  New  York,  Mayor  Lunn  of 
Schenectady,  Mr.  dJharles  Edward  Russell,  Mr. 
Seidel  of  Milwaukee,  and  Mr.  Fred  D.  Warren  of 
Kansas.  Socialism  lost  one  of  its  veteran  or- 
ganizers when  Julius  Vahlteich  died  at  Chicago, 
Feb.  26,  1916.  He  was  one  of  the  12  founders 
of  the  Universal  Workingmen's  Association 
(1863) ;  he  had  been  twice  elected  to  the  German 
Reichstag;  in  1881  he  had  been  expelled  from 
Germany  and  found  refuge  in  the  United  States; 
he  had  been  editor  of  the  New  York  Volkszeitung 
and  subsequently  of  the  Chicago  Arheiter  Zei- 
tung. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


An  organizauon  formed  in  1898  for  gathering 
and  disseminating  information  on  all  branches 
of  social  and  industrial  betterment.  It  supplies 
expert  information  as  to  social  problems  botti  to 
persons  in  the  United  States  and  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  has  organized  hundreds  of  classes  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  for  the  study  of 
such  problems.  It  maintains  a  lectureship  on 
social  subjects,  Dr.  James  H.  Ecob  holding  that 
position  in  1916.  At  its  headquarters  in  Bible 
House,  Astor  Place,  New  York  City,  a  special 
reference  library  is  kept  open  to  the  public 
The  official  organ  of  the  institute  is  the  monthly 
magazine,  The  Ootpel  of  the  Kingdom,  which  is 
widely  used  in  Simday  schools,  church  brother- 
hoods, Y.  M.  C.  A.'s,  and  Y.  W.  C.  A.'b.  In 
1916  the  magazine  will  be  devoted  to  welfare 
and  industrial  subjects.  The  officers  of  the  insti- 
tute are  the  following:  President,  Josiah 
Strong;  vice-president,  Momay  Williams;  re- 
cording secretary,  Rudolph  M.  Binder;  acting 
treasurer,  M.  J.  Whitty;  and  an  executive  com- 
mittee consisting  of  the  officers  and  in  addition, 
Orrin  G.  Cocks,  Robert  H.  Ghirdiner,  Horace  O. 
Hoadley,  William  Fellowes  Morgan,  Gifford  Pin- 
chot,  Robert  Scott,  Fred  E.  Tasker,  and  Edwin 
D.  Wheelock. 

SOCIETIES,  Abt.  For  exhibitions  held  by 
various  societies  and  associations,  see  Painting 

AND   SCULPTUBE. 

SOCIETY.  For  any  organization  whose  of- 
ficial title  begins  with  the  word  Society,  see  ar- 
ticle under  the  specifically  descriptive  word  in 
such  title. 

SOCIOLOGICAL  CONGBESS,  Southern. 
See  Sociology.  

SOCIOLOGICAL  SOCIETY,  American.    See 

SOCIOLOGT. 

SOCIOLOGY.  In  addition  to  the  matter  be- 
low, the  following  articles  contain  information 
of  sociological  interest:  Social  EcoNoincs, 
which  includes  a  list  of  articles  treating  differ- 
ent aspects  of  industrial  life;  Charities;  La- 
bor; Political  Economy;  and  Relief  fob  War 
Victims. 

American  Sociological  Society.  This  or- 
ganization held  its  10th  annual  meeting  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  December  27th-3l8t.  The  general 
subject  was  "War  and  Militarism  in  Their  So- 
ciological Aspects."  At  the  same  time  and  place 
were  held  sessions  of  the  American  Statistical 
Association  (q.v.),  the  American  Economic  As- 
sociation (see  Political  Economy),  and  the 
second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress  (see 
Political  Economy).  Principal  papers  of  the 
Sociological  Society  programme  were  the  address 
of  President  Edward  A.  Ross  on  "War  as  De- 
terminer"; a  widely  quoted  paper  by  ex-Presi- 
dent Theodore  Roosevelt  on  "Social  Values  and 
National  Existence";  Prof.  Emily  G.  Balch  of 
Wellesley  College  on  **War  and  Militarism  in 
Relation  to  the  Status  of  Women";  Prof.  G.  E. 
Howard  of  the  University* of  Nebraska  on  *War 
and  Militarism  in  Relation  to  Government  and 
Politics";  and  Brooks  Adams  of  Boston  on  "Can 
War  Be  Done  Away  With?"  A  joint  session 
with  the  section  on  Sociological  Medicine  of  the 
Pan-American  Scientific  Congress  was  devoted  to 
the  general  subject,  "The  Relation  of  the  Indi- 
vidual to  the  Community:  Social  Utility,  Du- 
ties of  Individuals  to  the  Community  and  of  the 
Community  to  Individuals."  There  were  discus- 
sions of  "Health  Matters  of  Public  Interest,"  by 


Ramon  L6pez-Lomba,  director-general  of  M- 
tional  Public  Charities  of  Uruguay;  on  "^ays 
and  Means  of  Bringing  Matters  of  Public  HaHh 
to  Social  Usefulness,"  by  Dr.  William  G.  Wood 
ward  of  Washington,  D.  C,  and  Dr.  Kdutrdo 
Liceago  of  Mexico;  and  on  "What  Can  Uno& 
cial  Effort  do  for  Public  Health  f  by  Prof.  It 
ving  Fisher  of  Yale  University,  and  Dr.  Hayes 
E.  Dearholt  of  the  University  of  Wisconein. 

The  society  publishes  the  American  Jonnul  of 
Sociology,  and  a  report  of  its  annual  convn 
tions,  entitled  The  Papers  and  Proceedingt  of  tkf 
American  Sociological  Society,  The  aecretary  u 
Prof.  Scott  E.  W.  Bedford,  58th  Street  and  Ellis 
Avenue,  Chicago,  III. 

SOUTHESN    SOCIOLOGICAI.    CONGSESS.    Tbis  or 

Smization  held  its  fourth  annual  session  it 
ouston,  Texas,  in  May.  During  ita  sessioo  it 
organized  a  local  committee  of  citizens  as  a 
"Continuation  Committee,"  with  the  «p«i«l 
function  of  working  for  public  health  throQ?ij 
existing  organizations.  Tnis  was  only  one  as- 
pect of  a  four-years'  programme  for  puWif 
health  which  the  organization  has  entered  npoe- 
In  addition  it  gives  consideration  to  problom 
of  courts,  prisons,  child  labor,  organi^  char 
ity,  race  relations,  the  churdi,  and  social  wrr 
ice.  In  its  1916  sessions  persons  of  everr  prc^ 
fession  besides  negro  leaders,  prison  refonDers. 
housing  commissioners,  health  oflficers,  and  sociai 
service  experts  took  part  in  the  discnssiiB* 
President  Samuel  P.  Brooks  of  Baylor  Units 
sity,  Waco,  Texas,  was  chosen  president  for  191^ 
The  motto  of  the  congress  is  "For  the  Sooti. 
for  the  nation,  and  for  civilization." 

Bibliogrraphy.  The  following  were  amoa^ 
the  most  important  books  of  sociological  inter 
est  published  during  the  year.  Other  referenK* 
will  be  found  under  Labob;  Penology;  Poini 
CAL  EooNomr;  Pbostttution;  Social  Ecosox 
IC8 ;  and  various  special  topics.  Katharine  .^ 
thony.  Feminism  in  Germany  and  Scandinam 
Charles  A.  Beard,  Economic  Interpretation  f 
American  Politics.  Vol.  II.  Economic  Ori^ 
of  Jeffermmian  Democracy;  F.  W.  Blackmar  and 
J.  L.  Gillen,  Outlines  of  Sociology;  A.  L.  Bowleg. 
Livelihood  and  Poverty,  and  The  Jfature  «»^ 
Purpose  of  the  Measurement  of  Social  Phen^ 
ena;  Thomas  N.  Carver,  Essays  in  Social  •** 
tice;  Edwin  G.  Conklin,  Heredity  and  Envv^ 
ment  in  the  Development  of  Men;  Edwin  G.  Df' 
ter.  Weather  Influences;  S.  Eldridge,  ProWff 
of  Community  Life:  An  Outline  of  AppM  ^^ 
ciology;  G.  P.  Elliot,  Prehistoric  Man  end  a^ 
Story;  C.  A.  EUwood,  The  Social  Problem;  C J 
Gehlke,  EmUe  Durkheim's  Contributions  to  ^'■ 
ciological  Theory;  Franklin  H.  Giddings,  ?»■ 
Western  Hemisphere  in  the  World  of  T(y*^^ 
row;  John  M.  Gillette,  The  Family  and  Sonf'f 
Arthur  Gobineau,  The  Inequality  of  B^^ 
Races;  Henry  H.  Goddard,  The  Criminal  /s^ 
die;  Hillystine  Goodsell,  The  Family  asaSof^ 
and  Educational  Institution;  E.  B.  Goew<  ^ 
Civilization  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians;  Edvar" 
C.  Hayes,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  B^] 
ogy;  Paul  L.  Haworth,  America  in  ^^^^\ 
Julius  F.  Hecker,  Russian  Sociology;  C.  R  Kf^ 
derson.  The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Crime;  R  ^^ 
derson.  Mortality  Laws  and  Statiatics;  frt^  ' 
C.  Howe,  Socialized  Germany,  and  The  Mo^ 
City  and  Its  Problems;  Maude  A.  Huttm*?' 
The  Establishment  of  Christianity  and  the  ^ 
scription   of  Paganism;  J.  Jasirow,   Chart^' 


8OCIOLO0Y 


603 


SOILS 


and  Temperament;  J.  H.  Jones,  The  Economics 
of  War  and  Conquest,  •  An  Examination  of  Mr, 
Norman  AngelVs  Economic  Doctrines;  Arthur 
Keith,  The  Antiquity  of  Man;  Albert  G.  Kellor, 
Social  Evolution;  Y.  K.  Leong  and  L.  K.  Tao, 
Village  and  Toum  Life  in  China,  with  a  preface 
by  L.  T.  Hobhouae;  James  MacKaye,  The  Happi- 
ness of  Nations:  A  Beginning  in  Political  Engi- 
neering; J.  E.  McCulloch,  Battling  for  Soci^fi 
Betterment;  G.  W.  Nasmyth,  Social  Progress 
and  the  Darwinian  Theory;  Henry  Fairfield  Os- 
born,  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age;  Elsie  G.  Par- 
sons, Fear  and  Conventionality,  and  Social  Free- 
dom. A  Study  of  the  Conflicts  Between  Social 
Classifications  and  Personality;  W.  H.  R.  Rivers, 
The  History  of  Melanesian  Society;  James  T. 
Shotwell,  and  other  editors  and  collaborators. 
Records  of  Civilieationf  a  series  of  which  was 
issued  HeUenic  Civilization,  by  G.  W.  Botsford; 
Gilbert  Stone,  Wales:  Her  Origins,  Struggles, 
and  Later  History,  Institutions  and  Manners; 
Mrs.  Alec.  Tweedie,  Women  the  World  Over,  in- 
troduction by  Ernest  Thompson  Seton;  and 
Graham  Wallas,  The  Great  Society:  A  Psycho- 
logical Analysis. 

SOILS.  As  regards  the  European  countries 
especially  there  is  little  to  report  in  the  way  of 
progress  in  the  study  of  soils  during  1916.  The 
chief  concern  there  appears  to  have  been  the 
practial  application  of  knowledge  already  avail- 
able to  the  urgent  problem  of  food  production, 
with  comparatively  little  attempt  to  press  in- 
quiries in  new  fields.  The  results  of  scientific 
study  of  soils  were  thus  being  put  to  a  crucial 
test  and  their  soundness  and  practical  value 
were  being  demonstrated  as  never  before.  The 
wide  knowledge  of  the  possibilities  and  crop 
adaptations  of  soils  furnished  by  systematic  soil 
surveys  and  the  exact  information  regarding  the 
fertilizer  and  other  requirements  of  soils  fur- 
nished by  scientifically  planned  and  conducted 
experiments  were  being  found  especially  useful 
in  the  European  emergency  of  1915. 

Soil  Surveys.  Soil  surveys  received  a  large 
share  of  attention  in  those  countries  which  were 
able  to  continue  such  work.  The  making  of  such 
surveys  was  as  heretofore  especially  active  in 
the  United  States.  A  report  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Soils  showed  that  during  the 
year  ended  June  30,  1915,  detailed  soil  surveys, 
usually  covering  a  county,  and  made  on  a  scale 
of  one  inch  to  tne  mile,  were  completed  or  begun 
in  97  areas  in  32  States,  a  total  area  of  40,389.6 
square  miles,  or  26,849,280  acres,  being  mapped. 
In  addition,  reconnoissance  surveys,  usually  cov- 
ering several  counties  and  made  on  a  scale  of 
4  miles  to  the  inch,  were  carried  on  in  2  States, 
a  total  area  of  10,161  square  miles,  or  6,503,040 
acres,  being  mapped.  The  reports  on  the  detail 
areas  are  accompanied  by  maps  which  show  in 
addition  to  the  distribution  and  location  of 
various  types  of  soil  the  roads,  houses,  railways, 
and  streams.  The  total  area  covered  by  the  de- 
tailed soil  surveys  from  the  beginning  of  the 
work  in  1899  to  June  30,  1915,  amounted  to 
369,928.5  square  miles,  or  236,754,240  acres,  and 
by  reconnoissance  surveys,  444,210  square  miles, 
or  284,294,400  acres.  A  large  part  of  this  sur- 
vey work  (73  out  of  the  97  areas  surveyed  in 
1915)  was  done  in  cooperation  with  State  insti- 
tutions or  organizations,  such  as  agricultural 
colleges,  experiment  stations,  departments  of  ag- 
riculture, and  geological  surveys.  A  few  States 
were  conducting  independent  soil  surveys.    These 


soil  surveys  were  so  numerous  and  so  well  dis- 
tributed in  the  United  States  that  they  prob- 
ably included  every  soil  type  of  importance  and 
furnished  a  good  basis  for  judging  their  agri- 
cultural possibilities  and  adaptetions.  One  of 
the  main  practical  objects  of  these  surveys  was 
to  determine  more  accurately  the  best  adaptation 
of  soil  to  crop.  With  this  in  mind  special 
studies  were  being  made  of  the  relation  of  soils 
to  orchard  fruits  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  New  York,  and  to  truck  crops  in  New  Jer- 
sey. Classification  of  lands  in  the  forest  re- 
serves with  a  view  to  the  segregation  of  those 
suitable  to  agriculture  and  examinations  of 
lands  covered  by  proposed  extensions  of  reclama- 
tion projects  proceeded  as  usual. 

Investigations.  The  general,  and  probably 
the  most  notable,  outcome  of  the  soil  investiga- 
tions of  1916,  was  a  broadening  of  the  concep- 
tion of  the  effects  of  fertilizers  and  other  treat- 
ments on  soils.  It  was  made  plain  that  fertil- 
izers could  no  longer  be  looked  upon  as  simply 
supplying  plant  food  (nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potash,  and  other  deficient  constituents),  but 
that  they  probably  performed  other  very  impor- 
tant functions,  such  as  removing  or  reducing 
toxicity  due  to  various  not  yet  &oroughly  un- 
derstood causes,  correcting  excessive  acidity  or 
alkalinity,  promoting  beneficial  bacterial  ac- 
tivities, stimulating  plant  growth,  and  improv- 
ing physical  properties  of  soils,  particularly  by 
their  action  on  colloid  substances. 

Inquiries  into  the  relation  of  colloid  chemistry 
to  soil  properties  and  processes  were  actively 
pressed  with  notable  success.  Practically  a  new 
field  of  soil  investigation  was  thus  opened  up, 
and  the  literature  of  the  subject  had  rapidly 
grown.  The  inquiries  threw  much  light  upon  a 
number  of  hitherto  imperfectly  understood  soil 
reactions. 

The  causes  of  the  increased  productiveness  fol- 
lowing partial  sterilization  of  soils  by  heat  or 
volatile  antiseptics  had  not  been  conclusively 
determined,  but  it  was  shown  that  the  process 
might  have  a  greater  practical  value,  especially 
in  greenhouse  work,  than  it  was  heretofore  be- 
lieved to  possess.  It  had  been  shown  that  par- 
tial sterilization  of  soils  by  heat  increased  the 
available  plant  food,  produced  more  healthy  con- 
ditions in  the  soil,  and  saved  the  expense  of  fre- 
quent change  of  soils,  which  is  now  necessary  in 
greenhouse  work. 

The  paramount  importance  of  moisture  in  re- 
lation to  the  physical  condition  of  soils  was 
clearly  demonstrated  by  many  investigations. 
As  a  result  of  its  studies  of  the  subject,  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Soils  concluded  "that 
every  physical  property  of  a  soil  affecting  the 
growth  of  crops  is  itself  determined  by  the  mois- 
ture content  of  the  soil  and  that  there  is  a  criti- 
cal moisture  content  characteristic  of  each  par- 
ticular soil  at  which  the  aggregate  of  physical 
properties  produces  an  optimum  condition  for 
plant  growth."  The  Bureau  had  worked  out  a 
quick  method  of  determining  this  critical  or 
optimum  water  content.  It  had  been  further 
found  by  the  Bureau  that  if  a  soil  containing 
less  than  the  critical  moisture  content  be  further 
wetted  enormous  pressures  (as  high  as  600 
pounds  or  more  to  the  square  inch  of  soil  mass) 
are  developed.  This  fact  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  soil  tilth,  but  it  is  of  much  more  direct 
importance  to  engineers  and  practical  construc- 
tors.   It  serves  to  explain  conditions  such  as  j 

Digitized;.,     _        09lC 


SOILS 


604 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


are  bo  notably  illustrated  in  the  Panama  Canal 
slides. 

Further  progress  was  made  during  the  year 
in  the  study  of  the  organic  constituents  of  the 
soil.  The  presence  in  the  soil  of  a  new  type  of 
organic  compounds,  namely,  aldehydes,  was 
shown  by  investigations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 
These  aldehyde  compounds,  which  are  considered 
for  the  most  part  harmful  to  plants,  originate 
in  processes  of  organic  decay  under  conditions 
of  poor  aSration  or  drainape,  and  appear  to  be 
closely  associated  with  acid  soils,  though  not 
exclusively  so.  A  step  in  advance  in  determin- 
ing the  effect  of  such  compounds  on  plant  growth 
was  the  testing  of  them  on  a  large  scale  in  field 
experiments.  Here  the  results  were  found  to  be 
quite  different  in  many  cases  from  those  ob- 
tained in  small  laboratory  culture  tests.  The 
field  experimente  also  furnished  a  more  satis- 
factory way  of  determining  the  practial  value 
of  fertilizers  in  ameliorating  the  harmful  effecte 
of  the  compounds.  Numerous  investigations 
bearing  upon  the  nature,  determination,  and  cor- 
rection of  the  so-called  acidity  of  the  soil  were 
reported  during  the  year,  but  the  resulte  were 
not  conclusive  as  to  the  nature  of  the  acidity 
nor  the  proper  methods  of  its  determination  and 
correction. 

Bibliography.  The  following  are  among  the 
more  important  contributions  to  the  subject 
which  appeared:  Cameron,  "Soil  Colloids  and 
the  Soil  Solution,"  Journal  of  Physical  Chemis- 
try, 19  (1015),  pp.  1-13;  Lohnis,  Boden-Bak- 
ierien  und  BodenrFruchtharheit  (Berlin,  1014) ; 
Campbell  and  Haste,  Soil  Culture  Primer  (Lin- 
coln, 1014) ;  Lyon  et  al.,  Soils  (New  York, 
1016);  Russell,  Soil  Conditions  and  Plant 
Growth  (London,  1015) ;  Ehrenberg,  Die  Boden- 
kolloide  (Dresden  and  Leipzig,  1015). 

SOili  TBEATKENT.     See  Fertilizers. 

SOI>AB  PHYSICS.     See  Astronomt. 

SOIiOOITBy  Fbodor.  See  Russian  Litera- 
ture. 

SOLOMOK  ISLANDS  PBOTECTOBATE. 
Part  of  the  Solomon  Islands,  including  Bougain- 
ville and  Buka,  are  German;  the  remainder  of 
the  i^oup  to  the  southeast  of  these  constitute  a 
British  protectorate.  Estimated  area  of  the  pro- 
tectorate, 14,800  square  miles.  Estimated  pop- 
ulation: natives,  about  150,000;  whites  (1014), 
660.  Head-hunters  and  cannibals  exist  among 
the  native  tribes.  The  climate  is  unhealthful. 
The  British  resident  commissioner  has  his  head- 
quarters at  Tulagi.  Importe  (1013-14),  £162,- 
215;  exporte,  £148,265  (copra,  pearl,  tortoise 
shell,  ete.) ;  revenue,  £24,520;  expenditure,  £18,- 
737. 

SOMALI  COAST.  See  French  Somali 
Coast. 

SOMALTTiAyP,  Itauan.    See  Italian  So- 

MALILAND. 

SOMALTLAND  PBOTECTOBATE.  A  Brit- 
ish protectorate  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Area, 
about  68,000  square  miles;  population  (1011), 
302,850,  largely  nomad  Mohammedan  tribes. 
Berbera,  Bulbar,  and  Zeila  are  the  chief  ports. 
Live  stock  constitutes  the  wealth  of  the  country. 
Imports  amounted  in  1013-14  to  £238,218;  ex- 
porte, £216,506;  revenue,  £20,646;  expenditure, 
£68,646;  grant-in-aid   (1012-13),  £26,000. 

In  November,  1014,  a  roving  band  of  dervishes, 
which  had  been  routed  by  the  Camel  Constabu- 
lary, returned  to  harass  the  friendly  tribes  in 
the  vicinity  of  Burao,  but  was  defeated  at  the 


beginning  of  February  by  a  combined  force  of 
the  Indian  contingent  and  the  Camel  Constebu- 
lary  in  the  Ain  Valley. 

SONJATIK.       See  Chemistry,  Industrial. 

SOIJB-MILK     THEBAPY.    See     Bacteri- 

OLOOY. 

SOITTHy  University  of  the.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  foimded  at  Sewanee,  Tenn., 
in  1851,  and  opened  for  instruction  in  1868.  It 
includes  the  College  of  Arte  and  Sciences  and  a 
theological  departoient,  as  well  as  a  prepara- 
tory department.  The  totel  enrollment  in  all 
departmente  in  the  autumn  of  1015,  exclusive  of 
77  in  the  Sewanee  Militery  Academy,  was  155. 
The  faculty  numbered  25.  There  were  no  nota- 
ble changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  in 
1015,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  re- 
ceived. The  productive  fimds  amounted  to  about 
$400,000,  and  the  totel  income  to  $125,000.  The 
library  conteined  about  36,000  volumes.  The 
president  is  Albion  Williamson  Knight,  D.D. 

SOUTH  AFBICA,  Union  of.  A  British 
colony;  a  legislative  union,  under  one  govern- 
ment, of  four  provinces.  Their  areas,  according 
to  latest  returns,  totel  population  (census  of 
May  7,  1011),  and  their  white  population  (cen- 
sus 1011),  with  area  and  population  of  annexed 
territories,  are  shown  in  the  following  teble: 


8q. 

Cftpe  of   Good  Hope    ..206,860 

BechuftnftUnd    51,624 

Transkeian  Territoriei: 

East    Griqualand    .  . .      7,504 

Tembnland     4,120 

Transkei     2,552 

Pondoland     3,006 

Wftlflah   Bay    480 

Total  Cape  Prorince  .276,005 

NaUl    24,866 

Zululand    10,424 

Total  Natal   85.200 

Tranaraal     110,426 

Orange  Free  SUte 50,880 

Total  Union  of  South 

Africa     478,100 


ToUU  pop. 

1,558.680 

00,558 

240,088 
286.086 
188,805 
284,637 
687 


WhUss 

546.162 

14,017 

7,050 
8,138 
2.180 
1,388 
83 


2,564,065    582,877 


074,437 
210,606 

1,104,048 

1,686,212 

528,174 


05.004 
2,120 

08,114 
420,562 
175.180 


5,073.804  1.276.242 


Of  the  totel  population,  3,060,302  were  males, 
2,004,002  females;  of  the  totel  whites  (who 
numbered  21.37  per  cent  of  the  totel  popula- 
tion), 685,164  were  males  and  501,078  females. 
The  Bantus  numbered  4,010,006  (2,022,040  males 
and  1,006,057  females),  or  67.28  per  cent  of  the 
totel  population;  mixed  and  other  colored,  678,- 
146,  or  11.35  per  cent.  Density  per  square  mile 
for  the  Union,  12.63  (Cape  of  Good  Hope,  0.26; 
Natel,  33,83;  Transvaal,  15.27;  Orange  Free 
State,  10.48).  The  to£al  population  in  1004  was 
6,176,824. 

Cape  Town,  the  seat  of  the  Union  Parliament, 
had,  with  suburbs,  161,750  inhabitante  in  1011 
(of  whom  85,442  white) ;  Johannesburg,  237,104 
(110,053);  Pretoria,  57,674  (35.042);  Durban, 
80,008  (34.880)  ;  Port  Elizabeth,  37,063  (20,- 
007);  Kimberley  and  Beaconsfield,  44,433  (17,- 
507) ;  Germiston,  54,325  (15,670) ;  East  London, 
24,606  (14,800);  Pietermaritzburg,  30,665  (14,- 
737);  Bloemfontein,  26,026  (14,720);  Krugers- 
dorp,  56,144  (13,132);  Boksburg,  43,628  (11,- 
620);  Benoni,  32,560  (8630). 

Higher  education  is  controlled  by  the  Union 
Parliament;  other  education  by  the  several  prov- 
inces. 

Mining.    The  Union  of  South  Africa  stends 


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SOUTH  AFBICA 


Gor> 


SOUTH  AFBICA 


first  among  the  countries  of  the  world  in  the 
production  of  gold  and  diamonds.  Other  min- 
eral products  are  coal,  copper,  tin,  asbestos, 
graphite,  magnesite,  zinc,  lime,  salt,  etc. 

Oold,  The  gold  produced  in  the  Transvaal 
amounted  in  1010  to  more  than  one-third  of  the 
world's  supply.  Of  the  26,198  whites  employed 
in  the  gold  mines  of  the  Union  in  June,  1911, 
26,159  were  in  the  Transvaal,  25  in  Natal,  12 
in  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  2  in  the  Cape 
province;  of  the  208,182  colored  laborers,  207,907 
were  in  the  Transvaal,  216  in  Natal,  46  in  the 
Orange  Free  State,  and  13  in  the  Cape  province. 
Employed  in  the  gold  mines  in  December,  1912, 
were  24,558  white  and  207,618  colored  laborers, 
of  whom  24,520  white  and  207,456  colored  were 
engaged  in  the  Transvaal;  in  December,  1913, 
22,966  whites  and  163,217  colored. 

The  table  below  shows  the  output  by  provinces 
in  1912  and  1913: 

Fine  oza.  Pounds  Herttng 

1912  1918  1912  1918 

TrftDB 9.107,512  8.798,886  88,686,250  87,872.949 

Natal 1,242  847  6.276  1,478 

Cape  88       80       162       181 

Union    .  .9,108,792  8,798.718  88,691,688  87,874,558 

The  total  output  for  the  Union  in  1910  was 
£31,991,295  (world's  output,  1910,  £93,500,000), 
of  which  the  Transvaal  furnished  £31,973,123 
(from  the  Witwatersrand,  £30,663,933),  or  7,- 
527,108  fine  ounces.  The  total  output  for  1909 
was  £30,994,905,  of  which  £30,987,650  came  from 
the  Transvaal  (contribution  of  the  Witwaters- 
rand, £29,787,569). 

Diamonds.  In  June,  1911,  4723  whites  were 
employed  in  the  diamond  mines  (Cape,  2830; 
Orange  Free  State,  1096;  Transvaal,  797)  and 
39,884  colored  (Cape,  18,004;  Transvaal,  11,254; 
Orange  Free  State,  10,626),  besides  several  thou- 
sand individual  diggers.  Employed  in  the  dia- 
mond mines  in  December,  1912,  were  8874  white 
and  52,369  colored  laborers;  in  December,  1913, 
8692  white  and  53,809  colored  (Transvaal,  2279 
and  14,791;  Cape,  5226  and  28,630;  Orange  Free 
State,  1187  and  11,388). 

The  table  below  shows  the  output  by  provinces 
in  1912  and  1913: 

OaraU  Pounds  sUrUnff. 

1912            1918  1912              1918 

Trana 2.181,406  2,156,897  2,886.979     2,726,668 

Cape    2,325,549  2.461.898  6.190.996     6,995,438 

O.   F.    S.    ..    614.927      554.757  1.488.544     1.667.706 


and  24,645  colored  (Transvaal,  643  and  11,109; 
Natal,  651  and  10,548;  Orange  Free  State,  131 
and  2003;  Cape,  78  and  886). 

The  table  below  shows  the  output  by  provinces 
in  1912  and  1913: 

Tons*  Pounds  sterling 

1912  1918  1912  1918 

Trans 4.751,850  5.225.086   1.044,986  1,142.598 

Natal     2,765.068  2.898.726      771,755      891.699 

O.  F.  S 525,459      609,978      141,880      167.409 

Cape    74,701         67.481        41.257        88,752 


Union    ..5,071,882  5,168,547  10,061,489  11,889.807 

The  output  for  the  year  1910  was  5,456,557 
carats,  valued  at  £8,101,363  (Cape,  2,586,294 
carats,  £5,267,659;  Orange  Free  State,  780,195 
carats,  £1,505,074;  Transvaal,  2,090,068  carats, 
£1,328,630).  The  value  of  the  stones  obtained 
from  the  Cape  and  Orange  Free  State  mines  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  Transvaal  dia- 
monds, the  latter  selling  at  one  time  for  13 
shillings  per  carat,  when  the  former  were  aver- 
aging from  42  shillings  to  36  shillings. 

CofU,  White  and  colored  labor  employed  in 
coal  mines  in  June,  1911,  1237  and  23,440,  re- 
spectively (Natal,  617  and  11,248;  Transvaal, 
504  and  9399;  Orange  Free  State,  101  and  1600; 
Cape,  116  and  1193).  The  coal  mines  employed 
in  December,  1912,  1323  white  and  23,277  col- 
ored laborers;    in   December,   1913,   1403   white 


Union      ...8,117.078  8.801,216  1,999,878  2,240.458 
*  Tona  of  2000  Iba. 

The  Transvaal  also  produced  in  1912,  2960 
tons  of  coke,  valued  at  t3469,  and  25,896  gallons 
of  tar,  valued  at  £806.  Natal  produced  6000 
tons  of  coke,  valued  at  £8511.  In  1913  the 
Transvaal  produced  2234  tons  of  coke,  valued  at 
£3039;  43,923  gallons  of  tar,  valued  at  £1433; 
Natal,  7111  tons  of  coke,  £12,823. 

The  output  and  value  in  1910,  and  the  pit's 
mouth  value  of  the  total  production  to  the  end 
of  1910,  are  given  below: 

2910  Total 

Tons                £  £ 

Tranayaal    8,974,876        987,260  11.722,988 

Natal     2,570,115         688,424  *6.849,285 

O.  F.  8 469,762         181,728  887.498 

Cape    98,280          59,808  2,181,807 

Union    7,107,588     1.867,220     21.591.078 

*From  1908  only. 

The  Cape  province,  having  less  competition, 
obtains  higher  prices  than  the  other  provinces. 
Better  qualities  are  found  in  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal.  Most  of  the  supply  from  Natal  is 
bunkered  at  Durban  or  exported,  while  the  mines, 
railways,  and  other  local  industries  consume 
much  of  that  produced  by  the  other  provinces. 

Other  Minerals.  Of  the  other  mining  prod- 
ucts, only  tin  and  copper  are  exploited  in  com- 
mercial quantities,  largely  in  the  Transvaal  and 
Cape  provinces.  Output  of  tin  ore  in  1913,  3672 
tons,  valued  at  £436,550;  of  copper,  6289  tons  of 
concentrates,  valued  at  £138,328,  from  the  Trans- 
vaal, and  13,095  tona  of  matte  and  ore,  valued 
at  £369,528,  from  the  Cape.  The  output  of  sil- 
ver (952,697  fine  ounces,  valued  at  £116,822)  is 
contained  in  gold  bullion  and  base  metal  ores, 
there  being  no  silver  mines  in  the  Union.  Salt 
production,  47,992  tons,  valued  at  £77,142. 

Otheb  Industries.  There  is  an  efficient  agri- 
cultural department,  which  has  established  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  experiment  stations.  Os- 
trich farming  and  sheep  farming  are  important 
industries.  Irrigation  plans  are  being  carried 
out  on  a  large  scale  in  various  districts.  The 
wool  export  reached,  in  1912,  162,000,000  pounds, 
and  in  1913,  173,242,765  pounds.  The  dairying 
industry  is  developing,  the  output  of  butter  in 
1913  being  10,741,745  pounds,  and  of  cheese, 
620,949  pounds.  Com  was  produced  for  export 
in  1910  to  the  value  of  £693,413  (178,000  tons) ; 
subsequent  severe  droughts  have  injured  this 
crop  every  year.  Whale  oil  (from  the  whaling 
station  at  Durban),  £60,000  in  1910.  The  ex- 
port of  ostrich  feathers  was  1,023,307  pounds  in 
1913. 

The  forest  reserve  covers  1,843,036  acres.  The 
present  annual  importation  of  timber  into  the 


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SOUTH  AVBIGA 


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SOUTH  AVBICA 


Union  is  about  14,000,000  cubic  feet,  largely  pine 
from  Europe  and  America,  witii  Bome  hard  wood 
from  Australia.  The  total  revenue  from  the  for- 
est reserve  (1012-13)  was  £107,031;  expendi- 
ture, £118,866. 

CoicifSBCE.  By  proclamation  dated  Aug.  6, 
1014,  the  export  of  foodstuffs,  except  by  special 
permit^  has  bem  prohibited.  In  a  communica- 
tion of  August  14th,  it  is  specified  that:  (I)  the 
exports  of  cereal  foodstuffs  to  oversea  countries 
(except  to  ports  in  Great  Britain)  is  absolutely 
prohibited;  (2)  the  export  of  cereals  for  Great 
Britain  is  authorized  by  special  permission;  (3) 
the  export  of  all  kinds  of  foodstuffs  for  consump- 
tion m  Basutoland,  Swaziland,  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate,  Rhodesia,  Mozambique  Province, 
and  the  Congo  is  permitted. 

By  decision  of  June  2,  1915,  the  export  of  raw 
cotton  has  been  prohibited  for  all  ports  in  Eu- 
rope on  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea,  ex- 
cept ports  in  France,  Russia  (not  including  Bal- 
tic ports),  Belgium,  Spain,  and  Portugal. 

The  total  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  in 
the  trade  of  the  Union,  exclusive  of  specie,  is 
shown  in  the  table  below,  for  three  comparative 
years: 

2920  1918  1918 

ImportB     £86,727,867     £88,888,960     £41,828,841 

fxporta     58,609,840       62,974,219        66,669,864 

•  A  table  of  the  principal  imports  for  home 
consumption,  and  exports  of  domestic  produce, 
in  the  1913  trade,  follows,  values  in  thousands 
of  pounds  sterling. 


nection  of  the  railway  systems  of  Southwest 
Africa  with  those  of  the  Union,  extending  300 
miles  from  Kalkfontein,  in  the  former  German 
territory,  to  Prieska,  on  the  Orange  Rivtf  in 
the  British  Dominion.  As  a  war  measure,  in 
1014  tracks  on  the  Union  gauge  were  laid  from 
Prieska  to  a  point  on  the  (>range  River  opposite 
Upington,   reaching  the   latter   point  Nov.   20, 

1914.  After  an  interval  of  delay  the  work  was 
pushed  forward,  and  completed  June  25,  1915. 
The  last  section  of  32  miles  was  accomplished 
in  50  hours,  which  made  a  new  South  African 
record  for  such  work.  Through  rail  connection 
was  maintained.  This  new  railway  system 
promised  to  have  an  important  bearing  on  the 
development  of  this  part  of  Africa  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  assuming  that  the  con- 
quered territory  remained  in  the  hands  of  Great 
Britain.  A  passenger  could  enter  a  compart- 
ment at  Johannesburg  station  and  alight  at 
Walfish  Bay  without  change.  It  was  stated 
that  the  total  number  of  mUes  of  railway  con- 
struction since  the  Union  until  the  end  of  July, 

1915,  was  1449,  while  another  950  miles  would 
be  ready  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Five  armored  trains  were  constructed  and 
manned  by  employees  of  the  South  African  Rail- 
way in  the  Woolwich  Arsoial  of  the  defense 
force,  during  the  year  1914,  being  commanded 
by  officers,  and  used  for  patrolling  the  railways 
where  hostile  movements  were  taking  place,  and 
for  repairing  the  line. 

Finance  and  Govkbnment.  In  the  table  be- 
low are  shown  revenue  and  expenditure  for  three 
comparative  years  (1914-15  estimate) : 


ImporU  1000£ 

PoodBtuira    7,584 

Ootton   mfn 8,211 

Apparel   2,709 

Hardware    1,981 

Leather   mfrs 1,657 

Machinerr   2,848 

Haberdashery    1,820 

Iron  and  eteel 1,482 

Wood,   etc 1.286 

Druga,  etc 965 

Oila    844 

Furniture    668 

Glycerine     568 

Woolen  mfra.    814 


BxpcrU  1000£ 

Gold    87.589 

Diamondi    12,017 

Wool    6,719 

Feathers    2,984 

Coal     1.892 

Hides  and  skins...  2,018 

Mohair     877 

Copper     450 

Bark    809 

Tin  ore   881 

Whale  oil    128 

Fish     107 

Fruit    57 

Fodder     88 


The  United  Kingdom  contributed  54.4  per  cent 
of  the  imports  and  received  88.7  per  cent  of  the 
exports. 

thiring  1913,  4349  vessels,  of  12,939,454  tons 
net,  were  entered,  and  4331  vessels,  of  12,911,742 
tons,  were  cleared. 

Communications.  On  Dec.  31,  1913,  the 
mileage  of  the  government  railway  lines  totaled 
8280,  of  which  7807  miles  were  of  3-foot  d-inch 
gauge,  and  473  miles  of  2-foot  gauge,  during  the 
year  the  mileage  having  been  increased  433,  or 
approximately  5.5  per  cent.  Of  the  total  mile- 
age, 3639  miles  were  in  the  Cape  province,  2362 
in  the  Transvaal,  1163  in  the  Orange  Free  State, 
1116  in  Natal.  Capital  expenditure  to  end  of 
1913,  £68,034,999,  plus  £14,467,165  in  respect  of 
rolling  stock— a  total  of  £82,492,164.  Gross 
earnings  for  the  year,  £12,388,765;  net  profit 
after  payment  of  interest,  £571,242.  Working 
expenditure,  including  renewals,  £8,964,690,  or 
72.36  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenue. 

Important  railway  work  was  carried  on  in 
British  South  Africa  as  a  result  of  the  war  and 
to  facilitate  the  invasion  of  German  Southwest 
Africa   by   General   Botha.     This  was  the  con- 


1911-18  1918-14  1914-15 

Rerenne    £17.869,080     £17.268.178     £17,968.250 

Expenditure   ..   16,547.880       17,662,014       18.812,194 

The  total  public  debt  stood,  March  31,  1914, 
at  £126,296,250. 

The  four  original  provinces  form  a  legislative 
union  under  one  head — a  governor-general  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  who,  with  an  executive 
council  (whose  members  are  chosen  by  him), 
administers  the  country  as  the  governor-general 
in  council.  The  Senate  consists  of  40  members 
(8  nominated  by  the  governor-general  in  coun- 
cil; 32  elected,  8  for  each  province).  The  House 
of  Assembly  consists  of  130  elected  members — 
51  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  17  from  Natal, 
46  from  the  Transvaal,  and  17  from  the  Orange 
Free  State.  Pretoria  (Transvaal)  is  the  capi- 
tal and  administrative  seat  of  the  executive  gov- 
ernment; Cape  Town,  the  seat  of  the  Legisla- 
ture. The  Governor-G^eral  in  1914  was  Vis- 
count Buxton  of  Newtimber.  Gen.  Louis  Botha, 
premier  since  May  31,  1910,  resigned  Dec.  14, 
1912,  on  account  of  dissensions  between  the 
Dutch  and  tiie  British  on  naval  and  other  mat- 
ters ;  but  he  again  took  office  in  the  same  year  as 
premier  and  minister  of  agriculture,  and  in  Oc- 
tober, 1913,  as  premier  and  minister  for  native 
affairs. 

HiSTOBT 

Punishment  of  the  Rebels.  Fear  of  an  in- 
vasion of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  by  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel MaritK,  who  escaped  to  German 
Southwest  Africa  in  October,  1914  (see  Ygab 
Book,  1914),  led  the  Union  government  early 
in  January  to  announce  that  it  expected  to  adopt 
a  system  of  conscription,  as  the  voluntary  plan 


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SOUTH  AFBICA 


607 


SOUTH  AFBICA 


of  enliBtment  had  failed.  On  January  24th  a 
force  of  1200  rebels  under  the  command  of  Lieu- 
tenant^CoIonels  Maritz  and  Kemp  attacked 
Upington  in  British  Bechuanaland  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  a  loss  of  more  than  100  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners.  This  was  the  first  at- 
tack which  Maritz  made  since  his  escape  from 
the  forces  of  the  Union.  Early  in  February  se- 
dition broke  out  within  the  Union  and  a  number 
of  arrests  were  made.  OflBcials  of  the  Botha 
government  accused  General  Hertzog's  Nation- 
alist party  of  conspiracy  against  the  govern- 
ment. One  of  those  arrested  for  seditious  ac- 
tions was  a  member  of  Parliament  and  a  grand- 
son of  the  late  Paul  Krttger,  president  of  the 
Transvaal.  Seventy-one  burghers  who  refused 
to  fight  the  Germans  also  were  arrested  and  were 
convicted.  Later,  however,  their  terms  were 
shortened  and  they  were  released.  On  February 
3rd  Lieutenant-Ck)lonel  Kemp  and  his  command 
of  Boer  rebels  were  captured  at  Upington. 
Among  them  were  the  rebel  leader  Bezuidenhout 
and  the  so-called  ''Prophet"  Vankensburg,  who 
had  been  able  to  exercise  a  great  influence  over 
the  rebels,  One  week  later  an  unofficial .  report 
gave  credence  to  the  rumor  that  Lieutenant-Col- 
onel Maritz  had  been  executed  by  the  Grermans. 
Maritz  had  enter^  into  correspondence  with  the 
Union  government  asking  for  clemency  in  case 
he  should  surrender.  I%e  government  refused 
any  such  terms,  but  Maritz  decided  to  surren- 
der and  to  ambuscade  a  command  of  Germans 
at  the  same  time.  Accordingly  he  arranged  an 
attack  on  Kakamas  with  the  understanding  that 
he  should  betray  the  German  troops.  His 
treachery  was  discovered,  and  he  was  promptly 
put  to  death.  The  Germans  made  the  attack 
as  planned  on  Kakamas,  but  were  repulsed. 
Late  in  February  General  De  Wet,  who  had  been 
captured  at  Waterburg,  in  British  Bechuana- 
land, on  Dec.  1,  1014,  was  tried  on  the  charge 
of  high  treason.  Gen.  Louis  Botha,  premier  of 
the  Union,  made  a  plea  at  this  time  for  leniency 
for  the  rank  and  file  of  the  forces  of  the  rebel- 
lion, on  the  belief  that  most  of  them  were  acting 
under  compulsion  from  their  leaders  in  taking 
up  arms  against  the  government.  The  Union 
government  issued  a  Blue  Book  at  Cape  Town 
on  March  2nd  in  which  it  reviewed  the  causes 
leading  up  to  the  recent  rebellion.  The  govern- 
ment asserted  that  the  revolution  had  been  made 
possible  by  the  leaders  who  misrepresented  facts 
to  their  men,  who  claimed  that  the  Botha  gov- 
ernment would  not  oppose  a  revolution,  and  that 
the  ministers  actually  favored  such  action,  and 
who  stated  that  the  government  terms  of  sur- 
render were  all  fraud.  Finally,  the  leaders  com- 
pelled great  numbers  of  men  to  join  them  by 
stating  that  otherwise  they  would  confiscate 
their  land  and  cattle.  The  government  at- 
tempted at  first  to  put  down  the  revolt  without 
recourse  to  arms,  but  finally  found  it  necessary 
to  wipe  out  the  insurrection  with  the  aid  of 
troops.  Early  in  March  the  Parliament  of  the 
Union  appointed  a  Committee  of  Inquiry  to  look 
into  the  causes  of  the  rebellion.  This  commit- 
tee reported  in  the  middle  of  April  that  it  had 
not  had  time  to  determine  the  real  causes  of  the 
revolt,  but  submitted  such  facts  as  it  possessed. 
One  member  of  the  committee  characterized  the 
insurrection  as  being  the  result  of  ignorance  and 
inexperience  in  constitutional  government  and 
to  an  anti-English  feeling  which  still  persisted 
to  a  marked  degree.    He  also  characterised  Gen- 


eral Hertzog,  leader  of  the  Nationalists,  as 
deeply  culpable  even  though  he  had  not  been 
convicted  of  complicity  in  the  plot  against  the 
government.  In  the  last  of  April  a  Parliamen- 
tary paper  was  issued  giving  a  report  of  the 
rebellion.  This  paper  was  almost  identical  with 
the  Blue  Book  issued  in  March.  On  May  20th 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Kemp  was  held  for  trial  on 
charges  of  treason  and  sedition.  He  pleaded 
''not  guilty"  to  the  first  indictment  and  "guilty" 
to  the  second,  but  later  changed  that  plea  also 
to  "not  guilty."  On  July  23rd  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  seven  years  in  prison  and  a  fine  of 
£1000.  At  the  same  time  Lieutenant-Colonels  Be- 
zuidenhout and  Kock  were  s^itenced  to  five  and 
four  years  respectively.  On  June  2l8t  General  De 
Wet,  who  had  been  on  trial  since  February,  was 
found  guilty  on  8  out  of  10  coun,ts  charging 
treason  and  was  sentenced  to  six  years'  imprison- 
ment and  a  fine  of  £2000.  Several  days  later 
the  courts  sentenced  Gen.  W.  Wessels,  ex-member 
of  the  Union  Defense  Council,  to  five  years'  im- 
prisonment and  a  fine  of  £1000.  Two  leaders  of 
lesser  importance  each  were  given  four  years' 
imprisonment.  The  imprisonment  of  these  rebel 
leaders  meant  the  complete  extinction  of  the  re- 
bellion. 

Campaign  in  German  Southwest  Afbica. 
Early  in  January  a  small  force  of  the  troops  of 
the  Union  occupied  Swakopmund,  a  German 
trading  and  mission  post  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Swakopmund  River  in  German  Southwest  Af- 
rica. A  month  later  a  force  of  Germans  at- 
tacked the  village  of  Kakamas  in  Cape  Colony 
but  were  repulsed  by  the  Boers.  Late  in  Feb- 
ruary the  forces  of  the  Union  began  a  serious 
invasion  of  Southwest  Africa.  Two  armies 
were  landed  at  Walflsh  and  Lttderitz  Bays,  while 
a  third  began  to  work  its  way  north  from  Cape 
Colony  in  order  to  strike  the  Germans  from 
the  south.  Under  the  command  of  Gen.  Louis 
Botha,  premier  and  commandant-general  of  the 
forces  of  the  Union,  these  forces  worked  their 
way  inland,  encounterine  little  opposition 
throughout  the  month  of  March,  except  at 
Swakopmund  where  they  captured  200  German 
prisoners  and  two  field  pieces.  Beginning  in 
April  the  Union  forces  began  to  encounter  the 
German  defenders  in  many  small  towns  along 
the  way.  Undeterred  by  the  resistance  which 
was  encountered  in  the  form  of  men,  fortifica- 
tions, and  impassable  country,  the  forces  of  the 
Union  pressed  on,  occupying  in  turn  Aus,  Ha- 
suun,  Warmbad,  KaUcfontein,  Seeheim,  Keetman- 
shoop,  Bethany,  Karibib,  Windhuk,  Kaekfeld, 
Otavi,  and  Tsumeb.  The  capture  of  Winhuk,  the 
capital  of  German  Southwest  Africa,  on  May 
12th  marked  the  real  end  of  the  German  pro- 
tectorate, although  final  surrender  was  delayed 
till  July  9th  when  Brig.-Gen.  H.  T.  Lukin,  act- 
ing for  General  Botha,  met  Governor  Seitz  and 
drew  up  terms  of  surrender.  By  these  terms 
the  officers  of  the  armies  of  the  protectorate 
were  paroled,  the  troops  were  allowed  the  use 
of  their  arms  without  ammunition,  and  were 
sent  home,  and  all  of  the  property  of  the  pro- 
tectorate was  placed  at  the  dtsposition  of  the 
Union. 

Anti-Geeman  Feeling.  The  sinking  of  the 
Lueitania  by  a  German  submarine  produced  an 
outburst  of  anti-German  sentiment  in  South 
Africa.  The  citizens  of  Johannesburg  rose 
against  the  German  element  in  the  city  on  the 
night  of  May  12th,  and  before  they  had  ceased 


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SOUTH  AFRICA  6 

rioting  51  buildings  had  been  wrecked  and  the 
contents  of  all  of  them  burned  or  smashed. 
More  than  2000  persons  were  in  the  raiding 
party  early  in  the  evening  when  it  entered  the 
German  Club  to  the  strains  of  the  national  an- 
them, "Rule  Britannia/'  and  'Tipperary."  Po- 
licemen joined  the  mob  instead  of  helpins  to  dis- 
perse it.  All  of  the  furniture  of  the  club  was 
thrown  into  the  street  and  set  on  fire.  Pictures 
of  the  German  and  Austrian  Emperors  and  Bis- 
marck were  torn  from  the  walls  and  trampled 
on,  while  the  German  flag  was  torn  into  shreds. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  destroy  the  club,  but 
the  fire  was  confined  to  the  basement.  The  mob 
then  visited  other  German  establishments  in  the 
business  part  of  the  city,  and  by  midnight  the 
entire  central  area  was  brilliantly  lighted  by 
burning  buildings  and  blazing  bonfires.  The 
mob  broke  up  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
but  six  hours  later  the  rioters  reassembled  and 
began  to  loot  German  stores  and  warehouses. 
Occasional  rioting  occurred  the  following  day, 
but  the  civic  guard  and  the  Voluntary  Citizens* 
Training  Association  soon  had  the  city  under 
control.  The  total  damage  done  in  the  city 
amounted  to  a  quarter  of  a  million  pounds  and 
slight  injuries  to  three  persons.  In  Durban  an 
equal  amount  of  damage  was  done,  while  in 
Cape  Town,  Bloemfontein,  Port  Elizabeth,  and 
Kimberley  there  also  were  disturbances.  Gen- 
eral Botha,  writing  from  German  Southwest 
Africa,  deplored  these  outrages,  particularly  as 
many  of  the  sufferers  were  naturalized  citizens. 
GJeneral  Botha  said  in  part: 

"I  hear  with  profound  regret  of  serious  riots 
in  Johannesburg,  Cape  Town,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  Union  and  ruthless  destruction  of  private 
property  belonging  to  enemy  subjects  and  Brit- 
ish subjects  of  German  extraction.  In  many 
cases  the  victims  have  sons  loyally  fighting  with 
me  at  the  front.  I  cannot  say  how  deeply  I  de- 
plore these  occurrences.  Surely  this  is  not  the 
way  to  give  proof  of  one's  patriotism,  nor  can  it 
be  considered  worthy  of  a  strong  and  chivalrous 
people,  however  great  the  provocation." 

Public  opinion  in  the  Union  strongly  favored 
the  prosecution  of  the  rioters,  since  the  greatest 
sufferers  were  English  insurance  companies  and 
English  employees  thrown  out  of  work. 

Late  in  July  General  Botha  in  a  speech  at  a 
banquet  given  in  his  honor  explained  the  reasons 
why  it  was  necessary  for  the  Union  to  conquer 
Southwest  Africa.  The  premier  asserted  that 
self-preservation  which  brought  the  Empire  into 
war  was  also  responsible  for  the  Union  entering 
the  oonflict.  Among  other  exhibits,  he  produced 
a  German  map,  captured  in  Southwest  Africa, 
which  showed  the  redistribution  of  the  world 
after  the  "Peace  of  Rome,  1916."  On  the  map 
ail  of  the  territory  south  of  the  equator  in  Af- 
rica was  included  in  a  greater  German  Empire, 
segregating  only  a  small  portion  as  a  Boer  re- 
serve. Botha  and  several  generals  who  followed 
him  proclaimed  in  stirring  speeches  that  unless 
German  Southwest  Africa  was  owned  by  the 
Union,  the  Union  would  be  owned  by  German 
Southwest  Africa. 

Paruamentabt  Conflict.  The  implication 
that  the  Nationalist  party  was  partially  respon- 
sible for  the  rebellion  of  Marite,  De  Wet,  and 
Kemp  against  the  government  in  no  way  in- 
jured the  prestige  of  the  party,  and  throughout 
April  and  May  the  party  became  strong  in  all 
parts  of  the  Union.    At  the  same  time  the  BoUia 


08  SOUTH  AUSTBAIiIA 

party  began  to  weaken.  In  July  in  the  National- 
ist C<mgres8  in  Bloemfcmtein,  Hertzog  outlined 
his  policies  on  which  he  based  his  campaign. 
They  included:  (1)  an  amnesty  for  men  im- 
prisoned on  account  of  their  armed  protest;  (2) 
a  constitutional  guarantee  of  trial  before  sen- 
tence, in  order  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  oc- 
currences such  as  the  deportation  of  certain 
strike  leaders  (see  1914  Ybab  Book)  ;  (3)  the 
limiting  of  the  proclamation  of  martial  law  to 
occasions  stipulated  by  law;  (4)  the  amendment 
of  the  Defense  Act  so  that  the  government  would 
not  have  the  right  of  invading  a  country  in  an 
offensive  war  and  using  unwilling  men  for  that 
purpose.  On  August  24th  the  existing  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved,  and  all  parties  set  about  in 
earnest  to  carry  the  elections  in  October.  The 
successes  of  General  Botha  in  Southwest  Africa 
in  June  and  July  proved  a  turning  point  in  pop- 
ular opinion,  however,  and  in  the  elections  on 
October  24th  the  Botha  party  were  returned 
with  54  candidates;  the  Unionists,  who  sup- 
pOTted  Botha,  with  40;  the  Nationalists  with 
27;  Independents,  5;  and  the  Labor  party  with 
only  4.  It  was  an  overwhelming  indication  of 
the  approval  of  the  people  of  the  Southwest 
Africa  campaign,  regardless  of  its  expense  of 
£16,000,000,  and  of  the  decision  of  the  govern- 
ment to  send  an  overseas  expedition  to  the  aid  of 
the  British.  The  newly  elected  Union  Parlia- 
ment was  convened  at  Uape  Town  on  November 
19th.  Bills  were  introduced  (1)  incorporating 
the  South  African  College  into  the  University  at 
Groote  Shuur;  (2)  granting  a  separate  charter 
to  the  Victoria  College  at  Stellenbosch ;  (3)  re- 
constituting the  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  accordance  with  the  desires  of  the  other 
colleges.  The  majority  of  the  House  in  the  new 
Parliament  enthusiastically  supported  the  Botha 
goTemment;  only  a  small  group  of  Hertzog  Na- 
tionalists demanded  amnesty  for  General  De  Wet 
and  other  imprisoned  rebels.  Although  General 
Botha  at  first  refused  this  demand,  on  December 
20th  the  government  showed  unexpected  clem- 
ency by  announcing  that  General  De  Wet  and 
118  other  prisoners,  who  had  been  convicted  of 
high  treason,  would  be  released. 

Overseas  Expedition.  Early  in  the  year  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  decided  to  send  an  over- 
seas expedition  to  aid  the  Allies  in  Europe.  In 
July  the  Imperial  government  of  Great  Britain 
officially  announced  that  it  had  accepted  the  of- 
fer of  the  Union  governmoit  for  several  artillery 
batteries,  and  an  Imperial  contingent  to  be 
raised  in  the  Union.  Brig.-Gen.  H.  T.  Lukin, 
Commandant-General  of  the  Cape  Colonial  forces, 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  first  brigade  of 
Union  troops.  Many  members  of  the  Union 
forces  which  had  captured  Southwest  Africa 
crossed  to  England  without  waiting  for  the  or- 
ganization of  the  brigade.  Throughout  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  great  progress  was  made  in 
recruiting  and  training  the  members  of  this  ex- 
pedition. 

SOUTH  AMSBICA.  See  various  South 
American  countries;  also  Exploration,  South 
America, 

SOUTH  AITSTBALIA.  A  state  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia.  The  state  covers  380,- 
070  square  miles,  an  area  about  nine  times  as 
large  as  Tennessee.  Population,  census  of  April 
3,  1911,  408,558,  exclusive  of  full-blooded  abor- 
iginals; estimate  of  June  30,  1914,  438,173.  The 
capital  is  Adelaide;  its  population,  with  suburbs, 


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SOUTH  AUSTBAIiIA 


600 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


was  189,646  in  1911;  1913  estimate,  200,917. 
Governor,  Lieut.-Col.  Sir  Henry  Lionel  Galway 
(since  March,  1914) ;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Sir 
Samuel  James  Way.     See  Australia. 

South  Australian  elections  on  March  27th  re- 
sulted in  a  victory  for  Labor.  A  referendum 
resulted  in  a  vote  in  favor  of  closing  liquor  bars 
at  6  o'clock  instead  of  at  11  o'clock.  Premier 
Peake's  ministry  immediately  acknowledged  its 
defeat  by  resignmg,  and  a  Labor  Executive  Coun- 
cil was  installed.  The  new  cabinet  included  Mr. 
Crawford  Vaughan  as  premier  and  minister  of 
the  treasury  and  education;  Mr.  Styles,  chief 
secretary;  Mr.  Jackson,  commissioner  of  public 
works;  Mr.  Biundell,  minister  of  lands,  goods, 
and  industry;  and  Mr.  J.  H.  Vaughan,  attorney- 
general. 

SOUTH  CABOLINA.  Population.  The  es- 
timated population  of  the  State  on  July  31, 
1916,  was  1,607,745.  The  population  in  1910 
was  1,616,400. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-16,  were  as  follows: 


Corn    

..1915 

2,165,000 

1014 

1,075,000 

Wheat   ... 

..1915 

225,000 

1014 

80.000 

OaU    .... 

.1016 

625,000 

1014 

375.000 

Bye   

..1015 

8,000 

1014 

8.000 

Rice     ... 

..1016 

8,700 

1014 

6.000 

Potfttoet 

..1016 

11,000 

1014 

11.000 

Hay     ... 

..1016 

220,000 

1014 

210.000 

Tobacco 

..1015 

65.000 

1014 

60.000 

Cotton     . 

..1015 

2,400.000 

1014 

2.861,000 

a  Tons. 

b  Pounda. 

e  Balea  of  500  ] 

Prod.  Bu. 

86.658.000 

86,588.000 

2.480.000 

020,000 

0.075,000 

7,500,000 

80,000 

84,000 

00.000 

170.000 

880,000 

770,000 

a  286,000 

242,000 

b  87,700.000 

86,6b0,000 

e  1,160,000 

1.684,000 


FoZtie 

180.086.000 

88,615.000 

8,858,000 

1.884.000 

6,688.000 

6,826.000 

46.000 

61.000 

81.000 

166.000 

1,012.000 

062.000 

4,462,000 

4.114.000 

2,680.000 

8,640.000 

62,578.000 

60,568,000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  80,000  and 
83,000,  valued  at  $11,340,000  and  $10,873,000; 
mules  numbered  171,000  and  166,000,  valued  at 
$27,531,000  and  $24,734,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 189,000  and  186,000,  valued  at  $6,620,000 
and  $6,106,000;  other  cattle  numbered  216,000 
and  211,000,  valued  at  $3,311,000  and  $3,081,- 
000;  sheep  numbered  30,000  and  32,000,  valued 
at  $81,000  and  $83,000;  swine  numbered  917,000 
and  819,000,  valued  at  $7,794,000  and  $7,043,000. 
The  wool  production  in  1916  and  1914  was  109,- 
000  and  106,000  pounds  respectively. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
of  steam  railways  in  the  State  on  Aug.  1,  1916, 
was  4466.  Railways  having  the  longest  mileage 
were  the  Southern  Line,  1122;  the  Atlantic  Coast 
Railway  Line,  886;  and  the  Sea  Board  Air  Line, 
362.  During  the  year  the  Georgetown  and  West- 
em  Railway  was  consolidated  with  the  Carolina, 
Atlantic,  and  Western.  This  road  built  during 
the  year  an  extension  of  67  miles  from  Andreus 
to  Charleston,  and  had  under  construction  at 
the  end  of  the  year  a  line  of  86  miles  from 
Charleston  to  Savannah. 

Education.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  in  1914-16  was  372,841,  with  an  aver- 
age daily  attendance  of  266,686.    White  teach- 

Y.  B.— 80 


ers  numbered  4600,  and  colored  teachers  about 
2800.  The  total  school  expenditures  for  the  year 
were  $3,296,606. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
shows  the  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  1916 
to  be  $3,646,363.  There  was  a  balance  on  hand 
on  Dee.  31,  1914,  of  $362,718.  The  total  expend- 
itures for  the  year  were  $3,447,423,  leaving  a 
cash  balance  on  Dec.  31,  1916,  of  $660,668.  The 
public  debt  of  the  State  on  Dec.  31,  1916, 
amounted  to  $6,673,086. 

Chabities  and  Cobbections.  a  State  Board 
of  Charities  and  Corrections  was  created  by  the 
Legislature  of  1916.  It  began  its  work  on  Jan- 
uary Ist.  The  State  penal  institutions  are  the 
State  Penitentiary  at  Columbia,  State  Reforma- 
tory for  Negro  Boys  at  Columbia,  and  the  State 
Farm  at  Boykin.  There  is  also  the  South  Caro- 
lina Lidustrial  School  at  Florence.  The  charit- 
able institutions  are  the  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  and  the  Confederate  Infirmary,  both  at 
Columbia.  There  is  a  State  Tuberculosis  Hos- 
pital, but  it  is  not  a  charitable  institution. 

Politics  and  Govebnhsnt.  On  January  9th 
Governor  Blease  issued  a  general  pardon  for 
1100  prisoners  whom  he  had  previously  paroled. 
This  brought  the  total  number  of  prisoners  par- 
doned by  him  during  his  four  years  in  office  to 
over  2700.  On  January  11th  he  disbanded  the 
organized  militia  of  the  State,  over  the  admin- 
istration of  which  he  had  differences  with  the 
Federal  War  Department.  He  resigned  his  of- 
fice on  January  11th,  giving  no  reason.  Until 
January  19th,  Lieut.-Gov.  Charles  A.  Smith  held 
the  office  as  Governor,  and  on  that  date  Richard 
I.  Manning,  elected  in  1914,  took  office.  On  Jan- 
uary 22nd,  Governor  Manning  reversed  the  order 
disbanding  the  militia.  The  General  Assembly 
in  1916  devoted  much  time  to  the  prohibition 
question.  In  addition  to  the  drafting  of  a 
6tate-wide  law  for  a  submission  to  referendum 
the  Assembly  enacted  a  statute  which  makes 
effective  in  the  State  the  provisions  of  the  Webb- 
Kenyon  Federal  Act,  prohibiting  the  shipment 
of  liquor  from  wet  to  dry  territory.  The  statute 
also  forbids  the  shipment  of  more  than  one  gal- 
lon of  alcoholic  liquors  to  any  one  person  in 
the  State  during  any  one  month.  State-wide 
prohibition  was  adopted  by  a  large  majority. 
The  law  went  into  effect  on  Jan.  1,  1916. 

State  Gove&nkent.  Governor,  Richard  I. 
Manning;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Andrew  J.  Be- 
thea;  Secretary  of  State,  R.  M.  McCown;  Attor- 
ney-General, Thos.  H.  Peeples;  Treasurer,  8.  T. 
Carter;  Comptroller,  C.  W.  Sawyer;  Superin- 
tend^ of  Education,  John  £.  Swearingen;  Ad- 
jutant-General, W.  W.  Moore;  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  £.  J.  Watson;  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, F.  H.  McMaster — all  Democrats. 

JuDiGiABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Eugene  B.  Gary ;  Justices,  D.  £.  Hydrick,  R.  G. 
Watte,  Thos.  B.  Eraser,  and  Geo.  W.  Gage; 
Clerk,  U.  R.  Brooks. 


State  Lbgislatube: 

Senate 
Demoorata     44 

Howe 
124 

Joint  BotM 
168 

SOUTH  DAKOTA.  Population.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916, 
was  680,046.  The  population  in  1910  was  683,- 
888. 

Agbioultuiib.  The  acreage,  population,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  estimated  by  the 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


BOUTH  DAKOTA 


610        SOUTH  DAKOTA  STATE  COLLSGE 


United    States   Department   of    Agriculture,    in 
1014-16,  were  as  follows: 


Aergoffg 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

Corn    .  . . . 

..1915 

8.250,000 

94.250.000  $46,182,000 

1914 

8,000.000 

78,000.000 

89,000.000 

Wheat     . . 

..1915 

8,725,000 

68.762.000 

54.835,000 

1914 

8,469.000 

81.566.000 

29,672.000 

Ofttt     

..1915 

1,725,000 

72.450.000 

20.286.000 

1914 

1,606.000 

44.165.000 

16.788.000 

Bye      . . . . 

..1915 

90,000 

1,755,000 

1.834.000 

1914 

60.000 

1.020.000 

796.000 

Barley     . . 

..1915 

750,000 

24,000.000 

11.040.000 

1914 

850.000 

19.550.000 

9.775.000 

PoUtoet    . 

. .1915 

68.000 

7.820,000 

2,787.000 

1914 

68,000 

6,670.000 

2.665.000 

Hey     .... 

..1915 

610,000 

a  1,220.000 

6.466.000 

1914 

500,000 

850,000 

4,845,000 

a  Tom. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1016, 
and  Jan.  1,  1016,  sheep  numbered  604,000  and 
636,000,  valued  at  $3,141,000  and  $2,862,000; 
swine  numbered  1,314,000  and  1,306,000,  valued 
at  $13,271,000  and  $13,146,000;  mules  numbered 
16,000  and  14,000,  valued  at  $1,636,000  and  $1,- 
484,000;  milch  cows  numbered  486,000  and  453,- 
000,  valued  at  $28,616,000  and  $26,064,000; 
other  cattle  numbered  1,064,000  and  067,000, 
valued  at  $40,868,000  and  $38,106,000;  horses 
numbered  760,000  and  760,000,  valued  at  $70,* 
687,000  and  $67,661,000.  The  amount  of  wool 
produced  in  1015  and  1014  was  3,647,000  and 
3,600,000  pounds. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  The  production  of  gold 
in  1014  was  364,768  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $7,- 
333,608.  In  1013  it  amounted  to  364,071  fine 
ounces,  valued  at  $7,310,204.  Practically  all  of 
the  gold  produced  came  from  the  Homestake 
Mine.  The  silver  production  amounted  to  176,- 
642  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $07,683,  compared  with 
172,736  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $104,312  in  1013. 
The  value  of  the  total  mineral  production  in 
1014  was  $7,861,601,  compared  with  $7,000,060 
in  1013. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
operated  in  the  State  in  1014  was  4240.  The 
roads  having  the  longest  mileage  were  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  1704,  and  the 
Chicago  Northwestern,  1063. 

Education.  The  school  population,  according 
to  statistics  furnished  by  the  State  Superintend- 
ent of  Education  on  May  17,  1016,  was  176,002. 
According  to  this  report  the  total  enrollment  in 
classes  below  high  schools  in  1014  was  130,068, 
of  which  87,206  were  in  the  rural  districts.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  employed  was  7161, 
of  whom  6348  were  in  the  rural  districts.  Of 
the  latter,  4662  were  females  and  706  males. 
The  average  monthly  salary  for  females  in  the 
rural  districts  was  $61.08,  and  in  the  independ- 
ent districts,  $63:41.  For  males  the  average  sal- 
ary in  the  rural  districts  was  $66.66,  and  in  the 
independent  districts,  $108.36.  The  enrollment 
in  the  high  schools  was  10,086,  of  which  1680 
were  in  the  rural  districts.  The  total  expendi- 
tures for  school  purposes  were  $6,413,063. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1014,  shows 
cash  on  hand  July  1,  1013,  of  $026,136.  The  re- 
ceipts for  the  year  were  $4,337,028,  and  the  dis- 
bursements, $4,444,030,  leaving  cash  on  hand 
June  30,  1014,  of  $818,123. 

Chasities  and  Cobsections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  Include  the  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  School  for  the  Blind, 


Northern  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Custer  Sana- 
torium, and  the  State  School  for  Deaf  Mutes  at 
Sioux  Falls. 

Politics  and  Govebnment.  On  January  30th 
the  Senate  passed  a  bill,  already  adopted  in  the 
House,  abolishing  the  death  penalty.  On  March 
3rd  the  House  adopted  the  Senate  resolution  sub- 
mitting the  woman  suffrage  amendment  to  the 
voters  in  November,  1016. 

On  November  20th,  the  Supreme  Court  handed 
down  a  decision  which  declared  the  so-called 
"blue  sky"  law  unconstitutional.  Ihis  law  was 
first  enacted  in  1013,  but  in  an  effort  to  elim- 
inate certain  objectional  features  it  was  re- 
pealed in  1015,  and  a  new  law  was  enacted  to  re- 
place it.  The  latter  statute  was  the  one  that 
was  held  invalid.  The  case  involved  two  dealers 
who  were  arrested  for  selling  stocks  without  first 
obtaining  permission  of  the  State  officials,  as 
required  by  law. 

State  Qovebnicent.  Governor,  Frank  M. 
Byrne;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Peter  Norbeck; 
Secretary  of  State,  Frank  M.  Rood;  Treasurer, 
A.  W.  Ewert;  Superintendent  of  Education, 
Charles  H.  Lugg-  Attorney-General,  C.  C.  Cald- 
well; Adjutant-General,  W.  A.  Morris;  SUte 
Auditor,  J.  £.  Handlin;  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, C.  N.  McHvaine;  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, M.  H.  O'Brien — all  Republicans. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court :  Presiding  Judge, 
James  H.  McCoy;  Justices,  Charles  S.  Whiting, 
John  Howard  Gates,  Samuel  C.  Pollev,  and  E. 
G.  Smith;  Clerk,  £.  F.  Swartz. 

State  Legislature: 


SenaU 

Republicans    34 

Democrats     11 


Houte 

Joint  BaUct 

84 

118 

19 

80 

Republican  majority  . .   28 


65 


88 


SOUTH  DAKOTA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State 
institution  for  higher  education,  founded  at  Ver- 
million, S.  D.,  in  1882.  The  total  enrolhnent  in 
all  departments  in  1016  was  516.  The  faculty 
numbered  66.  During  the  year  the  departments 
of  journalism,  fine  arts,  and  commerce  and 
finance  were  created,  and  additional  professors 
were  appointed  in  the  departments  of  sociology 
and  education.  The  institution  is  supported  al- 
most entirely  by  legislative  appropriations. 
The  annual  income  in  1015  was  $145,500.  The 
library  contained  about  30,000  volumes.  The 
president  is  Robert  L.  Siagle,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA  STATE  COLLEGE  OF 
AOBXCULTURE  AND  MECHANIC  ABTS. 
A  State  institution,  founded  at  Brookings,  S-  D.. 
in  1883.  The  college  offers  courses  in  animal 
husbandry,  dairy  husbandry,  agronomy,  horti- 
culture, civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engi- 
neering, pharmacy,  general  science,  home  eco- 
nomics, secretarial  work,  music,  agriculture, 
dairy  science,  and  traction  engineering.  It  bas 
also  a  preparatory  department.  In  1915  there 
was  established  a  department  of  agricultural  ex- 
tension, consisting  of  instruction  work  outside 
the  college.  This  is  carried  on  in  several  ways 
— county  agent  work,  short  courses,  boys*  and 
girls'  club  work,  home  economics,  and  dairying- 
Thirty  trained  teachers  were  employed  in  these 
courses  in  1916.  There  were  enrolled  in  all  de-  . 
partments  of  the  college  in  the  year  1916-16, 
1097,  of  whom  710  were  men  and  387  women. 
The  faculty   numbered   72.    The  endowment  w 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  STATE  COLLEGE        611 


SPAIN 


estimated  at  $1,500,000,  and  the  annual  income 
18  about  $285,000.  The  college  is  supported 
chiefly  by  legislative  appropriations,  and  m  1915 
a  special  appropriation  of  $75,000  was  made  for  a 
second  women's  dormitory  and  for  a  dining  hall 
for  men  and  women.  This  building  was  under 
construction  in  1916.  The  library  contained 
about  18,800  bound  volumes,  and  6000  pamph- 
lets. The  president  in  1916  was  Elwood  C.  Per- 
isho.  

SOIJTHBBN  NIOEBIA.     See  Nioekia. 

SOIJTHEBN    BHOBBSIA.     See    Rhodesia. 

BOIJTHEBN  SOCIOLOGICAL  CONOBESS. 
See  SOCIOIXX3Y. 

SOUTH  GEOBGIA.  Island  dependencies  of 
the  Falkkmd  Islands   (q.v.). 

SOUTH  OBKNEY  ISLANDS.  A  depend- 
^cy  of  the  Falkland  Islands  (q.v.). 

SOUTH  POLE.  See  Polar  Reseabch,  Ant- 
arctic, 

SOY  BEAN.    See  Diabetes. 

SPAIN.  A  oonstitutional  monarchy  in  south- 
western Europe,  occupying  the  greater  part  of 
the  Iberian  Peninsula.  It  is  separated  from 
France  by  the  Pyrenees.    The  capital  is  Madrid. 

Abea  and  Population.  The  country,  an- 
cittitly  made  up  of  14  kingdoms,  is  now  sepa- 
rated into  49  provinces.  I^ese  provinces,  with 
their  area  in  square  kilometers,  and  population, 
as  calculated  Dec.  31,  1913,  compared  with  the 
population  according  to  the  census  of  Dec.  31, 
1910,  are  as  follows: 


Sq.km. 

Alara    8,046 

Albacete 14,868 

Alicante   6,660 

Almeria    8,704 

ATila     7,882 

Badajoi    21,894 

Balearea     6.014 

Bareelona    7,601 

BurgOB     14.196 

C4cere8     19.868 

C4dii    7.842 

Canariaa    7.278 

Ca8teI16n    6.466 

CiudadReal     19,608 

C6rdoba     18.727 

Corufta,  La   7,908 

Cuenca     17,103 

Oerona     6,866 

Granada     12.768 

Guadalajara 12.118 

Guip6zcoa    1,885 

HueWa    10,188 

Hueaca     16.149 

Ja£n   13,480 

Le6n     16,877 

L^rida     12,161 

Lo^ofto     6,041 

Lugo     9.881 

Madrid     7,989 

MAUga     7,889 

Murcia     11,587 

Nararra     10,606 

Orense     6,979 

Oyiedo    10.896 

Palenda     8,484 

Pontevedra     4,891 

Salamanca     12,610 

SanUnder    6,460 

SegoTia     6,827 

SeTiUa    14,062 

Soria    10.818 

Tarragona    6,490 

Terud     14,818 

Toledo    16,267 

Valencia     10,751 

Valladolid     7.669 

Vizeaya    2,165 

Zamora    10,616 

Zaragoia    17,424 

Total     604,517* 

*  194,794  equare  miles. 


Pop. 

1010 
97,181 
264,698 
497,616 
880.888 
208,796 
698,206 
826,028 
1,141,788 
846,697 
897.786 
470,092 
444,016 
822,218 
879,674 
498.782 
676,708 
269,684 
819,679 
622,606 
209,852 
226.684 
809,888 
248.267 
626,718 
895,480 
284.971 
188,285 
479,966 
878,641 
528,412 
616,106 
812,285 
411,560 
685.181 
196.081 
495.866 
884,877 
802,966 
167,747 
697,031 
156.854 
888.485 
255,491 
418.217 
884,298 
284,478 
849,928 
278,045 
448,995 


Pop, 
1918 
97.692 
278,880 
499,691 
884,287 
212,207 
619,618 
829,881 
1,168,242 
849,428 
416,286 
475,121 
469,768 
822,687 
899,985 
606,649 
688,448 
276.876 
826,581 
688.688 
212,009 
286.689 
826,878 
248.848 
546.458 
896,951 
288.189 
187.888 
482.682 
901.767 
529.242 
621.828 
812.449 
416.677 
701.081 
197.796 
604.684 
887.680 
812.282 
170,599 
608.808 
158.649 
887,880 
257,819 
427,298 
906,581 
287,288 
868,686 
278,194 
460,567 


The  foregoing  table  includes  the  Balearic  and 
Canary  islands  (respectively  the  provinces  of 
Baleares  and  Canarias) ;  it  also  includes  Ceuta 
(population,  23,907),  which  is  a  part  of  Cfldiz 
province.  At  the  1910  census,  males  numbered 
9,724,906,  and  females  10,270,640.  If  the  Span- 
ish possessions  on  the  north  and  west  coast  of 
Africa  be  included,  Spain  had  in  1910  19,995,446 
inhabitants.  The  census  figures  given  above  rep- 
resent the  de  facto  population ;  the  de  jure  popu- 
lation corresponding  to  the  total  19,960,817  was 
20,319,377,  and  that  corresponding  to  19,995,446 
was  20,364,392.  Including  the  possessions  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  de  facto  population  in  1910 
was  20,027,412  (9,742,947  males,  10,284,466  fe- 
males), and  the  de  jure  population  20,393,687 
(10,062,971   males,   10,330,716  females). 

Provisional  figures  for  1914  report  132,451 
marriages,  609,188  births,  461,098  deaths,  129,- 
676  emigrants,  192,057  immigrants.  The  num- 
ber of  marriages  in  1912  was  142,897,  births 
637,901,  and  deaths  426,269.  Emigrants  in 
1912,  194,443—147,640  to  Argentina,  29,386  to 
Cuba,  and  9641  to  Brazil.  Some  of  the  princi- 
pal cities,  with  their  communal  population,  cen- 
sus of  1910,  are:  Madrid,  599,807;  Barcelona, 
587,411;  Valencia,  233,348;  Seville,  158,287; 
Mfllaga,  136,365;  Murcia,  125,067;  Saragossa, 
113,729;  Cartagena,  102,542;  Bilbao,  93,536; 
Granada,  80,511;  Lorca,  70,807;  Valladolid,  71,- 
066;  Palma  (Baleares),  67,544;  Cfldiz,  67,174; 
C6rdoba,  66,831;  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenerife,  63,- 
004;  Santander,  65,046;  Las  Palmas  (Canarias), 
62,886;  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  62,628;  Alicante, 
55,300;  GijOn,  55,248;  Oviedo,  53,269;  San  Se- 
bastiftn,  49,008. 

Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  population  are  un- 
able to  read  or  write.  Many  private  schools  are 
under  clerical  control,  though  recent  legislation 
has  made  attempts  to  provide  for  some  control 
of  their  curricula,  condition,  and  faculties.  Pub- 
lic schools  are  maintained  by  local  taxation. 
Secondary  instruction  is  provided  by  one  high 
school  in  each  province,  but  the  curricula  are 
imperfect;  special  schools  are  few.  There  are  10 
universities. 

Pboduction.  Of  the  total  area,  79.65  per 
cent  is  returned  as  "productive"  (33.8  per  cent 
as  under  sown  crops  and  gardens,  3.7  under 
vineyards,  1.6  under  olives,  19.7  under  natural 
pasture,  and  20.8  under  orchards).  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  according  to  the  report  of  the  min- 
ister of  the  interior,  although  the  soil  is  fertile 
and  conditions  favorable  to  agriculture,  60  per 
cent  of  the  land  is  uncultivated,  and  38  per  cent 
is  entirely  without  irrigation.  The  vine  is  grown 
in  every  province,  sherrv  and  tent  wines  com- 
ing from  the  vicinity  of  Jerez  de  la  Frontera 
and  Cftdiz,  malaga  and  alicante  from  the  south- 
east. In  the  table  below  are  given  areas  under 
main  crops  and  yield  for  two  years,  with  yield 
per  hectare  in  1913-14: 


19,960,817     20,855,986 


Hector €9  1000  Q: 

1918-14  1914-16  1918-14  1914-15 

Wheat     8,917,765  4,024,862  81,694  89,288 

Rye     763,646  761,767     6,088     7.281 

Barley     1.877,662  1,652,864  16,785  18,891 

Oata    627,617  668,144     4,682     6,276 

Corn     460,217        7,702       

Rice    89,200        2,476       

Flax*     24.608  1,060       

BeeUt     86,000  

Vineat     1,241,126  1,282,502   16,167  10.112 

Potatoes     278.500        20,862       

Olivea     1.458.000        2,077       


t 


a. 

8.1 

8.0 

11.4 

8.6 

16.7 

68.2 


74.9 


♦Yield  in 
of  mnat. 


teed.     tFor  sugar,     t  Yield  In  hectoUtrei 


■^8 


le 


8FAIV 


612 


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Live  Btock,  Dee.  31,  1911:  646,036  horses,  904,- 
726  mules  and  hinnies,  836,741  donkeys,  2,641,- 
112  cattle,  16,726,882  sheep,  3,360,624  goaU,  2,- 
472,416  swine,  3398  camels.  Live  stock  in  1912: 
626,863  horsM,  928,920  mules,  829,410  asses,  2,- 
661,894  cattle,  16,829,964  sheep,  3,116,226  goats, 
2,671,369  swine. 

Sericulture  is  carried  on  in  Valencia,  Murcia, 
and  other  provinces.  In  the  spring  of  1912, 
7600  hectograms  of  silkworm  e^g^  were  placed 
for  hatching,  and  the  production  of  cocoons  was 
estimated  at  1,176,000  kilograms,  as  compared 
with  1,260,000  kilograms  obtained  in  1911.  Cot- 
ton ffoods,  paper,  cork,  and  glass  are  manufac- 
tured. 

Rich  mineral  deposits  exist,  but  almost  the 
only  efficient  exploitation  is  by  foreign  enter- 
prise employing  foreign  capital.  The  mininff 
industries  in  1911  employed  112,142  male  ana 
6361  female  workers,  of  whom  16,821  were  boys, 
and  1706  girls  under  18  years  of  age.  Amount 
of  copper  output  1911,  3,284,184  metric  tons, 
valued  at  36,664,223  pesetas;  iron,  8,773,691 
tons  and  47,699,172  pesetas;  coal,  3,464,394  and 
47,690,363;  lead,  163,843  and  27,620,683;  ar- 
gentiferous lead,  166,669  and  24,676,689;  mer- 
cury, 19,940  and  3,627,003;  zinc,  162,140  and 
6,742,493;  anthracite,  209,227  and  3,321,092; 
Ugnite,  262,061  and  3,067,237,  etc.  In  1909,  3,- 
622,673  metric  tons  of  coal  (valued  at  47,346,231 
pesetas)  were  produced;  8,786,020  of  iron  (46,- 
603,266) ;  2,966,263  of  copper  (36,407,181) ;  161,- 
496  of  argentiferous  lead  (30,619,076) ;  137,- 
049  of  lead  (18,780,026) ;  163,621  of  zinc  (7,388,- 
293);  37,397  of  mercury  (6,082,426);  266,019 
of  lignite  (3,269,094);  21,749  of  sulphur  (149,- 
127). 

Value  of  fisheries  products,  between  40,000,000 
and  60,000,000  pesetas;  of  the  output  of  the  sar- 
dine factories,  about  16,000,000  pesetas. 

GoMHEBCK.  By  royal  decree  dated  Aug.  8, 
1914,  the  export  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  and  other  cereals  and  all  kinds  of  flour  was 
prohibited.  By  royal  decree  dated  October  20tii, 
the  export  of  rice  to  the  amount  of  30,000  tons 
was  authorized.  By  royal  decree  dated  Decem- 
ber 16th,  the  prohibition  on  export  was  main- 
tained only  for  wheat  and  wheat  flour.  A  royal 
decree  of  December  19th  fixed  an  export  duty  for 
barley,  oats,  and  rice.  The  export  of  maize  and 
linseed  was  prohibited  by  royal  decree  of  March 
13,  1916,  but  barley  may  be  freely  exported  in 
consequence  of  a  decree  of  Mav  20th.  The  ex- 
port of  raw  cotton  has  been  forbidden  since  May 
81,  1916,  by  a  decree  of  that  date.  The  special 
trade  is  given  in  pesetas  below,  for  three  suc- 
cessive years  (par  value  of  the  peseta,  19.296 
cents) : 

1010  1919  1914 

Imports    ...1.000.086.664  1.414,047,889  1.110.868.910 
ExportB    ...    070.619,855  1.195.007,719      948,090,668 

Imports  for  consumption  and  exports  of  do- 
mestic produce  follow,,  with  values  m  thousands 
of  pesetas,  for  1914:  foodstuffs,  261,619  imports, 
366,822  exports;  cotton  and  cotton  manufac- 
tures, 138,203  and  47,241;  drugs  and  chemical 
products,  113,339  and  84,820;  machinery,  128,- 
276  and  4073;  minerals  and  ceramics,  114,640 
and  114,066;  animals  and  animal  products,  47,- 
647  and  37,211;  metals  and  their  manufactures, 
64,964  and  120,841;  timber,  66,220  and  62,796; 
silk   and   its   manufactures,   21,690   and   4938; 


wool  and  woolens,  12,692  and  69,789;  other  tex- 
tiles, 19,641  and  4226;  paper,  12,300  and  11,922; 
various,  23,413  and  10,032;  special  imports,  23,- 
464;  packing,  4744;  precious  metals,  28,417  and 
13,177.  The  principal  countries  of  origin  and 
destination  follow,  1914  special  trade,  values  in 
thousands  of  pesetas: 


Jmpt.     Bxp». 

Imp*.     Bxps. 

U.  K.   . . 

.219.496  282.758   Argentina.. 

88.242  41.887 

France    . 

.184.258  250.846   SwiU 

19.705     8.616 

U.  8.    .. 

.147,497     68.664   Italy 

21.866  50.652 

Qermany* 

.108,124     48.407  Norway  ... 

17,461     8.487 

Br.    Ind. 

.  56,806          790   Meth'da  ... 

15.165  40,808 

Rauia    . 

.   47.292       6.540   Phil.    Is... 

18.825     6.848 

Portusal 

.  26.286     21.209  Sweden  .. . 

10.017     2.690 

Belgium 

.  27.688     88.016  BraiU 

12,897     2,611 

Shippiiio.  Vessels  entered  at  the  ports  in 
1911,  20,766,  of  20,900,676  tons  (11,368,  of  7r 
948,303  tons,  Spanish) ;  cleared,  18,167,  of  20,- 
838,480  tons  (9069,  of  7,476,300  tons,  Spanish). 
Total  coasting  vessels  entered,  67,668,  of  16,347,- 
923  tons.  Vessels  entered  at  the  ports  in  1912, 
21,711,  of  22,668,000  tons,  and  in  1918,  22,296, 
of  26,403,827  tons;  cleared,  1912,  19,061,  of  22,- 
046,000  tons;  in  1914,  18,916,  of  22,229,169  tons, 
entered,  and  16,482,  of  19,266,266  tons,  cleared. 
Coasting  vessels  entered  in  1914,  67,469,  of  16,- 
304,644  tons,  and  1913,  19,186  vessels,  of  23,- 
942,643  tons. 

Merchant  marine,  Jan.  1,  1912,  682  steamers^ 
of  760,081  tons,  and  801  sail,  of  44,826;  Jan.  1, 
1913,  696  steamers,  of  761,281  tons,  and  301  sail, 
of  44,326;  Jan.  1,  1916,  640  steamers,  of  876,609 
tons,  and  217  sail,  of  29,118. 

OoKiiUNiOATioNS.  In  1912  (January)  there 
were  in  operation  14,806  kilometers  of  railway 
and  42,663  of  telegraph  lines  (wires,  93,432); 
Jan.  1,  1914,  railways,  16,360  kilometers;  tele- 
graphs, 44,646  (wires,  97,426).  Post  offices 
(1913),  7136. 

FiiVANCB.  The  unit  of  value  is  the  peseta,  par 
value,  19.296  cents.  Revenue  and  expenditure 
for  three  years  in  pesetas  are  given  below. 

1919  1919  1914 

Revenue     ..1.161,064.740  1,225,815,068  1,848,781,689 
Expend.     ..1,145.190.178  1,196.158.848  1.487.850,660 

The  details  of  the  1916  budget  are  given  below 
in  thousands  of  pesetas: 

JB«veniM  1000  Pm,     Sxpenditure  1000  P«. 

Direct    taxes    on  Public  debt   ....  422,520 

land,  trade,                   Penaiona    47,585 

cove  mment                    State     928 

aaUriee,    regis-                    Worship     41.689 

tration,    etc.    .    490.108  Justice    19.864 

Indirect        taxes.                    War    164.641 

customs,        ex-                    Marine    68,784 

cise,    etc 481.800    Interior    94.152 

Tobacco      monop-  Instruction     ....  74.856 

0I7.    lottery.  Public    works    . .  184.821 

mintk         ana                    Finance    18.584 

minor    sundries    818.870    Collecting     150,991 

BeTcnue         from                    Colonies      1,900 

lands    81.771   Morocco*    124.802 

Public    treasury.  81,771    Other    

ToUl     1,280,586        Total     1,465.044 

*  Campaign. 

The  public  debt  stood,  Jan.  1,  1912,  at  9,407,- 
724,977  pesetas;  Jan.  1,  1913,  9,941,918,986  pe- 
setas; Jan.  1,  1914,  9,973,486,962  pesetas;  Jan. 
1,  1916,  9,410,884,684  pesetas. 

Navt.  a  new  programme  was  under  c<msid- 
eration  which  would  include  3  new  dreadnoughts. 


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2  scouts,  8  destroyers,  besides  torpedo  boats  and 
submarines.  The  navy,  exclusive  of  non-effective 
vessels,  is  composed  of  1  second-class  battleship 
(9890  tons),  3  first-class  protected  cruisers  (25,- 
133),  1  second-class  (5871),  and  2  third-class 
(4083),  4  torpedo-boat  destroyers  (1845),  1  tor- 
pedo boat  (127)  of  the  first  and  4  (284)  of  the 
second-class,  8  first-class  gunboats  (6925),  and 
8  second-  and  third-class  (3202) — ^in  all,  32 
vessels,  of  57,360  aggregate  tons.  Building  are 
4  gunboats,  of  800  tons,  and  3  destroyers,  of 
370 — all  at  Cartagena;  and  24  torpedo  boats  for 
coastal  service,  also  1  cruiser  («Aame  7)  of 
15,700  tons. 

GovEBNMVNT.  The  constitution  vests  the  exec- 
utive power  in  the  King,  acting  through  a  re- 
sponsible cabinet  of  ministers  appointed  by  him- 
self. The  Cortes,  conjointly  with  the  King,  ex- 
ercise the  legislative  authority;  the  Cortes  con- 
sist of  a  Senate  (360  members,  partly  heredi- 
tary, partly  appointive,  and  partly  elective)  and 
a  Congress  of  Deputies  (431  members,  elective). 
Reigning  sovereign,  Alfonso  XIII.  Heir-appar- 
ent, Prince  Alfonso,  born  May  10,  1907. 

HiSTOBT 

The  Question  of  Neut&alttt.  While  the 
Spanish  government  maintained  a  policy  of  strict 
neutrality  in  the  war,  the  rival  political  factions 
within  Spain  engaged  in  bitter  controversies 
with  regard  to  tiie  attitude  which  should  be 
adopted  towards  the  belligerents  and  the  imme- 
diate measures  which  should  be  enacted  for  the 
protection  of  Spanish  interests.  The  Liberals, 
the  Kepublicans,  and  the  Socialists  manifested 
strong  sympathy  with  the  Allies,  maintaining 
that  the  cause  of  liberty  and  progress  was  rep- 
resented by  Repdblican  France,  with  its  anti- 
clerical and  radical  traditions,  as  opposed  to 
militaristic  Qermany  and  Roman  Catholie  Aus- 
tria. Outspoken  attacks  on  German  policy  and 
on  pro-German  agitators  were  published  by  in- 
fluential journals  like  El  Liberal,  El  Impareial, 
and  the  Diario  universal.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
considerable  group  of  clericals  contended  that 
the  Third  French  Republic  was  in  the  control  of 
a  clique  of  corrupt  politicians,  whose  chief  ob- 
ject was  to  persecute  the  Church.  The  very 
fact  that  the  anti-clerical  factions  in  Spain  were 
the  warmest  supporters  of  the  Allies  caused  the 
clericals  to  insist  all  the  more  strenuously  upon 
strict  neutrality;  a  few  clericals  even  assumed 
a  pro-German  attitude.  The  cause  of  the  Cen- 
tral Powers  was  advocated  also  by  army  officers, 
who  admired  the  German  military  system,  and 
by  Conservative  monarchists,  who  disliked  the 
Liberal  and  Republican  tendencies  of  Great 
Britain  and  France.  Furthermore,  a  number 
of  journals  receiving,  or  suspected  of  receiving, 
German  financial  support,  conducted  a  vigorous 
pro-German  propaganda  in  Spain.  A.  B.  C,  a 
popular  penny  illustrated  daily,  was  probably 
the  most  conspicuous  of  these  pro-German  or- 
gans. Against  the  pro-German  agitation,  and 
against  the  alleged  expenditure  of  German  gold 
for  the  piurpose  of  influencing  Spanish  public 
opinion,  the  LHario,  the  Epoca,  and  other  Span- 
ish journals  indignantly  protested. 

Cbiticism  of  the  Dato  Government.  The 
division  of  Spanish  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
war  was  not  so  frankly  expressed  in  the  Corted 
as  in  the  press.  Instead  of  openly  attacking 
Premier  Dato's  foreign  policy,  the  opponents  of 


the  Conservative  government  directed  their  criti- 
cism against  the  government's  economic  policy, 
and  demanded  that  more  energetic  measures  be 
taken  for  the  protection  of  Spain's  economic  in- 
terests. Thus  Senator  Navarro  Reverter  inter- 
pellated the  government,  February  1st,  regarding 
the  efifect  of  the  European  war  on  Spain,  and  de- 
manded "that  the  government  shall  explain  its 
intentions  and  inform  the  public  of  the  measures 
by  which  t^e  consequences  of  the  European  con- 
flict, and  especially  the  economic  consequences, 
are  to  be  counteracted."  The  government,  Sefior 
Reverter  declared,  must  lose  no  time  in  assuring 
the  economic  interests  of  the  nation.  In  reply 
to  the  interpellation,  Sefior  Dato  asserted  that 
the  government  would  not  neglect  its  duty  in  re- 
spect of  the  nation's  material  prosperity;  at  the 
same  time  he  laid  great  stress  on  the  fact  that 
he  had  conducted  the  foreign  policy  of  the  coun- 
try with  singular  success,  with  the  result  that 
Spain,  while  strictly  neutral,  remained  on  good 
terms  with  all  the  belligerents.  The  prime  min- 
ister ended  his  speech  with  an  eloquent  appeal 
for  unanimous  support — ^"I  count  on  the  col- 
laboration of  the  nation's  representatives:  in 
union  will  be  our  stroigth." 

Naval  Incbbabes.  One  of  the  chief  concerns 
of  the  Dato  cabinet  was  the  augmentation  of 
Spain's  naval  and  military  forces,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  better  assuring  the  country's  "national 
interests."  In  February  the  Cortes  were  asked 
to  authorize  an  expenditure  of  more  than  $55,- 
000,000  upon  a  six-year  naval  programme.  Four 
cruisers,  6  destroyers,  28  submarines,  3  gun- 
boats, and  18  coast  defense  vessels  were  to  be 
added  to  the  navy;  submarine  mines  were  to  be 
purchased;  and  repair  docks  and  naval  works 
were  to  be  constructed  at  Ferrol,  Cftdiz,  and 
Cartagena. 

Financial  Difficulties.  The  burden  of  the 
naval  estimates,  added  to  the  financial  difficul- 
ties already  imposed  upon  Spain  by  the  war, 
necessitated  the  issuance  of  treasury  bonds  to 
cover  the  deficit  in  the  budget.  An  issue  of 
$20,000,000  was  authorized  in  February.  Early 
in  June  a  much  larger  loan,  amounting  to  $150,- 
000,000,  was  issued.  The  investing  public,  how- 
ever, whether  for  political  or  for  economic  rea- 
sons, refused  to  take  up  more  than  a  tenth  of 
the  $150,000,000  loan.  Interpreting  the  failure 
of  the  loan  as  a  popular  vote  of  "no  confidence," 
the  Dato  cabinet  resigned,  June  22nd;  but  two 
days  later  it  w|is  announced  that  at  the  King's 
desire  the  cabinet  had  decided  to  remain  in 
office. 

Fall  of  the  Consebvative  Cabinet.  In  De- 
cember a  more  serious  crisis  was  provoked  by 
Count  Romanones,  leader  of  the  Liberal  Opposi- 
tion, during  the  debate  that  followed  the  intro- 
duction of  an  ambitious  military  programme  by 
the  minister  of  war.  In  concert  with  the  Re- 
formists, Republicans,  Jaimists,  and  other  fac- 
tions opposed  to  the  Conservative  government. 
Count  Romanones  submitted  a  resolution,  signed 
by  himself  and  by  Sefior  Alvarez,  Sefior  Mella, 
Sefior  Lerroux,  and  Sefior  Salvatella,  expressing 
the  unwillingness  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to 
consider  the  government's  military  projects,  un- 
less at  the  same  time  financial  measures  were 
laid  before  the  Chamber  to  cover  the  expense  of 
the  army  increases  and  to  ameliorate  the  coun- 
try's economic  situation.  In  reply  to  the  speech 
in  which  Count  Romanones  urged  the  acceptance 
of  his  motion,  Sefior  Dato  insisted  that  the  mili- 


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tary  reforms  be  voted  before  financial  questions 
were  brought  into  consideration.  He  defended 
his  government  on  the  merits  of  its  patient  and 
successful  diplomacy,  not  the  least  achievement 
of  which  had  been  the  exaction  of  an  indemnity 
of  240,000  pesetas  for  the  killing  of  seven  Span- 
ish citizens  at  Li^.  He  boasl^  that  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  government's  efforts  to  promote  the 
economic  welfare  of  the  country,  the  peseta  had 
recently  risen  in  value.  Sefior  Dato  absolutely 
refused  to  comply  with  the  request  of  the  Oppo- 
sition that  economic  measures  be  considered  oe- 
fore  or  in  conjunction  with  the  military  projects 
which  the  government  considered  to  be  of  vital 
and  urgent  importance.  As  Count  Romanones 
and  the  Opposition  groups  stubbornly  persisted 
in  their  attitude  of  hostility  towards  the  min- 
istry, even  after  their  motion  had  been  defeated 
by  the  Conservative  majority,  Sefior  Dato  of- 
fered his  resignation.  In  accordance  with  the 
established  parliamentary  practice.  King  Alfonso 
immediately  conferred  with  the  leaders  of  the 
various  parties,  as  well  as  the  presiding  officers 
of  both  chambers  of  the  Cortes.  The  president 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  president  of 
the  Senate  advised  the  retention  of  Sefior  Dato 
as  premier;  even  Count  Romanones  signified  his 
readiness  to  support  the  Conservative  cabinet, 
provided  that  economic  and  financial  questions 
be  given  precedence  over  military  reforms;  but 
Sefior  Dato  refused  to  reconsider  his  resignation. 
He  promised  to  accept  a  minor  place  in  a  new 
Conservative  cabinet,  if  Sefior  Besada,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  could  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  assume  the  responsibilities  of 
premier.  Sefior  Besada,  however,  was  unwilling 
to  undertake  the  task  of  constructing  a  new 
cabinet,  since  the  Opposition  parties  were  hos- 
tile and  the  Conservatives  themselves  were  badly 
divided.  Finally,  the  king  invited  the  Liberal 
leader,  Count  Romanones,  to  form  a  cabinet. 

The  Liberal  Cabinet.  Count  Romanones 
readily  accepted  the  invitation  to  form  a  Liberal 
ministry,  and  succeeded  in  constructing  his  cabi- 
net as  follows:  Premier,  Count  Alvaro  de  Ro- 
manones; foreign  affairs,  Sefior  Villanueva;  jus- 
tice, Sefior  Barroso;  interior,  the  Duke  of  Alba; 
finances,  Sefior  Urgaiz;  war,  General  Luque; 
public  works,  Sefior  Quero;  commerce,  Sefior 
Amos  Salvador;  public  education,  Sefior  Burell; 
marine.  Vice- Admiral  Arias  Miranda.  It  will  be 
noted  that  Vice- Admiral  Miranda,  who  had  been 
minister  of  marine  in  the  Dato  cabinet,  and  had 
drawn  up  the  Conservative  government's  pro- 
gramme of  national  defense,  remained  in  charge 
of  naval  affairs  under  Count  Romanones.  This 
circumstance,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  new 
prime  minister's  declaration  that  ''since  right 
does  not  exist  without  might,  we  will  pursue  the 
plan  of  military  reorganization  and  national  de- 
fense," made  it  clear  from  tho  outset  that  the 
Conservatives'  military  projects,  although  they 
might  be  postponed,  would  not  be  discarded. 
The  first  concern  of  the  new  government.  Count 
Romanones  announced,  would  be  to  solve  the 
problems  which  had  arisen  relative  to  the  sup-- 
ply  and  price  of  food,  the  labor  situation,  the 
commercial  and  financial  crisis,  and  other  eco- 
nomic matters.  In  its  effect  upon  the  foreign 
policy  of  Spain,  the  installation  of  the  Ro- 
manones cabinet  was  generally  interpreted  as  a 
victory  for  the  parties  favorable  to  the  Allies, 
since  Count  Romanones's  strong  personal  incli- 
nations   toward    the    Allies    were    well    known. 


Count  Romanones  officially  proclaimed  his  in- 
tenti<Mi,  however,  of  continuing  the  policy  of  his 
predecessor,  and  declared,  "we  are  convinced 
that,  whatever  happens,  and  whoever  wins,  Spain 
must  remain  strictly  neutral."  In  carrying  out 
his  policies,  Count  Romanones  at  first  announced 
that  he  would  attempt  to  rely  on  the  benevolence 
of  the  Conservatives,  inasmuch  as  the  Liberals 
were  the  minority  party  in  the  Cortes;  but  a 
fortnight  later  he  abandoned  the  attempt  to 
govern  without  a  majority,  and  persuaded  the 
King  to  issue  a  decree  dissolvini?  the  Cortes. 
Recent  victories  in  municipal  elections,  in  which 
Romanones  Liberals,  Prieto  Democratic  Liberals, 
and  Alvarez  Reformists  had  successfully  com- 
bined their  forces,  gave  Count  Romanones  rea- 
son to  expect  that  in  the  forthcoming  elections 
his  government  would  be  returned  with  a  com- 
fortable majority.  Prior  to  the  formation  of 
the  Romanones  cabinet,  Sefior  Ugarte  (public 
works)  and  Sefior  Collantes  (education)  re- 
signed their  portfolios  and  were  succeeded,  re- 
spectively, by  Sefior  Espada  and  Sefior  Andrade, 
October  25th. 

SP ALBINO,  AiJSEBT  Goodwill.  American 
merchant  and  baseball  official,  died  Sept.  10, 
1915.  He  was  born  in  Byron,  111.,  in  1850,  and 
was  educated  at  the  public  schools.  At  17  years 
of  age  he  obtained  much  local  prominence  as  an 
amateur  baseball  player,  and  in  1871  joined  the 
Boston  club  as  a  pitcher.  This  club  won  the 
championship  for  four  successive  years.  Mr. 
Spalding  afterwards  managed  and  became  the 
owner  of  the  National  Association  Chicago  Club. 
He  was  the  organizer  of  the  National  League, 
and  was  one  of  the  best  known  baseball  players 
of  his  day.  With  his  brother  and  brother-in- 
law  he  started  in  1876  the  now  well  known  sport- 
ing-goods firm  of  A.  G.  Spalding  k  Bros. 

SPANISH  LITESATUBB.  The  official  sta- 
tistics for  Spanish  literature  in  1915  have  not 
yet  appeared.  If,  however,  we  may  judge  by 
what  figures  are  at  present  available,  it  would 
seem  as  though,  despite  the  great  war,  the 
amount  of  the  output  was  almost  up  to  par,  as 
compared  with  recent  years,  for  the  Bibliografia 
Eapofiola,  which  is  the  organ  of  the  Asociaddn 
de  la  Lihreria  de  E^pafia,  shows  a  total  of  1535 
books  produced  by  the  trade  up  te  December  1st. 
At  the  same  date  in  1914  the  total  was  1584. 
It  is  impossible,  however,  at  this  writing,  te  tell 
what  proportion  of  books  published  belong  to 
literature  proper.  The  European  war  interbred 
with  the  importation  of  Spanish  books,  and  this 
interference  limited  somewhat  the  scope  of  the 
present  article,  which  was  forced  to  be  content 
with  the  consideration  of  books  at  hand,  belong- 
ing chiefly  to  literary  criticism  in  one  form 
or  another. 

LiTESABY  Criticism.  The  Bulletin  Hitpan- 
ique  (which  is  prepared  at  Bordeaux)  published 
its  four  quarterly  numbers  on  time.  The  Revue 
Hispanique  (which  is  the  organ  of  The  Hispanic 
Society  of  America)  has  long  been  very  much 
behind  in  ito  publication.  For  years  past  it 
published  four  large  numbers  (two  good  vol- 
umes) per  year.  Late  in  1914  it  completed  vol- 
umes 28  and  29  for  1913,  and  announced  that, 
beginning  with  the  subscription  for  1914,  there 
would  be  six  numbers  and  three  volumes  per 
year,  without  increasing  the  subscription  price. 
During  1915  The  Hispanic  Society  issued  10 
numbers,  thus  completing  all  of  the  year  1914 
and  two  of  the  three  volumes  for  1915.    To  men- 


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tion  only  a  few  critical  studies,  we  have:  Peseux- 
Richard,  Un  romanoier  espagnol:  Jacinio  Octc^ 
vio  PMn;  Alonso  Cort^,  Odmez  Pereira  y  Luis 
de  Meroado:  Dates  para  su  biografia;  Foulch^- 
Delbosc,  Les  omvres  .attributes  d  Mendoza ;  Can- 
tares  populares  de  CastUla  (Collection  of  4874, 
made  by  Alonso  Cortes) ;  Rennert,  Biblioftraphy 
of  the  Dramatic  Works  of  Lope  de  Vega  Carpio, 
hosed  upon  the  Catalogue  of  John  Rutter  Chor- 
ley;  and  Cancionero  espiritual  (Valladolid, 
1649),  reprinted  by  Aguilera  Morales.  In  1914 
criticism  had  come  into  a  more  formal  recogni- 
tion in  Spain  by  the  establishment  of  both  the 
Boletin  de  la  Real  Academia  Espatiola  (five  num- 
bers per  year)  and  the  Revista  de  Filologia 
Espafiola  (a  quarterly,  of  which  Ram6n  Men4n- 
dez  Pidal  is  editor).  Both  publications  are  dis- 
tinct additions  to  our  resources,  and  during  the 
past  year  have  produced  many  valuable  articles. 
There  have  also  been  some  scholarly  studies  in 
book  form:  J.  P.  Wickersham  Crawford,  The 
Spanish  Pastoral  Drama;  and  A.  Paz  y  M^lia, 
El  Cronista  Alonso  de  PaXencia  (published  by 
The  Hispanic  Society  of  America).  This  latter 
study  completes  the  author's  annotated  transla- 
tion (6  volumes,  in  the  Colecci^n  de  Esoritores 
Castellanos)  of  the  DScadas  of  Palencia.  Ceja- 
dor  y  Frauca  has  published  two  volumes  of  his 
Historia  de  la  lengua  y  literatura  castellana 
(bringing  it  through  the  Epoch  of  Charles  V). 
Other  studies  of  importance  are:  Cortacero  y 
Velasco,  Cervantes  y  el  Evangelic;  JuliA,  El  eas- 
tellano  puede  escrihirse  como  se  hahla;  G.  Mi- 
chaelis.  Die  sogennanten  "comSdies  espagnoles** 
des  Thomas  Comeille;  Rodriguez  Garcfa,  De  la 
Avella/nada;  and  Carr^  Aldao,  Influencias  de  la 
literatura  gallega  en  la  castellana.  Of  scholarly 
reprints  (both  critical  editions  and  those  in- 
tended for  scholarly  popularization)  the  follow- 
ing must  be  mentioned:  Cervantes,  Ohras  Com- 
pletas:  Persiles  y  Begismundo  (2  voliunes,  by 
Schevill  and  Bonilla  y  San  Martin) ;  Ouerras 
Civiles  de  Oranada  (a  reprint  of  the  princeps 
edition  of  the  first  and  second  parts,  by  Paula 
Blanchard-Demouge) ;  Men^ndez  y  Pelayo,  Ori- 
genes  de  la  Novela  (this  fourth  volume  completes 
the  work  in  question  and  is  vol.  xxi  of  the  Nueva 
Biblioteca  de  Autores  Esparioles)  ;  and  Foulch^- 
Delbosc  has  published  the  second  volume  of  his 
Cancionero  Castellano  del  Siglo  XV  (vol.  xxii, 
Nueva  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Espanoles).  Clds- 
icos  Castellanos  also  continued  their  series  of 
scholarly  productions  for  the  general  public: 
Fr.  Antonio  de  Guevera,  Menosprecio  de  corte  y 
alabanza  de  aldea  (by  Martinez  de  Burgos) ; 
and  Juan  Eusebio  Nieremberg,  Epistolario  (by 
Alonso  Cortes).  Of  Men4ndez  y  Pelayo's  Obras 
CompletaSf  vol.  v  has  been  published  this  year. 

The  Spanish  Royal  Academy.  Too  late  to 
be  mentioned  in  our  article  for  1914,  occurred 
the  deaths  of  two  very  prominent  academicians: 
the  Duque  de  Rivas  (who  continued  the  tradi- 
tion of  his  house  by  being  in  his  turn  a  dis- 
tinguished statesman,  diplomat,  and  poet),  and 
the  Conde  de  Casa  Valencia  (who  was  also  a 
brilliant  statesman,  diplomat,  and  historian). 
By  the  dates  of  their  respective  elections  they 
were,  in  the  order  mentioned,  the  senior  members 
of  the  Academy.  The  celebrated  Jesuit  Padre 
LuJs  Coloma  (author  of  PequeHeces,  a  book 
whose  appearance  in  1890  caused  an  upheaval  in 
Ma^id  society)  died  last  June.  Of  the  mem- 
bers-elect the  following,  having  read  their  en- 
trance   discourses,    have    formally    taken    their 


seats:  Juan  Navarro  Reverter  {Renacimiento 
de  la  poesia  provcnzal  en  Espaiia) ;  the  novelist 
Ricardo  Le6n  (La  lengua  cldsica  y  el  espiritu 
modemo) ;  the  poet  and  archaeologist  Juan  Men- 
^ndez  Pidal  (Vida  y  obras  de  Luis  Zapata) ;  and 
the  dramatist  Pedro  de  Novo  y  Colson  (Los 
cantores  del  mar).  Volume  xi  of  the  Memorias 
of  the  Academy  contains  the  second  part  of  the 
thitherto  unedited  papers  of  the  late  Crist6bal 
P^rez  Pastor.  The  Academy  has  continued  its 
Biblioteca  Selecta  de  Cldsicos  Espaiioles  with 
the  following  volumes:  Obras  de  don  Juan  Ig- 
nacio  Qonzdlez  del  Castillo  (by  Leopoldo  Cano) ; 
and  a  new  edition  of  Calila  y  Dimna  (by  Jos^ 
Alemany).  The  Academy,  and  His  Majesty  Al- 
fonso XIII,  awarded  the  Fastenrath  Prize  to 
Concha  Espina  de  Serna  for  her  novel  La  Esfinge 
maragata,  mentioned  in  our  account  for  1914; 
and  the  Academy  awarded  an  accessit  to  a  work 
entitled  Estudio  criticOf  biogrdficOf  y  bibliogrdiico 
del  bachiller  Diego  Sdnchesf  de  Badajoz,  which 
proved  to  have  been  written  by  Jos^  L6pez  Pru- 
dencio. 
For  philological  works,  see  Philology,  Mod- 

KRW.         

SPAKTTTITJSy  Fbedebick  W.  American 
chemist,  died  June  20,  1916.  He  "was  bom  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1868,  graduating  from 
Illinois  University.  For  many  years  he  was 
on  the  faculty  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School. 
He  was  afterwards  for  a  time  assistant  chemist 
and  mineralogist  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege, and  held  similar  positions  in  the  Ohio  State 
University  and  Lehigh  University.  He  was  also 
chemist  and  officer  in  several  chemical  manufac- 
turing companies,  and  was  the  owner  of  a  large 
factory  in  Hastings,  N.  Y.,  known  as  the  Pan 
Chemical  Company.  He  wrote  many  scientific 
articles  for  newspapers  and  magazines. 

8PECTB0SC0FY.     See  Abtbonohy. 

SPECTBXJM.    See  Physics. 

SPIRITS.     See  Liquobs. 

SPIBITTJALISTS'  ASSOCIATION,  The 
National.  An  association  incorporated  in  1893 
for  the  union  of  local  Spiritualist  societies  of 
the  United  States  into  an  organization  for  mu- 
tual help  and  codperation  in  charitable,  educa- 
tional, religious,  and  missionary  activity  relat- 
ing to  the  objects  and  phenomena  of  spiritual- 
ism. It  had  in  1916,  1000  working  local  socie- 
ties; 22  State  associations;  400  other  local  so- 
cieties; 600  public  meetings  not  organized  as 
societies;  32  camp  meeting  associations;  200 
churches  and  temples;  1  academy;  a  member- 
ship of  about  600,000  confessed  believers  in  spir- 
itualism; between  1,600,000  and  2,000,000  at- 
tendants at  spiritualistic  meetings  and  public 
services;  1600  public  mediums;  600  ordained 
ministers;  and  church,  temple,  and  camp  meet- 
ing property  valued  at  $6,000,000.  Its  head- 
quarters are  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Its  chief 
officers  are:  George  B.  Warne,  president;  George 
W.  Kates,  secretary;  Cassius  L.  Stevens,  treas- 
urer. The  next  annual  convention  will  be  held 
in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  in  October,  1916. 

SPLENETIC  FEVEB.  See  Vbtbbinaiit 
Medicine. 

SPOBTS.  Sec  such  titles  as  Athletics, 
Tback  and  Field;  Baseball;  Boxing;  Foot- 
ball; Rowing;  Swimming;  Yachting,  etc. 

SPBAGUE,  William.  An  American  public 
official,  former  Governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and 
United  States  Senator  from  that  State,  died 
Sept.    11,    1916.    He    was    born    in    Cranston, 


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Rhode  Island,  in  1831,  a  member  of  a  family 
famous  in  the  historr  of  the  State.  After  at- 
tending private  schools  in  Rhode  Island,  and  at 
Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  he  entered  the  cotton-print 
business,  which  was  founded  by  his  uncle,  and 
on  the  death  of  that  relative  became  the  head 
of  a  new  firm,  the  A.  and  W.  Sprague  Company. 
In  1860,  through  the  union  of  the  conserrative 
wing  of  the  I&publican,  with  the  Democratic, 
party,  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  was  reelected  in  1861  and  1862.  Fort  Sum- 
ter was  fired  on  the  second  day  after  his  elec- 
tion. Through  his  activity,  Rhode  Island  was 
one  of  the  first  to  respond  to  the  President's 
call  for  tro<^s,  and  Governor  Sprague,  with  a 
Rhode  Island  regiment,  fought  at  the  battle  of 
Bull  Run.  He  served  through  the  peninsular 
campaign,  and  was  commissioned  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  In  1862,  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  and  was  reelected  in 
1868.  During  his  first  senatorial  term  he  met 
Katherine  C%ase,  daughter  of  Chief  Justice 
Chase,  and  in  1863  they  were  married.  Miss 
Chase  was  known  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  talented  women  of  her  period.  The  wed- 
ding was  reported  to  have  cost  $200,000,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  elaborate  ever  held 
in  the  United  States  up  to  that  time.  In  the 
meantime.  General  Sprague  had  become,  through 
the  success  of  his  business,  very  wealthy.  His 
firm,  however,  had  a  rival  in  the  firm  of  Brown 
and  Ives.  Disputes  between  them  became  bit- 
ter, and  not  without  wide  political  and  financial 
effects.  In  the  panic  of  1873,  the  financial 
structure  erected  by  General  Sprague  crashed. 
The  firm  had  expanded  its  business  so  rapidly 
that  it  was  unable  to  meet  its  obligations.  The 
liabilities  amounted  to  $14,000,000,  and  the  nom- 
inal assets  to  $16,000,000.  The  failure  was 
caused  by  complicated  litigation  in  which  even- 
tually General  Sprague  lost  the  whole  of  his 
property  with  the  exception  of  his  summer  home 
at  Narragansett,  whidi  for  many  years  he  de- 
fended with  armed  guards.  Mrs.  Sprague's 
property  became  involved  in  the  trouble,  and 
RoBcoe  Conkling  and  other  men  of  importance 
assisted  her  in  retaining  her  father's  estate, 
Edgewood,  in  Washin^n.  In  1883  Mrs. 
Sprague  obtained  a  divorce.  In  1902  the  fa- 
mous house  at  Narragansett  was  destroyed  by 
fire.  General  Sprague  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  Paris.  He  gave  the  greater  part  of 
his  home  in  that  city  as  a  convalescent  hos- 
pital at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe. 

SPBINGS,  MiNEBAL.  See  Htdbothebapy  ; 
and  Sabatooa  Springs. 

SQUASH.  The  old  English  game  is  rapidly 
gaining  favor  in  the  United  States,  judging 
from  de  interest  shown  in  it  during  1915.  Eric 
S.  Winston,  of  the  Harvard  Club,  New  York  City, 
jumped  into  prominence  by  his  decisive  victory 
over  Evelyn  du  Pont  Irving  in  the  national 
championship  tourney  of  the  National  Squash 
Tennis  Association.  Dr.  Alfred  Stillman,  2nd, 
champion  in  1914,  and  George  Whitney,  from 
whom  he  won  the  title,  failed  to  enter  the 
tournament.  In  professional  squash,  Stephen  J. 
Feron,  who  had  held  the  championship  title  for 
10  years,  went  down  to  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Walter  A.  Kinsella  of  the  Harvard  Club. 

8TAAFF,  Kabl  Albebt.  Swedish  statesman, 
died  Oct.  4,  1915.  He  was  a  minister  without 
portfolio  in  the  coalition  cabinet  in  1905,  but 
soon  afterwards  resigned,  and  formed  a  caJbinet 


in  which  he  was  premier  and  minister  of  jus- 
tice. In  1906  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Linde- 
man,  but  in  1911  again  formed  a  cabinet  and 
held  office  until  February,  1914.  At  this  time 
the  cabinet  resigned  because  of  differences  be- 
tween King  Gustav  and  the  members  of  the 
cabinet  as  to  the  right  of  the  King  to  make 
political  speeches  without  having  first  secured 
the  approval  of  the  cabinet. 

STAGE  SOCIBTT.  See  Dbaka,  Ahebigan 
AND  English. 

STAMPS.  Postage  Stamps.  Owing  to  the 
frequent  issues  of  new  postage  stamps,  there  is 
constant  improvement  in  their  artistic  appear- 
ance. For  many  years  it  has  been  the  fashion 
to  issue  commemorative  stamps  in  honor  of  some 
distinguished  individual  or  of  some  great  event. 
In  the  United  States  the  centennial  of  the  sign- 
ing of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
400tii  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus,  the  centenary  of  Lincoln'^  birth, 
and  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  were 
so  celebrated,  while  in  Europe,  Austria  issued  a 
complete  series  of  artistic  stamps  in  1908  in 
honor  of  the  60  years*  reign  of  Francis  Joseph  II, 
on  which  were  portraits  of  his  imperial  ances- 
tors, and  in  1910  Russia  issued  a  similar  series 
commemorating  the  300th  anniversary  of  the 
founding  of  the  Romanoff  dynasty  with  por- 
traits of  the  emperors,  beginning  with  Peter  the 
Great.  The  great  war  in  Europe  has  bem  the 
occasion  for  the  issuing  of  a  series  of  postage 
stamps  by  Austria  on  which  are  shown  various 
war  scenes.  These  carry  the  values  in  figures 
at  the  bottom  of  the  stamps  with  an  additional 
charity  tax  value  in  the  centre.  In  Canada, 
stamps  bearing  the  words  "war  tax,"  engraved 
on  the  die,  are  used,  the  government  requiring 
one  cent  extra  postage  for  local  letters,  and  two 
cents  for  foreign  postage.  See  James  H.  Lyons, 
The  Commemorative  Stamps  of  the  World  (Bos- 
ton, 1914). 

CAABiTT  Stamps.  Of  these  there  are  princi- 
pally two  varieties,  those  issued  officially,  that 
is  by  the  government  itself,  and  those  issued  by 
various  organizations,  such  as  the  Red  Cross  so- 
cieties. The  fornier  need  but  little  description. 
They  present  some  view  or  design,  often  of  a 
symbolical  nature,  indicating  their  purpose,  and 
frequently,  like  the  Russian  issue  of  1906,  carry 
two  values,  one  showing  the  postage  value  and 
the  other  postage  and  charity  values,  the  excess 
over  the  postage  value  being  turned  over  by  the 
government  to  the  charitable  purpose.  Others 
bear  the  portrait  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  like 
the  Belgian  issue  for  1915,  and  may  be  sold 
exclusively  for  charity,  as  the  work  of  the  Red 
Cross. 

The  origin  of  the  private  charity  stamps  is 
traceable  to  the  United  States,  for  it  appears 
that  as  long  ago  as  1862  stamps  were  sold  at  the 
fair  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  in  Boston  and 
elsewhere  to  raise  funds  for  the  wounded  during 
the  Civil  War.  At  these  fairs  information  was 
conveyed  to  the  visitor  that  a  letter  for  him  was 
to  be  found  at  the  post  office  and  there  he  would 
receive  a  letter  with  a  stamp  ailixed  for  which 
he  paid  the  required  postage.  In  1892  Portugal 
took  up  the  practice  and  issued  the  first  private 
stamps  for  the  Red  Cross  Society.  Switzerland 
followed  two  years  later,  and  since  1897  the  cus- 
tom has  been  almost  universal.  In  1904  the 
Swedish  National  Anti-Tuberculosis  Association 
began  the  practice  of  issuing  an  annuar  stamp 


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and  \itLB  since  continued  that  method  of  raising 
funds  foir  the  suppression  of  the  white  plague. 
In  the  first  year,  6,675,000  stamps  were  sold, 
netting  for  the  association  over  $24,000.  In 
four  years  nearly  $100,000  was  raised  by  this 
means.  On  the  other  hand,  the  official  Ruma- 
nian charity  postage  stamps  yielded  over  $50,- 
000  for  a  single  series.  Many  of  these  stamps 
are  exceedingly  artistic,  the  designs  being  chosen 
by  public  competition,  and  in  some  the  accepted 
sketch  receives  an  honorarium.  The  Austrian 
charity  stamp  showed  a  side  view  of  the  head 
of  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  blue,  and  that  of 
Germany  the  present  Empress  with  her  daugh- 
ter, now  Duchess  of  Brunswick.  In  1905  Sweden 
presented  the  portrait  of  the  aged  King  and 
Queen  in  commemoration  of  their  golden  wed- 
ding, and  in  1907  Spain,  in  honor  o!  the  recent 
marriage  of  its  King,  showed  his  portrait  and 
that  of  his  Queen.  In  the  United  States  the 
practice  of  issuing  Christmas  ''seals,"  as  they  are 
called,  was  begun  in  1907  by  the  Red  Cross  So- 
ciety. These  are  issued  each  year  in  December, 
and  bear  the  salutation  of  "Merry  Christmas," 
and  sometimes  also  "Happy  New  Year."  In 
1914,  55,000,000  seals  were  sold  which,  after  de- 
ducting all  expenses,  left  nearly  $500,000,  which 
was  expended  in  the  fight  against  tuberculosis 
in  the  communities  where  the  seals  were  sold. 
The  series  of  six  stamps,  in  several  colors,  issued 
by  the  British  Red  Cross  in  1914  for  the  purpose 
of  aiding  in  the  care  of  the  wounded,  is  an  ar- 
tistic set.  Other  stamps  for  special  benevolent 
funds  have  been  sold  in  England  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  great  war. 

Other  charities  besides  the  Red  Cross  have 
taken  advantage  of  this  means  of  raising  money 
by  small  amounts.  Thus  in  1897,  at  the  time  of 
the  celebration  of  the  60  years'  reign  of  Queen 
Victoria,  charity  stamps  for  various  amounts 
were  issued  in  England  for  the  Prince  of  Wales 
Hospital  fund,  and  in  New  South  Wales,  a  stamp 
in  gold,  blue,  and  red  colors,  valued  at  2  shillings 
and  6  pence,  commemorating  the  "Diamond  Jubi- 
lee," was  issued  for  the  "Consumptives'  Home" 
of  the  colony.  In  1911,  in  the  United  States, 
the  working  men  were  urged  to  purchase  seals, 
the  proceeds  from  which  were  expended  in  de- 
fraying the  cost  of  the  defense  of  ^e  McNamara 
brothers,  who  were  charged  with  dynamiting  the 
building  of  the  Los  Angeles  (Cal.)  TimeM  in  Oc- 
tober, 1910.  In  1912,  the  centenary  of  the  birth 
of  Charles  Dickens,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
secure  funds  to  alleviate  the  wants  of  certain 
of  his  descendants  by  issuing  an  engraved  stamp 
bearing  his  portrait,  which  the  purchaser  was 
requested  to  insert  in  his  volumes  of  the.  great 
novelist.  The  sum  of  $40,000  was  raised  by  this 
method. 

Poster  Stamps.  The  origin  of  these  attrac- 
tive little  advertising  messengers  is  claimed  by 
various  German  cities,  and  in  that  country  they 
have  had  a  more  extensive  use  than  elsewhere. 
They  probably  originated  by  the  reduction  in 
miniature  of  some  large  poster,  and  in  1896  the 
exposition  held  in  Budapest  so  used  them.  Simi- 
lar poster  stamps  advertising  the  Olympic  games 
held  in  Athens,  Greece,  in  1906,  and  one  of  "Car- 
nival Week"  in  Manila,  in  1908,  suggest  the 
larger  posters.  For  a  time  their  use  seems  to 
have  been  confined  to  advertising  events  and  so 
specimens  in  brilliant  colors  were  sent  out  by 
the  Brussels,  Belgium,  Exposition  in  1897,  a 
practice  that  has  extended  down  to  the  Panama- 


Pacific  Exposition,  held  in  1915,  for  which  books 
containing  36  views  in  colors  of  the  exposition 
were  to  be  had.  Various  congresses,  such  as  the 
Eucharistic  Congress,  held  in  Montreal,  Canada, 
in  1910,  and  the  "Play  Congress,"  held  annually 
in  different  cities  in  the  United  States,  have  had 
their  poster  stamps.  They  have  been  used  to 
annoimce  "Home  Coming"  weeks,  and  also  ex- 
tensively by  women  in  advocating  the  extension 
of  the  suffrage.  Many  of  them  serve  to  adver- 
tise cities  and  resorts,  as  those  from  Rome, 
Italy,  with  views  of  the  Coliseum  and  other 
buildings,  or  those  from  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
with  views  of  Mt.  Blanc.  In  the  United  States 
these  are  more  crude  and  consist  of  slogans, 
such  as  "Come  to  the  New  Durango  Country, 
Yes."  As  they  grew  in  favor  with  the  public 
their  uses  multiplied  almost  indefinitely.  There 
were  portrait  posters  of  Taft,  Bryan,  and  Clark, 
when  candidates  for  the  presidency  of  the  United 
States,  and  from  Austria  came  one  celebrating 
an  anniversary  of  Johann  Strauss,  tiie  music 
composer.  The  purely  advertising  poster  stamps 
need  not  be  discussed,  although  some  are  exceed- 
ingly interesting  and  instructive.  One  series, 
issued  by  an  express  company  in  the  United 
States,  shows  the  modes  of  transportation  from 
a  clipper  ship  to  a  motor  vehicle.  Then  there 
are  varieties  with  mottoes  simply  as  "Thinking 
of  you,"  which  are  used  to  paste  on  the  back 
of  envelopes. 

In  Germany  children's  books  are  published 
with  a  package  of  poster  stamps,  and  the  story 
must  be  told  by  inserting  the  stamps  in  their 
proper  places.  Sunday  schools  reward  the  at- 
tendance and  good  behavior  of  their  scholars  by 
giving  them  poster  stamps  depicting  religious 
events,  which  are  to  be  inserted  in  an  album, 
and  an  empty  space  is  an  offense  which  is  not 
easy  to  overcome.  During  the  six  years  pre- 
ceding Jan.  1,  1915,  35,000,000  of  these  stamps 
were  printed  and  circulated  in  England  alone. 

STATE  BANKS.  The  report  of  the  Comptrol- 
ler of  the  Currency  showed  that  on  June  23,  1915, 
there  were  14,598  State  banks  in  the  United 
States.  They  had  total  resources  of  $4,399,602,- 
000,  including  loans,  discounts,  and  overdrafts, 
$2,908,024,000;  bonds  and  securities,  $420,475,- 
000;  and  cash  on  hand,  $242,754,000.  There 
were  1664  loan  and  trust  companies  with  total 
resources  of  $5,873,120,000,  including  loans,  dis- 
counts, and  overdrafts,  $3,048,668,000;  bonds 
and  securities,  $1,349,613,000;  and  cash  on  hand, 
$287,957,000.  There  were  1036  private  banks 
with  total  resources  of  $177,665,000,  including 
loans,  discounts,  and  overdrafts,  $15,312,000; 
bonds  and  securities,  $15,312,000;  and  cash  on 
hand,  $6,451,000.  State  banks  had  total  liabil- 
ities of  $4,399,602,000,  including  capital  stock 
paid  in,  $503,986,000;  surplus,  $221,081,000;  un- 
divided profits,  $97,220,000;  and  individual  de- 
posits, $3,277,772,000.  Loan  and  trust  com- 
panies had  total  liabilities  of  $5,873,120,000,  in- 
cluding capital  stock  paid  in,  $476,806,000,  sur- 
plus, $450,676,000;  undivided  profits,  $126,718,- 
000;  and  individual  deposits,  $4,204,596,000. 
Private  banks  had  total  liabilities  of  $177,665,- 
000,  including  capital  stock,  $20,547,000;  sur- 
plus, $8,442,000;  undivided  profits,  $4,037,000; 
and  individual  deposits,  $134,410,000.  See 
Banks  and  Banking  for  relation  of  State  banks 
and  Federal  Reserve  System. 

STATISTICAL  ASSOCIATION,  Akbsioan. 
The  77th  annual  meeting  of  this  body  was  held 

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in  Washington,  D.  C,  December  28-30,  in  con- 
nection with  the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion, the  American  Economic  Association,  the 
American  Sociological  Society,  and  other  similar 
organizations.  Following  tiie  president's  ad- 
dress by  Prof.  £.  Dana  Durand  of  the  University 
of  Minnesota,  a  session  was  devoted  to  the  gen- 
eral topic  of  "Standardisation  and  Government 
Efficiency."  In  a  subsequent  session  papers  were 
presented  on  "Statistics  of  Imports  and  Ex- 
ports," by  Frank  R.  Rutter  of  the  Bureau  of  For- 
eign and  Domestic  Commerce;  on  "Proportion 
of  Population  Engaged  in  Agriculture  in  the 
Several  Countries,"  by  Eugene  Merritt,  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture;  and  there  was  gen- 
eral discussion  of  a  report  of  a  committee  on 
"Standards  for  Graphic  Forms  of  Presentation.'* 
A  session  on  vital  statistics  included  the  fol- 
lowing papers:  "The  Nature  and  Significance 
of  the  Changes  in  the  Birth  and  Death  Rates  in 
Recent  Years,"  by  Walter  F.  Willcox  of  Cornell 
Universi^;  "The  Influence  of  Vital  Statistics 
Upon  the  Conservation  of  Human  Life,"  by  W.  S. 
Rankin,  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
of  North  Carolina;  "The  Relation  of  Sickness 
Reports  to  Health  Administration,"  by  John  W. 
Trask,  assistant  surgeon  general,  United  States 
Public  Health  Service;  "Vital  Statistics  in  Re- 
lation to  Life  Insurance,"  by  Louis  I.  Dublin, 
statistician,  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany; and  "Statistics  of  Infant  Mortality,"  by 
Lewis  Meriam,  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research, 
New  York  City.  The  final  sessions  included  the 
following  papers:  "The  Federal  Registration 
Service  of  the  United  States:  Its  Development, 
Problems,  and  Defects,"  by  Cressy  L.  Wilbur, 
director,  Division  of  Vital  Statistics,  New  York 
State  Department  of  Health;  "Vital  Statistics 
in  the  States  and  Cities  of  the  United  States," 
by  Wilmer  R.  Batt,  State  Registrar  of  Vital 
Statistics  of  Pennsylvania,  Charles  V.  Chaplin, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Health  of  Rhode  Is- 
land, and  William  H.  Guilfoy,  Registrar  of  Rec- 
ords of  New  York  City;  "Informe  sobre  el  desar- 
roUo  de  la  estadistica  demografica  de  El  Sal- 
vador," by  Dr.  Pedro  S.  Fonseca  of  Salvador; 
and  "The  Accuracy  and  Completeness  of  Com- 
piled Vital  Statistics  in  the  United  States,"  by 
John  S.  Fulton,  secretary  of  State  Board  of 
Health,  Maryland.    See  Sociolooy. 

STATISTICS.    See  Vital  Statistics. 

STEAM  ENGINES.  Notable  among  the 
large  engines  installed  in  1016  was  a  duplex  in- 
cline croBs-compoimd  hoisting  engine  built  by  the 
Nordberg  Manufacturing  Company  for  the  Home 
State  Mining  Company.  The  hoist  has  a  capa- 
city of  12,000  pounds  net  ore  per  trip,  from  a 
depth  of  3200  feet,  or  a  total  estimated  pull  on 
the  rope  of  42,900  pounds.  This  engine  has  two 
high  pressure  cylinders,  each  28  inches  in  di- 
ameter, two  low  pressure  cylinders,  each  52 
inches  in  diameter,  and  a  stroke  of  42  inches. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  largest  hoisting  engine  of 
the  kind  in  the  world. 

STEAMSHIPS.     See  Shipbuilding. 

STEAM  TTJBBINES.  During  1915  the  large 
electric  light  and  other  public  service  plants  con- 
tinued to  use  and  to  order  steam  turbines  of 
ever  increasing  capacity.  The  36,000  kilowatt 
unit  of  the  Philadelphia  Electric  Company  (see 
Dynamo  Electric  Machinery)  was  placed  in 
service  during  the  year.  A  40,000  kilowatt  tur- 
bine was  ordered  by  the  Duquesne  Light  Com- 
pany  of  Pittsburgh,   while   the   Detroit   Edison 


Company,  in  whose  various  stations  important 
developments  and  modem  practice  were  to  be 
expected,  was  considering  providing  45,000  kilo- 
watt units  at  its  Delray  station.  It  was  thought 
likely  that  a  50,000  kilowatt  unit  might  be  built, 
as  there  appeared  to  be  no  engineering  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  such  a  machine.  Increased 
economy  was  being  obtained  from  these  large 
machines,  and  even  from  the  smaller  ma- 
chines, especially  in  the  water  rates,  and  a 
greater  speed  was  being  obtained  even  in  the 
larger  units.  Steam  turbines  were  being  used 
more  and  more  with  reduction  gearing,  and  di- 
rect current  units  were  being  coupled  to  high- 
speed turbines  in  this  way,  these  gears  making 
a  flexible  arrangement  permit  spe^  from  both 
machines  most  suitable  to  their  efficient  opera- 
tion. Grear  reduction  was  also  employed  ex- 
tensively during  the  year  with  small  generators, 
and  seemed  to  work  efficiently.  One  of  the  de- 
velopments of  the  year  was  the  application  of 
the  steam  turbine  to  rolling  mills.  This  oc- 
curred at  the  Carpenter  Steel  Company's  pUnt 
at  Reading,  Pa.,  where  a  low  pressure  De 
Laval  nine  stage  turbine,  operating  at  5000 
revolutions  per  minute  was  employed  to  drive 
two  stands  of  18-inch  3-high  rolling  mills.  This 
was  made  possible  by  reducing  the  speed  to  first 
600  and  then  to  100  revolutions  per  minute, 
through  the  use  of  a  helical  involute  gear.  This 
arangement  was  notable  as  it  was  the  first  in- 
stance of  the  use  in  the  United  States  of  a  low 
pressure  turbine  in  a  rolling  mill,  and  only  the 
second  instance  in  the  world. 

STEEIi.  See  Chemistry,  Industrial;  Iron 
AND  Steel;  and  Metallurgy. 

STEVANSSON,  Vilh  jahlme.  See  Polab  Re- 
search, Arctic, 

STEIN,  Sib  Aurel.    See  Exploration,  Asia, 

STERILIZATION.    See  Eugenics. 

STILLMANy  Thomas  Buss.  American 
chemical  engineer,  died  Aug.  10,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  in  1852,  and  graduated 
from  Rutgers  College  in  1873.  He  took  grad- 
uate courses  in  Rubers  and  at  the  Stevens  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  in  the  latter  of  which  in- 
stitutions he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  analytical  chemistry 
at  Stevens  Institute  in  1886,  holding  this  chair 
until  1903,  when  he  was  appointed  a  professor 
of  engineering  and  chemistry.  In  1909  he  was 
retired  upon  the  Carnegie  Pension  Fund.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  city  chemist  of  Jer- 
sey City  and  Bayonne,  and  chemist  of  the  med- 
ical milk  commission  of  Newark.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  foreign  countries.  His 
published  writings  include  Engineering  and 
Chemistry  (1897).  He  wrote  also  many  mono- 
graphs and  papers  in  American  and  foreign  tech- 
nical journals. 

STOCK  EXCHANGE.  See  Financial  Re- 
view. 

STOCK  RAISING  AND  MEAT  PBOBXJC- 
TION.  The  Live  Stock  Supply.  The  total 
value  of  all  live  stock  on  farms  and  ranges  in 
the  United  States  on  Jan.  1,  1916,  was  estimated 
at  $5,969,253,000,  an  increase  of  $78,024,000,  or 
1.3  per  cent,  over  the  valuation  of  a  year  pre- 
viously. Of  this  total  valuation  nearly  one-half 
was  for  work  animals  and  the  other  half  for  food 
animals.  The  prices  of  meat  animals,  hogs,  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  chickens  to  producers  on  April 
16th  averaged  about  $6.69  per  100  pounds,  which 

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oomparefl  with  $7.40  in  1914,  $7.35  in  1913, 
$6.30  in  1912,  $6.80  in  1911,  and  $7.74  in  1910. 
Beef  cattle  and  calves  were  lower  than  one  and 
two  years  previously,  but  higher  than  three  years 
before;  hogs  were  lower,  while  sheep  and  lambs 
were  higher  than  in  any  of  the  preceding  three 
years«  !-'  i| 

A  material  decrease  in  imports  of  beef  into  the 
United  States  was  a  logical  result  of  the  Euro- 
pean war.  During  the  first  seven  months  of  the 
year  1915  beef  imports  were  but  75,353,535 
pounds,  valued  at  $6,823,155,  against  176,582,- 
128  pounds,  with  a  valuation  of  $15,373,348  dur- 
ing the  same  period  of  1914.  Imports  of  mutton 
during  the  seven-month  period  were  7,811,131 
pounds,  against  14,142,188  pounds  in  1914,  and 
of  pork,  1,724,343  pounds,  against  8,146,093  in 
1914.  The  toUl  fresh-meat  imports  during  the 
period  dropped  from  198,870,409  pounds  in  1914 
to  84,889,007  pounds.  Imports  of  other  meats 
and  dairy  products  also  were  materially  cur- 
tailed by  the  war.  Mexico  was  the  heaviest  con- 
tributor of  stock  cattle  to  the  United  States. 
The  first  seven  months'  contribution  of  Mexico 
in  1915  was  194,650  head,  against  359,619  in 
1914,  and  that  of  Canada,  57,936  head,  against 
55,113  last  year. 

Exports  of  beef  and  hog  products  were  on  an 
enormous  scale.  During  the  eight  months  end- 
ing with  August,  1915,  exports  of  frecOi  beef  ag- 
gregated 188,787,794  pounds,  against  4,727,909 
pounds  in  1914.  Exports  of  canned  beef  during 
the  same  period  were  59,802,715  pounds,  against 
4,824,240  the  previous  year.  Bacon  exports  for 
the  eight  months  were  326,163,620  pounds, 
against  112,333,387  in  1914,  and  lard  exports, 
315,518,440  pounds,  against  280,511,877  in  the 
previous  year.  Although  the  exports  of  meats 
and  dairy  products  rose  from  $146,000,000  to 
$220,000,000,  or  about  one-half,  they  did  not  pre- 
vent a  decline  in  prices  to  producers  of  cattle 
and  hogs. 

The  supply  of  live  stock  at  the  six  principal 
cattle  markets  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  during 
1915  consisted  of  approximately  7,500,000  cat- 
tle, 16,500,000  hogs,  and  9,700,000  sheep,  repre- 
senting an  increase  of  550,000  cattle,  1,650,000 
hogs,  and  a  decrease  of  2,000,000  sheep  as  com- 
pared with  1914.  The  live  stock  trade  was  seri- 
ously handicapped  by  the  spread  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease  (see  Veterinaby  Medicine),  and 
an  advance  in  the  cost  of  cotton-seed  cake  con- 
tributed to  a  heavy  liquidation  during  the  latter 
months  of  1915.  The  West  had  more  cattle  than 
a  year  previously,  but  Eastern  territory  was  in 
need,  of  replenishment. 

A  significant  change  was  taking  place  in  the 
management  of  cattle  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texas. 
This  had  been  one  of  the  chief  cattle-raising  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  In  the  past  it  had  been 
customary  to  ship  out  the  cattle  to  be  fed  in  the 
Middle-Western  and  corn-belt  States,  but  the 
possibilities  of  profit  in  feeding  these  cattle  at 
home  had  been  demonstrated  and  ranchmen  were 
no  longer  contenting  themselves  with  the  raising 
of  cattle,  but  were  feeding  them  for  the  market. 
An  important  factor  in  connection  with  the 
country's  meat  supply  was  the  public  grazing  do- 
main. There  were  grazed  last  year  under  pay 
permits  1,724,000  cattle  and  horses,  and  7,300,- 
000  sheep  and  goats.  Several  hundred  thousand 
head  of  milch  and  work  animals  were  grazed 
free  of  charge,  and  more  than  3,500,000  head  of 
stock  crossed  the  forests,  feeding  en  route,  also 


free  of  charge.  The  number  of  animals  sustained 
in  proportion  to  the  area  of  the  forests  was  50 
per  cent  greater  than  it  was  10  years  previously. 
It  is  protMible  that  100,000,000  pounds  of  beef 
and  mutton  are  sold  each  year  from  herds  and 
flocks  occupying  the  ranges. 

The  work  of  eradicating  the  cattle  tick  in  the 
South  was  continued,  and  its  progress  was  mak- 
ing possible  a  fuller  development  of  the  cattle 
industry  in  that  section.  Areas  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  12,313  square  miles,  situated  in 
the  Stotes  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia,  were 
freed  from  the  tick  quarantine  on  Dec.  1,  1915. 
Wherever  areas  were  released  from  quarantine 
the  cattle  industry  received  a  marked  impetus. 
The  Northern  markets  for  beef  cattle  and  feeders 
were  open  to  Southern  farmers  and  the  Southern 
markets  to  Northern  breeders. 

Among  the  most  promising  agencies  for  in- 
creasinff  the  meat  supply  of  the  country,  and 
particularly  that  of  the  individual  farm,  were 
the  pig  clubs.  Originally  started  in  the  South, 
the  clubs  extended  into  many  Northern  and 
Western  States,  and  during  the  year  they  had  a 
membership  of  about  9000  boys  and  girls.  In  11 
counties  in  Georgia  where  pig-club  work  was  con- 
ducted, 11,000,000  pounds  of  cured  pork  were 
produced  during  1914.  Over  2000  registered 
hogs,  of  which  75  per  cent  were  sows,  were 
owned  by  pig-club  members.  Poultry  clubs  like- 
wise have  received  much  attention.  These  have 
been  organized  in  98  counties  in  six  Southern 
States,  with  a  total  membership  of  4000.  The 
clubs  are  becoming  centres  for  the  development 
of  community  brewing  of  poultry. 

Efforts  at  codperation  were  made  by  the  farm- 
ers of  the  Middle  West  to  facilitate  the  distribu- 
tion and  marketing  of  their  live  stock  products. 
Their  ability  to  work  together  in  this  way  was 
demonstrated  in  the  remarkable  spread  of  the 
live  stock  shippers'  association  movement. 
Farmers'  cooperative  meat  packing  companies 
were  organiz^  in  a  number  of  communities  in 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota,  and  more  than 
a  score  of  others  were  reported  to  be  contem- 
plated. The  Department  of  Agriculture  was  con- 
ducting a  study  of  existing  iharkets  for  and  sys- 
tems of  marketing  live  stmsk,  meats,  and  animal 
products,  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  ways  and 
means  by  which  they  could  be  improved  and  their 
cost  reduced.  Certain  localities  devised  systems 
of  marketing,  such  as  the  direct  selling  of  home- 
prepared  meat  products,  especially  farm-cured 
hams,  bacon,  and  sausage;  municipal  slaughter- 
ing plants;  live  stock  shippers'  associations;  and 
the  shipment  of  meat  by  parcel  post.  These  ef- 
forts were  to  be  encouraged  and  extended  into 
localities,  particularly  l£e  South  and  West, 
where  methods  of  distribution  were  still  in  their 
elementary  stage.  In  an  effort  to  improve  the 
breeding  stock  of  the  South,  co5perative  cattle 
sales  were  conducted  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  assisted  by  the  Shorthorn  and  Aber- 
deen-Angus breed  associations.  The  farmers  of 
these  States  were  induced  to  extend  their  cattle 
feeding  operations  and  to  adopt  the  most  ap- 
proved methods  of  feeding. 

FoBEioN  Tbade  in  Meat  and  Live  Stock. 
The  cattle  business  generally  in  South  American 
countries  is  in  excellent  condition.  Unusually 
large  operations  by  United  States  packers  pro- 
duced competition  which  was  partially  respon- 
sible  for   the  good   business  which   i^e   cattle 

Digitized  by  VjOOSIC 


STOCK  BAI8IHO 


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STOini  IHBXrSTBT 


growers  were  enjoying.  The  new  Armour  frig- 
oriiico  at  La  Plata  was  to  be  the  largest  in 
South  America  and  was  to  have  a  capacity  for 
the  daily  slaughter  of  2000  cattle,  4500  sheep, 
and  2000  pigs.  Most  of  the  meat  prepared  in 
this  establii^ment  was  to  be  shipped  to  the 
United  States,  although  a  portion  was  also  to 
go  to  British  ports. 

Since  the  war  began  frozen  beef,  which  had 
been  growing  unpopular,  had  to  a  large  extent 
displi^ed  the  chilled  article,  owing  to  the  ease 
with  which  it  could  be  transported.  During  the 
first  half  of  1915  Argentina  exported  1,280,426 
quarters  of  frozen  and  655,600  quarters  of  chilled 
beef,  against  328,880  and  2,124,670  quarters,  re- 
spectively, the  first  half  of  1914.  Of  Argentine 
beef  exports  during  the  first  half  of  the  year 
1915,  1,136,523  quarters  of  frozen  and  544,858 
quarters  of  chilled  went  to  Great  Britain,  and 
140,677  of  frozen  and  110,742  of  chilled  to  the 
United  States,  the  rest  being  consigned  to 
France,  Italy,  and  Holland. 

There  was  a  marked  decline  in  mutton  pro- 
duction in  South  America  within  recent  years, 
only  481,105  carcasses  of  lamb  and  249,856  car- 
casses of  mutton  having  been  exported  during  the 
first  half  of  the  year  1015,  against  1,171,705  of 
lamb  and  501,043  of  mutton  during  the  same 
period  of  1911,  when  floodtide  was  reached. 

Australian  exports  of  meat  products  showed  a 
marked  increase.  The  total  exports  of  mutton 
from  July  1,  1914,  to  June  30,  1915,  amounted 
to  over  2,000,000  carcasses,  compared  with  1,600- 
000  carcasses  during  the  previous  year.  Eng- 
land and  Europe  were  by  far  the  best  customers. 
The  shipments  of  beef  for  the  same  period,  how- 
ever, showed  a  decrease.  An  act,  known  as  the 
Meat  Supply  Act,  had  been  passed  in  Australia 
at  the  request  and  instigation  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment, by  which  the  state  government  was  the 
sole  buyer  of  all  exportable  meat  in  New  South 
Wales.  All  meat  was  to  be  bought  and  paid  for 
by  the  state  government  on  behalf  of  the  British 
government. 

The  frozen  meat  industry  of  New  Zealand  was 
receiving  much  attention  at  this  time,  and  much 
was  bein^  done  to  improve  the  herds  and  fiocks  of 
this  dominion,  as  well  as  to  develop  the  grazing 
lands  of  the  coimtry.  The  increase  of  sheep  in 
New  Zealand  was  estinuited  at  100  per  cent. 

HoBSBS.  While  the  demand  by  the  European 
countries  for  horses  from  the  United  States  was 
large,  there  was  apparently  no  immediate  danger 
of  an  American  shortage.  It  was  estimated  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  that  on  Jan.  1, 
1915,  there  were  24,000,000  horses  in  the  United 
States.  Durinff  the  15  months  previous  to  Oct. 
1,  1915,  approximately  405,000  horses  and  97,000 
mules  were  exported  from  the  United  States. 
These  exports,  however,  were  not  sufficient  to 
prevent  a  decline  of  about  4.6  per  cent  in  the 
average  price.  The  kind  of  horses  which  were 
purchased  for  the  most  part  were  of  a  grade 
which  the  United  States  could  dispense  with  to 
the  advantage  of  its  horse-breeding  industry. 

Wool.  Sheep  declined  in  numbers  in  the  East- 
em  farming  States,  but  increased  on  the  ranges. 
Prices  for  wool  were  good,  and  with  a  lib^al 
feed  supply  on  the  ranges  there  was  an  effort  to- 
ward reviving  or  increasing  sheep  raising  on  the 
ranges.  A  conference  of  sheep  and  wool  special- 
ists was  held  in  San  Francisco  in  August,  1916. 
The  chief  topic  under  consideration  was  the  so- 
called  Australian  system  of  shearing  and  clasa- 


ifyinc[  wool,  and  the  possibilities  of  its  adoptloii 
in  this  country.  The  general  sentiment  was  in 
favor  of  the  improved  method.  In  these  coun- 
tries the  wool  is  examined  and  classified  when  it 
is  sheared,  only  one  grade  being  put  into  a  bale, 
and  the  bales  of  the  same  lot  are  uniform.  The 
fieeoes  are  carefully  skirted  and  each  fleece  is 
of  even,  serviceable  quality.  An  organization  of 
Wy<Hning  and  Utah  sheqpmen  was  the  first  to 
put  a  model  plant  in  operation  in  America  and 
to  demonstrate  the  value  of  the  Australian  sys- 
tem. To  inaugurate  in  the  United  States  the 
Australian  system  of  selling  by  auction  would 
require,  it  is  estimated,  a  oodperative  movement 
by  growers  representing  20  per  cent  of  the  coun- 
try's clip.  The  exports  of  wool  from  Australasia 
from  July,  1914,  to  May  31,  1915,  showed  a  net 
decrease  of  71,719  bales,  or  approximately  160,- 
000,000  pounds.  The  United  SUtes  received  58,- 
000,000  pounds  of  Australasian  wool  during  the 
same  period.  There  was  a  marked  growth  of 
these  direct  American  purchases  of  wool  from 
the  two  island  dominions  which  have  more  sheep 
than  any  other  countries  of  the  world. 

Bibliosrraphy.  The  following  is  a  list  of  some 
of  the  important  publications  of  the  year:  F. 
W.  WoU,  Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  AnimaU 
(Philadelphia,  1915) ;  J.  A.  Murray,  The  Chem- 
iitry  of  Cattle  Feeding  and  Dairying  (London 
and  New  York,  1914) ;  A.  C.  Thomas  and  W.  H. 
Shields,  The  Care  and  Management  of  Trotter% 
and  Pacers  (Chicago,  1915);  C.  E.  Day,  Pro- 
ductive  Swine  Husbandry  (Philadelphia,  1915) ; 
J.  Porter,  The  Btockfeedere*  Companion  (Lon- 
don, 1915) ;  Edward  Brown,  Poultry  Huehandry 
(New  York  and  London,  1915) ;  B.  F.  Kaupp, 
Poultry  Culture,  Sanitation,  and  Hygiene  (Phil- 
adelphia and  London,  1915);  W.  A.  Henry  and 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Feede  and  Feeding  (Madison, 
Wis.,  1915,  15th  ed.  rev.) ;  R.  S.  Timmis,  Modem 
Horee  Management  (London,  New  York,  To- 
ronto, and  Melbourne,  1915) ;  C.  B.  Jones  et  al.. 
Live  Stock  of  the  Farm  (London,  1915,  vols,  i 
and  ii) ;  M.  Barter  and  G.  Wilsdorf,  Die  Bedeu- 
tung  dee  Schweinee  fiir  die  Fleieohvereorgung 
(Berlin,  1915). 

STOESSEL,  Anatolb  MiKHAnx>viTCH.  Rus- 
sian soldier,  died  Jan.  17,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
1848,  and  entered  the  cadet  corps  in  1858  at  the 
age  of  10.  He  graduated  from  the  Pavoff  Mili- 
tary Academy  as  an  officer  in  1866;  served  with 
the  Bulgarian  militia  during  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  in  1877-78;  and  after  that  war  he  traveled 
throughout  the  entire  Empire.  He  held  various 
commands  in  different  parts  of  Siberia,  where,  in 
1899,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general.  In 
the  Russo-Japanese  War  he  commanded  the  fort- 
ress of  Fort  Port  Arthur.  After  a  siege  of  many 
months,  when  he  claimed  that  his  ammuniti<m 
was  exhausted  and  his  men  without  food,  he  sur- 
rendered the  fortress  to  General  Nogi.  Charges 
brought  against  him  by  other  officers  in  high 
command  at  Port  Arthur  resulted  in  a  court 
martial,  which  in  1908  condemned  him  to  death 
for  treason.  The  court  martial  found  that  he 
had  surrendered  the  fortress  before  it  was  neces- 
sary and  that  he  had  shown  cowardice  in  the  de- 
fense. His  sentence  was  commuted  to  10  years' 
imprisonment,  internment,  and  dismissal  from 
the  army.  After  spending  15  months  in  the  fort- 
ress of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  he  was  released 
by  order  of  the  Czar. 

STONE  INDXTSTBT.  The  total  value  of  the 
stone  produced  and  sold  in  the  United  States  in 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


STONE  INDTTSTBT 


621 


STBIXES  AND  LOCKOUTS 


1914  was  $77,412,292,  oompared  with  $83J32,996 
in  1913,  a  decrease  of  $6,302,703,  or  7.56  per 
cent.  The  decrease  was  due  to  general  financial 
depression.  All  parts  of  the  stone  industry  were 
not  equally  affect.  There  was  an  increase  in 
sand  stone  and  marble,  but  a  decrease  in  granite, 
trap  rock,  and  limestone.  Building  stone  de- 
creased in  Talue  from  $18,097,219  in  1913,  to 
$17,796,562  in  1914.  Monumental  stone,  pav- 
ing stone,  and  curb  stone  also  decreased.  There 
were  14  States  that  reported  an  increase,  and  33 
a  decrease.  Pennsylvania  holds  first  rank  amonff 
stone  producing  States,  with  Vermont  second. 
Other  States  which  produce  large  quantities  are 
New  York,  Ohio,  California,  Indiana,  and  Massa- 
chusetts.   

STOBAOB  BATTEBIES.  See  Elbctbical 
Industries,  Electric  Batteries, 

STOBYy  John  Patten.  American  soldier, 
died  March  25,  1914.  He  was  bom  in  Waukesha 
in  1841,  and  graduated  from  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1865,  in  which  year  he  was 
appointed  first  lieutenant  in  the  16th  infantry, 
later  being  transferred  to  the  artillery.  He 
rose  through  various  grades  until  he  became  col- 
onel in  1902.  Two  years  later,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  and  chief  of  artillery.  He  was 
retired  in  1905,  after  40  years'  service.  From 
1888-98  he  was  instructor  in  the  artillery 
school;  for  several  years  inspector  of  the  artil- 
lery ;  and  commander  of  the  artillery  school  from 
1902  to  1904.  He  was  a  member  of  the  general 
staff  of  the  United  States  army,  and  of  the  joint 
army  and  navy  board,  from  1902-04.  He  was  a 
member  also  of  other  important  boards. 

STOBY,  Thokas  Waldo.  American  sculptor, 
died  Oct  24,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Rome,  Italy, 
in  1835,  the  son  of  William  Wetmore  Story,  a 
distinguished  sculptor,  and  the  brother  of  Julian 
Story,  a  well-known  painter.  He  early  gained 
fame  in  New  York  City  and  elsewhere.  The  first 
statue  unveiled  in  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons was  of  his  making,  as  were  also  a  bust  of 
the  late  Lord  Randolph  Churchill,  and  the  bronze 
doors  of  the  library  of  J.  P.  Morgan.  For  many 
years  he  occupied  the  Barberini  Palace,  which 
was  left  to  him  by  his  father.  He  married 
Bessie  Abott,  an  American  opera  singer. 

STSAITS  SBTTLSBCBNTS.  A  British 
crown  colony  in  Malaysia,  composed  as  follows: 


Sq.m. 
Singapore  .  807 
Penang  . . .  571 
Malacca      . .    720 


Pop.  1011  Pop.  1914         Cap, 

811,985  889,861    Singapore 

278.008  287.985     GMrgeTown 

124.081  184.226     Malacca 


Total    ...1,598       714,069       761,621     Shigapore 

The  settlement  of  Singapore  comprises  the  is- 
land of  Singapore  (217  square  miles),  Christmas 
Island  (62  square  miles),  Labuan  Island  (28 
square  miles),  and  the  Cocos  or  Keeling  Islands, 
the  largest  of  which  is  five  miles  by  one-fourth 
of  a  mile.  The  area  of  the  Cooos  is  not  included 
in  the  foregoing  table.  The  settlement  of  Pen- 
anff  comprises  ute  Island  of  Penang  (108  square 
miles).  Province  Wellesley  (280  square  miles), 
on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  Bindings  Terri- 
torv  (183  square  miles).  Malacca  is  on  the 
mainland  of  the  peninsula.  The  population  of 
Sinapore  Island  is  gathered  chiefiy  in  the  city 
of  Singapore,  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the 
East;  in  1901  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  num- 
bered 193,089.  The  colony  produces  tapioca, 
rice,  4nd  rubber,  (chiefly  in  Malacca  mid  Province 


Wellesley),  and  sugar  (in  Province  Wellesley). 
Coal  is  mined  in  Labuan.  Trade  and  financial 
statistics  are  given  below  in  Straits  Settlements 
dollars;  shippmg  in  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

1908  1910  1918 

Import*     816.895,939  864.470,658  484,152,621 

Ezporta     273,818,124  824,189,786  888,929,706 

Bevenae     8,969,015  9,886,828  12,897,747 

Expenditure     .      9,937,624  7,582,242  10,468,618 

Shipping     21,750,245  28,429,495  27,124,789 

Prom  Jan.  1,  1912,  the  railways  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  had  been  under  the  management  of 
the  Federated  Malay  States  government. 

STREET  CLEANING.  The  use  of  machines 
for  sweeping  and  flushing  is  increasing.  A  few 
cities  are  l^ginning  to  keep  systematic  records 
of  the  areas  of  each  kind  of  pavement  cleaned, 
and  the  cost  of  cleaning  by  different  methods,  but 
as  a  whole  American  cities  are  woefully  deficient 
in  street  cleaning  records.  Such  records  are 
needed  to  throw  light  on  the  relative  advantages 
of  different  methods.  Emergency  snow  removal 
forces  were  mustered  out  with  success  to  cope 
with  several  snowfalls  during  the  year.  In  both 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  time  and  money 
were  saved  by  diunping  snow  into  the  sewers  and 
letting  the  moving  liquid  convey  the  snow  to  the 
water  fronts. 

STBEET  BAII1WAT&  See  Municipal 
Ownership. 

STBEETTy  David.  American  physician  and 
educator,  died  July  30,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Hartford  County,  Md.,  in  1855;  educated  in  Beth- 
lehem Academy,  Maryland;  studied  medicine  at 
the  Physicians'  and  Surgeons'  College,  Balti- 
more; and  was  from  1888-89  resident  physician 
at  the  Maternity  Hospital  in  that  city.  He  was 
physician  in  chief  at  the  Medical  General  Hos- 
pital from  1885  until  his  death.  In  1886  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  principles  and  practice 
of  medicine  at  Baltimore  Medical  College,  and 
he  was  dean  of  that  college  from  1888  till  his 
death.  He  was  an  officer  on  the  boards  of  sev- 
eral hospitals  and  medical  schools,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  papers  and  addresses  on  medical 
subjects^ 

STBIXES  AND  LOCKOUTS.  According  to 
Bradstreefa  the  high  tide  of  strikes  in  1915  was 
reached  in  September,  with  a  smaller  maximiun 
in  July;  the  months  of  January,  February,  May, 
and  June  were  comparatively  peaceful.  While 
strikes  were  numerous,  they  were  usually  of 
short  duration,  and  in  the  first  10  months  in- 
volved not  more  than  185,000  persons.  This 
number  was  greater  than  in  1914  or  1909,  but 
was  exceeded  m  every  other  year  since  1908.  In 
1903  the  total  number  of  strikers  was  fi50,000; 
in  1906  and  1910  it  was  550,000.  A  special  fea- 
ture of  the  industrial  situation  in  1915  was  the 
large  amount  of  business  due  to  war  orders. 
This  had  its  disturbing  effect  on  the  machine 
trades  in  particular  and  also  less  notably  on 
others.  Workmen  believed  that  imusual  profits 
were  accruing  to  employers;  that  this  golden  op- 
portunity would  be  of  short  duration;  and  that 
they  were  entitled  to  a  portion  of  these  fortui- 
tous gains.  This  accounted  for  a  considerable 
numb^  of  strikes  in  Connecticut,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  and  other  metal- 
trades  districts  for  an  eight-hour  day  and  higher 
wages.  The  results  were  general  reductions  in 
the  length  of  the  working  day  and  increase  in 
{»ay..    In  a  score  .of  large,  pjants  these  coQces- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


8TBIXB8  AND  L0CK0TTT8 


622 


8TBIXX8  AND  IiOOXOTTTS 


sions  were  made  before  strikes  were  actually 
ordered. 

Another  alleged  cause  of  strikes  In  munitions 
plants  was  the  activity  of  agents  of  the  German 
and  Austrian  governments.  The  exact  extent  of 
this  influence  could  not  be  estimated,  but  officials 
connected  with  the  Austrian  Embassy  admitted 
activities  in  behalf  of  their  laboring  fellow  coun- 
trymen. At  various  times  President  Gompers  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor  charged  that 
agents  of  foreign  governments  were  fomenting 
strikes,  not  merely  in  the  munitions  plants  but 
among  longshoremen  and  seamen.  For  further 
facts  on  this  point  see  Labor. 

In  1914,  for  the  first  time,  an  attempt  was 
made  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics to  compile  a  record  of  strikes  and  lock- 
outs entirely  from  printed  sources,  newspapers, 
labor  journals,  trade-union  periodicals,  manufac- 
turers' and  trade  papers,  and  other  sources.  By 
this  method  the  Bureau  secured  records  of  970 
strikes  and  101  lockouts  that  began  or  were 
pending  during  1914.  The  table  in  which  strikes 
and  lockouts  are  classified  by  occupations  and  by 
States  shows  that  of  1080  strikes  and  lockouts. 
275  were  in  the  building  trades,  129  in  the  metal 
trades,  78  in  the  clothing  industry,  and  54  in 
textile  work.  The  number  of  strikes  reported 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  was 
742;  south  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, 90;  west  of  the  Mississippi,  248;  66  per 
cent  occurred  in  10  States  and  46  per  cent  in  5 
States,  the  leading  States  being  New  York,  148, 
Pennsylvania,  104,  Massachusetts,  90,  Ohio,  80, 
and  Illinois,  75.  The  principal  causes  appear  to 
be  wages,  hours  of  labor,  working  conditions,  and 
recognition  of  the  union.  Lockouts  occurred  fre- 
quently to  prevent  organization  or  to  force  an 
open  riiop.  The  duration  of  only  228  strikes  was 
reported,  and  of  this  number  93,  or  41  per  cent, 
lasted  one  month  or  over,  and  165,  or  72  per  cent, 
lasted  over  one  week.  Twelve  were  reported  as 
lasting  over  two  years,  and  six  lasting  five  years 
or  over.  One  strike  against  a  paving  brick  com- 
pany of  Illinois  lasted  12  years,  while  one  of 
photo-engravers  in  New  York  City  lasted  16 
years. 

According  to  data  compiled  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  from  news- 
papers, the  number  of  strikes  and  lockouts  in  the 
United  States  from  Jan.  1,  1915,  to  November 
Ist^  was  1126;  646  occurring  from  January  1st 
to  July  1st  and  468  from  July  1st  to  November 
1st,  or  1014  for  the  ten  months.  During  the 
first  half  of  1915  the  12  industries  in  which  the 
number  of  strikes  exceeded  10  and  the  number  of 
strikes  in  each  are  as  follows:  building  trades, 
156;  metal  trades,  124;  clothing  industries,  40; 
baking  industry,  44;  textile  industry,  36;  min- 
ing industry,  31;  transportation,  23;  lumber,  22; 
teamsters,  16;  brewery,  13;  glassworking,  11; 
theatrical  stage  employees,  11;  making  536  in 
all  or  81  per  cent  of  the  entire  number.  The 
number  of  strikes  during  July,  August,  Septem- 
ber, and  October  was  comparatively  large,  due  to 
some  extent  to  the  method  by  which  they  were 
called.  In  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  the 
eases,  however,  the  strikes  were  of  short  dura- 
tion. Ordinarily  a  trade  in  a  given  locality 
makes  demands  on  all  the  shops  in  its  jurisdic- 
tion collectively,  and  orders  one  strike  on  all 
shops  refusing  to  accede  to  the  demands.  But  in 
several  trades,  especially  in  the  machine  indus- 
tries, during  these  four  months,  the  practice,  was 


to  make  demands  on  individual  shops  one  after 
the  otiker  and  to  order  strikes  in  such  cases  as 
seemed  advisable. 

Cou)RADO  Coal  Stbikr.  This  strike  was 
started  Sept.  23,  1913,  after  efforts  on  the  part 
of  the  Governor  and  others  to  prevent  it.  It  was 
one  of  the  most  serious  labor  difficulties  that 
have  developed  in  the  United  States  within  re- 
cent years,  amounting  almost  to  a  civil  war,  in- 
volving the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company, 
the  largest  coal  company  in  Colorado,  which 
mines  one-third  of  all  the  coal  produced  in  that 
State.  The  miners  at  the  outset  desired  an  in- 
crease of  wages,  better  working  conditions,  pay 
for  extra  work,  the  right  to  trade  where  tiiey 
pleased,  and  recognition  of  the  union.  The  real 
issue  ultimately  became  the  recognition  of  the 
labor  organizations.  The  militia  was  sent  to 
settle  the  trouble,  but  their  actions  were  re- 
ported as  lawless  and  their  conduct  toward  the 
inhabitants  as  unruly.  The  strike  lasted  until 
December,  1914.  A  final  report  was  rendered  in 
the  investigation  of  the  case  by  a  subcommittee 
of  the  House  Committee  on  Mines.  The  com- 
mittee stated  that  from  the  evidence,  each  side 
was  undoubtedly  ready  to  battle.  Political  con- 
ditions in  the  mining  regions  were  found  to  be 
bad,  and  the  manner  of  selecting  juries  was  con- 
trary to  law.  The  companies  were  in  supreme 
command  in  the  mining  villages  on  account  of 
their  extensive  use  of  imported  workers,  and 
their  control  of  the  land  and  stores.  The  report 
severely  criticised  various  persons  connected  with 
the  management  of  the  companies  and  suggested 
a  more  reasonable  attitude  on  their  part  toward 
employees,  or,  as  an  alternative,  stringent  Fed- 
eral interjference  and  control  with  possible  gov- 
ernment ownership.  The  incapacity  of  the  Fed- 
eral government  to  deal  with  conditions  within 
a  State  under  existing  constitutional  law,  except 
as  a  matter  either  of  voluntary  arbitration  on 
the  part  of  those  concerned,  or  of  direct  military 
control  on  the  part  of  the  government  itself,  for 
the  purpose  of  repressing  violence  and  protecting 
the  interest  of  the  public  as  a  whole,  was  made 
evident  by  the  report.  It  was  equally  clear  that 
there  are  States  in  which  existing  local  author- 
ities are  not  competent  to  cope  with  strong  com- 
binations either  of  capital  or  labor.  The  conclu- 
sion was  reached  that  ''by  gradual  and  sure  de- 
velopment the  coal  business  of  the  country  is 
being  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  and  by  frequent 
consolidations  is  largely  being  carried  on  by 
large  companies.  Next  to  the  business  of  trans- 
portation, the  fuel  business  of  the  country 
touches  the  people  and  their  business  in  an  inti- 
mate and  important  way.  If  these  strike 
troubles  continue  to  break  forth,  it  will  be 
plainly  necessary  to  consider  whether  some 
method  of  regulation  shall  not  be  adopted  with 
reference  to  the  business  as  carried  on  in  inter- 
state commerce  as  is  now  done  with  the  business 
of  transportation."  In  the  hearings  before  the 
United  States  Commission  of  Industrial  Rela- 
tions, this  strike  was  the  subject  of  inquiry  at  a 
two- weeks'  hearing  in  Denver,  December,  1914. 
In  January  more  than  a  week  was  spent  upon  it 
and  in  Washington,  in  May,  another  week  was 
spent.  A  deduction  made  from  the  hearing  was 
that  the  Rockefellers,  owning  40  per  cent  of  the 
stock  of  the  companies,  were  responsible  for 
what  happened  in  that  they  could  have  pre- 
vented its  happening.  This  momentous  dispute 
showed  clearly  the  evils  of  absentee  ci^iitalism, 


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its  abuse  of  power,  its  disregard  of  responsibil- 
ities and  of  human  rights,  and  its  exploitation 
of  labor. 

The  Lawbon  Case.  In  the  course  of  the  above 
strike  a  deputy  sheriff  named  John  Nimmo  was 
shot  and  killed  at  Ludlow  in  October,  1913.  Mr. 
John  R.  Lawson  of  the  International  Executive 
Board  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  was  charged 
with  complicity  in  the  murder.  He  was  con- 
victed on  May  3rd,  after  the  jury  had  deliberated 
for  nearly  two  days.  It  was  not  claimed  that 
Lawson  had  himself  shot  Nimmo,  but  that  as  a 
strike  leader  he  was  responsible  for  the  event. 
The  presiding  judge,  Granby  Hillyer,  sentenced 
him  to  life  imprisonment.  This  conviction  at 
once  aroused  utmost  resentment  among  labor  un- 
ionists throughout  the  country,  funds  being  col- 
lected in  many  communities  to  carry  on  the  de- 
fense. It  was  charged  that  Hillyer,  who  had 
just  been  appointed,  had  previously  been  em- 
ployed by  the  coal  companies,  including  the 
Rockefeller  interests,  and  that  he  had  been  ap- 
pointed expressly  for  the  purpose  of  trying  Law- 
son  and  numerous  others  whose  cases  were  con- 
nected with  the  two  years*  strike.  Shortly  there- 
after the  Supreme  Court  barred  Hillyer  from 
sitting  in  any  other  of  these  cases.  After  three 
months  in  jail,  Lawson  was  released  on  October 
8th  under  $35,000  bond.  Meanwhile  efforts  were 
being  made  to  have  the  Supreme  Court  review 
the  case,  this  appeal  being  based  mainly  on  the 
affidavit  of  one  of  the  jurors.  That  the  contest 
was  bitter  and  determined  was  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  on  September  15th  Attorney-General 
Farrar  of  Colorado  caused  the  arrest  of  Lawson's 
attorneys  on  a  charge  of  subornation  of  perjury. 

Machinists'  Strikes.  During  the  four 
months  beginning  with  July,  122  strikes  and  6 
lockouts  of  machinists  were  recorded,  nearly  one- 
fourth  of  all  the  strikes  recorded  during  the  four 
months  period.  The  need  for  workers  led  many 
employers  to  make  terms  with  the  strikers  as 
early  as  possible.  The  success  of  the  first  ma- 
chinists' strike  led  others  to  make  demands  on 
their  employers.  Thus  between  July  1st  and 
October  31st,  88  strikes  occurred  in  Connecticut, 
a  great  centre  of  munitions  manufacture,  and 
many  demands  were  adjusted  without  strikes; 
and  in  this  State  only  21  strikes  occurred  during 
1914.  A  change  to  an  eight-hour  day  was  made 
in  many  firms  without  a  strike.  Firms  in  An- 
sonia,  Conn.,  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Chicago,  111., 
Plainfield,  N.  J.,  Raleigh,  N.  C,  Springfield, 
Mass.,  Taimton,  Mass.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  esti^lished 
an  eight-hour  day.  Reductions  of  hours  from 
55,  58,  and  60  hours  a  week  to  54  hours  were 
made  by  firms  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  Taunton, 
Mass.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  and  Derby,  Conn. 

Bayonne.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  of 
New  Jersey  employed  5000  men  at  its  Bayonne 
refinery  in  one  of  the  most  profitable  enterprises 
of  the  country.  There  was  no  machinery  for  col- 
lective bargaining  or  for  any  easy  adjustment  of 
grievances.  This  undemocratic  r^me  was  jus- 
tified on  the  ground  that  none  of  the  workmen 
could  speak  English.  The  rate  of  wages  paid 
by  the  company  was  $1.76  for  9  hours'  work, 
the  men  working  in  shifts  of  10  hours  a  day  and 
14  hours  a  night,  changing  shifts  once  a  week, 
and  getting  24  hours'  rest  each  7  days.  The 
raising  of  wages  by  the  International  Nickel 
Company,  an  adjoining  plant,  caused  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  Standard  Oil  laborers.  The  men 
had  their  demands  drawn  up,  including  a  15  per 


cent  increase  in  wages  and  the  discharge  of  a 
foreman  regarded  as  insulting  and  arbitrary. 
The  demands  were  refused  by  the  company  on 
the  ground  that  it  would  not  do  business  with 
the  outside  party  who  drew  up  the  demands  of 
the  men.  The  strike  developed  quickly.  Nearly 
a  week  after  the  strike  began,  the  company  de- 
manded the  police  to  clear  the  strikers  from 
the  streets  adjoining  the  Standard  Oil  plant. 
Riots  followed,  and  the  company  imported  500 
armed  guards.  The  strike  spread  to  the  plant 
of  the  Tidewater  Oil  Company.  The  killing  of 
a  boy  by  the  policemen  enraged  the  strikers  and 
caused  shooting  on  both  sides,  two  strikers  being 
killed  and  two  fatally  wounded.  The  measures 
of  Sheriff  Eucrene  P.  Kinkead  of  Hudson  County 
were  responsible  for  breaking  up  the  strike  and 
inducing  the  men  to  return  to  work,  after  get- 
ting a  promise  from  the  company  that  the  men's 
wages  would  be  increased.  At  tiie  same  time  he 
arrested  129  of  the  imported  guards.  The  strike 
had  been  dangerous  for  a  time,  and  the  attacks 
of  the  mob  on  the  property  of  the  companies  in- 
volved were  fiercely  determined,  and  it  was  due 
to  the  intervention  of  the  sheriff  that  the  militia 
was  not  called.  The  Standard  and  Tidewater 
Oil  Companies  increased  wages  by  about  10  per 
cent  and  the  unpopular  foreman  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  was  transferred  to  another  depart- 
ment. 

The  Eastebn  Ohio  Coax.  Strike  was  settled 
in  May,  1915,  and  involved  16,000  miners  who 
held  out  for  more  than  a  year  without  commit- 
ting a  single  act  of  violence.  The  union  which 
conducted  the  strike  was  the  United  Mine 
Workers,  the  organization  which  was  involved  in 
the  Colorado  and  West  Virginia  struggles.  The 
struggle  at  its  inception  and  until  May,  1914, 
was  a  lockout,  after  which  it  became  a  strike. 
It  ended  in  a  compromise. 

Roosfvbxt,  N.  J.  Employees  of  the  American 
Agricultural  Chemical  Company,  the  Consumer's 
Fertilizer  Company,  and  Armour  and  Company 
went  on  strike  Jan.  4,  1915,  for  a  return  to  a  $2 
a  day  wage  scale  which  had  been  reduc^  to 
$1.60  a  day.  The  Consumer's  Company  met  the 
demands  of  the  workers,  but  the  others  held  out. 
The  strikers  in  trying  to  meet  some  strike 
breakers  whom  they  heard  were  being  brought  in 
by  the  companies  were  fired  upon  by  armed 
guards  who  were  imported  from  New  York.  One 
was  killed  and  20  wounded.  Reports  agreed 
that  the  firing  was  unprovoked,  and  a  situation 
similar  to  that  of  West  Virginia  and  Colorado 
was  presented.  Twenty-two  of  the  guards  were 
arrested  and  held  as  slayers. 

Chicago.  Several  notable  strikes  occurred  in 
Chicago  during  the  year.  In  April,  building  op- 
erations involving  $30,000,000  worth  of  contracts 
were  tied  up  by  a  strike  begun  by  7000  lathers, 
painters,  and  sheet  metal  workers,  and  a  some- 
what greater  number  bf  carpenters.  An  increase 
in  pay  was  demanded.  It  was  estimated  that 
fully  120,000  workmen  were  thrown  out  of  em- 
ployment. The  announcement  of  the  strike  was 
immediately  followed  by  a  lockout  against  the 
strikers  and  their  imions.  The  Governor  re- 
quested the  State  Board  of  Arbitration  to  inter- 
vene. In  June  occurred  a  strike  of  14,500  em- 
ployees of  the  surface  and  elevated  lines.  It 
lasted  54  hours,  during  which  much  inconven- 
ience was  suffered,  in  spite  of  thousands  of  jit- 
neys and  other  vehicles  brought  into  use.  There 
was    no    violence,    but   several    hundred    strike 


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breakers  were  moving  toward  the  city  when  set- 
tlement was  reached.  Arbitration  by  the  Statie 
Board  failed,  whereupon  Mayor  Thompson  inter- 
vened. He  succeeded  in  bringing  about  an  agree- 
ment to  be  in  force  for  two  years,  and  providing 
substantial  increases  in  wages.  A  great  strike 
in  the  clothing  industry  was  called  on  September 
27th.  It  was  estimated  to  involve  25,000  work- 
ers. Only  two  of  the  larger  establishments  es- 
caped the  strike,  both  of  fiiem  having  plans  for 
adjusting  differences.  The  strikers  sought  a  48- 
hour  we^  for  all  workers  and  an  introduction  of 
the  principle  of  collective  bargaining.  The  em- 
ployers refused  to  arbitrate  on  the  ground  that 
arbitration  would  result  in  the  closed  shop. 
They  also  maintained  that  the  workers'  union 
represented  only  26  per  cent  of  all  their  em- 
ployees. 

Gbbat  Britaii?.  From  January  to  September, 
1915,  inclusive,  there  were  531  disputes  involving 
407,964  men,  with  an  aggregate  loss  in  working 
days  of  2,613,100.  For  the  same  months  in  1914 
there  were  858  disputes  involving  427,401  men, 
with  an  aggregate  loss  of  9,949,900  days.  The 
largest  number  of  disputes  for  these  months  oc- 
curred in  the  engineering  trades  with  76;  trans- 
portation, 63;  coal  mines,  56;  shipbuilding,  41; 
textile,  55;  building,  45;  clothing,  31.  From 
January  to  May  there  were  268  disputes,  directly 
involving  103,265  persons,  as  over  against  519 
for  the  same  period  in  1914.  Some  of  the  causes 
during  these  months  were  increased  wages,  185; 
trade  unionism,  12;  hours  of  labor,  6.  The  labor 
unrest  caused  anxiety  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment. Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  dealing  with  the 
question  of  labor  disputes  in  time  of  national 
danger  declared  that  compulsory  arbitration  in 
war  time  was  imperative,  as  it  was  "intolerable 
that  the  lives  of  Britons  should  be  imperiled  for 
a  matter  of  a  farthing  an  hour.  There  is  a  good 
thing  to  be  said  for,  and  there  is  a  vast  amount 
to  l^  said  against  compulsory  arbitration,  but 
during  the  war  the  government  ought  to  have 
the  power  to  settle  all  these  differences  and  the 
work  should  go  on."  He  added  that  this  war 
was  to  be  fought  in  the  workshops  as  well  as  on 
the  battlefields  and  must  be  fought  under  war 
conditions.  The  workman  must  get  his  equiva- 
lent, but  he  must  help  to  get  as  much  out  of  the 
factories  as  possible,  as  the  life  of  the  nation  de- 
pended upon  it.  Lord  Kitchener  made  the  an- 
nouncement that  men  working  long  hours  by  day 
or  night  in  shops  show  patriotism  as  well  as 
those  in  the  trenches,  and  that  medals  would  be 
forthcoming  at  the  end  of  the  war  for  loyal  and 
continuous  service. 

A  committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  into 
production  in  the  engineering  and  shipbuilding 
establishments  engaged  in  government  work. 
The  recommendation  was  made  with  a  view  to 
preventing  loss  of  production  by  strikes  and 
lockouts,  that  in  the  event  of  a  failure  of  settle- 
ment by  parties  concerned,  the  matter  should 
be  referred  to  an  impartial  tribunal  nominated 
by  the  government.  The  government  concurred 
by  making  this  committee  the  final  tribunal.  In 
the  Munitions  Bill  strikes  and  lockouts  were  pro- 
hibited until  the  case  is  reported  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  who  were  empowered  to  take  any  steps 
they  saw  fit  to  promote  settlement.  These 
powers  may  be  extended  to  any  other  than  the 
munitions  employments  by  royal  proclamation. 
The  strike  among  the  engineers  on  the  Clyde, 
involving  about  10,000  men,  as  well  as  those  of 


the  Liverpool  carters  and  the  London  dodcers, 
were  excused  by  labor  leaders  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  begun  not  with  any  idea  of  endanger- 
ing the  Empire  or  exposing  the  troops  to  risk, 
but  under  tiie  misapprehension  that  a  state  of 
war  was  being  made  the  excuse  for  further  ex- 
ploitation of  the  laboring  man.  Because  of  a 
feeling  on  the  part  of  the  men  that  certain  indi- 
viduals were  reaping  great  gains  from  the  situa- 
tion while  the  laboring  man  was  doing  the  hard 
work  in  a  patriotic  spirit,  the  government  took 
over  works  adapted  for  the  production  of  war 
material.  Among  other  strikes  in  Great  Britain 
which  were  comparativelv  important  were  those 
of  the  ooalheavers  at  Liverpool,  the  Yorkshire 
miners,  London  tramwaymen,  and  Welsh  eoal 
miners.  It  was  estimated  there  was  a  loss  of 
£1,500,000  after  seven  days'  stoppage  in  the 
Welsh  coal  strike,  while  the  Liverpool  Munitions 
Tribunal  reported  a  loss  of  1,500,000  hours  in  20 
weeks,  causing  a  lack  of  proper  ammunition  at 
the  front  in  some  cases.  In  the  strike  of  the 
tramwaymen  of  London,  the  London  County 
Council  demanded  that  every  striker  of  military 
age  enlist;  this  weakened  considerably  the  posi- 
tion of  the  10,000  men  involved. 

Fkancb.  Fifteen  strikes  and  three  lockouts 
were  reported  to  the  French  labor  office  from 
January  to  April,  1915,  and  19  were  reported 
for  the  months  of  May  and  June.  Most  of  these 
strikes  were  for  better  wages,  but  some  were  for 
shorter  hours  and  better  conditions.  The  num- 
ber of  workers  involved  was  remarkably  small. 
The  industries  affected  were:  preparation  of 
food,  4;  weaving,  4;  boots  and  shoes,  3;  dock 
workers,  2;  clotiiing,  2;  and  miscellaneous,  3. 
The  average  number  of  days  lost  was  5.61  days, 
the  longest  dispute  lasting  54  days  and  the 
shortest,  1  day. 

GcBMAirr.  From  the  outbreak  of  the  war  to 
the  end  of  March,  1915,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  Imperial  Office  of  Labor  Statistics,  there 
occurred  52  labor  disputes  directly  involving 
4029  workmen;  the  total  employed  force  in  the 
establishments  involved  was  10,218.  The  aver- 
age duration  of  the  disputes  was  4.77  days,  as 
compared  with  27.99  days,  the  average  for  the 
five-year  period  1909-13.  These  strikes  were 
not  largely  supported  by  the  trade  unions.  The 
question  of  wages  was  involved  in  43  of  the  labor 
disputes.  Of  the  52  disputes,  26  were  settled 
by  conciliation.  As  to  results  obtained,  the 
strikes  were  wholly  successful  in  II  cases,  in- 
volving 41  per  cent  of  the  men  affected;  and 
partially  successful  in  12  instances,  involving 
16.6  per  cent  of  the  employees  affected.  The  to- 
tal number  of  strikes  during  the  second  quarter 
of  1915  was  44,  involving  72  establishments  em- 
ploying 11,780  workmen,  of  whom  2330  went  on 
strike.  The  total  number  of  days  lost  by 
strikers  was  14,855.  The  two  largest  strikes 
were  in  a  coal  mine  in  Silesia  and  in  a  tool  fac- 
tory in  Berlin,  involving  1263  and  900  strikers 
respectively.  Wage  disputes  were  the  cause  of 
35  strikes,  while  disputes  involving  hours  of 
labor  were  responsible  for  6  strikes.  Of  the  44 
reported,  12  ended  favorably  to  the  strikers,  and 
10  with  partial  success,  while  22  failed.  In  14 
strikes,  third  parties  or  trade  organizations  took 
an  active  part  by  supporting  and  subsidising  the 
strikers.  Only  one  lockout  was  reported;  it  in- 
volved 1100  men. 

Stbikb  Insubancs.  The  '  maintenance  of 
strike  insurance  bar.  become  nn  importfiiit  (eatar» 


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of  induBtrial  defvelopments  in  C^ermany  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  Employers  claim  that 
insurance  by  them  against  strikes  is  necessary  to 
offset  the  advantages  secured  by  trade  unions 
through  the  payment  of  strike  beneftts.  In  Qer- 
many  strike  insurance  is  carried  either  by  mu- 
tual organizations  among  employers  or  by  indi- 
vidual establishments  setting  aside  their  own 
fimds,  or  by  insurance  companies.  The  benefit 
secured  takes  the  form  either  of  claims  for  com- 
pensation, or  of  financial  support  upon  the  oc- 
currence of  a  strike.  In  1913  the  19  strike  in- 
surance mutual  associations  reported  34,333 
members,  employing  1,664,218  workers,  and  total 
annual  wages  of  over  $300,000,000. 

A  mutual  strike  insurance  association  was 
formed  by  principal  employers'  associations  of 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  An  assessment 
of  13.4  cents  per  week  for  each  workman  is 
levied.  The  maximum  number  of  workmen 
covered  in  any  one  country  may  not  exceed  80,- 
000;  the  maximum  period  during  which  any  em- 
ployer may  receive  benefits  is  five  weeks;  and  the 
maximum  payments  to  the  employers  of  any  one 
country  in  any  year  cannot  exceed  $63,600.  See 
Abbitbation  and  Conciliation. 

STUDENT    CAMPS.    See   MEUTABr    Pboo- 


Submarine  warfare  against  commerce  reached  its 
height  in  the  week  ending  August  26th,  when  24 
vessels  of  80,176  tons  were  destroyed.  The  pro- 
tests of  the  United  States  and  of  other  neutrals, 
and  the  obvious  futility  and  inexpediency  of  con- 
tinuing the  submarine  operations  in  northern 
waters  led  to  a  gradual  cessation  of  activity,'  so 
that  by  Nov.  1,  1916,  the  interference  with  Brit- 
ish commerce  had  become  practically  nil.  The 
following  table  is  probably  about  corr^t,  but 
the  difiiculty  of  ascertaining  the  facts  in  regai^d 
to  losses  of  fishing  boats  and  other  small  craft 
make  an  exact  statement  impossible. 


STYSIA.    See  Austbia-Hunoabt. 

SUBMABINES.  The  submarine  was  much  in 
the  public  eye  during  the  year  1916,  but  this  was 
due  to  its  use  in  an  illegitimate  manner — ^not  to 
its  Intimate  use.  And  the  extent  of  its  success 
for  this  purpose  was  no  measure  of  its  efficacy  as 
a  destroyer  of  warships.  As  a  destroyer  of 
properly  guarded  heavy  ships  of  war  the  sub- 
marine has  so  far  proved  to  be  a  complete  fail- 
ure. Whether  this  was  due  to  lack  of  oppor- 
tunity or  other  circumstance,  or  to  excellent 
guarding,  was  uncertain — ^but  the  fact  remained. 
Forty  British  battleships  and  10  battle  cruisers 
were  within  striking  distance  of  the  German 
submarine  fleet  for  a  year.  One  old  battleship 
was  successfully  torpedoed  in  the  Channel,  and 
this  happened  l^ause  no  destroyers  accompanied 
her.  Three  British  armored  cruisers  were  vic- 
tims of  a  submarine,  but  they  offered  their 
throats  to  the  butcher.  Two  old  battleships  suc- 
cumbed to  the  submarine  at  the  Dardanelles,  but 
they,  too,  were  insufficiently  protected.  The 
French  lost  one  and  the  Italians  two  armored 
cruisers  through  lack  of  destroyer  patrol. 

Nor  could  the  German  warfare  against  non- 
combatants  and  peaceful  shipping  be  regarded  as 
other  than  a  failure.  The  German  war  zone  de- 
cree went  into  effect  on  Feb.  18,  1916.  From 
that  time  until  June  16th  there  were  24,442  ar- 
rivals and  departures  of  vessels  in  and  from 
ports  of  the  United  Kingdom.  During  this  pe- 
riod, 76  British  merchant  ships  and  about  the 
same  number  of  fishing  vessels  were  sunk  by  sub- 
marines. The  total  interference  with  commerce 
was,  therefore,  about  six-tenths  of  1  per  cent,  as 
regards  numbers,  but  very  much  less  as  regards 
tonnage  and  value.  The  "submarine  blockade'' 
did  not  materially  reduce  the  sea-borne  trade  of 
Great  Britain  or  France,  and  on  July  1,  1916, 
the  British  merchant  marine  was  229,000  tons 
greater  than  when  the  war  began.  At  the  same 
time  the  German  navy  had  lost  about  40  sub- 
marines, mostly  with  their  crews.  A  number 
were  sunk  by  ramming,  but  the  greater  part  were 
captured  in  the  wire  nets  which  the  British  navy 

net  w  *H  ^ii^eptiow  in  tbp  w^y  q|  1*^  Gctows. 


BRITISH 

MERCHANT    AND 

PISHING 

VESSELS 

DESTROYED 

BY     SUBMARINES     PROM 

FEBRUARY  18  TO  NOVEMBER  1.  1916 

Week 

Week 

ending 

No. 

Tonnage 

ending 

No. 

Tonnage 

Feb.     24. 

.   10 

26.941 

July 

7. 

,   10 

81,068 

Mar.      8.. 

.     2 

1,988 

14. 

..    11 

10.661 

10.. 

.      4 

9.916 

21. 

. .    . . 



17. 

.      8 

22.826 

28. 

..    24 

8.798 

24.. 

.     8 

11.680 

Aug. 

4. 

..   21 

21.738 

81.. 

.      8 

27.008 

11. 

..   20 

66.906 

Apr.       7 . . 

.   10 

8.888 

18. 

. .   23 

28.617 

14.. 

.     2 

6.687 

25. 

..   24 

80.175 

21.. 

.     2 

9.942 

Sept. 

1. 

..      4 

9,179 

28.. 

.      6 

2,816 

8. 

. .    16 

45.174 

May       5.. 

.   28 

14,710 

16. 

..      4 

7.908 

12.. 

.    10 

48.162 

22. 

8 

6.791 

19.. 

.      9 

9,411 

29. 

..      6 

20,727 

26. 

.     2 

2.141 

Oci. 

6. 

..      6 

June      2.. 

.    11 

28.948 

18. 

..      4 

0.. 

.    89 

20,866 

20. 

..      1 

16.. 

.    18 

26,894 

27. 

..      1 

28.. 

.      5 

6,601 

81. 

.      0 

80. 

.    19 

12.928 

The  number  of  non-combatants  (including 
women  and  children)  killed  by  the  Teutonic  al- 
lies through  their  submarine  warfare — Feb.  18 
to  Dec.  31,  1915 — ^was  about  2200.  Aside  from 
the  losses  of  vessels  sustained  by  Great  Britain, 
other  nations  suffered  from  submarine  war  on 
commerce  between  Feb.  18  and  Nov.  1,  1915,  as 
follows:  France,  24  vessels;  Russia,  20;  Italy, 
7;  Belgium,  6;  Norway,  41;  Sweden,  20;  Hol- 
land, 6;  United  States,  6;  Portugal,  2;  Greece,  2. 

The  British  submarines  have  not  done  much 
better.  They  have  dived  beneath  mine  fields 
and  destro^j'cd  vessels  beyond  them  and  per- 
formed various  feats,  showing  that  what  they 
have  failed  to  do  has  not  been  owing  to  a  lack 
of  enterprise.  One  object  of  importance  they 
did  achieve.  They  traversed  the  mine  fields  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Baltic  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Russian  cruisers  and  destroyers,  went 
far  towards  breaking  up  the  German  trade  with 
Sweden  and  so  clos^  tne  last  hole  in  England's 
iron  grip  upon  GermanVs  commerce.  The  Aus- 
trian submarines  seemed  to  be  worthy  coadjutors 
of  the  German  in  the  destruction  of  non-combat- 
ants and  neutrals,  and  to  be  equally  ineffective  in 
breaking  up  the  enemy's  blockade^ 

So  far  as  design  is  concerned  the  past  year 
1915  did  not  devdop  much  that  was  new  or  im- 
portant. The  disaavantages  of  large  size,  and 
particularly  of  undue  length,  are  fully  appreci- 
ated. These  disadvantages  are  of  course  great- 
est in  harbors  and  in  other  crowded  watersi 
but  they  are  felt  everywhere  and  several  sub- 
marines have  been  sunk  through  inability  to 
avoid  ramming.  Yet  without  adequate  dimen- 
sions we  cannot  get  sufficient  speed,  nor  great 
radius  of  action. 

The  rOle  of  the  fleet  submarine  has  not  yet 
been  entirely  cleared  up.  It  will  probably  be 
cQm|K>UA4ed  of  acoutiing  .^v^i  »  ^rst  line  jot  .pf- 


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fenee.  Its  great  defect  is  its  low  submerged 
speed.  Unless  that  be  increased,  its  value  is 
much  reduced,  for  the  submarine  is  not  a  suc- 
cessful night  boat  and  surface  approach  by  day- 
light is  impossible  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. 

The  motive  power  is  again  being  changed. 
The  Diesel  engine  seems  to  be  inferior  to  the 
gasoline  engine  in  some  ways  and  is  likely  to 
be  replaced  by  steam  for  the  surface  work  of 
the  larger  boats.  While  the  storage  battery  is 
improving,  it  still  remains  unsatisfactory  and 
compressed  air  is  once  more  receiving  atten- 
tion, though  nothing  very  promising  has  yet 
been  accomplished  with  it.  The  maximum  sur- 
face speed  remains  at  about  20  knots  for  the 
largest  boats.  Higher  speeds  are  aimed  at  and 
must  be  obtained  or  the  fleet  submarine  is  a 
failure.  A  submerged  speed  of  16  to  16  knots 
is  likewise  needed. 

Small  submarines  designed  to  operate  from 
land  bases  and  over  moderate  areas  may  have 
less  speed,  surface  and  submerged,  than  is  de- 
manded by  sea-going  types,  though  as  high  a 
speed  as  practicable  is  desirable  even  for  these. 

The  use  of  air  craft  in  scouting  for  subma- 
rines is  becoming  very  general.  Many  subma- 
rines are  found  in  this  way,  and  at  least  two 
—one  Italian  and  one  Austrian — ^have  been  de- 
stroyed by  aeroplane  bombs.  Other  means  of 
protection  against  submarines  are  the  heavy 
wire  net  and  the  destroyer.  The  latter  may  be 
of  the  usual  form  or  be  a  fast  submarine.  In 
connection  with  the  net,  small,  fast  motorboats 
are  used.  These  sink  a  submarine  which  is 
emerging  before  she  can  man  and  use  her  guns. 

The  nets  made  by  the  British  effectually 
closed  the  Channel  to  German  submarines  at- 
tempting to  enter  it  from  the  eastward,  and 
enabled  troops  and  munitions  to  be  transported 
to  the  continent  without  interference.  The  Brit- 
ish have  refused  to  divulge  the  number  of  Ger- 
man submarines  caught  in  the  nets  or  where 
they  were  caught.  About  40  were  destroyed  in 
one  way  or  another  previous  to  July  1,  1915. 
Since  the  first  of  September  the  activity  of  the 
German  submarines  in  the  North  Sea  has  ma- 
terially decreased,  while  more  of  them  are  heard 
of  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Neither  the  habitability  nor  safety  of  sub- 
marines has  greatly  improved  in  the  past  year 
except  as  increased  size  rendered  better  habita- 
biliiy  possible.  Safety  depends  upon  many 
things.  An  effective  compressed  air  motor 
would  help;  so  would  quicker  submergence  and 
improved  forms  of  the  periscope;  and  likewise 
noiseless,  reliable  engines — quick  to  start  or 
stop,  and  powerful  enough  to  give  good  speed. 
Among  the  recent  experiments  are  some  made 
with  periscopes  striped  in  gray  and  dull  white, 
like  a  barber's  pole.  It  is  said  that  this  makes 
them  much  more  difficult  to  see. 

The  cause  of  the  loss  of  the  United  States 
submarine  F4  shows  that  even  great  care  by 
her  personnel  and  good  design  are  not  every- 
thing. The  sinking  was  due  to  the  erosion  of 
rivets  in  her  forward  ballast  tank  where  no  or- 
dinary inspection  would  have  disclosed  trouble. 
Had  some  of  her  other  gear  worked  better  she 
might  have  saved  herself,  but  this  is  proble- 
matical. See  Battleships;  Naval  Pbooress; 
rrc. 

SUBWAYS.    See  Rapid  Transit. 

SUDAN,  Anglo-Eotptian.    An  African  coun- 


try situated  between  Egypt  and  Uganda,  and  bor- 
dering Abyssinia  on  the  east  and  the  northern 
part  of  French  Equatorial  Africa  on  the  west. 
The  capital  is  Khartum.  The  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan  came  under  the  joint  British  and  E^syp' 
tian  administrations  in  virtue  of  a  convention 
signed  Jan.  19,  1899.  The  area  of  the  country 
is  stated  at  984,520  square  miles,  or  more  than 
100,000  square  miles  larger  than  that  part  of 
the  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  population  is  roughly  estimated  at 
3,000,000.  The  principal  towns  'include  Khar- 
tum (with  32.182  inhabitants  in  1912),  Omdur- 
man,  the  old  Dervish  capital  (50.544),  Khartum 
North  (26,712),  Geili  (20,367),  El  Obeid,  Haifa, 
MeroS,  Port  Sudan,  Suakin,  etc.  In  June,  1914, 
there  were  53  Kuttabs  (elementary  vernacular 
schools),  with  3674  pupils,  and  six  primary 
schools,  with  989  (all  boys).  There  are  a  few 
other  educational  institutions,  including  Gordon 
College  at  Khartum,  to  which  is  attached  a  sec- 
ondary school. 

The  Sudan  produces  cotton,  dates,  sesame,  veg- 
etable ivory,  senna,  rubber,  ground  nuts,  gums, 
hides  and  skins,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers.  It 
is  probably  the  chief  source  of  the  world's  sup- 
ply of  gum  arable.  For  1912  the  total  cultivated 
area  is  reported  at  1,937.000  feddans  (of  which 
120,000  feddans  artificiallv  irrigated) ;  for  1913, 
2,300,000  feddans  (130,000).  Extensive  irriga- 
tion plans  are  projected.  The  reported  values 
of  imports  and  exports  in  1913  are  £E2,l4l.80O 
and  £E1. 185,200  respectively:  in  1914,  £E1,908,- 
700  and  £E1 ,020,200.  Principal  imports  in 
1913:  cotton  tissues,  £E503,616;  refined  susrar, 
£E258,750;  wheat  flour,  fE86,168;  coffee,  £E67,- 
545;  tea,  £E39.114.  The  largest  export  by  far  is 
gum:  this  in  1912  amounted  to  436,578  kantars, 
valued  at  £E603,511,  and  in  1913  to  336,728  kan- 
tars, valued  at  £E37 1,528.  The  export  of  ivorv 
in  1912  was  2374  kantars,  £E94,464;  in  1913, 
2792  kantars,  £E1 13,236.  The  sesame  export  in 
1912  was  valued  at  £E89,089,  and  in  1913  at 
£E104,939;  ginned  cotton,  £E88,549  and  £E152,- 
110;  dates,  £E35,614  and  £E3l,872. 

The  Nile  and  its  tributaries  afford  steamer 
communication.  There  is  a  railway  from  the 
Egyptian  frontier  at  Wadi  Haifa  to  Khartum. 
A  branch  to  the  Red  Sea  at  Port  Sudan  was 
opened  in  1905,  and  a  branch  to  Sennar  and  El 
Obeid  in  1912.  The  total  mileage  is  about  1500. 
At  the  end  of  1912  there  were  4979  miles  of  tele- 
graph line,  with  9896  miles  of  wire;  telegraph 
and  post  offices,  75. 

Revenue  and  expenditure  in  1913,  £E  1,654, 149 
and  ££1,614,007  respectively;  in  1914,  £E1,908,- 
700  and  £E1, 020,200.  The  Governor-General  is 
Gen.  Sir  F.  Reginald  Wingati.  The  country  is 
divided  into  14  provinces  administered  by  Gov- 
ernors. 

SUFFBAOETTES.    See    Woman    Sutfbaoe. 

SUGAB.  There  was  a  considerable  falling  off 
in  the  sugar  nroduction  of  the  world  in  1916, 
the  total  production  as  estimated  by  Willett 
and  Gray  on  Dec.  9,  1915,  being  16,722,000  tons, 
as  compared  with  18,313,701  tons  in  1914-15 
and  18,801,745  tons  in  1913-14.  The  decrease 
was  due  to  the  falling  off  in  the  beet  sugar  crop 
of  Europe,  which  dropped  from  8,243,165  tons 
in  1913-14  and  7,608,188  tons  in  1914-15,  to 
5,570,000  tons  in  1915-16.  In  Germany  pro- 
duction was  everywhere  greatly  reduced,  and 
in  France  there  was  a  considerable  diminution 
in  the  area  planted  and  also  in  the  yield  ol 


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8TTBOEBY 


roots  per  hectare.  The  work  in  the  factories 
progreMed  verj  slowly,  owing  to  shortage  of 
labor  and  of  experienced  worlmien. 

The  beet  sugar  crop  of  the  United  States 
showed  an  increase  of  about  100,000  tons  over 
the  two  preceding  years,  while  the  cane  sugar 
production  of  Louisiana  showed  a  falling  off. 
Continental  United  States  and  its  insular  pos- 
sessions produced  nearly  2,000,000  tons.  The 
total  cane  sugar  crop  of  the  world  was  some- 
what above  that  of  the  preceding  two  years. 

The  estimated  sugar  production  by  countries 
was  as  follows:  United  States,  cane  sugar 
{Louisiana  and  Texas),  203,000  tons;  United 
States,  beet  sugar,  750,000  tons;  Porto  Rico, 
350,000;  Hawaii,  675,000;  Cuba,  3,000,000; 
British  West  Indies  (exports),  140,000;  French 
West  Indies,  80,000;  Danish  West  Indies,  11,- 
000;  San  Domingo  (exports),  120,000;  Mexico, 
75,000;  Central  America,  30,000;  Demerara  (ex- 
ports), 110,000;  Peru  (exports),  200,000;  Ar- 
gentina, 175,000;  Brazil,  194,000;  Surinam  and 
Venezuela,  15,000;  British  India  (consumed 
locally),  2,400,000;  Java,  1,275,000;  Formosa 
and  Japan,  375,000;  Philippine  Islands,  300,- 
000;  Australia,  150,000;  Fiji  Islands  (exports), 
90,000;  Egypt  (consumed  locally),  110,000; 
Mauritius,  210,000;  other  African  countries, 
185,000;  Spain,  5000;  beet  sugar  crop  of  Eu- 
rope, 5,570,000;  and  beet  sugar  crop  oi  Canada, 
16,000  tons.  This  is  a  total  production  of  10,- 
386,000  tons  of  cane  sugar,  and  6,336,000  tons 
of  beet  sugar. 

Much  interest  was  manifested  in  the  Cana- 
dian beet  sugar  industry  in  1915.  The  cutting 
off  of  the  German  supply  and  the  additional 
duty  placed  upon  sugar  was  stimulating  the 
building  of  new  factories.  The  war  also 
brought  very  material  prosperity  to  the  sugar 
industry  of  Cuba,  more  than  offsetting  the  dis- 
astrous effects  upon  the  tobacco  industry.  A 
new  sugar  factory  in  Honduras,  costing  about 
$1,000,()00  of  American  capital,  was  placed  in 
operation  during  the  year.  This  was  the  first 
sugar  mill  to  be  constructed  in  Honduras, 
where  the  growing  of  cane  was  increasing. 

The  Philippine  government  provided  a  cen- 
tral board  for  aiding  in  building  sugar  fac- 
tories, having  at  its  disposal  a  fund  of  $1,000,- 
000.  The  disposition  of  the  board  was  to  put 
the  funds  into  large  projects  in  the  belief  that 
this  would  furnish  the  greatest  benefit  to  the 
industry.  Considerable  activity  is  reported  in 
the  erection  of  sugar  centrals. 

There  was  a  movement  in  China  for  the  in- 
troduction of  up-to-date  equipment  of  sugar 
manufacture,  and  for  a  reorganization  of  the 
whole  system.  It  was  propose!  to  improve  the 
methods  of  cultivation  of  the  cane  and  to  ob- 
tain canes  of  better  quality  from  other  coun- 
tries. To  insure  a  sugar  supply  at  reasonable 
prices,  the  Australian  Commonwealth  acquired 
the  whole  of  the  1915  sugar  crop  of  Queens- 
land, and  took  over  shipments  coming  from 
Java. 

Imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  States  from 
the  island  possessions  and  foreign  countries 
during  the  fiscal  year  1915  amounted  to  3,643,- 
000  short  tons,  or  233,000  tons  more  than  in 
1914.  In  1915,  2,392,000  tons  came  from  Cuba, 
640,000  tons  from  Hawaii,  294,000  from  Porto 
Rico,  and  163,000  from  the  Philippine  Islands. 

A  supply  of  sugar  beet  seed  for  the  United 
States  was  again  procured  from  Germany,  the 


British  government  permitting  the  shipment 
under  an  arrangement  by  which  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  acted  as  consignee  and  guaran- 
teed that  the  seed  would  be  used  in  the  United 
States.  Receivers  of  the  seed  were  required  to 
give  bond  that  it  would  be  used  at  home.  The 
proposal  to  continue  the  present  import  duty 
on  sugar  had  a  stimulating  effect  on  the  sugar 
industry  in  the  United  States. 

See  also  Cheiostbt,  Industrial,  Soap  from 
Sugar. 

SULi^iiOjft.  The  marketed  production  of  sul- 
phur fn  1914  was  327,634  long  tons,  valued  at 
$5,954,236,  the  greatest  in  the  history  of  the 
industry.  This  production  was  16,044  long  tons 
greater  than  that  of  1913,  with  an  increase  of 
$477,387.  The  States  which  produced  sulphur 
in  1914  were  Louisiana,  Texas,  Michigan,  and 
Wyoming.  The  total  imports  of  sulphur  dur- 
ing the  year  were  26,135  long  tons,  valued  at 
$477,397,  of  which  23,610  tons  were  crude  sul- 
phur. The  exports  amounted  to  98,153  long 
tons,  valued  at  $1,807,334.    See  Febtilizer. 

SXJLPHUBIG  ACID.  See  Chemistbt,  In- 
dustrial, New  Method  of  Mdking  Sulphuric 
Acid. 

SUNDAY-SCHOOL  UNION,  American.  A 
voluntary  association  of  Christians  of  different 
denominations,  founded  for  the  purpose  of  teach- 
ing, especially  to  the  young,  the  fundamental 
truths  of  Christianity.  Its  origin  is  traced  to 
the  First  Day  Society,  founded  in  Philadelphia 
in  1791,  but  its  present  name  was  assumed  in 
1824.  Its  propagandist  and  executive  work  in- 
cludes the  circulation  of  Bibles,  testaments,  and 
religious  literature,  and  the  founding  of  Sunday 
schools.  In  1915  it  published  nine  periodicals 
and  about  1000  books  on  religious  subjects  and 
Sunday  schools.  Its  Sunday  school  missionaries 
established  between  1824  and  1914  an  average 
of  four  new  Sunday  schools  per  da^r.  It  expends 
about  $250,000  annually  in  its  organizing  and 
missionary  activities.  Its  chief  offlcers  are: 
Martin  L.  Finckel,  president;  William  H.  Hirst, 
recording  secretary;  John  E.  Stevenson,  treas- 
urer.   Its  headquarters  are  in  Philadelphia. 

SUN  YAT-SEN.     See  China,  History. 

SUPBBHBATEBS  FOB  LOCOMOTIVBa 
See  Railways. 

ST7BGEBY.  The  European  war  has  presented 
many  new  problems  in  military  surgery,  ac- 
counts of  wnich  are  found  in  various  articles 
and  editorial  reviews  in  the  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Aseociation  and  the  British 
Medical  Journal.  These  problems  have  to  do 
with  the  forms  of  bacteria  which  infect  wounds, 
also  with  the  character  of  the  wounds  them- 
selves as  well  as  with  the  ordinary  matters  of 
military  sanitation.  Of  the  pathogenic  bac- 
teria the  pus-producing  varieties — ^notably  the 
streptococcus — are  most  frequently  found  ac- 
companied in  open  unclean  wounds  by  the 
staphylococcus.  These  are  relatively  non-viru- 
lent and  wounds  infected  with  them  heal 
promptly  when  properly  cleansed  and  drained. 
The  organisms  most  dreaded  are  the  gas  ba- 
cillus and  the  tetanus  bacillus.  The  former  is 
known  variously  as  B.  wrogenes  eapsulatus  and 
as  B.  u>elohiii  and  in  France  as  B.  perfringene. 
This  bacillus  is  responsible  for  the  fatal  subcu- 
taneous emphysema  or  gas  f^angrene.  In  super- 
ficial wounas  to  which  the  air  has  access,  the  gas 
bacillus  may  do  little  harm;  but  in  deep  wounds 
with  closed  spaces  the  organism  (which  is  prefer- 


Digitized  by 


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8WXDBH 


ably  anerobic)  thrives,  and  the  percentage  of 
deaths  is  exceedingly  high.  This  form  of  in- 
fection is  most  common  among  the  wounded  on 
the  Franco-Belgian  front,  where  the  fighting  is 
almost  entirely  trench  warfare.  To  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  which  has  been  richly  fertil- 
ized, and  which  is,  moreover,  contaminated  with 
human  dejecta,  is  attributed  this  fatal  prop- 
erty, since  the  gas  bacillus  is  known  to  be  a 
normal  inhabitant  of  the  intestine.  The  ragged, 
lacerated  shrapnel  wounds  present  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  benign  clean  bullet  wounds  of 
previous  conflicts.  Among  the  wounded  sol- 
diers in  the  Paris  and  Boulogne  hospitals,  one 
writer  declares  there  has  been  an  "orgy  of  sep- 
sis." Several  methods  of  treating  gas  gan- 
grene^ have  been  tried.  Frequently  repeated  ir- 
rigation with  hydrogen  peroxide  has  be«i  a  use- 
ful measure.  Other  cases  have  responded  to 
treatment  by  directing  a  stream  of  oxygen-ns 
directly  on  the  wound.  Lawson  and  Wh&e- 
house  have  reported  exceedingly  favorable  re- 
sults in  the  worst  class  of  cases  from  making 
small  incisions  into  the  healthy  tissue  and 
pumping  hydrogen  peroxide  through  them  into 
the  subcutaneous  tissue  and  fascial  planes  with 
a  Higginson  syringe.  This  procedure  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  rapid  evolution  of  oxygen  and  the 
stump  soon  became  enormously  enlarged,  but 
the  spread  of  gangrene  was  stopped.  The  hy- 
drogen peroxide  must  be  neutral  in  reaction. 
The  best  application  to  wounds  in  the  field  has 
been  iodine,  which  has  been  used  freely  in  a 
2.5  per  cent  alcoholic  solution. 

Tetanus  is  an  all  too  common  complication. 
It  is  more  easily  prevented  than  cured,  the  best 
preventive  measure  being  the  prompt  injection 
of  antitetanic  serum  as  soon  as  possible  after  a 
wound  is  received.  The  great  difficulty  is  that 
of  early  removal  of  the  wounded  to  a  hospital, 
the  dangers  and  difficulties  attending  this  being 
-unusual  in  the  present  war. 

Garel  describes  several  electric  devices  for  lo- 
cating bullets  and  other  metallic  substances  in 
the  l^y.  One  of  these  consists  of  an  ordinary 
telephone  receiver  with  two  wires,  one  of  which 
is  attached  to  a  probe,  the  other  twisted  around 
a  spoon.  The  patient  holds  the  spoon  in  his 
mouth  and  the  surgeon  has  the  receiver  strapped 
to  his  ear  while  probing  for  the  metal.  When 
the  probe  touches  the  metal  there  is  an  unmis- 
takable click. 

'Trench  back*'  is  a  phrase  descriptive  of  a 
variety  of  conditions  arising  from  injury  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  back,  usually  caused  by  the 
impact  of  large  heavy  masses,  such  as  earth  or 
sandbags.  Various  pathogenic  lesions  are  found, 
from  mere  muscular  bruising  to  injury  to  the 
spine  or  pelvis.  The  majority  of  cases  have  no 
spinal  lesion,  the  symptoms  being  those  of  mus- 
cular contusion  or  sprain. 

Recoveries  from  many  remarkable  injuries 
have  been  reported,  particularly  of  wounds  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  heart.  One  case  re- 
ported by  Beaussenat  was  that  of  a  voung  man 
who  carried  in  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart 
for  four  months  and  a  half,  a  scrap  of  shell 
weighing  1.6  grams,  and  measuring  1  centimeter 
long  by  3  millimeters  thick.  By  moving  gently 
and  speaking  slowly  the  patient  had  got  along 
comfortably  and  the  foreign  body  was  supposed 
to  be  in  the  pericardial  sac.  On  operation,  how- 
ever, it  was  discovered  in  the  interior  of  the 
heart.    An  indsion   was  made  in   this  organ 


and  the  scrap  of  metal  extracted  during  dias- 
tole. The  wound  was  then  sutured  witn  silk. 
Recovery  took  place  after  a  short  but  stormy 
convalescence.  Another  case  recovered  after  the 
removal  of  a  bullet  from  the  pericardium.     See 

ANiBSTHESIA;  ANTISEPTICS;  and  BaCTEBIOL- 
OGY. 

STJTBOy  Alfbed.  See  Dbak a,  American  and 
English. 

SWAMP  LANDS.     See  Dbainaqe. 

SWABTHHOBE  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1869  at  Swarth- 
more.  Pa.  There  were  enrolled  in  all  depart- 
ments, in  the  autumn  of  1915,  434  students.  The 
faculty  numbered  about  60.  There  were  no  note- 
worthy gifts  received  dudng  the  year,  and  no 
notable  changes  in  the  membership  of  the  fac- 
ulty. The  library  contained  about  27,000  vol- 
umes. The  president  is  Joseph  Swain,  M.S., 
LL.D. 

SWAZTTiAND.  A  British  protectorate  in 
South  Africa,  situated  at  the  southeast  corner  of 
the  Transvaal  and  north  of  Zululand.  Area, 
6636  square  miles.  Population  (1911),  09,969, 
of  whom  1083  whites;  estimate  March  31,  1^14, 
107,117.  The  staple  product  is  com;  other  crops 
are  tobacco,  millet,  ground  nuts,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  beans.  There  are  about  73,000  cattle,  170,- 
000  native  sheep,  and  9000  swine.  Tin  and  gold 
are  mined.  The  tin  output  in  1913-14  was  493 
tons,  valued  at  £61,220;  gold,  11,326  ounces, 
£48,106.  Swaziland  is  included  in  the  customs 
territory  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  and  sepa- 
rate trade  returns  are  not  shown.  There  are  10 
post  offices.  Revenue  and  expenditure  in 
1913-14,  £64,241  and  £69,199  respectively;  in 
1914-16,  £69,199  and  £62,170.  Administrative 
headquarters,  Mbabane.  Paramount  chief,  Sob- 
huza  (regent,  his  grandmother,  Kabotribeni). 
British  resident  commissioner,  R.  T.  Coryn- 
don^ 

SWEDEN.  (SvEBiOE.)  A  constitutional 
monarchy  of  northern  Europe,  occupying  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  and 
composed  of  the  capital  and  24  governments  or 
prefectures.    The  capital  is  Stockholm. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  in  square 
kilometers  and  the  population,  as  calculated  Jan. 
1,  1916,  are  given  by  prefectures  in  the  table  be- 
low: 

8q.  kilomeUrM  Pop. 

Land  Water         1915 

Stockholm*      107.65  5.78  882,270 

Stockholm     7.414.07  849.07  225,787 

Upsala     5,120.87  102.44  181,751 

Sodermanland     6,287.55  578.51  188,450 

Ostergotland     9.968.89  1,077.56  299.561 

J5nk5ping     10,616.88  905.14  218,063 

Kronoberg     8,906.66  1,008.21  156.868 

Kalmar     10.961.97  581.04  227,529 

GottUnd      8,117.94  41.84           55,525 

Blekinge      2.895.71  119.02  150,499 

Kristianatad    6,248.80  218.26  284,554 

Malmhua 4,726.20  106.55  472,968 

Ualland     4,771.84  149.92  147,015 

Ooteborg  A  Bohus  .      4,895.59  151.57  400.668 

Alvsborg     11,677.89  1,050.76  292,888 

Skaraborg    8,074.96  405.41  241.129 

y&rmUnd     17,548.67  1,774.85  260,827 

Orebro     8,843.28  791.26  211.808 

VSstmanland     6,897.84  809.78  161,092 

Kopparberg     28,158.68  1,711.64  241.188 

G&yleborg    18,197.82  1,530.18  258.955 

Yasternorrland     ...    24,127.97  1,404.54  258,683 

JKmtland     47,611.96  8,948.54  122,908 

Visterbotten     55,570.87  8,863.47  168,878 

Norrbotten    98,660.09  6,860.20  171.759 

Lakes : 

V&nern 6,568.22          

V»Mero ...,..,...  1.898.58  

Digitized  by  VnOOSiC 


Mftlaren    .. 
HjUmaren 

Total    


8WEDBH 

8q.  k(Ufmti0r§ 
Land  WaUr 

1.162.65 

498.05 


620 


SWBBSH 


Pop, 
191$ 


410.858.60  t    87,787.87  f  6,679.607 

*  City,  t  Oombined  area  of  land  and  wat«r  in  iquarv 
milea.   178.008. 

Total  population,  census  of  1910,  6,522,403. 
The  majority  of  the  population  belong  to  the 
Scandinavian  family  of  the  Teutonic  race.  Of 
the  estimated  population  in  1912  (6,604,192), 
2J40.737  were  males  and  2,863,456  were  females. 
The  rural  population  totaled  4,169,960,  and  the 
urban,  1,434,232.  Estimated  population  at  the 
end  of  1913,  5,638,583. 

Some  of  the  principal  cities,  with  their  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  1914  were:  Stockholm,  386,- 
240  inhabitants;  Gdteborg,  181,600;  MalmO,  97,- 
868;  NorrkOping,  45,934;  Gftvle,  85,934;  Hftl- 
singborg,  35,235;  Orebro,  33,780;  Eskilstuna, 
29,167;  Karlskrona,  28,127;  JdnkOping,  28,069; 
Upsala,  27,773.  Marriages  in  1914,  32,846;  Ut- 
ing  births,  129,451;  deaths,  78,189,  exclusive  of 
stfil  births  (preliminary  figures).  Marriages  in 
1910,  33,162;  living  births,  135,625;  deaths,  77,- 
212,  exclusive  of  still  births;  emigrants,  27,816; 
immigrants,  8142. 

Education  is  general,  and  the  majority  of  the 
population  are  able  to  read  and  write.  The 
school  system  is  well  organized  and  attendance 
compulsory.  The  Lutheran  is  the  national  creed, 
but  all  others  are  tolerated.  The  expulsion, 
however,  of  all  proselytizing  Mormon  elders  was 
decided  upon  July  20,  1912,  by  the  government. 

Pboduction.  Much  of  Sweden  is  favorable  to 
agriculture,  and  certain  sections  are  particularly 
adapted  for  stock  raising.  Especially  fertile  are 
Scania  and  Halland,  the  Baltic  islands,  Gott- 
land,  Osterg5tland,  and  the  coast  of  Sm&land. 
About  49  per  cent  of  the  people  are  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits.  Of  the  total  area,  21,- 
623,608  hectares  were  under  forest  in  1911, 
3,664,925  under  cultivated  plants,  .  1,306,628  in 
natural  pasture,  46,719  in  £^rdens,  and  14,406,- 
480  hectares  uncultivated  lands.  In  1906  the 
farms  under  cultivation  numbered  256,361,  of 
which  81,900  were  of  2  hectares  (1  hectares 
2.471  acres)  and  under;  224,599  of  from  2  to  20; 
33,648  of  from  20  to  100;  and  3239  of  more  than 
100.  The  public  forests  are  mostly  owned  by  the 
crown.  In  the  table  below  are  given  area  de- 
voted to  principal  crops,  and  production  for  two 
years,  with  yield  per  hectare  in  1912-13  (final 
figures  for  production  1913-14). 


Hectares 

1919-18  1918-14 

.104.900  104.900 

.400.100  400,100 

.176^800  176,800 


QuifUalB 

1918-18     1918-14 

2,689.180    2.805.790 

5,655,880    7,010,610 

8,682.110    2,972,490 


0«. 


24.2 
14.1 
20.8 
18.8 


Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats     789^900  789;900  14;488;290    7;628;710 

Potatoes    .  152,800  152,800  20,611,810  17,268,420  184.2 
8.    beeU..   28.006     28,006    8.461.700    8.772,650  801.8 

The  live  stock  report  of  Dec.  31,  1911,  returned 
588,485  horses,  2,692,609  cattle,  946,709  sheep, 
66,136  goats,  951,164  swine;  a  decline  in  com- 
parison with  Dec.  31,  1910,  of  154,917  cattle,  58,- 
272  sheep,  3043  goats,  and  5964  swine;  and  a 
gain  of  1650  horses.  Dairying  is  an  important 
industry.  In  1910  the  creameries  numbered 
1416,  receiving  milk  from  80,179  farmers,  milk 
received,    1,149,219,973    kilograms;    fresh    milk 


sold,  136,969,686  kilograms;  butter,  32,938,444 
kilograms;  cheese,  10,136,059  kilograms. 

The  country  is  rich  in  minerals,  particularly 
iron.  The  Gellivara  region  in  Lappland  leads  in 
production  of  iron  ore,  which  is  of  superior  qual- 
ity. Falun  possesses  the  principal  copper  mines, 
Ammeberg  yields  zinc,  and  Scala,  silver;  but 
(except  for  Scania)  nowhere  is  coal  found  in 
considerable  quantities. 

Forestry  is  an  important  industry  and  the 
country  derives  much  of  its  wealth  from  the  ex- 
port of  timber  and  forest  products.  Progress  in 
industrial  development  has  been  rapid,  tiie  nu- 
merous rivers  furnishing  abundant  water  power. 
The  Motala  is  the  site  of  great  manufactories, 
and  Norrk6ping,  on  that  river,  is  the  chief  in- 
dustrial town  of  Sweden. 

CoMifEBCE.  The  trade,  including  precious 
metals,  by  countries  for  1913,  and  totals  for 
several  years,  is  given  in  the  following  table  in 
thousands  of  kronor  (1  krona  =  26.8  cents) : 


ImporU 

Garmany     289.902 

United  Kingdom   206.801 

United    Statea    76.688 

BnaaU     60.520 

l>enmark     68.680 

France    86,284 

Norway     25.928 

Netherlands    20.884 

BraaU    17.687 

Belginm    18,898 

BritUh  India 7,411 

Arsentina     16.988 

lUty    6.688 

Afrioa    1.788 

fipain    8.966 

Portugal   2.669 

Other    17,468 

Total.  *18    846.588 

Total,  '12    782.894 

ToUl,  '09  616.806 

Total,  '08  608.982 

Total,  *07  682.106 


Supports 

179.078 

286.586 

84.408 

46.978 

70,651 

66,260 

64,034 

19.226 

2,284 

18,698 

5,465 

8.786 

4,448 

18.766 

11,219 

2.499 

84.018 

817.847 
760,469 
472.980 
482.017 
624.668 


The  principal  articles  of  import  and  export  in 
the  1913  trade  are  as  follows,  with  values  in 
thousands  of  kronor: 


JmporU  1000  kr. 

Coal 108,268 

Cereals    68.679 

Coffee    89.448 

Hides 48.486 

Cotton    26,872 

Machinery 29.768 

Petrolenm    16.864 

OU   cake    20.904 

Iron  mfrs 28,687 

Copper     16.166 

Fish    16.806 

Wool 18.920 

Iron 24,909 

Animal  fata 16,291 


BiBports  1000  kr. 

Timber 168,860 

Wood  pulp    99,679 

Iron     71,284 

Butter    41,746 

Iron  ore 69,199 

Machinery 69,970 

Paper    87.745 

Iron   mfrs 21,006 

Stone     12,696 

Matches 16.418 

Wooden  wares    . . .   66.552 

Hides     21,680 

Liye   animals    19,922 

Fish    8.608 


Vessels  entered  in  the  1913  trade,  22,519,  of 
12,705,000  tons;  cleared,  22,486,  of  12,709,000. 
In  the  1910  trade,  35,435,  of  11,031,000  tons; 
cleared,  35,407,  of  11,064,000.  Merchant  ma- 
rine, Jan.  1,  1914,  1509  sailing,  of  151,867  tons, 
and  1313  steamers,  of  721,339— total,  2822,  of 
873,206  tons.  Jan.  1,  1911,  1635  sailing,  of  176,- 
912  tons,  and  1214  steamers,  of  593,073— total, 
2849,  of  769,985. 

C0MMT7NICATI0NS.  There  were,  at  the  end  of 
1914,  14,650  kilometers  of  railway  lines,  of  which 
4789  were  operated  by  the  state  and  9861  by 
private  companies.  At  end  of  1911,  13,972  kilo- 
meters of  railway  open  to  traffic,  of  which  4460 
were  operated  by  the  state,  and  9512  by  private 


Digitized  by 


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&WBDSN 


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BWBDBK 


Companies.  State  telegraph  lines,  11,180  kilo- 
meters; railway  telegraph  lines,  11,084.  Post 
offices,  3867. 

During  the  year  1916  electrification  of  the  rail- 
way from  Kiruna  to  Biksgransen,  in  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Sweden,  was  completed,  it  being 
the  first  line  of  the  Swedish  State  Railways 
where  hydraulically  generated  power  was  em- 
ployed for  railway  traction.  A  large  section 
of  this  line  is  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  ex- 
tremes of  cold  are  experienced  during  the  winter 
season.  The  line  was  designed  to  transport  iron 
ore  from  the  mines  at  the  southern  extremity  to 
the  Norwegian  frontier.  In  the  budget  for  1017, 
for  the  government  owned  railroads,  an  appro- 
priation of  $1,894,700  was  asked  for,  for  new 
construction  work,  which  was  $400,000  more  than 
was  obtained  for  1916.  The  govemment  railway 
bureau  had  planned  its  construction  work  two 
years  ahead. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1916  balanced  at 
400,682,400  kronor.  The  main  sources  of  revenue 
were  customs  and  excise,  146,100,000  kronor; 
tax  oh  income,  invested  capital,  etc.,  69,760,000; 
revenue-earning  administrations,  60,103,600; 
from  loans,  53,676,000;  state  bank  profits,  8,760,- 
000;  etc.  Main  branches  of  expenditure  were 
army,  68,789,189  kronor  ordinary,  45,334,511  ex- 
traordinary; navy,  24,266,350  and  16,204,250; 
worship  and  instruction,  33,652,384  and  6,208,- 
716;  finance,  24,193,774  and  3,793,426;  interior, 
13,628,638  and  13,914,662;  administration  of 
state  enterprises,  31,975,000  and  5,268,700;  etc. 
The  totol  debt  stood  Jan.  1,  1916,  at  695,834,630 
kronor,  contracted  in  large  part  on  account  of 
railway  construction. 

Abmt.  The  Swedish  army  is  based  on  com- 
pulsory personal  military  service  from  the  age  of 
20  to  31  in  the  active  army,  31  to  36  in  the  re- 
serve, 36  to  42  in  the  Landsturm  or  National 
Militia.  Service  with  the  colors  is  260  days  in 
the  first  year,  in  the  infantry,  and  30  days  each 
in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  and  16  days  in 
the  ninth  year,  making  a  total  of  356  days'  serv- 
ice. For  the  cavalry,  field  artillery,  field  and 
signal  engineers,  281  days  are  required  in  the 
first  year,  46  days  each  for  the  second  and  third, 
and  one  period  of  25  days  in  the  fifth  or  sixth 
years,  or  a  total  of  396  days.  For  fortress  engi- 
neers, 295  days  in  the  first  year,  35  days  each  in 
the  third  and  fourth,  and  15  days  in  the  ninth,  or 
a  total  of  380  days.  For  the  transportation 
troops,  150  days  in  the  first  year,  30  days  each 
in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  and  16  days  in 
the  ninth,  or  a  total  of  266  days.  The  total  ef- 
fective force  that  could  be  raised  was  estimated 
at  670,000  men.  The  army  was  organized  into 
six  divisions.  The  infantry  regiments  have  3 
battalions  of  4  companies  each  and  are  armed 
with  Mauser  magazine  rifles,  model  of  1896. 
Some  cavalry  regiments  consist  of  6  squadrons 
each,  and  others  of  10  squadrons.  The  army  in 
time  of  war  is  to  be  commanded  by  the  King,  or 
by  general  officers  selected  by  him.  A  field  army 
consists  of  a  number  of  divisions,  each  division 
having  2  brigades  of  infantry,  1  regiment  of 
cavalry,  1  regiment  of  artillery,  and  auxiliary 
troops.  In  war,  the  defense,  including  both  the 
coast  fortresses  and  other  land  defense,  would 
require  a  large  part  of  the  army.  In  addition 
to  the  military  forces  there  are  in  Sweden  about 
2600  shooting  clubs  with  a  membership  of  180,- 
000.  From  these  it  was  estimated  that  120,000 
volunteer  riflemen  could  be  organized. 


Navt.  The  effective  fleet  (1016)  contained  92 
vessels  of  67,500  aggregate  tons,  as  follows:  12 
coast  defense  vessels  (42,600  tons),  1  armored 
cruiser  (4100),  10  protected  monitors  (7200), 
5  torpedo  gunboats  (4000),  3  gunboats  (1250), 
8  destroyers  (3450),  31  firstrclass  torpedo  boats 
(3100),  and  22  second-class  (1300),  besides  sub- 
marines, school-ships,  dispatch  boats,  etc.  Build- 
ing are  3  armored  cruisers  of  7100  tons  each,  2 
destroyers,  and  several  submarines,  the  exact 
number  not  being  officially  disclosed. 

Ck)VKBNifENT.  The  King  is  the  executive,  act- 
ing through  an  executive  council.  The  legis- 
lative body  is  the  Riksdag,  composed  of  an  Up- 
per Chamber  ( 150  members  elected  for  six  years) 
and  a  Lower  Chamber  (230  members  elected  for 
three  years).  Reigning  sovereign,  Gustaf  V 
(born  1868).  Heir-apparent»  Prince  Gustaf 
Adolf  (born  1882). 

History.  The  War  of  the  Nations,  of  which 
Sweden  remained  throughout  1915  a  neutral  but 
not  an  indifferent  spectator,  affected  Sweden,  in 
common  with  the  other  Scandinavian  countries, 
in  three  principal  respects.  In  the  first  place, 
the  interference  of  the  war  with  the  routine  of 
commerce  and  industry  manifested  itself  in  ab- 
normal financial  and  fiscal  conditions,  and  was 
only  partially  offset  by  the  increased  activity  of 
certain  industries  and  branches  of  commerce  dur- 
ing the  war.  In  the  second  place,  the  Swedish 
S»vernment  was  continually  irritated  by  the  vio- 
tion  of  neutral  rishts  by  belligerents.  In  Jan- 
uary the  chief  complaint  was  against  Great  Britr 
ain's  arbitrary  detention  of  and  interference 
with  American  and  other  neutral  vessels  bound 
for  Sweden.  In  order  that  there  might  be  no 
justification  for  the  British  claim  that  contra- 
band of  war  was  being  sent  through  Sweden  to 
Germany,  the  Swedish  government  on  January 
16th  issued  a  decree  absolutely  prohibiting  the 
exportation  to  belligerents,  of  war  munitions  or 
of  materials  which  might  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  war  munitions.  In  February,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  German  submarine  campaign,  the 
Swedish  government  instructed  all  shipowners  to 
paint  the  word  "Sweden"  and  the  national  colors 
on  the  sides  of  their  vessels,  in  order  that  the 
ships  might  not  be  mistaken  for  belligerent  prop- 
erty. Gn  February  13th  a  conference  was  held 
at  Christiania  betweai  representatives  of  Swe- 
den, Norway,  and  Denmark,  to  discuss  the  use 
of  floating  mines  by  the  belligerent  Powers,  and 
to  protest  against  the  abuse  of  neutral  flags  by 
Great  Britain,  as  well  as  to  express  concern  for 
the  safety  of  neutral  shipping  in  Germany's  war 
zone  (consult  War  of  the  Nations).  Ger- 
many's reply  to  the  Scandinavian  message  was 
not  published.  The  capture  of  the  Swedish 
steamer  England  by  a  German  warship  on  April 
7th  elicited  angry  protests  from  the  press,  and 
urgent  representations  from  the  Swedish  govern- 
ment. In  June  the  Swedish  government  was 
compelled  to  inform  the  United  States  that  mail 
from  the  United  States  destined  for  Sweden  was 
being  opened  by  the  British  authorities  in  Lon- 
don. Official  mail,  it  appeared,  had  not  been 
tampered  with,  but  ordinary  private  and  reg- 
istered letters  had  been  opened  by  the  British 
and  one  ''unit"  of  registered  mail  had  been  de- 
tained. Sweden  insisted  upon  the  inviolability 
of  neutral  mails,  and  denied  that  Swedish  mails 
were  being  used  as  a  vehicle  of  communication 
between  German  spies  in  America  and  Germany. 
Press  reports  in   June  and  July   indicated  an 

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amelioration  of  the  relations  existing  between 
Sweden  and  Russia  as  the  result  of  an  agree- 
ment with  regard  to  the  financial,  commercial, 
and  industrial  interests  of  the  two  countries,  and 
the  apology  tendered  by  the  Russian  government 
for  accidental  violations  of  Swedish  neutrality. 
The  third  respect  in  which  Sweden  was  affected 
by  the  war,  to  recur  to  the  opening  sentence  of 
this  paragraph,  was  the  stimulation  of  popular 
sentiment  in  favor  of  "preparedness"  to  resist 
encroachments  upon  Swedish  rights  and  inter- 
ests. The  launching  of  the  new  battleship 
Sverige  in  May,  attended  by  the  royal  family  and 
by  the  ministry,  was  made  the  occasion  of  en- 
thusiastic patriotic  demonstrations.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  year,  especially,  the  press  be- 
came more  and  more  insistent  that  Sweden  must 
defend  her  rights,  bv  force  if  necessary.  In 
September  Sw^ish  delegates  participated  in  the 
Scandinavian  conference  at  Copenhagen  (sec 
Denmabk).  On  October  4th,  Karl  Albert  Staaf, 
a  former  premier  of  Sweden,  died  at  Stockholm. 
See  also  Intbbnational  Peace  and  Asbitba- 

TION^ 

SWEDISH  LITEBATT7BE.  See  Scandina- 
vian LiTEKATURE. 

SWIFT'S  COMET.     See  Astbonomt. 

SWIMMING.  Duke  Kahanamoku  of  Hono- 
lulu was  the  central  figure  in  the  swimming 
world  durinff  1915.  In  open  water  he  shattered 
three  world's  records,  covering  60  vards  in  23 
secondc^  100  yards  in  53^  seconds,  and  220 
yards  in  2  minutes,  29  seconds.  Kahanamoku 
set  two  more  new  marks  in  a  75-yard  bath  by 
crawling  100  yards  in  54%  seconds,  and  220 
yards  in  2  minutes,  26%  seconds. 

Another  marvel  to  appear  in  1915  was  Ludy 
Langer  of  the  Los  Angeles  A.  C,  who  smashed 
record  after  record  at  the  middle  distances. 
Langer  went  440  yards  in  open  water,  across 
tide,  in  6  minutes,  32%  seconds;  500  yards  in 
a  75-yard  pool  in  6  minutes,  13%  seconds;  880 
yards,  across  tide,  in  12  minutes,  6  seconds; 
1  mile,  across  tide,  in  24  minutes,  59%  sec- 
onds. 

Harry  Hebner  of  the  Illinois  A.  C.  also  de- 
serves special  mention  for  his  wonderful  back 
stroke  performances.  Swimming  in  this  fash- 
ion he  covered  150  yards  in  a  75-yard  bath  in 
1  minute,  53%  seconds.  Hebner,  in  addition, 
bettered  12  American  free-style  marks. 

Six  world's  records  went  by  the  boards  in 
relav  racing.  Raithel,  Mott,  Hebner,  and  Mc- 
Gillivray  of  the  Illinois  A.  C.  swam  200  yards, 
50  yards  each,  in  1  minute,  42%  seconds,  and 
with  Vosburgh  replacing  Mott,  covered  400 
yards,  100-yard  relays,  in  3  minutes,  45%  sec- 
onds. VoUmer,  Ramme,  Nerich,  O'Sullivan,  and 
Bennett  of  the  New  York  A.  C.  went  50  yards 
apiece  in  2  minutes,  10%  seconds. 

In  long  distance  swimming  Bud  Goodwin  of 
the  New  York  A.  C.  carried  off  the  laurels.  He 
won  the  3-mile  Exposition  championship  at  San 
Francisco  in  1  hour,  42  minutes,  33%  seconds, 
the,  fastest  time  ever  made  in  open  water. 
Charles  Durborow  of  Philadelphia  swam  across 
the  Virginia  Capes  in  10  hours,  57  seconds. 

Herbert  Vollmer  of  Columbia  University  and 
the  New  York  A.  C.  distinguished  himself  by 
swimming  100  yards  in  the  New  York  A.  C. 
tank  in  54%  seconds,  excelling  by  2  seconds  the 
performances  of  Hebner  and  McGillivray  in  the 
same  pool. 

SWIMMING  POOLS.    See  Hygiene. 


SWITZERLAND.  A  federal  republic  of  cen- 
tral Europe.    The  capital  is  Berne. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  in  square 
kilometers  and  de  jure  population  (census  of  Dec. 
31,  1910)  by  cantons  or  demicantons  are  given  in 
the  following  table,  together  with  their  popula- 
tion as  calculated  by  the  Federal  Statistical 
Bureau  for  the  middle  of  the  year  1912: 

Sq.hm, 

Zurich     1,724.76  608,915  524,590 

Berne    6.844.50  645,877  654,520 

Lucerne     1,500.80  167,228  170,680 

Urf    1,076.00  22,118  22.490 

Schwyi    908.26  68,428  68,910 

Obwalden    474.80  17,161  17  460 

Nidwalden     290.50  18.788  18,900 

Olarua     691.20  88,816  88,470 

ZuK    280.20  28,156  28,640 

Pril)oiirg     1,674.60  89,664  141.520 

Solothurn    791.51  17,040  119.620 

Basel-Stodt     85.76  85,018  189.940 

Basel^nd     427.47  76,488  77,740 

Schaffhausen     294.22  46,097  46.820 

Appenxell   A-Rh 242.49  57,978  58.400 

Appenyell  I.Rh 172.88  14,659  14,740 

SL-OaU     2.019.00  802,896  810.400 

?"»on«     7,182.80  117,069  118.790 

Aargrau    1,404.10  280.684  284.460 

Thurgau    1,011.60  184,917  188,850 

Ticino    2,800.90  156.166  158,950 

V»y4     3,252.00  817,467  824,800 

Valals    . 5,224.49  128,881  129,830 

NeuchAtel    807.80  188,061  184.100 

Geneva    282.85  154,906  158.610 

Total    41,828.99    8,758,298    8,881.220 

The  above  census  figures  show  the  de  jure 
population;  the  de  facto  population  in  1910  was 
3,766,123.  Protestants  numbered  2,108,642, 
Roman  Catholics  1,590,832.  Speaking  German 
as  their  native  tongue  were  2,599,194;  French, 
796,220;  Italian,  301,323;  Romansh,  39,912; 
other  Unguages,  28,172.  Marriages,  1912,  27,- 
843  (in  1911,  27,809);  births,  95,171  (94,185); 
deaths,  54,102  (62,484);  still-births  (included 
in  foregoing),  2975  (2865).  In  the  same  year 
5871  Swiss  citizens  emigrated— 4417  to  North 
America,  1256  to  South  America,  16  to  Central 
America,  113  to  Australia,  37  to  Asia,  and  32 
to  Africa.  The  emigrants  in  1913  numbered 
6191;  of  these  4367  went  to  the  United  States, 
874  to  Argentina,  257  to  Brazil,  etc.  The  great- 
est number,  1099,  came  from  Berne. 

The  communal  population  of  Zurich,  as  esti- 
mated in  the  middle  of  1913,  was  200,600; 
Basel,  137,500;  Geneva,  135,000;  Berne,  90,800; 
St.-Gall,  80,000;  Lausanne,  69,400;  Lucerne, 
41,500;  Chaux-de-Fonds,  38,600;  Winterthur, 
25,800;  Neuchfttel,  24,100;  Bienne,  24,000;  Fri- 
bourg,  21,200;  Montreux,  19,700. 

Pboduction.  About  one-sixth  of  the  area  of 
the  country  is  forest.  The  area  under  main 
crops  and  yield  for  two  years,  with  yield  per 
hectare  in  191^14,  are  shown  below: 


Heetarea 
1913-14  1914-15 

Wheat     41.640  45,800 

Rye    24.780  27,260 

Barley    6,110     6,720 

OaU     38,740  87,120 

Corn     1,140     1,250 

Vines*  .  ..22,000  21,600 
Tobacco  .  .  .  250  250 
Potatoes     ..55,400  66,500 

*  Tield  in  hectolitres  of 


Neither  the  climate  nor  the  soil  is  favorable 
to  agriculture.    Though  wheat  is  grown  in  all 

Goo 


QuiiUaU 

«•. 

1918-14 

191415 

ha. 

892.000 

1.056.000 

21.4 

488,000 

587.000 

17.7 

115,000 

181,000 

18.8 

763,000 

805.000 

22.8 

27,000 

81,500 

28.7 

507,000 

912.000 

... 

8.700 

5.000 

14.8 

6,000,000 

10,250,000 

108.8 

wine. 

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adyantageous  situationfly  the  yield  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  supply  domestic  demands.  Wine,  tim- 
ber, and  cattle  are  imported,  although  all  are 
produced.  Live  stock  in  1911:  horses,  144,128; 
mules,  3151;  asses,  1566;  cattle,  1,443,483; 
sheep,  161,414;  goats,  341,296;  swine,  570,226; 
beehives,  225,030.  Cotton  and  silk  manufac- 
tures, clocks  and  watches,  dairy  products,  etc., 
are  important  articles  of  export.  The  dairy 
'  industry  comprehends  several  distinct  branches 
— ^the  manufacture  of  butter,  cheese,  condensed 
milk,  and  milk  chocolate.  The  timber  industry 
and  pisciculture  are  important,  as  are  also  salt 
mining,  and  the  manufacture  of  cement  and  al- 
coholic liquors.  Outside  of  the  big  business 
plants,  house  industries  employ  large  numbers 
of  both  men  and  women;  watches  and  clocks, 
gloves  and  other  leather  goods,  pottery,  to- 
bacco, and  snuff,  etc.,  are  thus  produced.  The 
silk  and  cotton  industries  employ  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  60,000  persons.  The  quantity  of 
silkworm  eggs  placed  for  hatching  in  the  spring 
of  1912  was  188  hectograms;  production  of 
cocoons,  31,200  kilograms,  compared  with  42,- 
835  kilograms  in  1911.  In  1913,  335  hecto- 
grams and  30,798  kilograms. 

CoHMEBCB.  By  decree  of  the  federal  council 
dated  Aug.  2,  1914,  the  export  of  foodstuffs  has 
hem  prohibited  from  that  date,  and  by  decree 
dated  September  18  the  export  of  cotton  has 
been  prohibited  from  the  latter  date.  Excep- 
tions may  be  granted.  The  imports  and  exports 
of  merdumdise  by  countries  of  origin  and  des- 
tination for  comparative  years  are  shown  in  the 
table  below,  in  thousands  of  francs: 


Impwtt  1000  ft. 

ADimslg 60.400 

Cottons    69,600 

Chemicals    70,600 

Precious   metals...  64,400 

Woolens 60.400 

iron     66,700 

Cotton    67,000 

Wine    62,800 

Keat    42.700 

Machinery 62.100 

Suffar 40.200 

Timber 80.700 

Iron  mfrs 87,600 

Wool    24.000 

Leather    80.800 


EvpvrU  1000  fr, 

llaehinary 00,800 

Cheese    70.100 

Span  silk 86.600 

Chemicals    67.500 

Baw  silk 64,600 

Chocolato 68.200 

Milk 47.700 

Cotton  yam 24.100 

Hides     25,400 

Iron  mfrs 21,800 

Straw  mfrs 16,000 

Woolens 14.800 

Jewelry    16,100 

Woolen  yam 12,600 

Animals    11,200 


1911 

1P18 

Imp§. 

Exp9. 

/mp«. 

B»p$. 

Germany   . . . . 

581,896 

274,879 

680,870 

806,660 

France     

680.688 

182,627 

847,986 

141,250 

Italy    

180,629 

86,284 

207,026 

®2'^f2 

Aixs.-Han.     . . 

118.884 

86,045 

108.469 

78,858 

U.  K 

99,867 

212,920 

112.666 

286,166 

Neth 

28,998 

9,871 

26,884 

11.689 

Belgium    

Spain    

88,926 

26,226 

85,110 

28,188 

24,772 

22,800 

29,210 

80,677 

Rumania     . . . 

82.346 

9,056 

14,990 

7,969 

Russia     

89,580 

48.064 

71.467 

68,719 

Other   Europe 

.      27,177 

82,805 

U.    S 

76,086 

142,228 

117,898 

18*6.482 

Canada    

11.868 

24,486 

19.847 

80.966 

Argentina 

29.282 

28,405 

86,942 

29,864 

Brasil    

18,560 

18,162 

20,089 

20,406 

Colombia     . . . 

11.056 

1,617 

7.725 

22.142 

Other  S.  A.  . . 

16,888 

19.568 

12.027 

26.204 

Asia     

48.144 

47.186 

68,486 

58,296 

Africa    

82,782 

15.298 

84,644 

20,117 

Australia     . . . 

18,188 

14.896 

18,664 

17.490 

Unstated 

.  • .  . . 

8.099 

7,773 

Other    

260,287 

819,282 

821,28i 

849,696 

Total   

1,802,869 

1,267,809 

1,919,816 

1.876,899 

Imports  and  exports  of  coin  and  bullion  in 
1913,  58,064,945  and  34,409,773  francs  respec- 
tively; in  1911,  41,484,268  and  31,528,813  francs 
respectively;  in  1910,  42,890,821  and  28,258,- 
200.  Total  trade  in  1913,  1,977,871,226  francs 
imports  and  1,410,808,889  francs  exports;  in 
1911,  1,843,843,263  francs  imports  and  1,288,- 
838,217  francs  exports;  in  1910,  1,787,911,832 
and  1,224,130,331.  The  principal  articles  of  im- 
port for  consumption  and  of  export  of  domestic 
produce  are  shown  in  the  table  below,  values 
for  1913  in  thousands  of  francs: 

ImporU                 1000  fr.  Exports                 1000  fr. 

Cereals,  etc 218.400  Cottons    287,200 

Silk    171.000  Watches 188.200 

Coal 106,800   Silks    187.400 


OoMMUNicATiONS.  There  were  Jan.  1,  1912, 
5112  kilometers  of  railway  in  operation.  Most 
of  the  railways  have  been  nationalized,  but  the 
state  lines  do  not  show  a  uniform  working 
profit  nor,  in  some  cases,  any  profit  at  all.  The 
Swiss  railways  employ  about  42,000  persons,  of 
whom  35,200  work  on  state  lines  and  6800  on 
private  railways.  These  fij^res  are  exclusive 
of  the  tramways  or  funiculars,  which  for  the 
most  part  are  common  to  the  municipalities  of 
the  cantons.  The  rolling  stock  in  1912  included 
1594  locomotives,  4879  passenger  cars,  and  18,- 
344  freight  cars.  Passengers  carried  during 
1912,  2,523,874,190;  merchandise  transported, 
1,437,481,565  metric  tons.  Receipts  from  oper- 
ation during  1912,  248,844,972  francs;  expenses, 
165,038,834  francs — ^not  including  extraordinary 
expenditures,  which  are  not  charged  in  this  ac- 
count. Cost  of  construction  to  end  of  1912, 
1,923,255,656  francs.  Receipts  from  state  rail- 
ways for  June,  1915,  amounted  to  $901,200,  as 
compared  with  $1,474,409,  for  June,  1914. 
Revenue  from  goods  traffic  receded  from  $1,- 
981,397  in  June,  1914,  to  $1,688,200  for  1915. 

Telegraph  lines,  3575  kilometers,  with  26,532 
of  wires;  stations,  2374.  Telephone  lines,  21,- 
335  kilometers,  with  360,425  of  wires.  Post 
offices,  1957. 

Finance.  The  details  of  (actual)  revenue 
and  expenditure  in  1914  are  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


Revenue  1000  fr. 

Customs,   eto 66,080 

Investments    8,671 

Military     6,118 

Posts  and  Rys 86 

Real  property 2,188 

Ind.  and  agr 1,064 

Justice,  eto 081 

Interior,    eto 181 

Administration    ....       104 

PoliUcal    84 

Miscellaneous    18 


Expenditure         1000  fr, 

MUitary     86.808 

Interior   16,040 

Ind.  and  agr 18,614 

Customs,   eto 0,685 

Debt  charge 16,063 

Justice,  eto 2.280 

Administration    . . .  1,476 

Political    1,108 

Posts  and  i^.  . . .  6,711 

MisceUaneous    1,827 


Total    78.811       Total    100,844 

Estimated  revenue  for  1915,  76,490,000  francs; 
estimated  expenditure,  99,990,000  francs.  State 
loans  Jan.  1,  1915,  amounted  to  280,810,000 
francs. 

Abict.  The  Swiss  army  had  been  mobilized 
during  the  great  European  war  and  had  rendered 
efficient  service  in  the  protection  of  the  neutral- 
ity of  Switzerland.  The  Swiss  military  system 
is  based  on  universal  military  service  where  every 
citizen  serves  his  cotmtry,  and  only  those  physi- 
cally unfit  or  deprived  of  the  right  to  be  soldiers 
by  penal  servitude  or  bankruptcy,  can  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  army,  and  such  as  are  disquali- 
fied are  required  to  pay  a  military  tax,  if  finan- 
cially able  to  do  so.  Cases  of  refusal  to  do  mili- 
tary duty  are  rare,  and  Switzerland's  equipment 


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is  one  of  citizen  soldiers.  The  military  system 
is  based  on  uniform  obligation,  gymnastic  in- 
struction  in  all  schools,  with  cadet  corps,  and 
military  instruction  in  certain  secondary  schools 
where  rifle  practice  is  also  given.    From  17  to 

19  the  physical  training  takes  into  consideration 
the  future  needs  of  the  army,  so  that  when  a 
young  man  of  the  age  of  20  is  called  to  service 
he  is  prepared  to  teke  up  his  responsibilities 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  training.  There  are 
three  classes  of  service  in  the  army — ^the  Elite, 

20  to  32;  the  Landwehr,  33  to  40;  and  the 
Landsturm,  41  to  48.  The  Elite  constitute  the 
field  army,  the  Landwehr  the  forces  requiring 
less  physical  vigor,  and  the  Landsturm  troops 
for  Imes  of  communication  and  internal  police 
duty.  The  recruit  when  first  called  to  service 
has  a  period  of  service  of  67  days  in  the  infantry, 
92  in  the  cavalry,  77  in  the  artillery,  garrisons, 
and  fortresses,  and  62  days  in  the  sanitary,  the 
quartermaster's  department,  and  the  department 
of  transportation.  Various  repeat  courses  are 
held  for  periods  of  two  weeks,  and  those  recruits 
who  desire  warrants  or  commissions  must  spend 
extra  time  in  study  and  practice.  The  Swiss 
army  is  not  maintained  on  a  war  basis,  neither 
is  it  ever  on  a  peace  footing,  and  as  a  result 
every  period  of  exercise  and  maneuver  involves  a 
mobilization  equal  to  that  of  war,  and  each  mi- 
litia man  must  keep  in  his  home  his  uniform, 
arms  and  equipment,  subject  to  inspection,  and 
replaced  at  his  own  expense  if  lost  or  injured. 
When  the  call  for  mobilization  comes  the  militia 
is  uniformed  and  equipped,  and  has  but  to  draw 
certain  articles  from  the  regimental  depot  to 
be  completely  equipped  for  service.  The  cavalry- 
man brings  his  own  horse,  and  the  supply  of 
horses  for  artillery  and  transport  are  all  care- 
fully worked  out.  A  regiment  is  ready  in  48 
hours  to  join  its  division  at  the  appointed  ren- 
dezvous. In  1914  a  mobilization  of  the  entire 
army.  Elite,  Landwehr,  and  Landsturm,  was 
carried  on  simultaneously,  and  it  was  reported 
that  the  degree  of  organization  was  such  that  it 
could  have  been  mobilized  on  the  frontier  in  48 
hours,  in  sufficient  force  to  resist  the  advance 
of  a  cavalry  corps  charged  with  the  destruction 
of  the  railroads.  It  is  estimated  that  this  mi- 
litia system  yields  to  the  republic  a  drilling 
army  of  from  250,000  to  260,000  first  line  troops, 
and  80,000  to  90,000  territorials,  or  a  total  of 
10  per  cent  of  the  population,  not  counting  those 
under  20  years  of  age. 

Ck>VEBNMENT.  The  Constitution  of  May  29, 
1874,  vests  the  executive  authority  in  a  federal 
council  (seven  members)  presided  over  by  the 
President  of  the  confederation,  who,  with  a  Vice- 
President,  is  elected  annually.  The  council  is 
elected  for  three  years  by  a  federal  assembly 
composed  of  a  national  council  (167  members, 
directly  elected  for  three  years  by  popular  vote) 
and  a  council  of  states  (44  members,  directly 
elected  in  some  of  the  cantons  and  in  others  by 
the  legislative  authorities).  Ecclesiastics  alone 
are  ineligible  for  office  among  Swiss  citizens 
over  20  years  of  age.  The  principles  of  the 
referendum  and  recall  are  in  force.  To  the  fed- 
eral government  alone  is  given  power  to  make 
treaties  and  to  declare  war,  and  in  its  control 
are  the  army  and  the  postal,  financial,  and  cus- 
toms departments.  The  Treatv  of  Vienna  (1815) 
guarantees  the  neutrality  of  Switzerland.  On 
Dec.  15,  1915,  Vice-Presiaent  Camille  de  Coppet 


was  regularly  elected  President  of  the  federal 
republic,  and  Edmund  Schulthess,  Vice-President. 

HiSTOBT.  The  maintenance  of  neutrality  im- 
posed heavy  financial  burdens  upon  Switzerland. 
On  January  13th  President  Motta  announced 
that  the  cost  of  the  war  to  his  country  had  thus 
far  amounted  to  $22,000,000.  To  defray  this 
extraordinary  expenditure,  special  war  taxes 
were  authorized  by  a  referendum  on  June  7th, 
and  three  successive  war  loans  were  emitted, 
the  first  amounting  to  $6,000,000;  the  second, 
$10,000,000;  the  third,  $20,000,000.  On  Septem- 
ber 21st,  President  Motta  made  an  important 
speech  before  the  National  Assembly,  estimating 
the  cost  of  Swiss  mobilization  up  to  September 
1st  at  $28,000,000.  If  the  war  continued  much 
longer,  the  President  declared,  new  sources  of 
revenue  would  have  to  be  created,  such  as  a 
government  tobacco  monopoly.  By  November 
1st  the  cost  of  the  war  to  Switzerland  had  risen 
to  the  figure  of  $51,000,000.  By  reason  of  the 
country's  central  position,  Switzerland  was  able 
to  render  the  belligerents  valuable  humanitarian 
service  in  facilitating  the  exchange  of  disabled 
prisoners  (consult  War  of  the  Nations). 
Switzerland  also  afforded  a  convenient  meeting 
place  for  peace  conferences  and  Socialist  gather- 
ings (see  Socialism). 

SYLVESTEBy  Fbedebick  Oakss.  American 
artist,  died  March  2,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Brockton,  Mass.,  in  1869,  and  graduated  from 
Durfee  High  School  in  Fall  River  in  1888.  The 
four  years  following  he  studied  art  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Art  School,  and  was  a  teacher  of  draw- 
ing and  painting  at  the  Central  High  School  at 
St.  Louis,  from  1892-1913.  He  painted  many 
landscapes,  chiefly  of  mid-Western  scenes,  and 
was  also  known  for  his  mural  decorations.  He 
received  medals  at  several  expositions,  and  was 
a  member  of  many  societies  of  artists.  He  was 
the  author  of  Verses  (1900),  and  of  The  Great 
River  (1911),  which  contains  24  half-tones  from 
oil  paintings  by  the  author. 

SYNTHETIC  AHMONIA.  See  Ghemibtby, 
Industrial. 

SYPHILIS.  See  Insanity;  Luetin;  Prosti- 
tution; and  SALVAftsAN  AND  Neosalvarsan. 

SYBACXJSE  XJNIVEBSITY.  A  coeduca- 
tional institution  for  higher  education,  founded 
in  1870,  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1015 
was  4012.  The  faculty  numbered  315.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  membership  of 
the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  noteworthy 
benefactions  were  received.  The  productive 
funds  amounted  to  about  $2,000,000,  and  the  an- 
nual income  to  about  $500,000.  There  were  in 
the  library  100,196  volumes. 

TAIWAN.    See  Formosa. 

TALL  BTTILBINGS.  The  business  depres- 
sion of  1914  was  reflected  in  the  small  amount 
of  construction  of  high  office  and  other  build- 
ings in  New  York  and  other  cities  in  the 
United  States  in  1915.  One  of  the  notable 
structures  of  the  year  was  an  earthquake-proof 
tower,  302  feet  in  total  height,  and  234  feet 
in  height  to  the  top  of  its  square  portion,  built 
at  the  University  of  California.  In  this  Jane 
K.  Sather  Campanile,  as  it  was  known,  particu- 
lar attention  was  paid  to  stability  under  earth- 
quake shock.  The  Campanile  is  of  steel  cov- 
ered with  reinforced  concrete,  with  the  main 
tower   faced  with  granite  and   the   peak   with 


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marble.  There  is  a  pyramid  at  the  top  which 
supports  a  bronze  lantern  and  four  dork  faces 
are  set  near  the  top  of  the  square  portion, 
above  which  is  a  chime  of  bells.  An  elevator 
runs  to  the  level  just  below  the  belfry  floor. 
The  granite  tower  is  36  feet  square  at  the 
ground  line  and  tapers  to  30  feet  at  the  top, 
the  frame  being  bolted  10  feet  below  the  crown 
to  a  reSnforc^  concrete  foundation  48  feet 
square.  The  total  weight  on  the  foundation 
bed  of  hardpan  was  6875  tons,  or  3  tons  per 
square  foot,  and  in  addition  a  wind  pressure 
of  30  pounds  per  square  foot  was  figured,  which 
increased  the  weight  of  the  foundation  to  4  tons 
on  the  leeward  side.  In  computing  the  earth- 
quake effects,  it  was  recalled  that  the  earth- 
quake of  190is  had  a  maximum  acceleration  of 
6  feet  per  second,  so  that  the  tower  would  ex- 
perience a  force  of  about  one- fifth  of  its  entire 
weight  acting  like  a  wind  pressure.  If  the 
tower  were  built  rigid  and  unyielding,  the  pres- 
sure at  the  extreme  edge  would  be  9  tons,  but 
it  was. designed  to  have  a  natural  period  of 
vibration  of  about  two  seconds.  Inasmuch  as 
earthquakes  usually  have  a  period  of  about  one 
second,  the  shock  would  not  be  cumulative,  and 
the  two  vibrations  would  tend  to  oppose  each 
other.  The  X-bracing  is  omitted  from  every 
other  pair  of  floors  in  the  frame,  and  the  ob- 
ject of  the  design  is  to  permit  the  tower  to  vi- 
brate, but  to  dampen  the  impulses.  This  tower 
emphasized  a  point  often  brought  up  in  connec- 
tion with  tower  structures,  that  strength  and 
flexibility  are  more  essential  than  mere  rigidity. 

TABtlT.  There  was  considerable  discussion 
of  the  workings  of  the  Democratic  tariff  of  1013 
during  the  year.  It  was  attacked  at  different 
times  by  various  manufacturers  and  associations 
of  manufacturers,  and  it  was  blamed  by  poli- 
ticians for  the  existence  of  hard  times.  In  the 
early  fall  preceding  the  primary  election  Re- 
publican speakers,  notably  Senator  Lodge  in 
Massachusetts,  emphasized  the  tariff  as  a  prom- 
inent factor  in  the  industrial  depression  which 
had  existed  and  forecast  it  as  the  chief  issue 
in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1916.  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce  Redfleld  made  answers  to 
numerous  objections  in  addresses  and  published 
letters;  and  the  tariff  was  defended  by  leading 
publicists.  Statistics  were  presented  to  show 
that  it  was  not  injurious  to  the  woolen  trade; 
that  the  knit  goods  industry  was  thriving  in 
spite  of  manufacturers*  protests;  that,  contrary 
to  claims,  the  pottery  industry  had  not  been  ad- 
versely affected;  and  that  the  price  of  sugar  to 
the  public  had  been  lowered. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  the  business 
revival  became  so  pronounced  that  discussion 
shifted  to  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  foreign 
trade  following  the  war.  In  July  a  campaign 
to  secure  a  permanent  non-partisan  tariff  com- 
mission was  launched  with  the  support  of  lead- 
ing manufacturers  and  publicists  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  This  propaganda  was  well  organ- 
ized and  supported  and  brought  the  issue  clearly 
before  the  entire  nation.  Shortly  thereafter 
manufacturers  in  various  lines  put  forward  the 
proposal  that  a  special  commission  be  provided 
to  establish  scientific  protective  rates  for  indus- 
tries established  during  the  war.  The  dye- 
stuffs  industry  was  believed  to  be  in  special 
need  of  protection.  The  President  gave  assur- 
ance that  this  industry  would  receive  due  con- 
sideration.    The    secretary    of   commerce    stated 


that  his  department  was  devising  ways  to  keep 
out  cheap  foreign  goods  following  the  eondusion 
of  the  war. 

The  5  Peb  Gent  Cases.  The  tariff  act  of 
1913  provided  that  a  rebate  of  5  per  cent  of  the 
duties  should  be  allowed  on  gooos  imported  in 
American  vessels,  "Provided,  That  nothing  in 
this  subsection  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  abro- 
gate or  in  any  manner  impair  or  affect  the  pro- 
visions of  any  treaty  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  any  foreign  nation.'*  The 
interpretation  of  this  secticm  was  difficult,  ow- 
ing to  special  trade  treaties  between  the  United 
States  and  nine  other  nations  besides  Cuba. 
The  treaty  with  Cuba  provided  for  a  preferen- 
tial reduction  of  20  per  cent  from  the  regular 
tariff  rates.  The  treaties  of  other  nations  con- 
tained "moet-favored-nations"  clauses  prevent- 
ing designation  against  them,  and  also  sections 
known  as  the  "reciprocal  commercial  provision." 
This  latter  provision  stated  that  any  merchan- 
dise imported  from  the  designated  country 
should  be  assessed  the  same  duties  regardless 
of  whether  imported  in  vessels  of  the  United 
States  or  of  the  contracting  nation.  On  June 
10th  the  United  States  Court  of  Customs  after 
extensive  inquiry  formulated  the  following  con- 
clusions: (1)  merchandise  imported  in  regis- 
tered vessels  of  the  United  States  is  entitled  to 
the  5  per  cent  discount;  (2)  merchandise  im- 
ported in  the  registered  vessels  of  the  treaty 
nations,  both  back  imported  and  entered  after 
the  tariff  act  of  1913  became  effective  as  well 
as  that  previously  transported  but  entered  in 
bond  for  warehousing  and  subsequently  with- 
drawn from  consumption  is  entitled  to  the  5 
per  cent  discount;  (3)  likewise  merchandise 
imported  in  American  vessels  before  the  act 
became  effective,  entered  in  bond  and  conse- 
quently withdrawn  from  consumption  is  en- 
titled to  the  5  per  cent  discount;  and  (4)  mer- 
chandise from  Cuba  is  entitled  to  the  20  per 
cent  ad  valorem  reduction  as  well  as  the  5  per 
cent  discount.  In  other  words,  these  opinions 
held  that  in  all  of  the  14  cases  that  had  arisen 
the  provisions  of  the  law  were  to  be  interpreted 
literally.  It  was  expected  that  the  refunds 
under  these  opinions  would  amount  to  from 
$16,000,000  to  $20,000,000. 

TABXINGTONy  Booth.  See  Litebatubb, 
English  and  Amebican,  Fiction, 

TASMANIA.  An  island  south  of  Victoria, 
constituting  a  state  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia.  Tasmania  covers  26,215  square 
miles,  practically  equivalent  to  the  combined 
area  of  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Massa- 
chusetts, which  is  26,194  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, census  of  April  3,  1911,  191,211;  estimate 
of  June  30,  1914,  196,757.  The  capital  is  Ho- 
bart;  its  population,  with  suburbs,  was  39,948 
in  1913.  Launceston,  the  second  town,  had  in 
1913  a  population  of  24,703.  Governor  in  1915, 
Sir  William  Grey  Ellison-Macartney  (from 
March,  1913) :  premier  and  attorney-general, 
John  Earle.     See  Australia. 

TASSIN,  Wibt  du  Vivieb.  American  chemist 
and  metallurgist,  died  Nov.  2,  1915.  He  was 
born  in  Fort  Whippel,  Va.,  in  1869,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Cornell  and  Harvard  universities.  For 
a  time  he  was  engaged  in  applied  chemistry,  and 
then  became  special  agent  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  at  the  Chicago  Exposition. 
From  1893-1909  he  was  commissioner  and  as- 
sistant curator  of  the  Division  of  Mineralogy  at 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


cal  engineer.  He  was  the  author  of  many  papers 
on  scientific  subjects,  including,  "The  Charactors 
of  Minerals,  Gems,  and  Precious  Stones,"  and 
''MetallurpTT  and  Heat  Treatment  of  Metals/' 

TAXATION.  Reoent  tendencies  in  taxation 
in  the  United  States  include  a  transition  from 
local  to  central  control  in  State  taxation;  a 
growing  tendency  for  local  revenues  to  be  sup- 
plied more  and  more  from  property  taxes  and 
for  State  revenues  to  be  supplied  from  corpora- 
tion taxes  of  various  kinds  supplemented  by 
income  and  inheritance  taxes;  and  an  effort  of 
the  federal  government  to  supplement  the  re- 
ceipts from  customs  and  internal  revenue  by 
stamp  taxes,  income  and  corporation  taxes. 
During  1915  a  very  extensive  increase  in  the 
rates  of  the  federal  income  tax  was  advocated, 
especially  the  introduction  of  more  rapid  pro- 
gression in  rates ;  and  a  federal  inheritance  tax 
was  advocated  by  the  Industrial  Relations  Com- 
mission (q.v.). 

Income  Tax.  The  total  receipts  of  the  in- 
come tax  for  both  individuals  and  corporations 
for  the  fiscal  year  1915  were  $80,190,000.  This 
was  an  increase  of  nearly  $13,000,000  over  the 
year  1914.  The  tax  on  individuals  produced 
$41,046,000.  Of  this  sum  New  York  residents 
paid  $17,417,500;  Pennsylvania,  $4,642,500; 
Massachusetts,  $2,683,000;  and  Illinois,  $2,670,- 
600.  Incomes  of  the  lowest  class,  or  those  under 
$20,000  and  assessed  at  1  per  cent,  yielded  $16,- 
577,000.  Incomes  between  $20,000  and  $50,000 
yielded  $4,098,000;  those  between  $50,000  and 
$75,000  $2,496,500;  those  between  $75,000  and 
$100,000,  $2,099,600;  those  between  $100,000  and 
$250,000,  $5,943,800;  those  between  $250,000 
and  $500,000,  $3,328,400;  and  those  over  $500,- 
000,  $6,439,000.  Each  of  these  six  classes  of 
incomes  above  $20,000  is  taxed  an  additional 
tax  ranging  from  1  to  6  per  cent.  The  number 
of  persons  paying  the  individual  income  tax  in 
1915  was  357,515  or  83  fewer  than  in  1914. 

The  tax  on  the  incomes  of  corporations  yielded 
$39,144,000.  Of  this  sum  New  York  paid  $10,- 
221,000;  Pennsylvania,  $4,725,300;  Illinois,  $2,- 
983,000;  Ohio,  $2,538,000;  Massachusetts,  $1,- 
853,000;  California,  $1,620,000;  and  New  Jer- 
sey, Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Missouri  more 
than  $1,000,000  each.  From  New  York  alone 
was  paid  about  one-third  of  the  total  yield  of 
the  income  tax. 

New  York.  A  committee  on  taxation  ap- 
pointed by  Mayor  Mitchel  in  April,  1914,  car- 
ried on  comprehensive  and  exhaustive  studies 
of  taxation  methods  of  cities  both  in  America 
and  abroad.  Of  this  committee  Alfred  £.  Mar- 
ling was  chairman;  Frederick  C.  Howe,  secre- 
tary; and  Prof.  E.  R.  A.  Seligman,  chairman  of 
the  executive  committee.  Among  their  reports 
were  two  prepared  by  Dr.  Robert  M.  Haig  and 
Included  in  the  Bibliography  at  the  close  of 
this  article.  The  committee  held  a  scries  of 
public  hearings  in  November.  At  these  and  in 
its  deliberations  the  advocates  of  the  Single 
Tax,  of  untaxing  improvements,  and  of  a  land 
increment  tax  were  especially  insistent.  The 
committee  was  expected  to  issue  its  final  report 
early  in  the  year.  It  was  giving  favorable  con- 
sideration to  an  income  tax  for  the  State  and 
also  to  a  habitation  tax,  an  occupation  tax,  and 
a  salaries  tax  for  New  York  City.  Previously  a 
committee  of  the  State  Legislature,  the  Mills 


were  to  provide  reven 
ing  expenditures,  this 
at  $200,000,000  for  N 
next  five  years.  The 
ber  made  known  a  ten 
tax  of  1  per  cent  on 
$2500;  2  per  cent  on  1 
per  cent  on  the  net  in 

COBFORATIONB.      DurJ 

volume  of  a  very  exten 
of  Corporations  (now 
Trade  Commission)  (< 
corporations  in  various 
covered  the  methods  v 
Southwestern  States, 
facturing,  mercantile,  1 
mission  companies,  ar. 
securities  issued  by  thi 
in  use  in  the  different  1 
visions,  statutory  reqi 
pretations,  and  financi 
It  was  found  that  all 
collect  from  corporat 
yearly,  not  includmg  a 
civil  bodies  such  as  co 
Railway,  insurance,  ai 
contribute  about  40 
Methods  of  taxation  w 
more  widely  than  met 
als.  Some  States,  sucli 
Vermont,  Connecticut, 
fornia,  endeavor  to  s< 
from  corporation  taxes, 
and  the  District  of  C 
found  that  the  taxes  p 
stituted  about  40  per 
property  tax  35  per  ce 
per  cent,  liquor  taxes  ' 
ceipts  9  per  cent. 

Legislation.  A  grc 
l^slation  was  enacted 
some  in  every  one  of  tl 
latures  met  in  1915.  ( 
tendencies  in  such  legi 
a  concentration  of  con 
assessment  and  collect 
New  inheritance  tax 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  ai 
Oklahoma  also  passed  i 
Complete  revisions  of  i 
were  put  through  in  Co 
and  West  Virginia.  "S. 
sylvania  imposed  taxes 
Pennsylvania  imposed  i 
of  2%  per  cent  of  its  ^ 
market.  Virginia  gen< 
laws.  In  Massachusette 
nient  was  passed  by  refc 
the  Legislature  to  impo 
comes  which  may  be  gra 
in  this  case  may  be  a< 
property  from  which  d< 
ferentiation  of  property 
come,  and  may  permit  i 
from  property  which  is 
mission  of  investigatioi 
fornia,  Indiana,  and  Ne 
cial  commissions  for  the 
reports  to  be  submitted 
Legislature. 

Bibliosrraphy.    H.  C. 
Late  of  Income  Tawitum 


ioogle 


TAXAHOH 


636 


Ijaw9;  R.  Burrows,  The  New  Income  Tax  in  Re- 
lation to  the  Wa/r  and  Busineee;  A.  G.  Cameron, 
The  Torrenn  Syetem:  It$  Simplicity,  Service- 
ability,  and  Suooees;  D.  R.  Dew^,  Financial 
Biatory  of  the  United  Statee,  6th  ed.;  R.  M. 
Haig,  Some  Probable  Effeote  of  the  Exemption 
of  Improvementa  from  Taxation  in  the  City  of 
New  York;  and  by  the  same  author,  The  Ex- 
emption of  Improvemente  from  Taxation  in 
Canada  and  the  United  Btatee;  A.  Heringa,  Free 
Trade  and  Protectioniem  in  Holland;  W.  I.  King, 
The  Valuation  of  Urban  Realty  for  Purpoeee 
of  Taxation,  With  Certain  Seotione  Eepeeially 
Applicable  to  Wiaconein;  Q.  Milliken,  Taxation 
of  Intanffiblea  a  Farce;  National  Tax  Aasocia- 
tion.  Proceedings  of  the  Eighth  Annual  Con- 
ference; Carl  G.  Plehn,  Oovemment  Finance  in 
the  United  Statee;  and  Louis  F.  Post,  The  Tax- 
ation of  Land  Values. 

TAYLOBy  Fbederiok  Winslow.  American 
engineer,  died  March  21,  1916;  born  in  German- 
town,  Pa.,  in  1866,  and  graduated  from  the 
SteTens  Institute  of  Technology  in  1863.  He 
entered  the  employ  of  the  Midvale  Company 
in  1878,  and  rose  to  be  chief  engineer  in  1889. 
He  left  the  employ  of  this  company  and  b^gan 
the  work  of  organising  the  management  of 
plants  of  various  Kinds.  He  was  the  originator 
and  chief  exponent  of  the  modem  principles  of 
business  efficiency.  He  invented  the  Taylor  and 
White  process  of  treating  modern  high  speed 
tools,  for  which  he  received  a  gold  medal  from 
the  Paris  Exhibition  and  from  the  Franklin  In- 
stitute. He  received  over  100  patents  for  various 
inventions.  His  published  writings  include  Con- 
crete, Plain  and  Reenforced  (1896) ;  The  Princi- 
plea  of  Scientific  Management  (1911).  He  also 
contributed  many  articles  on  scientific  manage- 
ment to  periodicals. 

TAYLOBy  John  Phelps.  American  clergy- 
man and  educator,  died  Sep.  13,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1841,  and  graduated 
from  Tale  College  in  1862.  He  then  studied  for 
several  years  at  Paris,  Bonn,  and  Vienna.  In 
1868  he  graduated  from  Andover  llieological 
Seminary.  After  being  ordained  to  the  Congre- 
gationalist  ministry  he  became  in  1879  pastor 
of  the  South  Church,  at  Middletown,  Gonn.  He 
afterwards  held  pastorates  at  Newport,  R.  I., 
and  New  London,  Conn.  He  was  professor  of 
Biblical  study  at  Andover  Seminary,  and  in 
1896  lectured  on  Egyptology  in  the  Peabody 
Institute  at  Baltimore.  From  1884  to  1893  he 
was  contributing  editor  on  archsoology  to  the 
Andover  Review,  He  was  a  director  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society  from  1881-92. 

TEACHINGy  Carnegie  FbUNDATioN  vob  the 
Advancement  or.  See  Univebsities  A2n>  Col- 
leges, under  section  so  entitled. 

TELBOBAPHY.  See  Wibklbss  IYblbgkavbt 
AND  Telephony. 

TELEPHOKY.  The  most  notable  achieve- 
ment in  telephony  during  the  year  1916  was  the 
opening  for  commercial  use,  on  January  26th,  of 
the  transcontinental  line  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco,  3400  miles  in  length,  with  its  two 
copper  circuits  carried  on  130,000  poles.  The 
total  weight  of  the  conductors,  each  0.106  inch 
in  diameter,  was  6,920,000  pounds.  In  pursu- 
ance of  the  policy  adopted  a  few  years  ago,  the 
Bell  interests  continued  to  increase  their  co- 
operative facilities  in  connection  with  the  inde- 
pendent telephone  systems  by  the  purchase  of 
these  companies  from  time  to  time  as  oppor- 


tunity oifered.  At  a  meeting  held  in  Chicago, 
the  National  Independent  Telephone  Association 
of  America  formed  a  new  union,  called  the 
United  States  Telephone  Association.  Each  of 
the  old  bodies  gave  up  its  existence  to  form  the 
new  association. 

There  were  about  11,000,000  telephones  in  use 
in  the  United  States  in  1916,  of  which  9,000,000 
were  connected  in  the  Bell  system,  and  mere 
than  200,000  persons  were  employed  in  the  tele- 
phone indust^.  Among  the  detailed  improve- 
ments in  telephone  practice  during  the  year  may 
be  mentioned  a  more  flexible  and  satisfactory 
intercommunicating  type  of  phone  for  anart- 
ment  houses,  a  loud  speaking  phone  for  railway 
train  dispatching,  and  an  all-metal  switchboard 
for  ships  of  the  navy.  The  automatie  telephone 
was  improved,  as  regards  details,  but  nothing 
was  decided  regarding  the  necessity  of  adopting 
such  a  ^stem. 

Thebhophone.  a  new  type  of  telephone  re- 
ceiver, based  upon  discoveries  made  several  years 
earlier,  was  perfected  by  de  Lange,  and  ^led 
a  thermophone.  Its  operation  depended  upon 
the  fact  that  telephone  currents  traversing  a 
loop  of  exceedingly  fine  platinum  wire  placed 
inside  a  perforated  metal  cover  heated  the  wire 
S3mchronously  and  the  energy  so  absorbed  was 
transformed  into  sound.  The  platinum  wire  re- 
placed the  magnet  and  diaphragm  commonly  used 
as  a  telephone  receiver.  The  whole  apparatus 
was  small  enough  to  be  placed  in  the  ear  bv  a 
person  using  it,  thus  leaving  both  hands  free 
to  write  memoranda,  etc.  In  the  open  air  the 
loop  of  platinum  wire  emits  only  a  feeble  sound, 
but  when  enclosed  in  a  perforated  shell  of 
aluminum  the  loudness  as  well  as  the  distinct- 
ness of  the  sound  is  greatly  enhanced.  On  ac- 
count of  the  small  amount  of  energy  in  tele- 
phonic currents  the  thermophone  was  eonnected 
in  the  same  circuit  with  the  transmitter.  The 
platinum  wire  used  was  about  .002  millimeter  in 
diameter.  While  the  general  theory  of  the  in- 
strument had  not  been  fully  worked  out,  it  was 
known  that  the  acoustic  eifeet  was  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  square  of  the  current 
strength.  Variations  in  the  heating  and  cool- 
ing of  the  wire  occurred  In  synchronism  with 
the  vibrations  of  the  microphone  at  the  trans- 
mitting end  of  the  line. 

Hie  United  States  army  signal  corps  brought 
out  a  portable  field  telephone  and  buzzer  set 
that  replaced  the  former  standard  field  buzzer, 
cavalry  buzzer,  and  field  artillery  telephone.  The 
line  used  was  a  single  wire  laid  on  the  ground 
and  unwound  from  a  reel  carried  by  a  soldier. 
Even  if  the  line  were  broken,  commimication  was 
still  maintained  by  employing  a  system  of  Morse 
siffnals  with  the  buzzer.  Receiver  and  trans- 
mitter were  combined  in  one  unit,  weighing  only 
11  pounds. 

TELESCOPES.    See  Astbonomt. 

TEHPEL'S  SECOND  OOMET.  See  Astbon- 
omt. 

TEKPERANCE.  See  Aux>hol;  Liqu«» 
RBotJLATiON;  LiQUOBS;  and  various  States  of 
the  United  States,  section  Politics  and  Gfofem- 
ment. 

TENNESSEE.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916,  was 
2,271,379.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,184,- 
789. 

AoBicuLTUBB.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  ^imated  by  the 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


TENNESSEE  637 

United   States   Department   of   Apiculture,   in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


TENNESSEE 


Aereaff§ 

Prod.Bu. 

TolttS 

Corn     ... 

. . 1915 

8,500.000 
8.850.000 

94.500,000  1 
80.400.000 

154,810,000 

1914 

54.672,000 

Wheat     . . 

..1915 

860,000 

9,080,000 

9,752.000 

1914 

720,000 

11,160,000 

11.718.000 

Oato    . . . . 

. .1915 

857.000 
850,000 

8,746.000 
8,050,000 

4.878,000 

1914 

4,266.000 

Bye    .... 

..1916 

18.000 

189,000 

195,000 

1914 

22,000 

286,000 

280,000 

Barley     . . 

..1915 

6,000 

144,000 

108.000 

1914 

5.000 

185,000 

111,000 

Potatoes    . 

...1915 

86.000 

8,168,000 

1,996.000 

1914 

85,000 

1,505,000 

1,870,000 

Hay     .... 

...1915 

950,000 

a  1,896,000 

19,404,000 

1914 

800,000 

960,000 

16.820.000 

Tobaeco     . 

,..1915 

92.900 

h  69.675 

4,890,000 

1914 

77.400 

68,468 

4,760,000 

Cotton     . . 

..1915 

780,000 

e  295,000 

15,957,000 

1914 

915,000 

884,000 

11.749.000 

a  Tons. 

h  Pounds,     e  Bales. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  349,000  and 
353,000,  valued  at  $35,249,000  and  $35,300,000; 
mules  numbered  272,000  and  276,000,  valued  at 
$30,736,000  and  $30,260,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 366,000  and  355,000,  valued  at  $14,457,- 
000  and  $14,555,000 ;  other  cattle  numbered  518,- 
000  and  503,000,  valued  at  $11,707,000  and 
$11,267,000;  sheep  numbered  661,000  and  674,- 
000,  valued  at  $2,710,000  and  $2,494,000;  swine 
numbered  1,531,000  and  1,501,000,  valued  at  $10,- 
411,000  and  $11,708,000.  The  production  of  wool 
in  1915  and  1914  was  1,963,000  and  1,914,000 
pounds  respectively. 

MiNBBAL  FsoDUonon.  The  production  of  cop- 
per in  1914  was  18,737,756  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,492,108,  compared  with  19,390,750  pounds 
valued  at  $3,006,566  in  1913.  The  silver  pro- 
duced amounted  to  97,402  ounces,  valued  at  $53,- 
864.  The  production  of  zinc  in  1914  was  by 
far  the  largest  ever  recorded  from  Tennessee. 
This  amounted  to  10,425  short  tons  valued  at 
$1,063,350,  compared  with  5583  tons  valued  at 
$625,296  in  1913.  The  iron  ore  mined  in  the 
State  in  1914  amounted  to  330,214  long  tons, 
compared  with  364,092  long  tons  in  1913.  The 
marketed  value  in  1914  was  $466,523,  compared 
with  a  value  in  1913  of  $493,556.  The  total 
production  of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914  was 
5,943,258  short  tons,  valued  at  $6,776,573.  This 
was  a  decrease  of  916,926  tons  from  the  pro- 
duction of  1913.  The  decrease  was  due  chiefly 
to  the  demoralization  of  the  cotton  industry, 
and  the  general  business  depression  which  pre- 
vailed during  the  latter  part  of  1914.  The  total 
number  of  men  employed  in  the  coal  mines  in 
1914  was  10,116  compared  with  11,238  men  in 
1913.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral  produc- 
tion in  1914  was  $19,645,213  compared  with  $21,- 
008,938  in  1913. 

TBAifSFOBTATiov.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  1915  was  4165.  During  the  year  there  was 
an  increase  of  35  miles  constructed  by  the  Ten- 
nessee Western  Railroad.  The  Lewisburg  and 
the  Northern  Railway  Company  completed  its 
lines  during  the  year.  Both  these  roads  are 
operated  by  the  Louisville  and  Nashville. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  of 
the  State  in  1914  was  776,895.  There  were  en- 
rolled in  the  public  schools  593,437.  The  aver- 
age daily  attendance  was  431,053.  The  total 
numbtf  of  teachers,  male  and  female,  was  12,578. 


The  total  school  expenditures  for  the  year  were 
$6,064,663. 

Finance.  The  latest  financial  report  is  for 
the  biennial  period  1912-14.  The  report  of  the 
State  treasurer  shows  a  balance  in  the  treasury 
on  Dec.  30,  1912,  of  $785,120.  The  total  receipts 
for  the  two  year  period  were  $9,166,870,  and  the 
disbursements  were  $9,779,579,  leaving  a  balance 
at  the  end  of  the  period  of  $172,411.  The  inter- 
est bearing  bonded  debt  of  $10,781,000  was  due 
July  1,  1915,  and  Oct.  1,  1915,  and  were  paid. 

Ghabities  and  OoBBEcnoNS.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  State  Hos- 

Sital  for  the  Insane  and  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
chool  at  Knoxville,  the  Western  State  Hospital 
for  the  Insane  at  Bolivar,  Central  Hospital  for 
the  Insane,  and  the  Tennessee  Reformatory, 
Tennessee  Industrial  School,  Tennessee  School 
for  the  Blind,  and  the  State  Prison,  all  at  Nash- 
ville.   There  is  also  a  branch  prison  at  Petros. 

PouTiGS  AND  GovEBNMENT.  The  Legislature 
passed  in  March  a  bill  abolishing  capital  punish- 
ment, except  for  cases  of  criminal  assault,  or 
life  convicts  who  commit  murder.  This  bill  waa 
vetoed  by  the  Governor.  A  primary  bill  was 
killed  in  the  Legislature.  Senator  Lea  and  his 
supporters  made  a  strong  fight  for  primaries  in 
which  the  Senator  would  be  nominated  in  1916, 
but  all  measures  on  the  subject  failed,  and  the 
nomination  was  left  to  the  Democratic  State 
Committee.  The  Legislature  passed  a  law  de- 
signed to  bring  about  a  stricter  enforcement  of 
the  prohibition  law.  This  provides  for  the  re- 
moval from  office  of  State,  county,  or  city  offi- 
cials, other  than  holders  of  constitutional  office, 
who  fail  to  enforce  the  laws  of  the  State.  A 
measure  forbidding  social  and  fraternal  clubs  to 
dispense  liquor  or  maintain  lodcers  for  members 
was  also  passed.  The  supervision  of  the  soft 
drink  stands  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
pure  food  and  drug  department,  and  it  was  for- 
bidden to  sell  beverages  containing  more  than 
%  per  e&at  alcohol.  Drug  stores  are  prohibited 
from  selling  intoxicants  except  on  bona  fide  pre- 
scriptions given  to  persons  who  actually  are  ill. 
Attempts  to  pass  a  workman's  compensation  act 
in  the  Legislature  failed. 

The  dtv  of  Nashville  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  receiver  in  July.  This  action  followed  the 
disappearance  of  11  of  the  cash  books  of  the 
city  whidi  covered  a  period  from  1908-12.  The 
controller  and  other  citizens  filed  a  bill  in  chan- 
cery asking  for  a  receivership  to  take  charge 
of  the  affairs  of  the  city.  City  Treasurer  Charles 
A.  Myers  was  arrested,  charged  with  the  ap- 
propriation of  $10,000  of  municipal  funds.  The 
warrant  was  obtained  by  the  controller,  who  had 
the  opposition  of  all  the  other  city  officials. 
The  controller  found  that  the  treasurer  had  mis- 
appropriated the  sum  and  obtained  it  from  the 
local  banks  as  interest  money.  Mr.  Myers  was 
held  in  $20,000  bail  to  appear  before  the  grand 
jury.  The  city  finance  commissioner  was  also 
placed  under  arrest.  The  grand  jury  on  June 
26th  returned  indictments  against  the  finance 
commissioner,  the  controller,  and  the  assistant 
city  treasurer.  The  latter  officer  had  left  for  Aus- 
tralia. A  recall  petition  to  remove  the  mayor 
and  city  commissioners  was  circulated.  On 
July  6th  the  Supreme  Court  declined  to  dismiss 
the  petition  of  the  controller  for  a  receiver.  T. 
J.  Bailey,  the  deputy  clerk,  was  appointed  master 
to  take  evidence  on  all  the  charges  made  against 
the  heads  of  the  city  government.    He  enjoined 


Digitized  by 


Google 


TENNESSEE 


638 


TEXAS 


the  chief  officials  from  carrying  out  many  city  con- 
tracts, thus  tying  up  more  than  $1,000,000  worth 
of  work,  a  large  portion  of  which  was  charged  as 
fraudulently  let.  He  also  enjoined  the  city  from 
paying  any  money  to  the  attorneys  employed  by 
the  mayor  and  commissioners  to  fight  the  citi- 
zens' movement,  and  declined  to  dissolve  an  in- 
junction against  the  head  officials  which  re- 
strained them  from  discharging  the  controller, 
and  reserved  a  similar  decision  on  this  question 
as  well  as  on  the  employment  of  a  receiver. 

The  mayor  of  Memphis,  E.  H.  Crump,  the 
commissioner  of  fire  and  police,  and  the  judge  of 
the  Municipal  Court  were  removed  from  office 
by  the  Chancery  Court  on  November  4th,  as  a 
result  of  charges  filed  against  them  by  the  at- 
torney-general of  the  citv.  These  charges  in- 
volved allegation  of  willful  failure  to  enforce 
the  liquor  laws.  George  C.  Love  was  elected 
mayor. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Thomas  C. 
Rye;  Secretary  of  State,  R.  R.  Sneed;  Treasurer, 
Porter  Dunlap;  Auditor,  Hayes  Flowers;  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture,  H.  K.  Bryson;  Super- 
intendent of  Education,  S.  W.  Sherrill;  Comp- 
troller, John  B.  Thompson;  Adjutant-General, 
Charles  B.  Roga^;  Attorney-General,  Frank  M. 
Thompson;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  William 
F.  Dunbar — all  Democrats. 

JUDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
M.  M.  Neil;  Justices,  A.  S.  Buchanan,  Grafton 
Green,  S.  C.  Williams,  and  D.  Lansden;  Clerk, 
Preston  Vaughn. 

State  LsaiBUkTUBE: 


Democrats 
Bepublicans 


maiB 

HotUB 

Joint  Ballot 

26 

72 

98 

7 

27 

84 

Democratic  majority . .      19 


45 


64 


TENKESSBIi,  Univebsity  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution for  higher  learning  founded  at  Knox- 
ville,  Tenn.,  in  1874.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915,  not  in- 
cluding medical,  dental,  and  pharmacal  students, 
was  716.  The  faculty  numbered  242.  There 
were  no  noteworthy  changes  in  the  membership 
of  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  benefac- 
tions of  special  note  were  received.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  of  the  xmiversity  amount  to  about 
$300,000.  The  library  contains  about  40,000 
volumes.  The  president  is  Brown  Ayres,  Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

TENNIS.    See  Lawn  Tennib. 

TESBESTBIAL  MAGNETISM.  See  Cab- 
NEGiE  Institution  of  Washington. 

TETANUS  (Lockjaw).  The  prevalence  of 
the  germ  of  this  dangerous  and  often  fatal  disease 
has  been  emphasized  in  the  article  on  Foubth  of 
July  Injuries  (q.v.).  The  occurrence  of  the 
germs  in  the  soil  was  demonstrated  in  specimens 
from  the  streets  of  26  out  of  38  cities.  Many 
men  who  worlc  in  stables  are  tetanus  carriers, 
as  are  certain  horses.  Thirty  per  cent  of  the 
examinations  of  the  feces  of  men  so  employed 
yielded  positive  results,  showing  the  presence 
of  the  germs.  W.  H.  Park  of  New  York  states 
that  15  per  cent  of  calves  and  horses  about  New 
York  City  harbor  tetanus  bacilli  in  their  in- 
testines. The  spores  have  imusual  viability. 
Protected  from  sunlight  and  deleterious  influ- 
ences, they  may  live  and  remain  virulent  for 
years.     Trifling  scratches,  without  showing  ir- 


ritation, and  evai  if  sealed  with  dry  blood,  may 
provide  the  point  of  entrance  for  the  bacillus. 
Antitetanic  serum  often  cuts  short  an  attack  in 
the  case  of  wounded  soldiers,  to  whom  a  pre- 
ventive injection  has  been  given,  to  be  repeated 
on  the  first  slim  of  a  spasm,  as  for  example  a 
twitching  of  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

TEXAS.  Popuultion.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916,  was  4,343,- 
710.     The  population  in  1910  was  3,896,542. 

Agbioultube.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-16  were  as  follows : 


$101,544,000 

92.862.000 

24.462.000 

18.025.000 

18.888,000 

10.800.000 

85.000 

80.000 

171.000 

140.000 

7.058.000 

7.454.000 

2.866.000 

2,701.000 

6.044.000 

7.722,000 

27.000 

24.000 

168.812.000 

149.574.000 


Aereago 

Prod.  Bu. 

Corn    . . 

.1915 

7.460.000 

175,075.000 

1914 

6.400.000 

124.800,000 

Wheat     . 

.1915 

1,475,000 

22.862,000 

1914 

1.082.000 

14.066.000 

OaU    . . . 

.1915 

1.260,000 

44,875.000 

1914 

900,000 

22,500,000 

Rye     ... 

.1915 

2,000 

84,000 

1914 

2.000 

80.000 

Barley     . 

.1915 

9,000 

L62.000 

1914 

8,000 

200,000 

Rice     .. 

.1915 

260.000 

7,930,000 

1914 

239,700 

8,012.000 

Potatoes 

.1915 

42,000 

2,730,000 

1914 

44.000 

2,684,000 

Hay     .. 

.1915 

450.000 

a  765,000 

1914 

460.000 

788.000 

Tobacco 

.1915 

200 

h  100,000 

1914 

200 

116,000 

Cotton     . 

.1916 

10,200,000 

c  8,176.000 

1914 

11.981.000 

4.592.000 

a  Tone,     b  Pounds,     e  Bales. 


LiYB  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  1,186,000  and 
1,192,000,  valued  at  $92,040,000  and  $92,976,000; 
mules  numbered  768,000  and  763,000,  valued  at 
$76,800,000  and  $76,300,000;  milch  cows  num- 
bered 1,119,000  and  1,086,000,  valued  at  $57,- 
060,000  and  $61,585,000;  other  cattle  numbered 
6,428,000  and  6,121,000,  valued  at  $179,667,000 
and  $162,336,000;  sheep  numbered  2,166,000  and 
2,144,000,  valued  at  $7,977,000  and  $6,765,000; 
swine  numbered  3,197,000  and  2,880,000,  valued 
at  $24,617,000  and  $25,920,000.  The  production 
of  wool  in  1915  and  1914  was  8,643,000  and  9,- 
280,000  pounds  respectively. 

MiNEBAL  Production.  The  coal  production  of 
the  State  in  1914  was  2,323,773  short  tons, 
valued  at  $3,992,469.  The  coal  production  ia 
divided  nearly  evoily  between  lignite  and  bi- 
tuminous, the  balance  being  slightly  in  favor  of 
the  bituminous.  With  the  exception  of  the  pro- 
duction of  1913  the  production  of  1914  was  the 
largest  on  record.  It  was  less  than  in  1913  by 
106,371  tons.  The  production  of  petroleum  in 
the  State  in  1914  broke  all  previous  records,  ex- 
ceeding the  output  of  1913  by  about  34  per  cent. 
The  production  was  20,068,184  barrels,  compared 
with  16,009,478  barrels  in  1913.  Texas  ranks 
fourth  among  the  States  in  the  production.  The 
value  of  the  production  in  1914  was  $14,942,- 
848,  compared  with  a  value  of  $14,676,693  in 
1913.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral  produc- 
tion in  1914  was  $30,363,426,  compared  with 
$31,666,910  in  1913. 

Tranbfobtation.  The  total  mileage  of  rail- 
ways in  the  State  in  1914  was  16,669.  There 
was  no  construction  during  1916.  The  railways 
having  the  longest  mileage  are  the  Ckilveston, 
Harrisburg,  and  San  Antonio,  1331;  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas^  1119;  the  International  and 


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TEXAS 


630 


tbxthjB  xakuvactxtsino 


Great  Northern,  1106,  and  the  Texas  and  Pacifle, 
1038. 

Education.  The  school  population  in  1014 
was  1,433,476.  About  870,000  were  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools.  The  Lef^islature  of  1016 
enacted  a  compulsory  attendance  law,  established 
a  county  board  of  education,  and  appropriated 
money  for  the  purpose  of  extablishing  a  depart- 
ment of  vocational  training  in  the  high  schools. 
Three  assistant  superintendents  were  provided 
for  in  the  same  Legislature. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  fiscal  year  1014  shows  a  balance  Aug. 
31,  1013,  of  $333,615.  The  receipts  for  the  year 
amounted  to  $14,274,728,  and  the  disbursements 
to  $12,886,734,  leaving  a  balance  on  hand  on 
Aug.  31,  1014,  of  $1,721,600. 

Chabitiis  and  Gobbections.  The  State 
charitable  and  correctional  institutions  include 
the  State  Penitentiary  at  Huntsville,  State  Peni- 
tentiary at  Rusk,  State  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Aus- 
tin, North  Texas- Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Ter- 
rel,  S.  W.  Insane  Asylum  at  San  Antonio,  State 
Orphans  Home  at  Corsicana,  State  Epileptic 
Colony  at  Abilene,  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute  at 
Austin,  State  School  for  the  Blind  at  Austin, 
Confederate  Home  at  Austin,  Woman's  Con- 
federate Home  at  Austin,  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind 
Institute  for  Colored  Youth  at  Austin,  State 
Juvenile  Training  School  at  Gkitesville,  State 
I'uberculosis  Sanatorium  at  Carlsbad,  and  Girls' 
Training  School  at  Gainesville. 

Politics  and  Government.  A  resolution  was 
introduced  in  the  Legislature  in  February  pro- 
viding for  the  creation  of  a  new  State  in  the 
"Pan  Handle"  of  West  Texas.  The  new  creation 
was  to  be  called  the  State  of  Jefferson.  No  defi- 
nite action  was  taken  on  the  resolution.  The 
right  of  Texas  to  form  new  States  was  con- 
ferred by  the  act  of  Congress,  which  admitted 
it  to  the  Union.  By  the  provision  of  this  act, 
four  new  States  of  convenient  size  and  of  suffi- 
cient population  may,  by  the  consent  of  the 
voters  in  the  State  at  large,  be  formed  out  of 
the  territory  of  Texas.  This  special  privilege 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  Texas  came  into  the 
Union  as  an  independent  republic,  and  not  as  a 
Territory.  A  resolution  for  a  constitutional 
amendment  providing  for  woman  suffrage  was 
defeated  in  the  House  by  a  vote  of  00  to  32. 
The  resolution  required  04  votes  to  pass  und^ 
a  two-thirds  rule. 

State  Government.  Governor,  James  E.  Fer- 
guson; Lieutenant-Governor,  W.  P.  Hobby; 
Secretary  of  State,  John  G.  McKay;  Adjutant- 
General,  Henry  Hutchings;  Attorney-General, 
Benjamin  P.  Looney;  State  Treasurer,  J.  M.  Ed- 
wards; Comptroller,  H.  B.  Terrell;  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  W.  F.  Doughty;  Land 
Commissioner,  J.  T.  Robinson;  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  Fred  W.  Davis;  Commissioner  of 
Insurance,  John  S.  Patterson — ^all  Democrats. 

JtTDiciART.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Nelson  Phillips;  Associate  Justices,  James  E. 
Yantis  and  W.  £.  Hawkins;  Clerk,  F.  T.  Con- 
nerly. 

State  LEoisukTtTRE: 


Democrats 
Republicans 


inat§ 

H0U9» 

Joint  BaUot 

81 

142 

178 

1 

1 

Democratic   majority..     81 


141 


172 


TEXAS,  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education  founded  at  Austin, 
Texas,  in  1883.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  2603,  and 
the  faculty  numbered  237.  There  were  no  nota- 
ble changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions 
were  received.  The  productive  funds  amounted 
in  the  course  of  the  fiscal  year  to  $2,000,026. 
The  income  from  these  funds  amounted  to  $193,- 
994,  and  from  legislative  appropriations  $711,- 
682.    The  library  contained  114,000  volumes. 

TEXAS  7E VEB.    See  VEiEBmABT  Medicine. 

TEXTHiE  XAKTTFACTUBING.  The  tex- 
tile industry  in  the  United  States  during  the 
year  1915  generally  speaking  enjoyed  a  period 
of  prosperity  for  which  in  great  measure  the 
war  was  responsible.  This  was  not  the  result 
so  much  of  orders  from  foreign  nations,  espe- 
cially in  the  way  of  uniforms  and  similar  ma- 
terials, as  in  the  indirect  results  which  war  con- 
ditions brought  about.  In  the  first  place,  foreign 
importations  were  restricted  to  a  minimum,  and 
what  was  equivalent  to  the  highest  kind  of 
tariff  wall  prevented  foreign  competition.  The 
active  stimulation  of  trade  in  other  industries 
increased  the  purchasing  power  of  the  nation, 
and  led  to  increased  domestic  consumption  of 
textiles.  Of  course  the  dyestuff  situation  re- 
ferred to  later  was  an  important  consideration 
during  the  year,  but  its  effects  were  dreaded  more 
in  the  future  than  at  the  time.  The  number  of 
colors,  however,  was  cut  down  and  mills  were 
very  careful  about  taking  orders  where  shades 
were  involved.  In  all  lines  of  textiles  the  mills 
were  sold  ahead  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  es- 
pecially in  wool  and  silk.  Prices  were  advanced 
but  without  any  very  great  effect  on  consump- 
tion. While  European  manufacturers  were  cut 
out  from  competition  in  the  American  markets, 
it  was  believea  that  they  were  accumulating  raw 
material  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere,  so 
as  to  be  ready  for  a  distinctly  commercial  cam- 
paign to  regain  the  lost  markets  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war.  Among  the  farseeing  men 
in  the  industry  in  America  this  condition  was 
looked  forward  to  with  considerable  apprehen- 
sion. 

During  1915,  in  addition  to  the  war,  other 
conditions  were  abnormal.  The  tariff  revision 
had  somewhat  unsettled  matters,  and  later  came 
embargoes  on  wools  from  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies,  which,  however,  were  afterwards  modi- 
fied. Boston  became  the  world's  largest  wool 
market,  and  more  of  this  material  was  handled 
in  the  United  States  than  ever  before.  The 
amount  imported  and  withdrawn  from  bond  was 
estimated  at  340,000,000  pounds,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  domestic  clip  of  over  630,000,000 
poxmds.  The  cotton  industry  was  in  satisfac- 
tory condition  during  the  year,  and  during  the 
last  six  months  there  was  a  distinct  upward 
trend  of  values  which  led  to  increases  in  wages 
in  some  cases.  Here  again  the  dyestuff  situa- 
tion threatened  and  was  a  material  factor  in 
connection  with  the  advance  in  prices. 

The  knitting  industry  also  flourished  with  an 
increased  demand  for  new  mills.  In  knitted 
products  there  was  a  large  increase  in  American 
exports,  especially  to  South  America,  and  knit- 
ting was  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  American  textile  industries.  The  hosiery 
trade  suffered  from  increased  competition  and 
the  high  cost  of  dyes,  but  the  underwear  in- 


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TBZTHiB  MANtTTAGTUBUrO 


640 


TBAYSB 


diiitry  was  bdnff  carried  on  with  unrestricted 
prof^rees,  and  miUs  were  working  to  greater  ca- 
pacity than  ever.  The  increased  use  of  silk  con- 
tinued in  the  knitting  industry,  hosiery,  under- 
wear, and  sweaters  consuming  large  amounts  of 
the  fibre  silk. 

Outside  of  war  exports  in  the  way  of  uniform 
doths,  shirtings,  blankets,  etc.,  the  foreign 
orders  came  in  certain  amounts,  and  more  than 
usual  from  Central  and  South  America.  The 
future  of  the  export  trade  with  these  countries 
and  with  Europe  was  also  a  subject  for  discus- 
sion, and  manufacturers  were  wondering  whether 
America  would  be  able  to  hold  the  place  in 
foreign  markets  and  a  satisfaetory  standing  be 
gaiuM  through  war  conditions. 

Mill  construction  during  1916  was  somewhat 
in  excess  of  the  previous  year,  though  for  the 
first  six  months  there  was  considerable  uncer- 
tainty and  manufacturers  were  undecided  about 
increasing  their  plant  and  equipment.  Accord- 
ing to  the  annual  statistical  summary  prepared 
by  the  TewtUe  World  Journal,  the  total  num- 
ber of  new  mills  built  in  1915  was  219,  as  com- 
pared witih  246  for  1914  and  an  annual  average 
of  260  for  nine  preceding  years.  The  low  record 
for  this  period  is  208  new  mills  established 
in  1911,  and  the  high  mark  is  303  new  mills  in 
1906.  Cotton,  wool,  and  silk  mill  construction 
showed  a  decrease  from  1914,  while  the  knitting 
industry  which  was  in  a  flourishing  condition 
exhibited  a  slight  gain.  The  accompanying 
table  gives  a  comparison  of  new  mill  construc- 
tion for  10  years: 


OOliPABISON   OF 

'    NEW 

MILL 

OONSTBUOnON 

FOB  TEN  TEAB8 

OotUm  Wool  KniUtng 

SUk 

jr<«e.    Toial 

1916    ... 

. . . .     24 

19 

111 

26 

40         219 

1914    ... 

. . . .     20 

21 

110 

61 

87         246 

1918    ... 

, . . .     27 

24 

142 

64 

80         277 

1912    ... 

, . . .     87 

24 

122 

46 

86         266 

1911    ... 

82 

20 

92 

88 

26         208 

1910    ... 

, . . .     87 

81 

118 

84 

29          274 

1909    ... 

, . . .      80 

47 

106 

87 

20         289 

1908    ... 

. . . .     47 

28 

94 

88 

25          222 

1907    ... 

...      64 

25 

88 

61 

89         262 

1906    ... 

. . . .      74 

66 

108 

86 

84         808 

New  cotton  mills  constructed  in  1915  included 
24  new  mills  or  separate  large  new  departments 
for  existing  miU^  totaling  351,272  spindles.  As 
regards  distribution,  6  of  these  were  in  the  New 
Enjprland  States,  14  were  in  the  Southern  States, 
3  in  Pennsylvania,  and  1  in  New  York.  The 
South  again  led  in  the  number  of  new  spindles, 
most  of  the  new  plants  in  other  States  being 
small  specialty  mills.  North  Carolina  was  in 
first  place  with  8  new  mills  with  106,000  spindles 
and  1132  looms.  Seven  of  the  new  mills  were  to 
manufacture  cotton  yams.  (Georgia  reported  3 
new  mills  with  a  total  of  64,000  spindles  and  900 
looms.  The  increase  in  the  original  plant  of  the 
Republic  Cotton  Mills  at  Great  Falls,  S.  C, 
calling  for  40,000  soindles  and  1000  looms,  gave 
South  Carolina  third  place.  Many  improvements 
were  made  in  the  ola-fashioned  mills,  replacing 
old  equipment  and  balancing  departments,  show- 
ing a  tendency  to  strengthen  or^^izations,  while 
the  growth  of  the  automobile  industry  led  to  a 
heavy  demand  for  tire  fabrics.  One  new  plant 
for  tiiis  class  of  material  was  in  course  of  con- 
struction, and  practically  all  the  lai^ger  manu- 
facturers were  making  increases.  A  comparison 
of  spindles  in  new  cotton  mills  for  10  years  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  table: 


COMPARISON  OP  SPINDLES  IN  NEW  AMERICAN 

COTTON   MILLS   FOR 

TEN   TEARS 

Nevf 

Sovihtm 

UiddUtnd 

England 

am- 

WtUm         r«telf 

1915    . 

. ...   112.000 

289.272 

851.272 

1914    . 

...   109.000 

186.172 

245.172 

1918    . 

, . . .      75,000 

260,760 

7.000         882.760 

1912    . 

, . . .     94.400 

487.000 

1.700          688.100 

1911    . 

...    170.600 

172.000 

4.920          847.420 

1910    . 

....   468.714 

214.028 

12.500         695.242 

1909    . 

, ...   699.000 

627.528 

79.968      1.206.496 

1908    . 

...    116.000 

91.198 

8.500         209.698 

1907    . 

118.000 

294,746 

10.250         417,995 

1906    . 

...    171,000 

294.956 

27.040         492.996 

Of  the  19  new  woolen  and  worsted  mills  in 
1916,  6  were  in  New  England,  9  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  1  each  in  California,  Georgia,  New  Jersey, 
and  New  York.  Most  of  the  new  enterprises, 
however,  were  reported  small  and  of  less  im- 
portance than  some  of  the  changjni  and  exten- 
sions made  by  old  companies.  The  vear  was 
notable  for  the  starting  up  of  idle  mills,  partly 
as  a  result  of  war  orders,  and  it  was  diflBcult  to 
find  a  mill  capable  of  manufacturing  profitably 
that  had  not  been  leased  or  purchased  and  put 
in  operation.  The  American  Woolen  Company 
acquired  another  mill  in  Maine,  and  the  Cleve- 
land Worsted  Mills  Company  added  another  mill 
in  Philadelphia  to  its  properties. 

The  knitting  industry  maintained  its  posi- 
tion as  the  fastest  growing  branch  of  the  tex- 
tile manufactury  in  number  of  new  establish- 
ments, 111  new  enterprises  bemff  established  in 
1916,  as  against  110  in  1914.  The  industry  con- 
tinued to  concentrate  in  Penn^lvania,  New  York, 
and  New  Jersey,  these  three  States  having  68 
per  cent  of  all  the  new  mills.  Pennsylvania 
alone  had  46  new  knitting  establishments,  against 
14  for  all  the  Southern  States  and  5  in  New 
England.  In  the  South  the  extension  of  exist- 
ing mills  was  noticeable.  In  addition  to  the 
ever  growing  demand  for  knitted  underwear, 
the  popularity  of  knitted  outer  apparel  had  de- 
veloped opportunities  for  bringing  out  many 
novelties.  This  had  stimulated  &e  inventive 
ability  of  the  knitting  machinery  manufacturers 
to  produce  equipment  for  manufacturing  more 
desirable  and  finer  products  at  a  reasonable  cost, 
and  the  ranse  of  the  latter  increased  enormously. 

The  scarcity  of  dyestuffs  during  the  year  was 
an  interesting  situation,  not  only  on  account  of 
the  important  demand  which  could  not  be  sup- 
plied by  the  limited  materials  imported,  but  for 
the  future  when  it  was  realized  that  a  number 
of  the  great  manufacturing  companies  who  were 
making  benzol  for  explosives  would  after  the 
war  use  their  equipment  for  the  manufacture  of 
dyestuffs,  such  corporations  including  the  Du 
Pont  interests,  the  General  Chemical  Company, 
the  Baizol  Products  Company,  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  and  the  Standard  Oil 
Company.  With  dyestuffs  in  abundance  it  was 
believed  that  the  export  market,  especially  for 
colored  cottons,  could  be  kept,  once  an  entrance 
was  secured,  just  as  colored  fabrics  from  Massa- 
chusetts and  Maine  mills  had  been  well  received 
wherever  shipped  abroad. 

THATEB,  Ezra  Riplet.  American  scholar 
and  educator,  died  Sept.  14,  1916.  He  was  born 
in  Milton,  N.  H.,  in  1866,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  1888.  Three  years  later 
he  took  his  degree  at  the  Harvard  Law  School. 
For  the  year  following  he  was  secretary  to 
Justice  Horace  Gray,  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court.    He  then  returned  to  Boston,  where 


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THA.YEB 


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TIME 


he  began  the  practice  of  law.  From  1896  to 
1900  he  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Brandeis, 
Dunbar,  and  Nutter,  and  for  the  next  10  years 
he  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Storey,  Thorn- 
dike,  Palmer,  and  Thayer.  In  1910  he  was  ap- 
pointed Dane  professor  of  law,  and  dean  of  the 
Law  School  of  Harvard  University,  and  retained 
that  position  until  his  death.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  committee  of  the  American  Bar  Associa- 
tion, which  in  1908  drafted  a  code  of  professional 
ethics,  which  was  adopted  by  the  association. 
Dr.  Thayer  had  been  in  ill  health  for  about  two 
years  prior  to  his  death,  and  he  met  death  by 
his  own  hand. 

THEATBE.  See  Abchitbctubb;  Dbama, 
AMBancAN  AND  English. 

THEOGIN.  A  diuretic  drug  having  a  similar 
chemical  composition  to  theophyllin,  a  natural 
alkaloid  found  in  tea.  It  is  also  closely  re- 
lated to  caffeine,  being  a  dimethylxanthin,  while 
caffeine  is  a  trimethylzanthin.  Theocin  itself 
is  not  readily  soluble  in  water  and  its  sodium 
salt  (acet-theocin-sodium)  is  generally  given  in- 
stead of  it.  Theocin  is  a  powerful  diuretic  and 
is  used  to  eliminate  the  dropsies  of  cardiac  and 
vascular  and  nephritic  origin. 

THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS.  See  Univebsi- 
TIE8  AND  Colleges. 

THEOSOFHICAL  SOCIETY,  The.  A  so- 
ciety founded  in  New  York  on  Nov.  17,  1876,  by 
Helena  Petrovna  Blavatsky,  assisted  by  Henry 
S.  Olcott,  William  Q.  Judge,  and  others.  Its 
international  headquarters  were  removed  in  1879 
to  Adyar,  Madras,  India,  the  residence  of  Mrs. 
Annie  Besant,  the  president  of  the  society.  Its 
objects  were:  (1)  To  form  the  nucleus  of  a  uni- 
versal brotherhood  of  man;  (2)  to  study  and 
compare  and  make  known  the  ancient  religions, 
philosophies,  and  sciences;  (3)  to  investigate 
the  laws  of  nature  and  develop  the  latent  pow- 
ers of  man.  Madam  Blavatsky  went  to  India 
in  1878,  accompanied  by  Olcott,  and  in  that 
country  a  propaganda  was  begun  and  numerous 
branches  organized.  Later  the  society  was  di- 
vided into  tiiree  sections:  Indian,  English,  and 
American.  Subsequent  disputes  led  to  the  for- 
mation in  1895  of  an  independent  societv  in 
America.  Differences  as  to  succession  and  lead- 
ership again  followed,  resulting  practically  in  the 
disintegration  of  the  American  society,  whose 
New  York  headquarters  were  broken  up.  Theos- 
ophists  in  1916  were  divided  into  23  territorial 
sections,  at  the  head  of  each  section  a  general 
secretary:  America,  England  and  Wales,  India, 
Scandinavia,  Hungary,  France,  Italy,  Germany, 
Australia,  Cuba,  Finland,  Russia,  Bohemia, 
Switzerland,  South  Africa,  Scotland,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  Austria,  Burma, 
Norway,  New  Zealand,  South  America,  Spain, 
and  Ireland  were  not  included  in  the  division 
into  territorial  sections,  and  were  governed  by 
presidential  agents.  In  the  Theosophical  Society 
in  1915  there  were  about  30,000  members,  and 
in  the  American  section  there  were  about  5000 
members,  and  167  branches.  Socially  considered, 
the  Theosophical  Society  is  based  on  the  principle 
of  the  brotherhood  of  man;  but  the  theories  of 
reincarnation  and  Karma  are  at  the  root  of  its 
philosophical  system.  The  president  of  the 
American  section  is  A.  P.  Warrington,  Los 
Angeles,  Gal. 

THE&MOPHOKE.    See  TteLEPHONT. 

THOMAS,  Jesse  Burgess.  American  theolo- 
gian, died  June  6,  1915.    He  was  bom  in  Ed- 

Y.  B.— 21 


wardsville.  111.,  in  1830,  and  graduated  from 
Kenyon  College  in  1860.  He  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  in  1852  to  the  bar.  From  1860- 
62  he  practiced  law  in  Chicago,  and  in  the  latter 
year  gave  it  up  to  become  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Waukegan,  111.  After  serving  in  several  pas- 
torates in  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  Brooklyn, 
he  was  appointed  in  1888  professor  of  church  his- 
tory in  tne  Newton  Theological  Institute.  He 
held  this  position  until  1903  when  he  became 
pastor  emeritus.  His  published  writings  in- 
clude. The  Old  Bible  and  the  New  Science 
(1877);  The  Mould  of  DociHne  (1883);  Some 
Parables  of  Nature  (1911).  He  received  the  de- 
grees of  D.D.  from  the  University  of  Chicago  and 
LL.D.  from  Georgetown  Collie,  Kentucky. 

THOBIUM.  A  new  medical  use  for  this  8ub« 
stance  has  been  discovered  by  Bums,  namely, 
as  a  medium  opaque  to  the  X-ray,  which  can  be 
injected  into  the  bladder,  ureter,  and  pelvis  of 
the  kidney.  (Bums  used  a  neutral  solution  of 
thorium  nitrate  and  sodium  citrate.)  This  so- 
lution has  the  advantage  of  being  nontoxic,  non- 
irritating,  and  quite  fluid,  besides  its  property 
of  giving  a  distinct,  clear  shadow  on  the  X-ray 
negative.  The  colloidal  solutions  which  have 
been  used  for  this  purpose,  viz.  bismuth,  iron, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  calcium,  and  magnesium, 
have  various  disadvantages,  some  of  them  being 
viscous  and  difficult  to  inject,  others  being  quite 
poisonous  and  irritating.  The  thorium  solution 
has  also  the  advantage  of  being  comparatively 
inexpensive.    See  Chemistbt,  Industrial. 

THYMUS  GLAND.    See  Koentqbn  Rats. 

TIBBT.  A  Chinese  dependency  in  central 
Asia.  The  estimated  area  is  756,000  fljua^^ 
miles,  including  Koko-Nor  and  Tsaidam.  There 
are  widely  varying  estimates  of  population ;  per- 
haps 2,000,000  is  as  plausible  as  any.  The  capi- 
tal is  Lhasa,  with  an  estimated  population  of 
15,000  to  20,000,  including  a  large  number  of 
Buddhist  monks.  To  some  extent  grazing  and 
a  primitive  agriculture  are  carried  on,  and  gold, 
borax,  and  salt  are  worked.  The  trade  is  prin- 
cipally with  China  and  India.  The  Dalai  Lama, 
who  fled  to  India  in  1910,  was  restored  to  his 
office  by  the  Chinese  government  in  1912  and 
resides  at  Lhasa.  The  Simla  agreement  of 
April  27,  1914,  provides  that  China  shall  not 
convert  Tibet  into  a  Chinese  province  and  that 
Outer  Tibet  shall  not  be  represented  at  any 
future  Chinese  Parliament.  The  British  agent 
at  Qyantse  is  allowed  to  visit  Lhasa  with  his 
escort  should  occasion  require. 

TICKy  Cattle.    See  Vetemnabt  Medicine. 

TICK  ERADICATION.  See  VETERiifABT 
Medicine. 

TIMBEB.    See  Fobestbt. 

TIME,  Standabd.  Standard  time  in  the 
United  States  was  somewhat  threatened  during 
1915  by  a  movement  in  certain  Middle  Western 
States  to  adopt  Eastern  Standard  Time  in  place 
of  Central,  most  of  the  States  concerned  being 
in  the  Central  Time  zone,  which  extended  west 
from  Buffalo.  Michigan  in  1885  had  passed  a 
law  making  Central  Time  the  legal  time  for  the 
whole  State,  but  notwithstanding  this  fact, 
Detroit  during  the  year  adopted  Eastern  Time, 
following  the  example  of  the  city  of  Cleveland, 
which  passed  such  an  ordinance  in  1914.  This 
example  was  followed  by  Saginaw  and  Bay 
City,  but  the  change  produced  such  a  disturb- 
ance that  these  cities  were  forced  to  change 
back   again,   with   corresponding   confusion.     It 


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TIBPITZ 


was  reported  during  the  year  that  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  of  Cleveland  intended  to  urge 
on  Chicago  that  that  city  adopt  Eastern  Time, 
and  then  it  was  proposed  that  the  movement  be 
extended  to  have  Eastern  Time  Standard  for 
Omaha,  Denver,  and  Salt  Lake  City. 

The  original  dividing  line  between  Central 
and  Eastern,  or  75*^  meridian,  time,  was  Buffalo, 
which  then  was  a  natural  dividing  railway 
point,  being  the  junction  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral and  being  approximately  on  the  same  meri- 
dian as  Pittsburgh,  and  once  adopted  by  the 
railroads  this  division  of  time  became  standard 
for  popular  use  as  well.  It  was  proposed  that 
if  the  new  time  standard  was  desired  by  the 
people  of  eastern  Ohio,  that  a  new  dividing  line 
could  be  arrived  at,  but  the  proposition  to  upset 
the  carefully  worked  out  plan  of  American 
standard  time  was  one  that  was  occasioning  se- 
rious concern.  The  agitation  was  distinctly 
comparable  to  that  for  saving  daylight  so  promi- 
nent in  England  before  the  war. 

TIN.  About  155  short  tons  of  tin  ore 
(equivalent  to  104  tons  of  metallic  tin),  valued 
at  $66,560,  were  reported  for  1914,  against  120 
tons  of  60  per  cent  ore  in  1013,  valu^  at  $46,- 
699,  and  147  tons  of  60  per  cent  ore  in  1912, 
valued  at  $124,800.  In  1911  the  output  of  tin 
was  valued  at  $56,635,  and  in  1910  at  $23,447. 
The  imports  of  tin  for  consumption  were  valued 
at  $32,943,059  in  1914,  $46,946,756  in  1913,  $50,- 
372,478  in  1912,  $43,346,394  in  1911,  and  $33,- 
913,255  in  1910. 

The  tin  production  and  consumption  of  the 
world  in  1915  and  previous  years  are  given  in  the 
accompanying  table  from  the  Engineering  and 
Mining  Jaumal: 

TIN    PRODUCTION    AND    CONSUMPTION 

(In  Long  Tom) 

Bi^fineering  and  Mining  Journal 

1918  1914  1915 
Exports,     Straits    and    Malay 

Peninsula     62.242  61,986  66.760 

Expons,    Australian     8,268  1.771  2.275 

Banka   and  BiUiton  sales 17.142  10.975  15.093 

Chinese    exports    and    produc- 
tion *    8,200  8,266  7,097 

BoUvian    exporU*     22.719  24,844  18,800 

South  African  production*    . .      1.900  2.276  2.158 

Nigerian    production*     1,962  1.899 

Cornwall    production*     4.900  4,500  4,000 

ToUl     120.856  116.569  118.082 

U.  S.  imports  and  consumption  45.900  42,995  49,480 
Great    Britain,     imports     and 

consumption    28,786  80.531  89.987 

Holland,   imports    16,578  15.810  7,625 

Other  Europe,  imports 21,250  18.638  11.550 

Australian    consumption    ....  1,000  1.060  1,100 

China  and  India  consumption  6,600  6,400  6,650 

Totals     119.959  115,419  116.342 

Visible    stocks.    Dec.    1 16.045     13.432     14,535 

*Not   in   "SUtistics." 

For  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate  a  praxstically 
pure  tin  is  required,  and  this  is  obtained  in 
large  quantities  only  from  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, so  that  practically  90  per  cent  of  the 
45,000  tons  of  tin  imported  into  the  United 
States  comes  from  this  source.  As  there  is  a 
prohibitive  export  duty  on  tin  ores  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  this  involves  the  refining  to 
metallic  form  in  the  country  of  its  production. 
Aside  from  the  Straits  Settlements,  Bolivia  is 
the  largest  producer  of  tin,  and  its  ores  were 


shipped  to  England  and  to  a  less  extent  to  the 
United  States,  a  new  plant  of  the  American 
Smelting  and  Refining  Company  having  been  con- 
structed at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  to  smelt  the  im- 
pure Bolivian  and  other  ores. 

The  output  of  tin  in  the  Far  East  ran  about 
the  same  in  1915  as  in  earlier  years,  with  a 
slightly  increased  production.  By  May  the  im- 
portation of  tin  into  the  United  States  from 
Great  Britain  under  consular  supervision  acted 
to  relieve  a  shortage  in  the  United  States  due  to 
the  official  prohibition  of  the  exportation  of 
Straits  Settlements  tin  to  other  than  British 
ports.  In  November  rumors  concerning  the 
stoppage  of  British  vessels  in  the  Suez  Canal 
also  produced  a  sharp  advance  in  price,  and  it 
was  reported  at  the  end  of  Uie  year  that  the 
British  government  intended  to  curtail  exports 
until  a  safe  stock  could  be  accumulated,  but  this 
announcement  was  premature  as  the  British  gov- 
ernment contemplated  only  a  few  thousand  tons 
to  be  so  held. 

The  tin  production  of  Bolivia  was  greater  than 
in  1914,  when  there  was  a  depression  in  the  in- 
dustry. A  regular  market  for  tin  ore  was  re- 
established in  England,  and  the  exports  from 
Bolivia  in  1915  were  estimated  at  42,000  tons 
of  concentrates  averaging  60  per  cent  tin,  as 
compared  with  37,260  tons  in  1914,  and  44,600 
tons  in  1913.  It  was  expected  that  the  tin  pro- 
duction of  Bolivia  would  increase  with  improved 
facilities  for  mining  and  milling  and  for  trans- 
portation, but  it  was  doubtful  whether  it  would 
exceed  60,000  tons  of  concentrates  for  some  time 
to  come.  The  new  plant  of  the  American  smelt- 
ing and  Refining  Company  at  Perth  Amboy,  N. 
J.,  was  designed  for  the  smelting  of  tin  ores  and 
concentrates  and  the  electrolytic  refining  of  tin. 
The  plant  was  more  or  less  an  experiment,  but 
the  company  has  patents  for  electrolytic  refining 
already  issued  and  others  pending.  In  England 
electrolytic  tin  has  been  found  to  reach  99.98 
per  cent  pure,  while  the  base  metal  from  which 
this  was  produced  contained  only  93  per  cent  tin. 
Electrolytic  tin  was  found  by  tin  plate  manufac- 
turers equal  in  every  respect  to  the  best  Straits 
tin. 

In  Australia  the  tin  mines,  and  the  smelters  in 
Tasmania  were  actively  engaged  during  the  year, 
though  in  some  cases  the  dry  weather  and  the 
effect  of  the  war  on  the  metal  market  interfered 
with  sluicing  operations.  The  scarcity  of  water 
handicapped  the  dredging  in  New  South  Wales, 
in  the  Tingha  and  Emmaville  districts,  but  they 
continued  to  be  systematically  worked,  while  at 
the  Ardlethan  tin  fields  the  production  was  in 
excess  of  that  of  previous  years.  Queensland 
also  showed  an  increase  over  1914,  while  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  tin  was  also  produced  in  Western 
Australia.  In  Alaska  about  200  tons  of  stream 
tin  were  produced  in  1915,  the  greater  part  of 
which  came  from  the  York  district  of  the  Seward 
Peninsula  where  two  dredges  were  operated  on 
Buck  Creek.  Other  dredges  were  operating  on 
various  rivers,  where  the  placers  carried  both 
gold  and  tin,  and  developments  were  continued 
on  various  lode-tin  mines.  In  the  lower  Tanana 
Basin  tin  mining  was  also  done,  and  considerable 
tin  was  recovered  incidental  to  gold  placer  min- 
ing. 

TIBOL.    See  Austbia-Hunoabt. 

TIBPITZ,  Alfbed  von  (1849—).  A  Ger- 
man naval  officer  and  secretary  of  state  for  the 
navy  in  the  present  imperial  cabinet.    He  waa 


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tenant  in  1869,  a  lieutenant-captain  in  1875,  a 
captain  in  1888,  a  rear  admiral  in  1805,  a  vice 
admiral  in  1899,  and  an  admiral  in  1903.  In 
1896-97  he  was  commander  of  the  cruiser  divi- 
sion in  Eastern  waters.  In  1897  he  became  sec- 
retary of  state  for  the  navy,  taking  the  place 
of  HoUman.  He  was  ennobled  in  1900  and  dec- 
orated with  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle  in 
1907.  In  1908  he  became  a  life  member  of  the 
Prussian  upper  house;  in  1911  he  was  appointed 
lord  high  admiral;  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
great  European  war  came  into  prominence,  on 
the  score  of  the  declaration  of  the  "war  zone*' 
and  the  ''submarine  blockade."  The  former 
stated  that  the  waters  around  the  British  Isles 
were  a  war  zone  (a  new  idea  in  international 
law),  and  that  neutral  vessels  sailed  these 
waters  at  their  own  risk.  In  1915  considerable 
damage  was  done  to  non-combatant  and  neu- 
tral shipping  in  these  waters  by  German  sub- 
marines. The  inost  spectacular  loss  was  the 
Lusitania  (q.v.).  This  new  method  of  warfare 
strained  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Germany  and  for  a  time  it  looked  as  though 
the  submarine  policy  of  von  Tirpitz  were  going 
to  be  abandoned.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was 
not  largely  successful.  For  a  fuller  account  of 
the  diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  United 
States  and  Germany,  see  United  States  and  the 
Wab.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  year  several  sub- 
marines were  shipped  overland  to  Austria  and 
Turkey  and  were  active  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea. 

TISDALLy  FiTZQEBALD.  American  educator, 
died  Nov.  11,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  New  York 
City  in  1840,  and  graduated  from  the  City  Col- 
lege in  1859.  He  became  a  member  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  the  college,  and  held  that  position  con- 
tinuously until  his  death.  He  held  the  chair 
of  Greek  language  and  literature.  From 
1870-79  he  was  the  director  of  the  Cooper  Union 
School  of  Science  and  Art.  In  1910  a  celebra- 
tion was  held  to  commemorate  his  fiftieth  an- 
niversary as  a  teacher.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  learned  societies,  and  received  several  hon- 
orary degrees.  He  was  the  author  of  Heroic 
Hexameter  (1899). 

TOBACCO.  The  tobacco  crop  of  the  United 
States  in  1915  was  grown  on  the  largest  area 
ever  recorded  for  this  crop,  1,368,700  acres. 
The  total  production,  1,060,587,000  pounds,  was 
the  third  largest  on  record.  The  production  of 
leaf  of  cigar  types  amoimted  to  182,155,000 
;  pounds,  grown  in  the  New  England  States,  Penn- 
sylvania, Miami  Valley  in  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  New 
York,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  in  the  order  named. 
^The  production  of  chewing,  smoking,  snuff,  and 
export  types  was  870,048,000  pounds;  and  of  all 
.other  types  8,384,000  pounds.  The  total  farm 
lvalue  of  the  crop  December  1  was  $96,041,000. 
Tlie  yields  were  fair  but  prices  were  below  nor- 
mal. 

r  The  United  States  is  not  only  the  greatest 
^producer  of  tobacco  in  the  world,  but  it  is  the 
flargest  exporter,  the  largest  importer,  and  the 
(largest  consumer.  Considerably  more  than  a 
^hird  of  the  production  in  normal  years  is  ex- 
ported. The  exports  of  tobacco  in  the  fiscal 
year  1915  amounted  to  $54,000,000,  an  increase 
Df  $10,000,000  over  the  preceding  year,  but  prac- 
tically the  same  as  in  1913. 
y    Hie  year  was  a  very  depressing  one  for  all 


Internal  Revenue  report 
on  which  tax  was  paid 
1915:  Large  cigars,  7) 
from  1914  of  over  600 
972,263,280,  a  decrease  o: 
cigarettes,  16,756,179,973 
330,000,000;  snuff,  29,{ 
crease  of  nearly  3,000,00 
smoking  tobacco,  402,474 
of  10,000,000  pounds.  \ 
internal  revenue  tax  on  \ 
industry  in  1915  amou] 
which  represents  a  decre 

The  latest  figures  for 
bacoo  are  for   1912,  esti 
pounds.    Of  this  amount 
duced  about  35  per  cent 
India,  Russia,  Austria-Hii 
Indies.    The  lack  of  qui 
and  Cuban  crops  is  more 
ity  and  corresponding  vai 
the  effect  of  greatly  depi 
dustry  of  Cumi.    The  ex^ 
cigarettes  during  the  fis 
resented  a  decrease  in  val 
as  compared  with  the  pre 
export  of  leaf  tobacco  ai 
$4,500,000.    Many  factor] 
and  others  to  cut  their 
mulgated  by  the  govemm< 
authorizing  the  granting 
bacco  and  cigars  produced 
to  foreign   countries,  wai 
but  the  government  apprc 
dollars  for  alleviating  th 
borers  in  this  industry,  an 
portation  to  the  cane  grc 
Tobacco  manufacture  ii 
tria,  France,  Italy,  Spain 
and  its  growing  is  also  si  I 
restriction  in  Austria,  Fr  . 
monopoly  in   Greece  was 
1914.    The  (German  govei  i 
have  under  consideration 
government  monopoly  in   : 
the  government  arising  f ' 
Austria  amoimted  in  191: 
in  Italy  to  $61,585,400. 

During  the  year  an  intc  i 
descriptive  treatise  of  the 
ture,  and  trade  of  tobacc< 
entitled  "Tobacco  Trade  ol 
sued  by  the  United  Statei 
merce  {Special  Consular  }l 
also  under  Alcohol. 

TOBACCO  TBUST.  Si 
TOBAGO.  See  Tbinida  : 
TOGO.  A  German  Wesl 
on  the  Guinea  coast  betw! 
Gold  Coast.  The  estimate* 
kilometers  (33,668  square 
larger  than  the  State  of  h 
tive  population,  1,032,000; 
368,  of  whom  Germans  31! 
estant  and  1  Roman  Cs 
with  over  14,000  pupils.  I 
and  6503  natives  were  coi; 
Imports  and  exports  in  '. 
6,700,000  and  5,916,000  m 
1910,  10,817,000  and  7,222. 
000  and  9,959,000;  in  191 
138,000.    Imports  from  ani 


oogle 


Toao 


644 


TBACY 


in  1911  were  valued  at  3,814,000  and  6,076,000 
marks;  in  1912,  4,820,000  and  5,808,000.  Prin- 
cipal exports  in  1912  and  1913:  gold,  1,935,000 
and  3,199,000;  silver  coin,  1,933,000  and  3,196,- 
000;  palm  kernels,  3,380,000  and  2,558,000;  raw 
cotton,  516,000  and  682,000;  palm  oil,  1,413,000 
and  518,000;  rubber,  976,000  and  360,000;  cat- 
tle, 606,000  and  334,000;  cacao,  243,000  and 
333,000.  Vessels  entered  in  1912,  268,  of  571,- 
832  tons  (German,  414,721).  A  railway  con- 
nects Lome  (or  Port  Lome)  with  Anecho,  in 
Little  Popo,  44  kilometers;  with  branches  from 
Lome  to  Palime,  119  kilometers,  and  Lome  to 
Atakpame,  164  kilometers;  total  railway,  327 
kilometers  (203  miles).  Local  revenue  in  1912- 
13  and  1913-14,  3,380,000  and  3,500,000  marks; 
expenditure,  4,060,000  and  4,180,000.  For  1914- 
15,  the  budget  balanced  at  4,177,943  marks. 
Lome  is  the  capital  and  chief  port. 

HiSTOBT.  The  surrender  of  Togoland  on  Aug. 
25,  1914  (see  Yeab  Book  for  1914)  placed  the 
Anglo-French  allies  in  possession  of  320,000 
roxmds  of  ammunition,  1000  rifles,  and  3  Maxim 
guns.  More  than  200  Europeans  also  surrend- 
ered to  the  victorious  invading  army.  During 
1915,  in  accordance  with  a  provisional  agreement 
entered  into  in  September,  1914,  the  territory 
was  under  the  joint  supervision  of  the  Qovemor 
of  the  Gold  CcMist  and  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Dahomey.  A  chief  political  officer  at  Port 
Lome  was  in  command  of  the  troops  of  occupa- 
tion. Private-owned  property  was  not  interfered 
with  by  the  Allies. 

TOIOiy  WnxiAM  Bdwabd.  American  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  died  June 
27,  1916.  He  was  bom  in  Wisconsin  in  1844. 
He  was  educated  at  Nahotah  House,  Wisconsin, 
and  in  1872  became  a  priest  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  He  was  assistant  in  Grace 
Church,  Chicago,  for  one  year,  when  he  became 
rector  of  St.  James's  Church,  Cleveland.  After 
holding  pastorates  in  several  churches  in  Illi- 
nois he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Chicago  in  1907.  In  1911  he  was  con- 
secrated first  suifragan  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Chicago. 

TOLLS,  Panama  Canal.  See  Panama  Ca- 
nal. 

TOLSTOY,    Alexei.    See    Russian    Liteba- 

TUBE. 

TOMPKINS,  Chableb  Henbt.  An  American 
soldier,  died  Jan.  18,  1916.  He  was  born  in 
Fort  Monroe,  Va.,  in  1830  and  was  a  cadet  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  from  1847- 
49.  From  1856-61  he  served  as  private  and 
non-commissioned  officer  in  the  United  States 
army.  In  March,  1861,  he  was  appointed  sec- 
ond lieutenant  in  the  second  cavalry.  He  re- 
signed from  active  service  in  1862.  He  reen- 
tered the  service  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  vol- 
unteers in  1865,  and  was  appointed  colonel  in 
the  following  year.  In  the  same  year  he  re- 
entered the  r^^lar  service  as  lieutenant-colonel 
and  deputv  quartermaster-general.  He  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  and  assistant  quartermaster-gen- 
eral in  1881.  In  1894  he  was  retired  by  opera- 
tion of  law.  By  the  act  of  1904  he  was  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  received 
brevets  of  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallantry  in 
three  separate  actions  and  was  awarded  also  the 
Consressional  Medal  of  Honor. 

TONGA,  or  The  Fbiendlt  Islands.  Three 
groups  of  South  Sea  islands,  constituting  a  Brit- 
ish protectorate.    Area,  390  square  miles.    Pop- 


ulation in  April,  1911,  23,011  Tongans,  346 
other  Pacific  islanders,  and  380  Europeans.  The 
natives  are  Christian,  mostly  Wesleyans.  At 
the  end  of  1913,  there  were  61  government 
schools,  with  2730  pupils,  and  14  Roman  Cath- 
olic schools,  with  469  pupils.  Imports  and  ex- 
ports in  1913,  £81,044  and  £82,320.  The  exports 
are  chiefly  copra  (£72,480).  Revenue  in  1913- 
14,  £32,489  and  expenditure  £39,103.  The  King 
is  George  Tubou  II,  who  was  bom  in  1874  and 
succeed^  his  great-grandfather  in  1893.  The 
capital  is  Nukualofa. 

TONGXINO.  The  most  northerly  diviaion 
of  the  colony  of  French  Indo-China,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Yflnnan 
and  Kwangsi.  Hanoi,  the  capital,  is  also  the 
capital  of  French  Indo-China.  The  chief  crop 
is  rice;  others  of  importance  are  sugar  cane, 
cotton,  cardamoms,  com,  and  tobacco.  See 
Fbench  Indo-China. 

TOBONTO,  Univebsity  of.  A  state  coedu- 
cational institution  founded  in  .1827,  under  the 
name  of  Kinds'  College,  at  Toronto,  Canada. 
The  total  enrollment  in  the  various  departments 
of  the  university  in  1914-15  was  4428,  and  the 
faculty  numbered  401  members.  The  adminis- 
trative officers  for  1915~16  include:  President, 
Robert  Alexander  Falconer,  LL.D.;  registrar, 
James  Brebner ;  bursar,  Ferdinand  Albert  Mour^ ; 
librarian,  Hugh  Hornby  Langton.  With  the  ad- 
ditions of  the  year,  the  library  now  contains 
141,936  volumes. 

TOBPEBOES.  See  Navai,  Pboobess;  and 
Submabinbs. 

TOWN  PLANNING.    See  Citt  Planning. 

TBACHOMA.  A  conta^ous  disease  of  the 
conjunctiva  (the  membrane  which  covers  the  eye- 
ball and  lines  the  eyelids)  which  generally  re- 
sults in  blindness.  The  disease  gains  entrance 
to  this  country  frequently  through  immigrants, 
who  are  closely  inspected  for  it  on  landing.  Its 
cause  has  not  been  settled  beyond  a  peradven- 
ture.  The  bacterial  theory  is  borne  out  in  about 
52  per  cent  of  the  cases,  while  poor  hygienic 
surroundinfis  and  lowered  resistance  have  an  im- 
portant influence  in  determining  it.  There  ap- 
pears to  be  no  immunity,  either  congenital  or 
acquired.  During  the  year  Axenfeld,  of  Jena, 
has  stated  his  belief  that  the  common  bacterial 
infections  are  readily  implanted  on  a  trachoma- 
tous base,  and  that  mixed  infections  furnish  the 
"acute  trachomas."  More  knowledge  obtained 
from  the  laboratory  is  necessary  before  the  real 
nature  of  the  disease  can  be  affirmed. 

TBACY,  Benjamin  Fbankun.  American 
public  official  and  flnancier,  died  Aug.  6,  1915. 
He  was  born  on  a  farm  in  Owego,  Tioga  County, 
N.  Y.,  in  1830;  was  educated  in  the  common 
schools  and  at  the  Owego  Academy,  and  after 
studying  law  was  admitted  to  practice  when  he 
was  21  years  of  age,  in  1851.  Two  years  later 
he  was  elected  district  attorney  of  Tioga  County, 
and  was  the  youngest  official  holding  office  in 
New  York.  On  the  foundation  of  the  Repub- 
lican party  he  became  county  chairman,  and  in 
1860  was  elected  district  attorney  as  a  Repub- 
lican. He  subsequently  formed  a  law  partner- 
ship with  his  opponent,  Gilbert  C.  Walker,  who 
was  later  Governor  of  Virginia.  In  1861  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  and  in  a 
short  time  was  acknowledged  leader  of  his  party 
in  that  body.  In  July  and  August,  1862,  he 
raised  the  109th  and  113th  New  York  Volun- 
teers and  was  made  colonel  of  the  latter  regi- 

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ment.  He  firat  saw  active  service  in  the  Wil- 
derness, where  he  received  a  medal  of  honor  for 
bravery,  and  was  afterwards  brevetted  briga- 
dier-seneral.  Not  long  after,  his  health  failed 
and  ne  was  obliged  to  resign  from  the  army. 
After  a  short  stay  in  Ow^o,  he  returned  to  the 
front  and  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  negro  regi- 
ment. He  held  this  position  until  L^s  sur- 
render, when  he  went  to  New  York  City,  becom- 
ing a  member  of  the  law  firm  of  Benedict,  Burr, 
and  Benedict.  In  1866  he  was  United  States 
district  attorney  for  the  eastern  district  of  New 
York.  During  his  tenure  of  office  his  work  in 
preventing  tax  frauds  and  convicting  those 
ffuilty  of  them  won  him  high  fame.  To  help 
his  work  he  drew  up  and  caused  to  be  passed 
the  conspiracy  act,  whereby  two  or  more  persons 
guilty  of  defrauding  the  Federal  government 
could  be  punished  by  imprisonment.  This  law 
with  slight  changes  still  remains  in  effect.  He 
resigned  his  office  in  .1873  and  gave  himself  up 
to  private  practice.  In  1881  he  was  appointed 
to  fill  temporarily  a  place  on  the  bench  of  the 
New  York  Court  of  Appeals.  He  sat  for  only 
one  year.  General  Tracy  maintained  an  active 
connection  with  the  Republicans  in  Kings  Ck>unty 
(Brooklyn),  and  was  one  of  the  three  men  who 
practically  controlled  the  organization.  In 
1881  he  was  nominated  for  mayor  of  Brooklyn 
on  condition  that  he  would  withdraw  if  he  could 
unite  the  warring  sections,  and  after  bringing 
about  harmony  he  retired  in  favor  of  Seth  Low. 
He  continued  in  law  practice  and  political  work 
until  1889,  when  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  navy  by  President  Harrison.  He  was  active 
in  the  building  of  the  battleships  Masaachuaetiat 
Indiana,  and  Oregon,  and  the  fast  armored 
cruisers  "New  York  and  Brooklyn.  After  the 
close  of  his  term  of  office  he  resumed  his  private 
practice  in  New  York.  General  Tracy  took  part 
in  many  famous  law  suits,  the  most  conspicuous 
of  which  was  perhaps  the  Tilton-Beecher  trial 
in  1876.  He  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  de- 
fense of  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  General  Tracy 
was  a  schoolmate  of  Thomas  G.  Piatt,  and  a 
warm  personal  and  political  friend.  He  was 
for  many  years  head  of  the  law  firm  of  Tracy, 
Boardman,  and  Piatt,  but  retired  to  become  a 
member  of  Coudert  Brothers.  One  of  his  most 
conspicuous  services  was  performed  in  1896, 
when  he  acted  as  a  chairman  appointed  by  Gov- 
ernor Morton  to  draw  up  a  charter  for  Greater 
New  York.  While  General  Tracy  was  secretary 
of  the  navy,  his  wife  and  daughter  were  burned 
to  death  in  a  fire  which  destroved  his  home  at 
Washington.  He  was  a  leader  m  the  movement 
for  strong  sea-power  for  the  United  States. 
His  efforts  in  building  up  the  navy  gave  him  the 
title  of  "the  father  of  the  fighting  navy.''  Up 
to  a  few  days  before  his  death,  he  insisted  that 
more  ships  and  still  more  ships  should  be  con- 
structed until  the  navy  was  proportionate  to 
the  greatness  of  the  country. 

TBADE-MASX  LAW.    See  Trade  Unions. 

TBADE  UNIONS.  The  principal  matters  of 
interest  to  organized  labor  in  the  United  States 
during  1915  included  the  final  decree  in  the 
Danbury  Hatters'  Case  (see  Botcott),  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  of  the  Industrial  Rela- 
tions Commission  (q.v.),  and  the  settlement 
of  important  trade  disputes  as  set  forth  under 
Abbitbation  and  Conciliation  and  Strikes 
AND  LooKOXTTS.  The  activities  of  radical  labor 
parties  were  not  pronounced  either  in  the  United 


States  or  abroad  (see  Industrial  Workers  or 
the  World).  The  Amft-ican  Federation  of 
Labor  continued  to  represent  the  most  power- 
ful association  of  workmen  in  this  country. 
At  its  annual  convention  and  otherwise  in  Amer- 
ica as  well  as  abroad,  the  gradual  growth  of  sen- 
timent in  favor  of  the  formation  of  labor  organ- 
izations on  the  broad  lines  of  great  industries 
rather  than  on  narrow  craft  lines  was  clearly 
shown.  See  for  further  cross  references  the  arti- 
cle on  Labor. 

Lebislation.  Laws  referring  specifically  to 
trade  unions  are  few.  In  1915  Congress  reSn- 
acted  a  proviso,  first  included  in  an  appropria- 
tion bill  in  1913  and  implied  in  the  Clayton 
Act  of  1914,  that  no  part  of  the  appropriation 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  antitrust  laws  should 
be  spent  in  the  prosecution  of  individuals  or  or- 
ganizations for  combining  to  increase  wages, 
shorten  hours,  or  better  the  conditions  of  labor, 
or  for  any  act,  not  in  itself  unlawful,  done  in 
furtherance  of  these  ends;  nor  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  farmers  or  organizations  of  farmers  who 
cooperate  to  maintain  fair  and  reasonable  prices. 
Arizona  made  the  discharge  of  an  employee  for 
membership  in  a  union  a  felony.  California 
gave  trade  unions  the  exclusive  right  to  use 
labels  or  trade-marks  adopted  and  r^stered  by 
them.  The  willful  reproduction  or  counterfeit- 
ing of  such  union  label,  or  the  false  statement 
that  union  labor  was  used  in  the  production  of 
any  article,  or  the  performance  of  any  service 
when,  in  fact,  non-union  labor  was  exclusively 
used,  were  made  punishable  by  fine  or  imprison- 
ment or  both.  In  Massachusetts  savings  banks 
were  required  to  report  the  deposits  of  labor 
unions.  Missouri  so  amended  her  trade-mark 
law  as  to  enable  trade  unions  to  adopt  a  label 
or  card  to  designate  places  where  union  labor 
is  employed.  The  willful  display  of  any  such 
label  or  card,  except  by  union  authorization,  or 
the  willful  counterfeiting  of  any  such,  was  made 
punishable  by  fine,  imprisonment,  or  both. 
Washington  passed  a  very  severe  law  against 
picketing,  making  it  a  misdemeanor  and  in- 
cluding under  it  continuously  moving  back  and 
forth  m  front  of  a  place  of  business,  or  carrv- 
ing  any  kind  of  a  sign  for  the  purpose  of  call- 
ing attention  to  the  existence  of  a  trade  dispute, 
or  of  hindering  a  person  in  the  conduct  of  his 
business,  or  of  preventing  him  from  employing 
any  person.  West  Virginia's  act  creating  a  de- 
partment of  mines  provided  that  no  one  shall 
be  prevented  by  intimidation  from  working  in 
any  mine,  but  on  the  other  hand  this  is  not  to 
prevent  men  from  organizing  and  persuading 
others  not  to  work.  In  addition  to  the  fore- 
going Colorado,  Indiana,  and  Michigan  enacted 
laws  for  the  arbitration  of  trade  disputes,  and 
such  laws  may  be  viewed  as  furthering  the  in- 
terests of  trade  unions  in  that  they  place  a 
premium  on  collective  bargaining. 

Much  sentiment  prevail^  in  trade  union  cir- 
cles in  favor  of  peace  at  the  earliest  moment. 
On  April  16  the  Central  Federated  Union  of 
Greater  New  York  demanded  a  general  strike 
of  all  men  employed  in  making  munitions  for 
export,  and  there  was  strong  ^ling  favorable 
to  the  ''peace-at-any-price"  position.  Many  un- 
ion men  were  drawn  temporarily  into  the  agi- 
tation led  by  Labor's  National  Peace  Council 
(see  Labor).  On  June  18th  a  great  meeting 
called  by  the  Central  Federated  Union  at  Car- 
negie Bfall  was  attended  by  delegates  represent- 

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TRADE  UNIONS 


ing  about  6,000,000  organized  workers,  includ- 
ing the  American  f^eration  of  Labor,  the 
FarmerB*  National  Union,  and  the  railway 
brotherhoods.  William  J.  Bryan  was  the  prin- 
cipal speaker,  but  his  views  were  vigorously  op- 
posed hj  President  Samuel  Gompers. 

On  May  4th  the  Ohio  Supreme  Court  declared 
unconstitutional  a  law  preventing  the  discharge 
of  an  employee  for  membership  in  a  labor  union. 
This  decision  was  based  on  a  previous  ruling  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  (see  under 
Laikmi).  a  minority  of  the  court  protested 
against  the  decision  as  unfair  to  organized  la- 
bor. 

National  Women's  Trade  Union  League. 
This  organization  held  its  fifth  biennial  conven- 
tion at  New  York  City  beginning  June  7.  There 
were  present  89  delegates  representing  about 
100,000  members.  The  league  has  branches  in 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Chicago, 
Springfield,  111.,  Kansas  City,  Denver,  and  Los 
Aiigeles.  The  trades  represented  included  gar- 
ment, boot  and  shoe,  glove,  bindery,  and  sus- 
pender workers,  stenographers  and  typists,  wait- 
resses, journeymen  tailors,  grocery  clerks,  com- 
mercial telegraphers,  bookkeepers  and  account- 
ants, cloth  hat  and  cap  makers,  hat  trimmers, 
ladies'  waist  and  dress  makers,  beer  bottlers, 
and  telegraph  operators.  Much  time  was  given 
to  the  discussion  of  the  school  for  organizers 
recently  opened  at  Chicago,  but  in  great  straits 
for  lack  of  funds.  It  was  desired  to  establish 
a  number  of  scholarships  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  women  taking  the  courses.  The  curriculum 
would  include  courses  in  the  philosophy  and 
history  of  trade  unionism,  labor  legislation,  par- 
liamentary law,  and  the  woman's  movement. 
Resolutions  were  passed  favoring  peace,  and 
protesting  against  secret  diplomacy;  favoring 
the  avoidance  of  war  with  Mexico  or  any  Euro- 
pean country;  demanding  the  abolition  of  the 
manufacture  of  arms  and  munitions;  and  ap- 
proving the  Women's  Peace  Congress  at  The 
Hague.  Tliese  peace  resolutions  were  presented 
to  President  Wilson  by  a  special  delegation  on 
June  18. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  league  are: 
organization  of  all  workers;  equal  pay  for  equal 
work;  an  eight-hour  day;  a  living  wage;  and 
full  citizeni^ip  for  women.  In  addition  to 
these  the  convention  favored  the  following: 
uniform  State  laws;  restriction  of  child  labor; 
prevention  of  occupational  diseases;  abolition 
of  sweat  shops;  at  least  one  day's  rest  in  seven; 
regulation  of  prison  labor;  and  the  abolition  of 
private  detective  agencies  used  by  employers  in 
strikes.  The  official  orcran  of  the  league  is  Life 
€md  Labor,  edited  by  Miss  S.  M.  Franklin.  The 
president  since  1907  has  been  Mrs.  Raymond 
Robins. 

England.  Trade  union  activity  in  1915 
dealt  primarily  with  questions  of  peace  and  war. 
The  unions  showed  a  reluctance  to  join  whole- 
heartedly in  the  plans  of  the  government  for 
increasing  the  supplies  of  munitions.  They 
showed  a  willingness  to  strike  under  conditions 
that  embarrassed  the  government,  as  illustrated 
by  strikes  in  munitions  plants,  on  railways,  in 
the  Welsh  coal  mines,  and  an  extensive  and 
stubborn  strike  of  Liverpool  dock  workers.  This 
led  to  much  denunciation  of  unions  and  wide- 
spread agitation  for  compulsorv  measures.  In 
February  the  government  appointed  a  commit- 
tee to  deal  with  disputes  in  trades  supplying 


war  materiala  In  March,  after  much  discus- 
sion in  Parliament  and  various  conferences  be- 
tween David  Lloyd  George  and  labor  leaders,  it 
was  announced  that  the  government  would  con- 
trol munitions  factories,  and  that  unions  would 
relax  their  rules  and  accept  arbitration.  About 
the  same  time  it  was  announced  that  a  truce 
between  labor  and  capital  had  been  reached  to 
last  until  the  close  of  the  war.  Under  the  law 
giving  the  government  authority  to  comman- 
deer any  factory  and  transform  it  into  a  muni- 
tions plant,  the  motor  plants  of  Scotland  were 
taken  over  in  April.  Meanwhile  plans  for  draw- 
ing women  into  necessary  labor  met  with  great 
success.  In  March  7000  women  volunteer^  to 
accept  positions  in  munitions  or  clothing  fac- 
tories or  on  farms;  by  April  1st  their  number 
was  increased  to  33,000;  and  two  months  later 
to  80,000.  The  unions  and  others  immediately 
demanded  the  organization  of  these  women  m 
a  means  of  preventing  their  use  to  reduce  wages. 
In  September  it  was  announced  that  the  women 
workers  in  munitions  factories  would  receive 
equal  pay  with  men.  The  proposal  to  put  all 
factories  making  munitions  under  military  law 
was  opposed  hj  the  vast  majority  of  trade  union- 
ists. To  avoid  sudi  an  event  labor  leaders 
joined  the  government  in  a  systematic  effort  to 
arouse  workers  to  full  realization  of  their  duty 
to  the  nation.  Later  in  the  year,  especially 
during  September,  the  question  of  conscription 
was  the  most  important  agitating  union  circles. 
The  Trade  Union  Congress  in  its  annual  session 
strongly  protested  against  the  resort  to  compul- 
sory conscription,  as  contrary  to  English  rights 
and  traditions. 

The  Independent  Labor  Party  had  its  con- 
vention at  Norwich  in  April  and  adopted  reso- 
lutions favoring  peace  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment.  This,  however,  was  protested  against 
by  J.  Ramsay  McDonald,  president  of  the  party. 
On  April  6th,  by  a  vote  of  234  to  9,  was  adopted 
a  resolution  strongly  condemning  those  party 
members  who  had  assisted  in  recruiting  or  other- 
wise in  justifying  the  war.  The  Congress  de- 
manded that  the  terms  of  peace  be  submitted 
to  the  people  for  approval;  that  no  more  secret 
treaties  be  made;  that  a  drastic  reduction  of 
armam«its  by  all  countries  be  carried  out  and 
their  manufacture  nationalized;  and  that  the 
British  foreign  policy  be  directed  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  federation  of  nations.  The  Daily  Cit- 
izen, organ  of  the  party,  ceased  publication  on 
June  6th. 

Gebvant.  During  the  five  years  preceding 
the  war  the  trade  unions  of  Germany  had  grown 
from  a  total  membership  of  about  1,000,000  to 
over  3,000,000.  The  General  Commission  of 
Trade  Unions  had  in  this  period  grown  from 
716,000  to  2,500,000,  embraced  in  47  different 
trades.  Of  this  membership  there  had  enlisted 
in  the  armies  up  to  April  30,  1915,  nearly  1,000,- 
000,  or  40  per  cent.  The  trades  furnishing  the 
largest  number  of  enlistments  were:  metal  work- 
ers, which  had  been  the  largest  union  in  the 
world,  with  554,000  members;  building  trades; 
transportation;  wood  workers;  factory  work- 
ers; book  printers;  carpenters;  municipal  em- 
ployees; and  brewery  and  mill  workers.  The 
percentage  of  members  enlisted  ranged  from  84 
for  butchers  to.  21.6  for  tobacco  workers. 

Statistics.  The  followin<3r  figures  give  the 
total  trade  union  membership  in  principal  coun- 
tries at  a  recent  date:    German  Empire,  3,792,- 


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647 


TBUDEAU 


000;  United  Kingdom,  3,010,000;  United  States, 
2,810,000;  France,  1,029,000;  Italy,  817,000; 
Austria,  422,000;  Belgium,  211,000;  Nether- 
lands, 162,000;  Denmark,  143,000;  and  Switzer- 
land, 114,000. 

TBANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD.  This  fairly 
old  expedient  has  been  studied  attentively  of 
recent  years,  with  increasing  areas  of  its  use- 
fulness as  a  result.  Ingenious  devices  of  vari- 
ous kinds  have  been  invented,  to  simplify  or 
safeguard  the  technique,  to  prevent  clotting, 
and  to  place  the  valuable  expedient  within  the 
reach  of  any  one  who  possesses  average  surgical 
ability.  But  painstaking  care  and  accurate 
technique  will  always  be  prime  requisites.  Dur- 
ing 1915  Ottenberg  and  Libman,  of  Mount  Sinai 
Hospital,  New  York  City,  have  reported  a  most 
instructive  series  of  212  transfusions  in  189 
cases,  of  which  45  per  cent  were  successful  in 
improving  the  patient,  and  20  per  cent  actually 
resulted  in  saving  life.  In  the  selection  of  a 
dcnor  great  care  must  be  exercised,  to  prevent 
transmission  of  diseases  (syphilis  especially), 
and  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  hemolysis  and 
agglutination.  The  field  of  applicability  is  so 
extended  that  transfusion  is  indicated  in  simple 
hemorrhage,  as  from  gastric  ulcer  or  duodenal 
ulcer,  dysentery,  typhoid  fever,  or  ectopic  preg- 
nancy; in  connection  with  surgical  operations, 
preliminary,  postoperative,  or  durins:  shock; 
hemorrhagic  conditions,  as  in  **bleeder8"  (hemo- 
philia) ;  purpura,  jaundice,  etc.;  blood  diseases, 
as  pernicious  an«mia;  leukemia;  infections,  as 
in  pyogenics,  or  infective  endocarditis;  acute 
poisonings,  diabetic  coma;  and  debilitated  con- 
ditions, as  cancer,  malnutrition,  simple  ansemia. 

TBANSMISSION  OF  ELECTBIC  POWEB. 
See  Electric  Power,  Transmission  of. 

TRANSVAAL.  One  of  the  four  original 
provinces  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Pre- 
toria, the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  had, 
according  to  the  census  of  1911,  48,607  inhabi- 
tants (29,618  whites) ;  with  suburbs,  57,674 
(35,942  whites).  The  following  populations  are 
inclusive  of  suburbs:  Johannesburg,  237,104 
(119,953  whites);  Krugersdorp,  55,144  (13,- 
132);  Germiston,  54,325  (17,507);  Boksburg, 
43,628  (11,529);  Benoni,  32,560  (8639);  Roode- 
poort-Maraisburg,  32,578  (7657);  Potchef- 
stroom,  12,989  (8639).  There  were  in  the  prov- 
ince Dec  31,  1913,  5,024,898  sheep  and  2,104,527 
goats.  For  area,  population,  production,  etc., 
see  South  Africa,  Union  of. 

TRANSYLVANIA.    See  AnsTEiA-HuNOABT. 

TRAVEL,  Books  of.    See  Literature. 

TREATIES.  See  International  Peace  and 
Arbitration,  section  Bryan-WiUon  Treaties  and 
paifsim. 

TBENGGANXT.  A  native  state,  under  British 
protection,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. The  estimated  area  is  6000  square  miles. 
Population  (census  March,  1911),  154,073  (10 
Europeans,  149,379  Malays,  4169  Chinese,  61 
Indians,  454  of  other  races).  The  capital  is 
Kuala  Trengganu  (13,991  inhabitants),  built  on 
both  banks  of  the  mouth  of  the  Trengganu 
River.  The  following  articles  are  produced  for 
export  (value  in  Straits  Settlements  dollars, 
1913)— fish,  SS  $673,396;  tin  ore,  403,594; 
copra,  315,981;  paddy,  221,991;  black  pepper, 
157,752.  Native  sultan.  Sir  Zainal  Abidin  ibni 
Almerhum  Ahmad.  There  is  a  resident  British 
agent. 

TBIEST.    See  Austbia-Hungabt. 


TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO.  A  British  col- 
ony, composed  of  the  West  India  islands  of 
Ij-inidad  (1754  square  miles)  and  Tobago 
(114).  Total  population  (1911  census),  333,- 
552  (110,911  East  Indians).  Estimated  popu- 
lation March  31,  1914,  352,145.  The  capital  is 
Port  of  Spain  (1911  census,  59,796)  ;  San  Fer- 
nando (8667)  is  30  miles  south  of  the  capital. 
T-nder  cultivation  in  1014,  about  460,000  acres. 
Trade  and  finance  statistics  follow.  Trade  fig- 
ures are  for  calendar  years,  beginning  with  1900. 


19078        1908-9 
£  £ 

Imports 8,874,824  2,682,702 

Exports 8,907,508  2,500,195 

Revenue    871,201      884.745 

Expend 781,088      855,050 

Shipping  *     .  .1,798,810  1,987,252 

*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 


191011      191814 

£       £ 

8,848,011  4,968,850 

8,467.588  5.205.678 

948.888   970.789 

927,038   951,982 

2,771,864  8.686.607 


The  principal  exports  of  local  produce  in  1913 
were:  cacao,  £1,403,379;  sugar,  £418,067;  as- 
phalt, £230,565;  coconuts,  £85,369;  petroleum, 
£75.020. 

TRINITY  COLLEOE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  founded  in  1823  at  Hartford, 
Conn.  The  total  number  enrolled  in  all  depart- 
ments in  1915-16  was  237.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 25.  There  were  no  noteworthy  benefac- 
tions received  during  the  year,  and  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty.  The 
library  contained  about  70,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  Rev.  F.  S.  Luther,  LL.D. 

TBIPLANES.    See  AfiBONATmcs. 

TRIPOLI.     See  Libya.. 

TBOELS-LUND.     See  Lund,    Tboels. 

TBOPICAL  MEDICINE.  For  several  years 
studies  have  been  made  of  the  incidence  of  intes- 
tinal parasites  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  the  condition  having  been 
serious  ever  since  attention  was  first  paid  to  it 
after  the  American  occupation.  As  one  passes 
from  temperate  to  tropical  climates,  animal  par- 
asitism increases  and  all  intestinal  and  some 
liver  parasites  appear  to  decrease  in  proportion 
to  the  care  paid  to  latrines  and  sewers.  In  a 
very  careful  study  of  over  4000  prisoners  con- 
fined in  Bilibid  Prison  in  Manila,  made  by  Gar- 
rison in  1911,  the  commoner  parasites  appeared 
in  the  findings  as  follows:  whipworm,  59  per 
cent;  hookworm,  62  per  cent;  ascaris,  26  per 
cent;  figures  which  were  lowered  by  vigorous  ac- 
tion by  the  Bureau  of  Health.  In  1915  a  se- 
ries of  studies  in  nearly  8000  cases,  made  in 
1914,  became  available,  after  publication  by  Wil- 
lets,  of  the  Bureau  of  Science,  Manila.  His  sum- 
mary shows  the  following  percentages  of  certain 
forms  of  parasite:  trichuris,  47;  ascaris,  41; 
hookworm,  22;  strongyloides,  0.8;  oxyuris  (seat- 
worm), 0.7;  tape  worm,  0.7.  The  patients  under 
examination  included  6400  Filipinos  and  1400 
Chinese.  The  remarkably  low  percentage  of 
Chinese  attacked,  intestinal  parasitism  being  but 
one-third  as  great  as  among  the  Filipinos,  is  ex- 
plained. The  Chinese  use  chopsticks,  and  not 
their  fingers  in  handling  food;  they  drink  boiled 
water  in  the  form  of  tea;  they  eat  less  uncooked 
food;  and  they  were  of  higher  social  class.  The 
importance  of  cleanliness  has  been  impressed 
upon  the  residents. 

TBOTTING.    See  Raging. 

TBUDEAUy  Edwabd  LtviNasTON.  Americaii 
physician,   and  authority  in  tuberculosis,   died 

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TBITSTS 


Nov.  16,  1916.  He  was  born  in  New  York  aty 
in  1848,  and  graduated  from  the  College  of  Phy- 
Bicians  and  Surgeons  in  1871.  In  the  following 
year  he  began  practice  in  New  York  City,  but 
in  1874  he  fell  a  victim  to  tuberculosis.  He  then 
had  an  idea  of  spending  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  which  he  considered  would  be  short,  out  of 
doors.  He  went  to  Saranae  Lake  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  N.  Y.  He  discovered  that  the  open  air 
life  in  the  dry  climate  of  the  region  greatly  bene- 
fited him,  and  he  remained  there  throughout  the 
rigors  of  an  Adirondack  winter.  The  experi- 
ment was  so  successful  that  he  was  convinced 
that  nutrition,  rest,  and  open  air  were  the  three 
prime  factors  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis. 
In  1885  he  built  his  first  shack  for  patients. 
Two  men  went  to  live  in  this  to  test  the  ideas 
evolved  by  Dr.  Trudeau.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Adirondack  Cottage  Sanitarium,  which, 
as  announced  by  its  founder,  was  primarily  for 
the  treatment  of  incipient  consumption  in  work- 
ingmen  and  women.  It  was  the  first  institution 
of  its  kind  in  America.  At  this  time  there  was 
a  great  deal  of  skepticism  among  physicians  as 
to  the  benefit  of  open  air  treatment.  Dr.  Tru- 
deau, however,  was  successful  in  obtaining  the 
support  of  Dr.  Alfred  Loomis,  one  of  the  most 
notable  physicians  of  the  time.  The  struggle 
to  obtain  money  for  doctors  and  nurses  was  a 
desperate  one,  but  from  its  small  beginning  the 
project  reached  extensive  proportions  and 
finally  was  rewarded  with  an  endowment  fund, 
which  amounted  to  several  thousand  dollars,  con- 
tributed by  grateful  patients  and  admirers.  In 
connection  with  his  work  of  healing  Dr.  Trudeau 
also  carried  on  investigations  in  tuberculosis. 
His  first  laboratory  was  a  small  room  in  his  own 
home,  and  his  sole  equipment  was  the  microscope. 
After  years  of  labor  and  repeated  failures  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  tubercle  bacillus  of 
pure  culture  and  with  it  began  his  experiments 
in  inoculating  guinea  pigs.  These  experiments 
were  far  in  advance  of  any  of  their  time.  His 
discovery  that  guinea  pigs  might  be  protected 
from  certain  tuberculosis  infection  by  previous 
inoculation  with  bacilli  of  diminished  violence  is 
considered  one  of  the  essential  prerequisites  to 
the  important  discovery  since  made  respecting 
the  disease.  In  1894  Dr.  Trudeau  was  able  to 
found  the  Trudeau  Sanitarium  and  a  laboratory 
for  the  study  of  tuberculosis.  This  was  the  first 
research  laboratory  for  this  work  in  the  United 
States.  On  the  celebration  of  the  26th  anni- 
versary of  the  founding  of  the  sanitarium  in 
1910  Dr.  Trudeau  received  congratulations  and 
tributes  from  scientists  and  laymen  all  over  the 
world.  He  received  honorary  degrees  from  Yale 
University  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  wrote  many  articles  in  medical  publications 
relating  to  tuberculosis. 

TBUST  COMPANIES.  See  Banks  and 
Banking,  Reserve  Systems  and  the  Trttst  Com- 
panies. 

TBUSTS.  Important  developments  in  the 
trust  problem  in  1915  were  the  organization  of 
the  Federal  Trade  Commission  and  the  various 
court  decrees  relating  to  important  industrial 
combinations. 

Federal  Trade  Commission.  The  Clayton 
Anti-Trust  Act  of  1914,  also  known  as  the  Trade 
Commission  Act,  provided  for  the  formation  of 
the  Federal  Trade  Commission  to  consist  of  five 
members  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate 
for  terms  of  seven  years  each.    Not  more  than 


three  of  these  may  be  of  any  one  political  party; 
they  will  receive  $10,000  each  per  annum,  and 
their  secretary  $6000.  This  commission  took 
over  the  Bureau  of  Corporations  and  was  ex- 
pected to  continue  the  bureau's  investigations. 
About  March  1st  President  Wilson  sent  to  the 
Senate  for  confirmation  the  following  nominees 
to  constitute  this  commission,  and  to  serve  the 
terms  indicated:  Joseph  K  Davies  of  Wiscon- 
sin, Conunissioner  of  Corporations,  to  serve  seven 
years;  Edward  N.  Hurley,  president  of  the  Illi- 
nois Manufacturers'  Association,  six  years;  Wil- 
liam J.  Harris  of  QetNrgia,  at  that  time  Director 
of  the  Census,  five  years;  William  H.  Parry, 
treasurer  of  the  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
four  years;  (George  Rublee  of  New  Hampshire,  a 
lawyer,  three  years.  The  first  three  of  these 
were  Democrats  and  the  other  two  had  been  sup- 
porters of  Roosevelt  in  the  Progressive  move- 
ment. All  of  these  were  at  once  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  except  the  last,  who  was  objected  to  be- 
cause of  political  activities.  Mr.  Rublee  was, 
however,  given  a  recess  appointment  when  Con- 
gress adjourned.  On  July  13th  the  commission 
announced  the  completion  of  its  organleation. 
It  had  established  an  administrative  branch  with 
a  secretary;  an  economics  department  under  a 
chief  economist  to  make  investigations;  an  eco- 
nomic board  of  review  to  pass  on  matters  before 
they  come  before  the  conunission;  a  legal  de- 
partment, and  a  board  of  law  review. 

United  States  Steel  Cobfobation.  The  case 
begun  against  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion under  the  Taft  administration,  in  the 
United  States  District  Court  at  Trenton,  N.  J., 
was  brought  to  a  decision  in  that  court  on  June 
3rd.  The  Court  unanimously  agreed  that  the 
corporation  should  not  be  dissolved,  but  both 
majority  and  minority  opinions  were  rendered. 
Two  fundamental  questions  were  considered  by 
the  Court:  In  the  first  place,  was  the  steel  cor- 
poration when  suit  was  begun  in  1911  unduly 
restricting  competition?;  and  secondly,  did  this 
corporation  when  it  was  formed  in  1901  either 
by  intent  or  by  its  inherent  nature  unduly  re- 
strict competition  or  unduly  obstruct  the  course 
of  the  iron  and  steel  trade?  The  testimony 
taken  covered  16,000  printed  pages,  and  the 
**  Court's  opinions  constituted  a  complete  review  of 
a  vast  mass  of  material  collected  by  government 
bureaus,  congressional  committees,  and  court  of' 
ficers.  The  majority  opinion  found  that  while 
the  company's  business  had  increased  in  10  years 
by  about  40  per  cent,  that  its  eight  leading  com- 
petitors had  grown  even  more  rapidly.  Thus  the 
business  of  the  Lackawanna  Steel  Company  had 
increased  by  63  per  cent;  the  Republic,  90  per 
cent;  the  Cambria,  165  per  cent;  Jones  and 
Laughlin,  206  per  cent;  Indiana,  1495  per  cent; 
Bethlehem,  3779  per  cent.  It  held,  therefore, 
that  the  iron  and  steel  industry  had  not  been 
monopolized,  but  that  real  competition  existed. 
The  Court  did  not  disapprove  the  company's  ac- 
quisition of  the  Tennessee  Coal  and  Iron  Com- 
pany in  1907,  but  considered  this  an  honest  and 
fair  business  deal.  Likewise  the  agreement 
whereby  Mr.  Carnegie  sold  his  interests  to  the 
corporation  was  approved.  The  Court  held  that 
no  monopoly  of  ore  or  other  raw  materials  was 
formed.  It  did  not  disapprove  the  size  of  the 
corporation,  for  it  held  that  "the  real  test  of 
monopoly  is  not  the  size  of  that  which  is  ac- 
quired but  the  trade  power  of  that  which  is  not 
acquired."    The  minority  opinion  held  that  the 

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steel  corporation  intended  both  to  create  a  mo- 
nopoly and  to  restrain  trade,  and  to  combine 
with  others  so  as  to  monopolize  trade  within  the 
meaning  of  the  Sherman  Act,  but  it^  did  not 
possess  the  power  alone  to  do  these  things,  and 
that  it  did  unlawfully  combine  with  others  in 
the  fixing  of  prices.  On  this  basis  an  injunction 
to  prevent  future  price  arrangements  with  com- 
petitors might  be  issued,  but  the  minority  held 
that  sufficient  protection  would  be  secured  if  the 
Court  continued  to  retain  jurisdiction  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  price-fixing  methods.  The 
opinion  was  generally  taken  as  a  complete  de- 
fense of  the  steel  corporation,  with  the  result 
that  a  considerable  outburst  of  stock  exchange 
activity  followed.  Close  students  of  the  deci- 
sion, however,  did  not  believe  that  the  decision 
represented  any  new  attitude  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Sherman  Law  since  the  Court  had 
shown  its  willingness  to  either  enjoin  or  dis- 
solve the  corporation  if  the  latter  had  possessed 
power  to  commit  acts  contrary  to  the  anti-trust 
laws. 

On  October  28th  the  Department  of  Justice 
filed  an  appeal  from  the  decision  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  In  this  it  contended  that 
the  corporation  was  organized  to  stifle  competi- 
tion; that  the  so-called  Gary  dinners,  at  which 
price  arrangements  with  competitors  were  made, 
were  illegal,  had  been  continued  until  prosecu- 
tion was  imminent,  and  in  themselves  consti- 
tuted grounds  for  dissolution. 

Eastman  Kodak  Compant.  In  1913  the  gov- 
ernment brought  suit  against  the  Kastman  Ko- 
dak Company  of  Rochester  asking  for  a  dis- 
solution of  the  corporation.  The  government 
charged  that  the  company  constituted  a  virtual 
monopoly  having  acquired  competing  plants  and 
obtained  monopolistic  control  of  the  manufacture 
of  photographic  paper,  and  prevented  retailers 
from  selling  the  products  of  other  concerns. 
The  company  offered  to  make  certain  changes  in 
its  selling  policy  and  business  methods,  but  this 
was  unsatisfactory.  The  Federal  District  Court 
at  Buffalo,  on  August  24th,  declared  the  com- 
pany an  illegal  monopoly  in  restraint  of  trade 
and  gave  it  two  months  for  the  presentation  of 
a  plan  of  reorganization.  The  Court  found  that 
it  had  obtained  control  of  from  75  to  80  per 
cent  of  the  entire  trade  by  wrongful  methods. 
Its  profits,  the  decision  stated,  were,  in  1912, 
$16,633,000  on  sales  amounting  to  $24,763,000. 

Unites  Shoe  Machinery  Company.  In  1911 
suit  was  begun  in  the  Federal  Court  in  Boston 
against  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company. 
In  March,  1915,  the  Court  dismissed  this  suit  on 
the  ground  that  the  patents  of  the  company  en- 
abled it  legally  to  prevent  the  use  of  patented 
machinery  by  competitors.  The  Court  found  no 
basis  for  the  charge  of  intended  oppression  or  ar- 
bitrary conduct,  of  a  "purpose  to  destroy  what 
could  not  be  acquired  by  straightforwardness," 
or  of  unreasonableness  in  enforcing  its  leases. 
An  appeal  was  taken  to  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court.  Moreover,  this  did  not  terminate 
the  efforts  of  the  government,  for  in  October  a 
new  suit  was  begun  at  St.  Louis,  this  being  the 
first  important  suit  brought  under  the  Clayton 
Anti-Trust  Law.  The  government  sought  an  in- 
junction which  would  prevent  the  company  from 
enforcing  the  contracts  by  which  it  binds  lessees 
of  its  machines  to  use  no  machines  of  its  com- 
petitors. The  government  held  these  practices 
unlawful  as  tending  to  produce  monopoly.    It 


was  pointed  out  that  the  company  controls  over 
98  per  c^nt  of  the  trade  in  shoe  machinery.  Con- 
siderable testimony  was  presented  by  various 
shoe  manufacturers  showing  how  the  United 
Company  had  virtually  compelled  them  to  use  its 
machines,  in  some  cases  even  forcing  the  manu- 
facturer to  discard  numerous  other  machines  al- 
ready installed. 

National  Cash  Registeb  Company.  In  the 
Federal  District  Court  in  1913  Mr.  John  H. 
Patterson  and  26  associates  in  the  National  Cash 
Register  Company  had  been  convicted  under  the 
criminal  section  of  the  Sherman  Law.  They  had 
been  sentenced  to  pay  fines  and  to  serve  various 
terms  of  imprisonment.  This  decision,  however, 
was  reversed  by  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  in 
April,  and  a  new  trial  was  ordered.  The  govern- 
ment in  May  appealed  the  decision  to  the  Su- 
preme Court.  In  this  appeal  it  characterized 
the  case  as  one  of  the  most  important  ever 
brought  under  the  Sherman  Act,  because  it  would 
test  finally  whether  the  criminal  provisions  of 
the  law  could  be  enforced.  In  the  appeal  it  was 
contended  that  conspiracy  had  been  clearly 
proven;  ''that  these  men  were  steeped  in  delib- 
erate guilt";  that  they  had  by  practically  all 
known  means  of  competition  ruined  and  forced 
out  of  business  numerous  competitors,  and  had 
thus  acquired  95  per  cent  of  the  cash  register 
trade  of  the  United  States.  In  June  the  Su- 
preme Court  declined  to  review  the  decision  of 
the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  This  latter  court 
had  ruled  out  two  of  five  counts,  and  had  found 
no  proof  of  conspiracy  on  the  other  three  during 
three  years  previous  to  the  indictment.  Never- 
theless, it  authorized  the  government  to  bring  a 
new  suit  on  one  count.  'Diis,  however,  was  not 
deemed  by  the  prosecution  a  sufficient  basis  for 
an  effective  control. 

New  Haven  Case.  Both  civil  and  criminal 
suits  were  undertaken  against  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  Company  or 
its  officers.  In  the  civil  suit  the  decree  of  the 
Federal  Court  had  ordered  a  separation  of  the 
company  from  subsidiary  companies.  During 
1916  the  company  began  the  sale  of  various  prop- 
erties and  sought  legislation  in  various  States 
facilitating  a  readjustment  of  its  finances.  The 
control  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  and 
trolley  lines  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut 
were  transferred  to  trustees.  Trolley  lines  in 
Western  Massachusetts  and  certain  steamships 
were  sold,  and  the  New  England  Navigation 
Company,  which  operated  steamship  lines,  was 
dissolved.  The  company  planned  to  retain  con- 
trol of  the  Ontario  and  Western  and  the  New 
York,  Westchester,  and  Boston  lines,  which  were 
not  competitors,  but  it  determined  to  sell  several 
million  dollars'  worth  of  property  along  the  lat- 
ter. 

The  criminal  suit  begun  in  December,  1912,  in 
the  Federal  District  Court  of  New  York  City 
against  Charles  S.  Mellen  and  20  other  directors 
charged  them  with  conspiracy  to  monopolize 
transportation  in  New  England.  During  the 
fall  of  1915  numerous  witnesses  were  heard, 
many  days  being  devoted  to  taking  the  testimony 
of  the  former  president,  Charles  S.  Mellen,  who 
thus  obtained  immunity.  The  number  of  other 
defendants  was  reduced  to  11  ex-directors,  all  of 
whom  except  William  Rockefeller  entered  special 
pleas  against  the  application  of  the  prosecution 
to  them  individually.  The  argument  of  these 
special  pleas  was  just  completed  when  the  (^urt 


Digitized  by 


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s. 


TRUSTS 


660 


TBUST8 


adjourned  for  the  holidays,  decision  being  re- 
served. 

Kbzxooo  Toasted  Corn  Flakes  Company. 
In  December,  1912,  the  government  brought  suit 
against  this  company  to  restrain  it  from  fixing 
the  resale  price  of  its  products,  and  to  prevent  it 
from  warning  jobbers  that  if  they  refused  to 
carry  out  the  fixed  price  agreement  they  would 
be  cut  off  from  further  supplies  of  toasted  corn 
flakes.  The  company  contended  that  its  notice 
to  jobbers  concerning  the  resale  price  was  not  a 
violation  of  law  since  it  was  printed  on  a  carton 
which  had  been  patented  with  the  notice  thereon ; 
that  is,  it  claimed  that  the  patent  legalized  their 
trade  practice.  In  Septanber,  however,  by  a 
consent  decree  of  the  District  i^urt  at  Detroit 
to  talce  effect  on  October  16th,  the  company  was 
permanently  enjoined  from  fixing  the  resale  price 
and  from  using  on  its  cartons  the  notice  concern- 
ing the  fixed  price. 

Othb  Suits.  According  to  a  report  of  the 
Attorney-General,  the  following  suits  under  the 
Federal  Anti-Trust  law  were  among  those  still 
in  the  courts  at  the  close  of  1915:  against  the 
Great  Lakes  Towing  Company  et  al.  for  an  al- 
leged combination  in  the  towing  facilities  on  the 
Great  Lakes;  against  Edward  H.  Hartwick  et  al. 
for  an  alleged  conspiracy  in  the  retail  lumber 
trade;  against  the  Colorado  and  Wyoming  Lum- 
ber Dealers'  Association  and  the  Lumber  Secre- 
taries* Bureau  of  Information  for  conspiracy  to 
restrain  trade  in  lumber  and  its  products; 
against  William  G.  Hollis  et  al.,  including  the 
Lumber  Secretaries'  Bureau  of  Information,  the 
Lumberman  Publishing  Company,  and  certain  in- 
dividuals for  combination  in  the  lumber  trade; 
against  the  Keystone  Watch  Case  Company,  in 
which  a  decision  partly  favorable  and  partly  ad- 
verse to  the  government  was  reached  Jan.  2, 
1915,  decree  being  entered  June  4th,  but  from 
which  appeal  was  taken  to  the  Supreme  Court; 
against  the  American  Asiatic  Steamship  Com- 
pany for  alleged  conspiracy  and  unlawful  pooling 
agreements  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  mo- 
nopoly in  the  transportation  of  freight  from  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  the  United  States  to  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  Japan,  China,  and  the  Far  East, 
a  suit  in  which  a  decision  adverse  to  the  govern- 
ment was  handed  down  February  3rd,  but  from 
which  appeal  was  taken  to  the  Supreme  Court; 
against  the  International  Harvester  Company 
et  al.,  in  which  a  decision  favorable  to  the  gov- 
ernment was  handed  down  by  the  Circuit  Court 
of  St.  Paul  in  August,  1914,  and  which  was  re- 
argued before  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  fall  of 
1915;  against  the  Prince  Line  et  al.  for  main- 
taining a  substantial  monopoly  in  the  transpor- 
tation of  freight  and  passengers  between  the 
United  States  and  Brazil,  in  which  appeal  was 
made  by  the  government  to  the  Supreme  Court 
from  a  decision  of  the  District  Court  on  Febru- 
ary 3rd;  against  the  Associated  Bill  Posters  and 
Distributors  of  the  United  States  and  Canada; 
against  the  Motion  Picture  Patents  Company,  al- 
leging undue  restraint  of  trade  in  machines  and 
appliances  of  the  motion  picture  business,  in 
which  decision  was  awaited,  the  case  having  been 
argued  in  December,  1914;  against  the  Board 
of  Trade  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  attacking  Rule 
33  of  the  board,  through  which,  it  is  alleged,  the 
prices  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  rye  are  arbi- 
trarily determined  when  the  board  is  not  in  ses- 
sion, the  case  having  been  argued  in  January, 
1916;    against  the   Cleveland  Stone   Company; 


against  the  Com  Products  Refining  Company,  in 
which  a  monopolization  of  trade  in  corn  products 
is  alleged  and  dissolution  of  the  combination  is 
sought,  and  in  which  testimony  was  taken  in 
1915 ;  against  the  American  Can  Company,  alleg- 
ing a  monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of  tin  cans, 
in  which  the  taking  of  testimony  was  completed, 
and  argument  was  made  at  the  fall  term  of  the 
District  Court  at  Baltimore;  against  the  South- 
em  Pacific  Company  to  compel  relinquishment  of 
control  over  the  Central  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany; against  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  Com- 
pany for  alleged  monopoly  in  the  production, 
transportation,  and  sale  of  anthracite  coal,  in 
which  an  opinion  adverse  to  the  government  was 
handed  down  Dec.  21,  1914,  by  the  District  Court 
at  New  York,  but  from  which  the  government 
appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court;  against  Knauer 
and  35  defendants  for  restraining  trade  in 
plumbing  supplies,  in  which  a  verdict  of  guilty 
was  returned  February  24th  in  the  Southern 
District  of  Iowa,  and  heavy  fines  imposed,  but 
in  which  appeal  was  taken  on  a  writ  of  error; 
against  the  Booth  Fisheries  Company  at  Seattle, 
Wash.;  against  the  Western  Cantaloupe  Ex- 
change at  Chicago;  against  Collins  and  30  other 
commission  merchants,  alleging  a  combination  to 
fix  arbitrary  prices  for  country  produce  in  the 
District  of  Columbia;  against  McCoach  and  32 
other  master  plumbers  at  Pittsburgh;  against 
Irving  and  13  other  master  plumbers  and  retail 
dealers  in  plumbing  supplies  at  Salt  Lake  City; 
against  Carl  C.  King  and  other  members  of  the 
Aroostock  Potato  Shippers'  Association  at  Bos- 
ton. The  suit  against  the  Lackawanna  Railroad 
and  its  coal  company  begun  in  1913,  alleging  t 
combination  giving  the  coal  company  a  monopoly 
of  the  sale  of  anthracite  coal  produced  along  the 
railroad  line,  was  finally  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  in  favor  of  the  government  on  June  2lBt 
But  a  suit  against  the  Reading  Company  and 
others,  constituting  what  was  called  the  Anthra- 
cite Coal  Combination,  was  decided  by  the  Dis- 
trict Court  at  Philadelphia  adversely  to  the  gov- 
ernment on  July  3rd. 

Tobacco  Industbt.  Following  the  decree  of 
the  Supreme  Court  in  May,  1911,  declaring  the 
American  Tobacco  Company  and  affiliated  con- 
cerns and  stock  holders  an  illegal  combination, 
there  were  repeated  assertions  by  independents 
that  oppressive  monopolistic  conditions  still  pre- 
vailed. Much  interest  therefore  attaches  to  Part 
III  of  the  ''Report  on  the  Tobacco  Industry"  of 
the  Bureau  of  Corporations,  issued  early  in  the 
year.  This  report  dealt  with  "Prices,  Costs,  and 
Profits."  The  report  showed  that  the  percentage 
of  business  enjoyed  by  the  independents  had 
dwindled  almost  continuously.  While  their 
share  of  the  business  in  some  branches  had  in- 
creased it  had  decreased  in  others,  notably  in  the 
production  of  cigarettes.  Some  small  companies 
with  well-known  brands  showed  increased  pros- 
perity since  the  dissolution;  but  most  of  the  in- 
dependent concerns  showing  increased  business 
were  the  larger  ones  engaged  in  the  production 
of  various  products.  As  a  rule  the  profits  of  the 
independents,  especially  in  the  production  of 
navy  plug  and  Turkish  cigarettes,  were  very  low. 
This  was  explained  by  their  small  scale  opera- 
tions, less  efficient  organization,  and  their 
marked  inferiority  in  the  costs  of  distributing 
their  products.  Their  disadvantage  was  great- 
est in  the  expenses  of  advertising  and  maintain- 
ing   selling    agencies.    While    the    report    oon- 


Digitized  by 


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duced,  nevertheless  neither  wholesale  nor  retail 
prices  had  been  affected. 

On  November  8th  representatives  of  every 
branch  of  the  tobacco  industry  met  in  New  York 
to  complete  the  formation  of  the  Tobacco  Mer- 
chants' Association  of  the  United  States.  Jacob 
Westheim,  formerly  president  of  the  United  Ci- 
gar Manufacturing  Company,  was  chosen  presi- 
dent. In  a  statement  he  declared  that  the  pur- 
pose of  the  new  organization  was  not  to  limit 
competition,  but  to  prevent  ruinous  and  reckless 
competition  which  had  had  disastrous  conse- 
quences in  various  branches  of  the  trade.  Mem- 
bers of  the  association  represented  $1,600,000,000 
of  capital  with  an  annual  business  of  $700,000,- 
000.  The  permanent  headquarters  were  located 
at  5  Beekman  Street,  New  York  City,  and 
branches  were  established  at  Chicago,  Denver, 
and  San  Francisco.  The  board  of  directors  in- 
cluded representatives  of  tobacco  manufacturers, 
manufacturers  of  cigarettes,  cigar  manu- 
facturers, leaf  dealers,  and  jobbers  and  re- 
tailers. 

Germany.  The  war  made  an  extreme  test  of 
the  economic  strength  of  the  Crerman  industrial 
system.  This  was  true  not  merely  of  her  rail- 
ways and  banks,  but  of  private  industry  as  well. 
It  was  believed  by  expert  students  of  the  prob- 
lem that  it  was  the  German  cartels  that  were 
the  chief  mainstay  in  steadying  the  industrial 
situation  and  perfecting  the  organization  made 
necessary  by  the  unprecedented  demands  of  war. 
These  cartels  "are  cooperative  combines  of  inde- 
pendent enterprises  in  allied  industries  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  demand  and  supply  and 
centralizing  the  business  management  in  the  mu- 
tual interest."  They  differ  from  American 
trusts  in  that  they  are  not  complete  permanent 
amalgamations,  nor  are  they  combinations  of 
capital,  but  rather  cooperative  undertakings.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  they  numbered  about 
600.  By  means  of  them  the  government  was  able 
to  rapidly  survey  the  economic  resources  of  the 
Empire.  Through  them  raw  materials  were 
readily  mobilized,  the  labor  market  was  steadied, 
credit  of  individual  firms  was  strengthened,  and 
business  confidence  maintained.  Their  value  was 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  on  Dec.  6,  1914,  the  po- 
tato-drying industry  was,  by  act  of  government, 
brought  under  a  compulsory  cartel.  Similarly, 
the  Rhenish-Westphalian  Coal  Syndicate,  which 
was  to  expire  on  Nov.  30,  1915,  was  voluntarily 
extended  until  March  -31,  1917,  under  a  govern- 
ment threat  to  compel  the  continuance  of  a  co- 
operative arrangement.  A  similar  instance  is 
found  in  the  government  War-Grain  Company, 
which  took  over  the  control  of  certain  foodstuffs. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  war  cartels  were 
formed  in  the  buildmg  trades  and  in  industries 
producing  articles  of  luxury  and  goods  for  ex- 
port. Their  value  in  expediting  industrial  re-* 
construction  following  the  war  is  expected  to  be 
very  great. 

TSETSE  FLY.  See  the  article  Sleeping 
Sickness. 

TTJBEBCULOSIS.  Prophylaxis  against  tu- 
berculosis, for  members  of  families  in  which  the 
disease  exists,  has  been  practiced  by  Crofton  for 
eight  years,  by  means  of  very  minute  doses  of 
Koch's  new  tuberculin  in  a  solution  of  benzoyl 
chloride,  by  hypodermic  injection.  In  many  mem- 
bers of  families  so  treated  the  improvement  in 
the  general  health  has  been  most  satisfactory. 


dividuals  so  treate 
oculations  in  childi 
old.     W.  H.  Park, 
transmission  of  tub 
the  medium  of  miU 
tain  that  when  tube 
to  140  degrees  F.,  s 
for    20    minutes,    t 
transmits  the  diseai 
erally  die  in  a  few 
most  prevalent  in'c 
man  infection  increi 
The  greatest  danger 
dren  is  from  a  tubcff 
moval  of  the  infant 
ination  is  the  only  a 
assistant  to  Von  Pi 
suits  in  the  treatmc 
culin.     Most  of  his  i 
and  nine  years  old. 
for  this  method  incl 
and  the  11th,  13th,  a 
should  last  11  weeks, 
treatment  of  tubercul 
in  1915,  as  advocated 
therapy  has  always  1: 
rope  than  in  this  coux 
door  tendency  carries 
method.    Rollier  wan 
be  protected  at  first  v 
patients  should  cover 
press.    The  method  is 
gical  cases.    The  acti 
garded  as  due  to  the  ei 
well  as  the  actinic  ri 
resistance.    Incipient 
the  preliminary  treat] 
gage  in  work  and  recr< 
from    hiemoptysis    mu 
death  of  Dr.  £.  L.  T 
N.  T.,  reminds  us  of   : 
fighting  the  "white  p]i 
was  one  of  the  first  to  i 
establishing  the  Adiroi 
in   1884.    Now  there 
hospitals  with  capacity 
culosis  dispensaries,  n  i 
and   over   4000   nurse  i 
treatment    and    study 
United  States.    In  19 
in  the  campaign  agai 
which  sum  68.8  per  c 
county,  and  State  or 
Charities,  Conference 
lo9is;  and  Vetesinabi 

TUFTS  COLIiEG 
higher  education  foui 
Mass.  The  total  enrc 
in  the  autumn  of  19 
26  members  of  the  fa< 
able  changes  in  the  n 
Noteworthy  b^iefactio 
the  estate  of  H.  J. 
funds  at  the  end  of  tl 
$2,200,000,  and  the  in 
brary  contained  72,88 
is  Hermon  C.  Bumpue 

TtJULNE  UNIVE: 
An  institution  for  hi 
New  Orleans  in  1834. 
partments  in  the  autu: 
faculty  numbered  31 
William  Benjamin  Si 


ioogle 


TULANB  TTNIVIEBSITY 


052 


TtTKNBLS 


profeaaor  of  philosophy,  H.  G.  Dufour,  profeBsor 
of  civil  law,  Miss  Florence  Peebles,  professor  of 
biology,  William  H.  Stevens,  professor  of  busi- 
ness management  and  organization.  The  only 
notable  benefactions  were  $5,000,000,  from  the 
United  Fruit  Company,  and  $6000  from  William 
Irvy.  The  productive  funds  of  the  university 
amounted  to  $4,318,162,  and  the  income  to  $212,- 
695.  The  library  contained  69,500  volumes.  The 
president  is  Robert  Sharp,  A.M. 

TXTNaSTEN.    See    Chkmistbt,    Industrial. 

TUNGM3TEN  liAXFS.  See  Eixotbio  Light- 
ing. 

TUNIS.  A  French  protectorate  in  North 
Africa  lying  between  Algeria  and  Tripoli.  Cap- 
ital, Tunis,  with  164,608  inhabitants.  Total 
area,  167,400  square  kilometers  (64,600  square 
miles);  population  (1910),  1,706,830  indige- 
nous Araos,  Berbers,  Moors,  etc.,  49,245  Jews, 
and  about  149,000  Europeans;  total  population, 
1911,  1,929,003.  Population  figures  are  esti- 
mate. 

Pboduction.  In  the  mountainous  regions  are 
fertile  valleys  where  grazing  is  carried  on;  in 
the  lowlands  agriculture  is  practiced,  and  ce- 
reals, olives,  vines,  etc.,  are  grown.  Horses  on 
July  31,  1915,  numbered  38,000;  donkeys,  86,- 
240;  mules  and  hinnies,  30,250;  camels,  123,915; 
cattle,  269,162;  sheep,  1,119,310;  goats,  499,164; 
swine,  12,255.  The  area  under  principal  crops 
and  the  yield  for  two  years  are  given  below, 
with  the  yield  per  hectare  in  1913-14: 


Hectares 


1913  14 

191415 

Wheat     . 
Barley     . 
OaU    .  . . 
Vine*  * 

..406.821 
..818.462 
..    40.000 
..    18,500 

460.000 

420,000 

60.000 

16,868 

191814  1914-18 
600.000  8,000,000 
700.000  2,500.000 
100,000  600,000 
494.820    


ha. 
1.6 
2.2 
2.6 


*  Yield  in  hectolitre!  of  wine. 


Commerce.  By  decree  dated  Aug.  1,  1914,  the 
export  of  cereals  and  tiiieir  by-products  and  of 
all  other  flour  foodstuffs  and  grain  of  every  kind 
has  been  prohibited  since  August  2nd.  Excep- 
tions may  be  authorized.  By  a  decree  of  Novem- 
ber 16th  the  export  of  cotton  and  cotton  waste 
has  been  prohibited. 

The  export  of  wheat  to  France  has  been  au- 
thorized without  restriction,  for  oats  up  to  250,- 
000  metric  quintals,  and  for  barley  up  to  500,- 
000  quintals.  The  export  of  barley  has  also 
been  permitted  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
for  a  quantity  not  superior  to  250,000  quin- 
tals. 

By  countries  of  origin  and  destination,  the 
trade  for  1913  is  given  below  in  thousands  of 
francs : 


Imports  Sxporte 

Prance     78,216  73,110 

Algeria     14,069  8,809 

United    Kingdom    14,899  16.589 

Germany     8.209  7,207 

Austrio-Hungary     2.648  2,089 

Belgium     2,876  9,814 

Italy     9.129  25,815 

Malta     248  2.628 

Spain     1,052  8,910 

Portugal     62  1,112 

Sweden     1.039  442 

SwiUerland    2.207                 7 

Netherlands    228  6,696 

Turkey     If270  182 

Egypt 968  3,826 

•rfmoli    556  12.174 

United   States    7,117  279 

Brasil 1,557  1 


Importe 

Argentina     1,876 

Other    4,161 


ToUl    1918    144,264 

Total    1912    166.294 

ToUl  1911    121,688 


Bzportt 

'  7,680 

178.668 
154,655 
148.681 


Leading  exports  in  1913 — cereals,  24,832,000 
francs;  phosphates,  47,755,000;  lead,  8,788,000; 
iron,  6,393,000;  zinc  ore,  5,265,000;  esparto, 
4,201,000;  wine,  5,341,000;  olive  oil,  20,552,000; 
woolens,  3,129,000;  animals,  9,104,000;  fish, 
1,903,000;    skins,   2,130,000;    sponges,   3,350,000. 

CoMMUWicATioNS.  Railways  (1910),  1532 
kilometers;  extensions  are  projected.  Telegraph 
lines,  4630  kilometers;  wires,  16,004. 

Finance  and  Govebnment.  The  1913  budget 
estimated  the  revenue  at  85,012,400  francs  and 
the  expenditure  at  85,002,322. 

By  the  treaty  of  1881,  French  control  over 
Tunis  is  to  obtain  until  the  local  government  is 
declared  by  both  sides  entirely  capable  of  orderly 
administration.  A  French  resident-general  gov- 
erns the  country  under  the  direction  of  the 
foreign  oiBce.  Ijie  reigning  Bey  (Sidi-Moham- 
med  en  Nasser)  receives  an  annuity  of  940,000 
francs;  in  addition,  750,000  francs  are  granted 
to  the  royal  princes. 

TUNITELS.  This  subject  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ing topics  at  the  International  Engineering  Ck>n- 
gress  held  at  San  Francisco,  Sept.  20  to  25, 
1915,  in  connection  with  the  Panama-Pacific  Ex- 
position. At  the  sessions  devoted  to  railway 
engineering  several  important  papers  on  tunnels 
and  tunnel  construction  were  presented.  Charles 
8.  Churchill,  of  the  Norfolk  and  Western,  de- 
scribed the  most  important  tunnels  under  con- 
struction or  recentlv  completed  in  America  in  a 
paper  that  discussed  such  works  as  the  Snoqual- 
mie  tunnel  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul,  a  single  track  tunnel  11,890  feet  in  length, 
in  the  Cascade  Mountains,  completed  in  Janu- 
ary, 1915;  the  Sandy  Ridge  tunnel  of  the  Elk- 
horn  extension  of  the  Carolina,  Clinch  field,  and 
Ohio,  a  single  track  tunnel,  7804  feet  in  length; 
the  double-track  Nicholson  tunnel,  3630  feet  long, 
on  the  change  of  line  of  the  Delaware,  Lacka- 
wanna, and  Western;  the  Mount  Royal  tunnel 
in  Montreal;  and  the  Seattle  tunnel,  and  the 
Rogers  Pass  tunnel,  in  the  Selkirks  Moimtains, 
Canada.  Prof.  Dr.  Luigi  Luiggi,  of  Rome,  Italy, 
read  a  paper  on  "Tunnels  Recently  Completed  in 
Italy,"  which  discussed  modern  construction  in 
that  country.  R.  Winkler,  director  of  the  tech- 
nical division  of  tiie  Swiss  Railway  Department, 
Berne,  discussed  "The  Railway  Tunnels  in  Switz- 
erland," stating  that  on  Jan.  1,  1915,  there  were 
627  tunnels  with  a  total  length  of  175.01  miles  in 
operation  or  under  construction.  This  paper 
dealt  particularly  with  tunnels  of  more  than 
6560  feet  in  length,  and  detailed  the  conditions 
affecting  important  constructions  in  the  previous 
10  years. 

An  interesting  discussion  of  soft  ground  tun- 
neling, since  first  used  under  the  Thames  River 
in  1828,  was  given  in  a  paper  read  during  the 
year  before  the  Municipal  Engineers  of  the  city 
of  New  York  by  Howard  B.  Gates.  This  paper, 
abstracted  in  the  Engineering  Record,  vol.  Ixxiii, 
No.  1,  shows  the  interesting  development  from 
early  days  until  the  construction  of  the  Hudson 
tubes  in  1902,  and  the  prosecution  of  tunnels  in 
connection   with   the  construction   of   the   New 


York  subways. 


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Rogers  Pass  Tunnel.  The  longest  tunnel  in 
North  America  was  the  five-mile  double-track 
tunnel  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  at  the 
Rogers  Pass  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
between  Glacier  and  Field,  B.  C.  In  the  calen- 
dar year  1915,  3.6  miles  of  heading,  and  2.8 
miles  of  double-track  tunnel  enlargement  were 
completed,  so  that  the  headings  met  on  Decem- 
ber 19th,  breaking  the  American  record  for  tun- 
nel construction,  while  at  the  end  of  the  year 
the  rate  of  progress  on  the  double-track  enlarge- 
ment averaged  somewhat  in  excess  of  60  feet 
per  day.  In  this  tunnel,  as  discussed  in  the 
Year  Book  for  1914,  new  methods  were  adopted; 
namely,  a  pioneer  tunnel  was  driven  from  each 
end  parallel  with  but  distinct  from  the  main 
tunnel,  and  cross  cuts  were  run  to  the  line  of 
the  main  tunnel.  This  method  was  employed 
as  it  was  impossible  to  use  vertical  shafts  or 
even  adits  such  as  would  be  employed  with  a 
side  hill  tunnel.  An  interesting  paper  on  this 
work  was  published  in  Engineering  Nerc8,  vol. 
Ixxiv,  No.  20,  Nov.  11,  1916. 

Mount  Rotal  Tunnel.  This  tunnel,  which 
gives  access  for  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway 
into  the  business  section  of  Montreal,  was  near- 
ing  completion  at  the  end  of  the  year.  It  is  3.1 
miles  long,  and  leads  to  a  proposed  passenger 
terminal  to  be  located  immediately  adjacent  to 
its  east  portal,  between  Mansfield  and  St. 
Monique  Streets,  and  Cathcart  and  Laguachetiere 
Streets,  in  the  main  shopping  district  of  the 
city,  the  tracks  at  the  station  being  60  feet  be- 
low the  level  of  the  street,  and  most  of  the  sta- 
tion proper  under  ground.  The  tunnel  is  de- 
signed for  operating  all  trains  electrically,  and 
is  built  for  double  track,  being  23.6  feet  high, 
31  feet  wide.  It  is  located  almost  entirely  in 
rock,  and  the  construction  was  carried  on  by 
the  use  of  the  most  improved  timneling  meth- 
ods. Centre  bottom  headings  were  employed, 
and  as  soon  as  these  were  pushed  forward  cars 
were  run  so  as  to  remove  the  muck  and  broken 
stone,  the  latter  being  crushed  for  rock  material 
and  concrete. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad.  During  the  year 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  was  completing  some 
heavy  realignment  work  on  the  Allegheny  Di- 
vision, which  involved  the  construction  of  three 
tunnels  with  a  combined  length  of  8703  feet,  and 
would  produce  a  saving  of  12.32  miles.  These 
tunnels  were  located  at  East  Brady — ^2468  feet 
long;  at  Wood  Hill— 2730  feet  long;  and  at 
Kennerdell— 3606  feet  long.  The  East  Brady 
tunnel,  while  the  shortest  of  the  three,  cuts  off 
6.36  miles  of  line,  and  was  notable  for  the  diffi- 
culties encountered  with  falling  rock.  The  head- 
ing was  holed  through  during  the  year,  and  in 
December  was  rapidly  reaching  completion. 

The  Twin  Peaks  Tunnel,  which  had  been 
under  construction  in  San  Francisco  since  Nov. 
30,  1914,  showed  progress  during  the  year.  Tlie 
length  of  this  tunnel  was  12,000  feet;  width,  26 
feet  in  the  clear ;  and  a  clear  height  above  top  of 
rail  of  15  feet.  It  is  on  the  line  of  Market 
Street,  and  was  said  to  be  the  largest  project 
of  the  kind  ever  undertaken  in  any  city  for  the 
extension  of  a  street  railway  system.  Up  to 
the  end  of  the  year,  over  2000  feet  had  been  ex- 
cavated westerly  from  the  east  portal,  and  this 
had  been  followed  by  a  concrete  lining. 

Chicago  was  building  a  new  intake  tunnel  for 
water  supply  extending  3  miles  under  the  lake 
to  an  intake  crib,  and  6  miles  under  the  city  to 


a  pumping  station.  This  tunnel  was  of  horse- 
shoe section,  13  feet  wide  and  12  feet  high,  and 
within  solid  rock  for  the  entire  distance.  It  was 
to  supply  a  pumping  station  of  100,000,000  gal- 
lons per  day  capacity. 

New  York  Tunnels.  During  the  year  1916 
eight  tunnels,  seven  of  them  oouble-tube,  were 
in  actual  use  or  building,  to  connect  Long  Island 
with  the  west  bank  of  the  East  River  at  New 
York  City.  The  tunnels  were  the  existing  sub- 
way tubes,  the  Whitehall-Montague  Street  tun- 
nels, the  Old  Slip-Clark  Street  tunnels,  the 
Fourteenth  Street-Eastern  tunnels,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania tunnels,  the  Queensboro  or  Stein  way  tun- 
nels, the  Sixteenth  Street  tunnels,  and  the  Con- 
solidated Oas  Company's  Astoria  tunnel.  Natu- 
rally such  work  was  well  understood  and  con- 
struction progressed  rapidly  and  for  the  most 
part  without  incident.  On  November  30th  a 
blowout  occurred  in  the  south  tunnel,  west  end, 
of  the  pair  of  tunnels  under  the  East  River 
from  Old  Slip,  and  filled  the  tube  with  water 
at  the  shield.  Work  was  stopped  until  a  clay 
cover  could  be  placed  on  the  river  bottom  to 
seal  the  disturbed  ground.  The  accident  was 
due  to  a  leak  in  the  river  bottom  developing 
with  the  giving  way  of  the  earth  face  at  the  top 
of  the  excavating  shield  just  after  a  blast  had 
been  fired  in  the  rock  portion  beneath.  Attempts 
to  block  the  leak  with  bag  sawdust  were  unsuc- 
cessful, and  the  shield  l^came  submerged,  the 
upper  part  of  the  tunnel  still  holding  compressed 
air.    See  Rapid  Transit. 

Boston.  A  novel  feature  in  the  construction 
of  the  Dorchester  tunnels  in  Boston  was  the  use 
of  belt  conveyors  to  carry  the  clay  spoil  from  the 
shields  back  to  the  muck  cars,  so  that  driving, 
water-proofing  and  lining  the  tunnels  could  pro- 
ceed simultaneously.  The  Dorchester  timnels, 
which  were  under  construction  during  the  year, 
extend  under  Winter  and  Summer  Streets,  under 
Fort  Point  Channel  and  Dorchester  Avenue  to 
Andrew  Square,  Dorchester,  a  total  length  of  a 
little  more  than  2  miles.    See  Rapid  Transit. 

FuRKA  Tunnel.  In  September,  1916,  the 
Furka  tunnel,  which  had  been  under  construc- 
tion for  a  number  of  years,  was  holed  through 
after  a  series  of  vicissitudes  during  construc- 
tion. This  tunnel  extends  under  the  Furka  Pass 
and  is  a  part  of  the  Furka  Railway  leading  from 
Brig,  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Rh6ne,  to  An- 
dermatt,  on  the  Upper  Reuss,  and  to  Disentis, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Vorder  Rhine,  where  it  joins 
the  Rhstian  Railway,  and  makes  other  connec- 
tions. The  Rhdne  Valley  section,  from  Brig  to 
Gletsch,  was  opened  in  June,  1914,  but  the  out- 
break of  the  war  delayed  operations,  though  the 
railway  was  entirely  in  Swiss  territory.  The 
tunnel  begins  at  the  2124  meter  (6968  feet) 
level  in  the  Gratschlucht  section  of  the  Mutt- 
bach,  and  proceeds  under  the  Furka  Pass  about 
200  meters  (666  feet)  south  of  the  Furka  Hotel, 
emerging  in  the  valley  of  the  Furka-Reuss  at  an 
elevation  of  2170  meters  (7120  feet).  Construc- 
tion was  carried  on  from  both  ends  and  the  ma- 
terial pierce4  was  such  that  it  was  necessary  to 
brick  up  the  top  and  bottom  arches  as  the  work 
in  the  tunnel  advanced  on  the  shaft  starting 
from  the  western  side.  On  the  eastern  side  con- 
struction was  less  difficult,  and  the  work  pro- 
ceeded regularly,  although  there  were  a  large 
nmnber  of  accidents  during  the  work.  The 
Furka  Railway  was  to  be  operated  both  by  ad- 
hesion and  rack  systems,  and  a  portion  of  the 

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new  line  was  opened  during  the  year.  The  con- 
struction was  criticised  on  the  score  that  suffi- 
cient attention  had  not  been  paid  to  geological 
conditions. 

SiMFLON.  The  second  Simplon  tunnel  was 
half  completed  at  the  end  of  October,  1915.  The 
respective  lengths  of  completed  tunnel  at  the 
north  and  south  ends  were  19,431  feet  (6924 
meters)  and  16,242  feet  (4952  meters),  a  total 
of  36,673  feet  (10,876  meters).  The  work  was 
very  seriously  interfered  with  by  continual 
change  in  the  workmen  on  account  of  the  draft 
of  Italian  laborers  for  the  army. 

Mont  d'Ob  Tunnel.  This  important  tunnel 
through  the  Jura  Mountains  was  opened  to  traf- 
fic on  May  16th,  completing  the  new  direct  line 
for  the  Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean  Railway  to 
the  Simplon  tunnel  route  to  Italy.  This  tunnel 
is  S%  miles  in  length,  and  was  under  construc- 
tion from  Nov.  14,  1910,  being  attended  by  con- 
siderable difficulty  due  to  inrushing  water.  It 
has  a  double  track  line  laid  with  96-pound  T- 
rails  on  creosoted  oak  ties,  and  the  trains  were 
to  be  drawn  by  steam  locomotives,  which  was 
possible  on  account  of  the  good  ventilation  of 
the  tunnel. 

Mabseilles  Canal  Tunnel.  In  the  Prof €9- 
9%4mal  Memoira  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  May- 
June,  1916,  E.  L.  Corthell  describes  the  largest 
tunnel  in  the  world,  which  was  being  built  at 
Marseilles,  France,  for  the  Marseilles-RhOne  Ca- 
nal. The  total  length  when  completed  was  to 
be  about  4  miles,  and  the  total  volume  of  exca- 
vation was  estimated  at  a  greater  amount  than 
that  for  any  tunnel  for  traffic  purposes  ever 
constructed.  The  tunnel  is  to  form  a  part  of  a 
canal  somewhat  less  than  60  miles  in  length, 
built  to  bring  commerce  from  the  Rhdne  River, 
from  Lyons  and  above,  direct  to  Marseilles. 
The  tunnel,  which  is  lined  throughout  its  length, 
is  72.2  feet  wide  inside  the  lining,  and  the  crown 
of  the  arch,  which  is  nearly  semi -circular,  is  32 1^ 
feet  high.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  canal  was 
to  be  10  feet.  The  method  of  construction  was 
to  excavate  a  heading  first  on  the  left  at  the 
base,  9.8  feet  by  10.7  feet,  and  then  follow  it  by 
a  similar  heading  on  the  right  side,  at  the  same 
level.  A  small  heading  at  the  top  of  the  arch 
was  then  carried,  and  the  two  side  headings 
were  enlarged  towards  the  centre  and  to  connect 
with  the  top  heading.  On  account  of  the  war, 
work  was  suspended  on  this  as  on  other  tunnels 
in  Europe,  during  1916,  but  the  project  was  well 
under  way.  Some  doubt,  however,  was  expressed 
whether  it  would  ever  be  completed  on  account  of 
the  vast  expense,  as  the  cost  of  the  European  war 
was  greatly  diminishing  the  probability  of  funds 
being  available  for  many  years  for  engineering 
works.  Furthermore,  in  this  section  of  France 
traffic  by  river  barges  was  diminishing  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

Bagdad  Railway.  One  of  the  construction 
features  on  the  Bagdad  Railway  (see  Tubkey, 
Communications)  was  the  completion  of  a  d-mile 
tunnel  piercing  the  Amanus  Mountains  on  the 
border  between  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  This 
tunnel,  known  as  the  Baghtch4  tunnel,  is  about 
76  miles  east  of  Adana  and  60  miles  northwest 
of  Aleppo,  and  is  16,028  feet  in  length,  with  a 
summit  in  the  middle  246  feet  higher  than  the 
lower  portal. 

TTTPPEBy  Sib  Chables.  A  Canadian  states- 
man, died  Oct.  30,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Am- 
herst, N.  S.,  in  1821,  and  was  educated  at  the 


University  of  Edinburgh,  receiving  his  degree  in 
1843.  He  removed  to  Canada,  and  in  1866  began 
his  public  career  as  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of 
Nova  Scotia.  He  became  provincial  secretary 
and  in  1864  was  made  premier  of  Nova  Scotia. 
When  the  Dominion  of  Canada  was  formed  he 
was  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  fig- 
ures. He  was  minister  of  customs  in  Sir  John 
Macdonald's  cabinet,  which  resigned  in  1873  as  a 
result  of  the  Pacific  scandal.  Five  years  later 
he  became  minister  of  public  works,  created  the 
department  of  railways  and  canals,  and  was  its 
first  minister.  During  his  term  of  office  many 
notable  improvements  were  made  in  the  public 
works  of  Canada.  He  directed  the  enlargement 
of  the  Welland  Canal,  the  deepening  of  the  chan- 
nel of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  improvement  of 
the  Intercolonial  Railway,  and  supervised  the 
construction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 
He  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1884,  and  went 
to  London  as  hi^  conunissioner  for  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada.  Three  years  later  he  returned  to 
Canada  and  reentered  the  Macdonald  cabinet,  as 
minister  of  finance.  He  resigned  within  the 
year,  however,  and  resumed  the  post  of  high 
commissioner.  In  1896  he  became  secretary  of 
state,  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
on  the  retirement  of  Sir  MacKenzie  Bowell  suc- 
ceeded to  the  premiership  of  the  Dominion. 
With  the  defeat  of  his  party  in  the  election  of 
1896,  Sir  Charles  was  chosen  leader  of  the  Oppo- 
sition. He  filled  this  post  until  after  the  gen- 
eral election  of  1900,  when  his  party  again  suf- 
fered another  defeat.  He  then  retired  perma- 
nently from  public  life  at  the  age  of  79.  He 
served  for  many  years  as  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Medical  Association. 

TITBBINES.    See  Steam  Tubbines. 

TUBKEY,  or  the  Ottokan  Eicfibe.  A  mon- 
archy in  southeastern  Europe  and  southwest- 
em  Asia.    Capital,  Constantinople. 

Abea  and  Population.  Out  of  the  former 
European  area  of  169,300  square  kilometers,  or 
66,367  square  miles,  carrying  a  population  esti- 
mated at  6,130,200,  Turkey  retains  only  26,100 
square  kilometers,  or  10,882  square  miles,  with 
1,891,000  inhabitants  (Constantinople  vilayet, 
1506  square  miles  and  1,203,000  inhabitants; 
Chatalja  mutessarifat,  733  and  78,000;  Adria- 
nople  vilayet,  8644  and  610,000).  Mohamme- 
dans preponderate  in  this  territory.  The  city  of 
Constantinople  has  942,900  (with  suburbs  1,- 
200,000)  inhabitants;  Adrianople  has  123,000. 
The  great  divisions  of  Turkey  in  Asia  are  Asia 
Minor,  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  Arabia.  Their  total  area  and 
estimated  population  by  vilayets  and  mutessari- 
fats  are  shown  in  the  table  below,  with  density 
per  square  kilometer: 

Sq.  km.  Pop.  D. 

ArchipeUiro     6,900  322.800  54 

Ismid*     8,100  222.700  89 

Bigha  *     6,000  129,500  26 

BruBsa     65,800  1,626,800  26 

Smyrna     65,900  1,896,500  84 

Konia    102,100  1,069.000  13 

Adana     39,900  422.400  12 

Angora    70,900  982,800  16 

Kastamuni     50,700  961.200  21 

Sivas     62,100  1,057,500  19 

Trebizond    82,400  948.500  41 

Total  Asia   Minor    501,400      9.089,200         21 

Erzerura    49,700 

Mamaret-ul-Azi2    82,900 

BitUt     27.100 


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645.700  16 
575,200  14 
898.700         IS 

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iooQle 


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TUBKEY 

8q.  km. 

Diarbekr     87,500 

\ftn     89,800 

ToUl  Armenia  and  Kurd.  186,500 

Aleppo 86,600 

Beirut   16,000 

Lebanon  *     3,100 

Jerusalem  *     17.100 

Syria     95,900 

Zor  *      78,000 

Bagdad 111,800 

MoBuI    91,000 

Busra    188,800 

ToUl  Syria  and  Hes 687.800 

Hejaa    250,000 

Yemen 191.100 

Total  Arabia    441,100 

*  Mutesaarif at. 


656 


TUBKET 


Pop. 

D. 

471,500 
879.800 

11 

7 

2,470,900 

18 

995.800 
538,500 
200,000 
841,600 
719.500 
100,000 
614,000 
851,200 
488,000 

11 

45 
161 

22 
9 

.  1 
4 
8 
8 

4,288.600 

8 

800,000 
750,000 

1 
4 

1,050,000 


Asir,  Nejd,  and  El  Hasa  and  EI  Katr,  in 
Arabia,  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  Turkey,  but 
are  inhabited  by  tribes  whose  subjection  is 
merely  nominal.  Albania,  lost  to  Turkey  at  the 
end  of  the  Balkan  Wars,  is  a  name  given  to  an 
indeterminate  area  embracing  the  old  vilayets 
of  Scutari  and  Janina,  with  portions  of  Kossovo 
and  Monastir;  Macedonia  comprehends  the  old 
vilayet  of  Salonica,  the  eastern  (and  larger) 
part  of  Monastir,  and  southeastern  Kossovo. 
Turks  in  all  parts  of  what  was  once  the  empire, 
are  estimated  to  number  about  11,000,000; 
Greeks,  Arabs,  Albanians,  Bulgarians,  Serbians, 
Vlachs,  Kurds,  Armenians,  Jews,  Syrians,  Cir- 
cassians, and  other  races  are  scattered  over  the 
country.  Reliable  population  figures  are  unob- 
tainable—the 11,000,000  Turks  being  merely  a 
guess.  Mohammedans  form  the  majority  of  the 
population.  Christians  (Orthodox)  predomi- 
nate in  some  districts,  notably  in  Macedonia, 
and  Gregorians  in  Armenia.  There  are  also  Ro- 
man Catholics,  Nestorians,  etc. 

Public  education,  in  the  Western  sense,  is  al- 
most unknown,  except  in  non-Moslem  institu- 
tions. Moslem  instruction,  theoretically  obliga- 
tory and  in  all  cases  free,  is  confined  mainly 
to  the  reading  of  the  Koran  and  is  largely  in 
the  hands  of  &e  priests. 

The  population  of  the  larger  cities,  besides 
Constantinople,  has  been  estimated  as  follows: 
Damascus,  260,000;  Smyrna,  250,000;  Aleppo, 
200,000;  Beirut,  140,000;  Bagdad,  125,000; 
Erzeriun,  120,000;  Afiun,  96,000;  Manissa,  90,- 
000;  Jerusalem,  84,000;  Aidin,  80,000;  Brussa, 
80,000;  Diarbekr,  80,000;  Mosul,  80,000;  Sivas, 
78,000;  Urfa,  72,000;  Aintab,  70,000;  Mecca, 
70,000;  Busra,  60,000;  Trebizond,  60,000;  Adana, 
60,000;  Horns,  60,000;  Hodeida,  49,000;  Angora, 
38,000;  Gaza,  30,000. 

The  inhabitants  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  in  part 
sedentary,  in  part  nomad ;  in  part  Mohammedan, 
in  part  Christian.  The  majority  depend  upon 
agriculture  or  grazing  for  their  livelihood.  The 
manufactures  are  mainly  for  home  consumption. 
There  are  valuable  deposits  of  minerals. 

Following  are  the  statistics  of  production 
(1910)  in  ^'29  provinces  and  districts":  44,846,- 
000  quintals  of  wheat,  4,773,000  of  rye,  29,006,- 
000  of  barley,  4,478,000  of  oats,  11,246,000  of 
com,  1,019,000  of  rice.  Cotton,  tobacco,  opium, 
and  other  crops  are  raised;  olive  oil,  wool,  and 
mohair  are  valuable  exports;  rugs  are  manu- 
factured. 

CoMMEBGE.  Trade  statistics  are  incomplete. 
A  reliable  German  80ur<!e  g^ves  as  the  latest 


available  trade  figures,  4,012,674,000  piasters  im- 
ports, and  2,193,789,000  piasters  exports  for  the 
year  ended  Feb.  28,  1911.  It  would  be  idle  to 
enter  into  details  for  so  remote  a  year,  espe- 
cially as  these  details  were  given  in  the  previous 
Year  Book.  From  another  source  not  so  relia- 
ble we  quote  trade  figures  for  1912:  $217,766,000 
imports  and  $119,606,500  exports;  imports  from 
United  States  in  1014,  $3,328,519,  and  exports  to 
United  States,  $20,843,077. 

CoMMUNioATioNS.  Railways,  including  the 
lines  in  the  lost  provinces,  were  reported  in 
1914  to  be  4230  miles,  divided  as  to  ownership 
as  follows:  Hejaz  line  (1000  miles),  Turkish; 
Salonica-Constantinople  (320),  Smyrna-Kassaba 
(330),  Syrian  (370),  Jaffa- Jerusalem  (60)— all 
French  lines;  Salon ica-Monastir  (140),  Anato- 
lian (to  Angora,  360;  to  Konoa,  300;  to  Ada- 
bazar,  60),  Bagdad-Bulgurli  (130),  Mersina- 
Adana  (60) — all  German;  Oriental  railways 
(800),  Austro-German ;  Smyrna-Aidin  (320), 
British. 

The  Bagdad  Railway,  according  to  the  plans 
for  its  construction  being  followed  in  1915,  was 
to  extend  from  Konieh,  in  the  Province  of  Konieh 
in  Asia  Minor,  southeast  of  Constantinople, 
through  Aleppo,  Mesopotamia,  and  Bagdad  to 
Busra,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  rivers,  a  total  distance  of  something  like 
1314  miles.  Construction  work,  however,  was 
carried  on  in  disconnected  sections.  By  the 
early  part  of  1916  there  had  been  about  176 
miles  of  line  constructed  to  the  west  of  the 
Cilician  Taurus,  about  106  miles  (including  a 
branch  line  about  36  miles  long)  in  the  plain 
from  Adana,  about  168  miles  between  the 
Amanus  Mountains  and  the  Euphrates,  and  79 
miles  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bagdad.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  there  was  a  small  branch  line,  40 
miles  long,  from  Adana  to  Mersina,  which  the 
Bagdad  company  had  acquired,  and  which  until 
the  opening  of  the  port  of  Alexandretta  for  the 
Asia  Minor  portions  of  the  Bagdad  Railway, 
represents  the  only  access  to  the  sea.  This  made 
an  aggregate  of  566  miles  of  the  Bagdad  Railway 
opened  for  traffic  by  1915.  Owing  to  military 
considerations,  the  work  was  being  pushed  with 
energy.  The  sections  that  were  being  rushed 
to  completion  were  directly  associated  with  the 
military  advantages  that  would  be  obtained  with 
direct  railway  connection  from  the  Bosphorus  to 
the  Egyptian  frontier.  During  1916  there  was 
completed  the  large  tunnel  on  the  Bagdad  Rail- 
way piercing  the  Amanus  Mountains,  on  the  bor- 
der between  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  It  is  known 
as  the  Baghtch6  tunnel,  taking  its  name  from 
the  station  of  Baghtch^,  at  its  northern  entrance, 
about  76  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Adana  and 
some  60  miles  northwest  of  Aleppo.  It  has  a 
length  of  16,028  feet.  Another  important  sec- 
tion of  the  line  on  which  work  was  being  prose- 
cuted was  the  24-mile  section  through  the  Taurus 
Mountains,  which  includes  about  70  tunnels,  via- 
ducts, and  other  engineering  works.  Under  nor- 
mal conditions  the  completion  of  this  section 
would  have  been  looked  for  in  1916.  The  con- 
tinuation line  from  Bagdad  had  been  built  north 
to  Tekrif,  90  miles. 

During  the  year  it  was  reported  that  Meissner 
Pasha,  &e  German  engineer  who  built  the  Hed- 
jaz  Railway,  had  been  entrusted  by  the  Turkish 
government  with  the  construction  of  a  new 
strategic  line  for  use  in  connection  with  a  second 
attack  on  Egypt    In  May,  1915,  this  railway 

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was  said  to  have  reached  Lydda,  on  the  Jaffa- 
JeniBalem  line.  Rapid  construction  was  possi- 
ble by  removing  tracks  already  laid  on  other 
railways,  and  270  miles  of  track  intended  for 
the  Medina-Mecca  section  of  the  Hedjas  Railway 
had  been  taken  for  the  construction  of  the  new 
line. 

The  extension  of  the  Syrian  Railway  from 
Isilahie  to  Radju,  which  brings  the  completed 
section  some  20  miles  nearer  the  already  com- 
pleted tunnel  at  Bakdje,  was  opened  Oct.  20, 
1916.  This  line  when  completed  will  connect 
Aleppo  with  Alexandretta,  and  join  the  Syrian 
Railway  with  the  Konia-Adana  line. 

It  is  reported  that  in  1013  the  total  tonnage 
of  vessels  entered  at  Constantinople  was  17,397,- 
888. 

Navt.  No  reliable  figures  can  be  quoted  for 
the  number  and  displacement  of  vessels  com- 
posing the  Turkish  navy  at  the  end  of  1916,  the 
exact  damage  sustained  during  the  Balkan  Wars 
and  the  War  of  the  German  Invasion  being  un- 
ascertainable. 

Finance.  A  revenue  of  $141,240,000  and  an 
expenditure  of  $160,476,000  are  reported  as  esti- 
mated for  1914-16;  but  these  figures  cannot  be 
relied  upon.  The  1912-13  budget  is  given  below 
in  detail: 


Direct  tazM 
Ind.  UzM  . 
MonopoliM  . 
Stamps,  etc. 
Pensions 
Tribute  *  . . 
Various    . . . 


.14,870,881 
.  6,602.728 
.  8,621.878 
.  1.861,886 
.  1.178.518 
808.877 
.    1,724,770 


ToUl 80.514,150 


Exp4ndUur§ 

PaUie    debtt. 

War    

Administration  } 
Justice,  etc.f 
Public  works. 

Marine    

Posts    and    teb. 
For.  affairs  |    . . 

CiTll  list    

Sheikh-al-IsUm. 


£T 

700.087 
048.705 
166,058 
600,104 
217,621 
276,000 
782.800 
678.888 
505.860 
10,170 


Total 


84,500.561 
Samoa.       t  And 


*  Egypt.     Cyprus,     Mount     Atboa, 
finance.     }  Senate  Chamber,  council,  gendarmerie,  court 
of  accounts,  etc.    f[  And  worship  and  instruction.    R  And 
agriculture,  mines,  and  forests. 

The  public  debt  stood,  Sept.  24,  1913,  at 
£T211,146,862.  The  piaster,  worth  about  4.4 
cents,  is  the  unit  of  value,  100  plasters  being 
equal  to  1  pound  Turkish. 

Government.  Both  temporal  and  spiritual 
authority  rest  with  the  Sultaa,  who  appoints 
a  grand  vixier  to  form  a  cabinet.  A  Senate  and 
a  Chamber  of  Deputies  constitute  the  legislative 
body.  At  tiie  head  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  is 
the  Sheikh-uMslam,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Sultan.  Reigning  sovereign,  Mohammed  V,  bom 
1844,  brother  of  the  deposed  Abdul  Hamid,  whom 
he  succeeded  April  27,  1909. 

HiSTOBT 

Internal  Conditions.  Internal  conditions  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  during  the  war  were  the 
subject  of  the  most  confused  and  contradictory 
reports.  Through  the  press  agencies  of  the  En- 
tente Powers  came  sensational  descriptions  of 
uprisings  in  Constantinople,  of  mutinies  in  the 
Turkish  army,  of  insurrections  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, of  declarations  by  high  personages  in  favor 
of  an  immediate  and  inglorious  peace.  In  the 
nations  of  the  Triple  Entente,  Enver  Bey,  the 
leading  spirit  in  the  Young  Turk  cabinet,  was 
regarded  as  an  unscrupulous  and  reckless  politi- 
cal adventurer  with  no  real  popular  support; 
Enver   Bey's  war  policy  was  considered  to  be 


hostile  to  the  wishes  and  fatal  to  the  true  inter- 
ests of  the  Turkish  nation;  and  the  German 
officers  in  the  Turkish  army  were  said  to  be  the 
object  of  bitter  dislike.  Ex-Sultan  Abdul  Hamid 
was  quoted  in  February  as  advising  Turkey  to 
conclude  a  separate  peace;  later,  he  was  re- 
ported to  have  been  removed  into  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor  by  order  of  the  Young  Turk  minis- 
ters, who  feared  that  he  would  instigate  a  revo- 
lution in  Constantinople.  In  April,  von  der 
Goltz  and  Halil  Bey  were  represented  as  having 
personally  visited  Berlin  to  plead  for  the  dis- 
patch of  a  German  army  to  the  relief  of  Turkey. 
According  to  another  story,  published  in  Le 
Temps,  of  Paris,  Enver  Pasha  and  Talaat  Bey 
bitterly  complained  to  Marshal  von  der  Goltz, 
as  Germany's  military  representative  in  Turkey, 
respecting  Germany's  heartless  indifference  to 
the  fate  of  Constantinople.  From  German  and 
Austrian  sources,  on  the  other  hand,  it  appeared 
that  public  sentiment  in  Turkey  was  not  at  all 
perturbed  by  the  Allied  operations  in  the  Darda- 
nelles. In  April  the  Neite  Freie  Presse  quoted 
Field  Marshal  von  der  Goltz  to  the  effect  that 
Constantinople  was  perfectly  confident  in  the 
ability  of  the  Turkish  army,  with  the  advantage 
of  the  impregnable  Dardanelles  fortifications,  to 
ward  off  the  Anglo-French  attacks.  Over  1,250,- 
000  well-trained  soldiers  were  available  for  the 
defense  of  Turkey,  according  to  the  German  field 
marshal's  statement.  The  German  press  also 
laid  great  stress  upon  the  speech  which  Halil 
Bey,  president  of  the  Turkish  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, delivered  at  the  close  of  the  parliamentary 
session.  Reviewing  the  events  of  the  war,  Halil 
Bey  asserted  that  Turkey  and  her  allies  had  won 
a  series  of  glorious  victories;  he  pointed  with 
pride  to  the  fact  that  Turkey  was  able  to  take 
the  offensive  against  the  British  in  the  region 
of  the  Sues  Canal;  he  proudly  boasted  that  the 
Ottoman  army  was  helping  to  defend  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  Budapest  at  the  same  time  as  Con- 
stantinople; and  as  for  the  statement  so  per- 
sistently emphasized  by  Turkey's  enemies,  that 
the  Triple  Entente  would  have  been  willing  to 
guarantee  the  territorial  integrity  of  Turkey  on 
condition  of  Turkey's  remaining  neutral,  Halil 
Bey  scornfully  exclaimed,  "To  those  who  wish  to 
see  an  example  of  a  country  whose  territorial 
inviolabilitv  was  guaranteed  by  Russia  and  Eng- 
land, I  will  point  to  Persia."  Halil  Bey  later 
became  Turkish  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Oc- 
tober 24th,  and  was  succeeded  by  Hadj  Alii  Bey 
as  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

The  Speech  from  the  Throne.  In  Novem- 
ber the  Turkish  Parliament  was  convened  at 
Constantinople.  The  speech  from  the  throne, 
opening  the  new  session,  was  characterized  by 
the  most  unmistakable  confidence  on  the  part  of 
the  Turkish  government.  'The  violent  attacks,'* 
it  was  asserted  in  the  speech,  "which  have  beoi 
directed  against  the  Dardanelles  and  Gallipoli 
by  the  land  and  sea  forces  of  Great  Britun  and 
France  with  the  hope  of  invading  Constantinople 
and  capturing  the  straits,  an  object  for  which 
the  Russians  for  the  last  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies had  striven  in  vain,  have  been  repulsed 
by  the  devoted  and  enthusiastic  resistance  of 
my  army  and  my  navy.  The  army  and  the  navy 
have  added  new  glory  to  the  illustrious  deeds  of 
our  ancestors,  and  have  won  the  respect  of  all 
nations.  .  .  .  After  the  brave  armies  of  our  glo- 
rious allies  had  cantured  the  fortresses  and  de- 
stroyed the  strength  of  the  Russian  army,  and 


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tamed  their  attention  to  the  Balkans,  they  were 
joined  by  the  Bulgarian  forces,  and  the  Triple 
Alliance  became  a  Quadruple  Alliance.*'  The 
treaty  whereby  Turkey  had  ceded  a  small  strip 
of  territory  to  Bulgaria,  in  order  to  secure  Bui- 
garia'a  support  (see  Bulgabia),  was  referred  to 
in  the  speech  from  the  throne  and  submitted  to 
the  Parliament  for  ratification.  Alluding  to  the 
recent  arrival  of  a  new  €krman  ambassador  to 
the  Porte,  Count  Wolflf-Metternich,  the  speech 
continued:  "Our  political  affiliations  with  our 
allies  (Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Bul- 
garia) are  founded  for  all  time  upon  the  mutual 
confidence  which  is  constantly  increasing.  .  .  . 
Together  we  will  pursue  the  plan  of  cooperating 
against  the  enemy  on  all  fronts."  As  the  result 
of  the  war,  Turkey  would  win  the  opportunity 
for  the  "complete  development  of  her  resources." 

Relations  with  Greece.  In  February,  Cap- 
tain Kriezis,  a  Greek  naval  attache  at  Constan- 
tinople, was  insulted  by  an  agent  of  the  Turkish 
secret  police.  Refusing  to  be  satisfied  with  sim- 
ple apologies  for  the  insult,  the  Greek  govern- 
ment demanded  the  dismissal  of  the  offender. 
The  Porte  agreed  to  the  Greek  demands,  but  de- 
layed the  promised  satisfaction,  until  in  disgust 
the  Greek  minister,  M.  Panas,  took  his  de- 
parture from  Constantinople,  February  14th. 
The  incident  for  a  time  threat^ed  to  bring  about 
a  complete  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  be- 
tween Greece  and  Turkey,  but  the  Porte  finally 
consented  to  give  full  satisfaction  to  Greece,  and 
the  affair  was  settled  peaceably. 

Railway  Extension.  One  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant features  of  the  year  was  the  progress  of 
railway  construction  indicated  by  report  from 
Turkey.  The  subject  of  Turkish  railways  is 
treated  in  detail  in  the  section  of  this  article 
under  the  caption  Communioationa  (supra).  In 
this  place  it  is  necessary  only  to  remark  the 
additicHial  importance  which  attached  to  Turkish 
railway  construction  in  Asia,  since  the  path 
from  Berlin  to  Constantinc^le  had  been  opened 
up,  and  German  engineers  and  machinery  could 
be  imported  for  the  development  of  the  agricul- 
tural and  mineral  resources  of  Turkey  in  Asia. 
Germany  in  turn  would  purchase  supplies  of 
metal,  oil,  cotton,  and  foodstuffs  from  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  railway  system  by  which  armies 
and  munitions  could  be  transported  for  opera- 
tions against  Egypt  or  in  the  direction  of  India, 
would  furthermore  have  a  most  important  stra- 
tegic value. 

Armenian  Atbocities.  While  the  attention 
of  the  Powers  was  occupied  by  the  war  in  Eu- 
rope, the  Turkish  government  autitorized,  or  at 
least  permitted,  a  most  atrocious  persecution  of 
the  Armenian  Christian  population  inhabiting 
the  region  about  Adana  and  the  northeastern 
portion  of  Asia  Minor.  The  ancient  enmity  be- 
tween Armenians  and  the  Kurds  had  for  many 
years  manifested  itself  in  periodic  massacres. 
The  Armenian  atrocities  of  1916,  however,  were 
more  cruel  and  more  extensive  than  any  in  the 
unhappy  history  of  the  Armenian  people.  Not 
only  were  single  villages  wiped  out,  the  men 
killed,  and  the  women  and  children  carried  off, 
as  in  the  past, — this  time  a  systematic  cam- 
paign was  carried  on.  The  Armenian  villagers 
who  had  not  been  butchered  outright  were  tiScen 
from  their  homes  by  thousands,  and  driven  like 
herds  of  cattle,  to  find  new  homes  in  other  parts 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  or  to  die  of  exposure 


and  fatigue  along  the  roadside.  A  report  upon 
the  Armenian  atrocities,  compiled  by  Arnold  J. 
Toynbee,  may  be  consulted  for  further  details 
regarding  the  savage  cruelty  with  which  the  Ar- 
menians were  treated. 

TUBKS  AND  CAIGOS  ISLANDS.  Two 
groups  of  islands,  over  30  in  number,  consti- 
tuting a  dependency  of  the  British  colony  of 
Jamaica,  though  geographically  a  part  of  the 
Bahamas.  Area,  169  square  miles.  Only  eight 
of  the  islands  are  inhabited;  their  population  in 
1911  was  5615,  of  whom  1681  in  Grand  Turk. 
Salt  raking  is  the  only  important  industry.  Im- 
ports and  exports  in  1913,  £30,231  and  £27,808, 
respectively;  in  1914,  £28,191  and  £28,348.  Rev- 
enue and  expenditure  in  1913,  £10,867  and 
£8505;  in  1914,  £9061  and  £9391. 

TUBNEB,  Sir  Joseph.  English  surgeon,  died 
May  13,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia, in  1851,  and  saw  service  as  medical  offi- 
cial of  health  in  Cape  Colony  and  the  Transvaal. 
During  his  service  in  South  Africa  he  became 
interested  in  leprosy,  and  the  research  work 
which  he  carried  on  to  discover  a  cure  for  it  won 
him  his  knighthood.  He  successfully  checked  an 
epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  which  raged  through- 
out military  hospitals  and  concentration  camps 
during  the  Boer  War,  and  while  at  Pretoria  in 
1901  fought  an  epidemic  successfully.  His 
studies  of  leprosy  were  carried  on  at  a  camp  in 
which  were  nearly  100  Dutch  and  native  lepers. 
Upon  reaching  the  age  limit  he  was  retired 
from  active  service,  but  would  not  leave  Pretoria, 
and  continued  the  study  and  examination  of 
lepers.  Several  years  after  his  retirement,  he 
discovered  that  he  had  the  disease.  From  then 
until  a  few  months  prior  to  his  death  he  lived 
among  the  lepers  in  the  Pretoria  camp.  When 
his  death  became  only  a  matter  of  a  few  months 
he  was  taken  back  to  England. 

TTTSXEGEE  NOBMAL  AND  INDTTS- 
TBIAL  INSTITUTE.  An  institution  for  the 
industrial  and  higher  education  of  negroes, 
founded  at  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama,  by 
Booker  T.  Washin^n,  in  1881.  The  total  en- 
rollment in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of 
1916  was  1502.  The  faculty  numbered  194. 
Booker  T.  Washington,  founder  and  principal  of 
the  institute  for  34  years,  died  on  November 
15th,  after  a  brief  illness  due  to  a  sudden  break- 
down caused  by  overwork.  Maj.  R.  R.  Moton 
was  chosen  his  successor  in  December.  J.  R.  E. 
Lee,  for  several  years  director  of  the  academic 
department,  resigned  during  the  year.  Ezra  C. 
Roberts,  for  several  years  head  of  the  department 
of  history  and  economics,  and  assistant  to  the 
director,  was  made  director.  The  gifts  received 
during  the  year  amounted  to  $28,102.  The  pro- 
ductive funds  at  the  end  of  the  year  amounted 
to  $1,970,214.  The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 
were  $379,704.  The  library  contained  approxi- 
mately 10,000  volumes. 

TWILIGHT  SLEEP.  Less  clamor  concern- 
ing twilight  sleep,  or  the  scopolamin-morphin 
treatment  of  the  parturient  woman  while  in 
child  bed,  arose  in  1915  than  in  1914;  yet  there 
was  a  hysterical  and  often  genuine  demand 
voiced  by  many  people  for  the  compulsory  adop- 
tion of  this  expedient  during  delivery,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  those  who  clamored  most  loudly 
were  least  educated  in  the  technique  or  physi- 
ology of  the  process,  which  civilization  has  ren- 
dered far  from  simple.  It  should  not  be  neces- 
sary to  remind  people  tiiat  it  is  manifestly  im- 

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proper  for  any  one  to  demand  that  for  a  certain 
claw  of  patients  any  routine  method  should  be 
followed,  without  regard  to  the  wisdom  and 
judgment  of  the  physician  as  exercised  for  the 
individual  case.  The  twilight  method  is  not 
new  in  this  country.  It  was  employed  experi- 
mentally about  10  years  ago,  and  abandoned  by 
American  accoucheurs.  A  very  instructive  se- 
ries of  deliveries  under  scopolamin-morphin 
treatment  was  begun  in  the  Michael  Reese  Ma- 
ternity on  Jan.  1,  1916,  and  carried  on  with  the 
greatest  care,  in  the  service  of  Dr.  L.  E.  Franken- 
thai.  The  preparations  were  perfect,  and  the 
results  may  be  accepted  as  the  best  possible  un- 
der the  method.  Nurses,  graduates  with  exten- 
sive obstetric  experience,  were  constantly  in  at- 
tendance, as  well  as  the  junior  or  senior  intern 
on  obstetrics,  and  the  day  or  night  head  nurse 
in  charge  of  the  Maternity.  All  results  were 
tabulated  and  the  observations  were  constantly 
checked  by  three  physicians.  The  scopolamin 
used  was  from  the  best  chemists  and  was  most 
accurately  dosed.  Subdued  light,  smoked 
glasses,  and  a  suppression  of  noise  were  enforced. 
The  results  were:  No  success  in  26  cases;  little 
in  7;  partial  in  8;  fair  in  5;  good  in  8;  and 
completely  successful  in  6  cases.  Memory  tests 
were  carefully  carried  out;  26  remaining  clear 
throughout,  39  being  cloudy.  Thirty-two  women 
complained  of  unquenchable  thirst,  incessantly 
begging  for  water  with  parched  mouths.  Head- 
ache and  vertigo  were  present  in  27  and  31  cases, 
respectively.  Yet  these  sam^  women  would  have 
gone  through  a  normal  confinement  of  from  8 
to  11  hours*  total  duration,  and  been  comfort- 
able and  happy  thereafter;  whereas  they  were 
rendered  wretched  for  hours  or  days  after  de- 
livery by  the  "twilight"  method.  Pain  was  felt 
by  many,  regardless  of  the  number  of  doses  of 
scopolamin.  It  was  diminished  in  39,  absent 
in  1,  average  in  19,  and  increased  in  1.  Pain 
is  similarly  borne  at  Freiburg,  as  evidenced  by 
the  cases  reported  from  that  city  in  which  ether, 
ethyl-chloride,  etc.,  were  used  at  the  end.  Rest- 
lessness was  present  in  18,  and  delirium  in  9, 
and  in  7  of  the  latter  cases  restraint  was  neces- 
sary. The  risk  of  self-infection  was  great  in 
these  latter  cases.  'The  exhaustion  of  labor," 
absent  at  Michael  Reese  Maternity  except  in  the 
occasional  pathologic  primipara,  was  distress- 
ingly constant  in  the  "twilight"  cases.  Diffi- 
culty with  the  placenta,  and  often  dangerous 
narcotizing  of  the  children  have  also  to  be  reck- 
oned with  in  the  "twilight"  cases.  The  whole- 
sale adoption  of  the  Freiburg  method  would  be 
absolutely  unjustifiable  with  the  cruelty,  danger, 
and  distress  practically  unencountered  by  the 
modem  American  methods.  Libby,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, makes  a  similarly  unfavorable  report.  A 
very  interesting  part  of  his  careful  report  shows 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  women  became 
excited  and  even  violent  and  unmanageable,  a 
condition  which  is  found  to  have  been  reported 
by  Oauss,  Preller,  Hocheisen,  Steffen,  and  Mayer, 
all  of  Germany,  in  from  1.4  to  26  per  cent  of 
their  cases.    See  ANiESTHESiA. 

TYPHOID  FEVEB.  The  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association  published  its 
third  annual  statistical  study  of  the  mortality 
in  typhoid  fever  in  the  cities  of  the  United 
States  having  100,000  or  more  population.  The 
communities  in  the  group  having  over  500,000 
population  are  New  York,  showing  a  death  rate 
of  6.2  per   lOO^OOO  inhabitants;   Chicago,  with 


7.1;  Philadelphia,  9.4;  Cleveland,  8.3;  Boston, 
9.1;  St.  Louis,  ll.l;  Detroit,  13.0:  Pittsburgh, 
13.8;  Baltimore,  ^2.4.  The  excellent  showing 
made  in  the  city  of  New  York  is  believed  to  be 
due  to  the  careful  studies  made  of  the  situation 
in  that  city.  The  chief  factor,  in  the  opinion 
of  sanitarians,  is  the  effective  control  of  the 
milk  supply  practiced  in  New  York  City.  It  is 
noted  that  the  average  death  rate  of  1913  and 
1914  was  less  than  that  of  the  years  from  1906 
to  1910.  Chicago  has  a  lower  mortality  for 
much  the  same  reason.  Philadelphia  also  shows 
an  astonishing  improvement;  it  has  become  one 
of  the  safest  instead  of  the  most  dangerous 
cities  in  the  United  States  as  regards  typhoid. 
Here  purification  of  the  water  supply  was  the 
chief  factor.  Detroit's  comparatively  high  rate 
is  believed  to  be  connected  with  the  public  water 
supply.  Some  attempts  have  been  made  to 
ameliorate  this  by  the  hjrpochlorite  method,  aa 
a  result  of  which  the  mortality  is  lower  than 
that  of  previous  years.  Cleveland,  Pittsburgh, 
and  St.  Louis  have  also  reduced  their  mortality 
from  18  and  16.8,  respectively,  to  13.8  and  ll.l, 
respectively,  per  100,000.  Baltimore  shows  a 
slight  decrease,  but  it  still  has  far  the  highest 
mortality  in  this  group.  Boston  is  the  only 
city  which  shows  an  increase  in  1914  over  1913, 
this  being  due  partly  to  a  milk-borne  epidemic. 
Among  the  smaller  cities  many  show  an  increase 
over  an  already  high  typhoid  death  rate.  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  had  a  rate  of  40.2  per  10,000 
population;  Nashville,  Tenn.,  47.3.  The  total 
average  from  1910  to  1914  shows  that  the  mor- 
tality has  been  practically  cut  into  halves. 

The  problem  of  the  typhoid  carrier  has  been 
attacked  by  several  clinicians.  Geronne  suc- 
ceeded in  eliminating  the  typhoid  bacilli  from 
the  intestines  of  chronic  carriers.  He  used 
th3rmol  as  a  disinfectant,  giving  animal  char- 
coal with  it  in  order  to  priHong  its  action.  He 
administered  1  gram  of  charcoal  and  1  gram  of 
thymol  three  times  a  day,  the  charcoal  half  an 
hour  before  meals,  the  thymol  in  capsules  half 
an  hour  after  meals.  This  was  kept  up  for 
from  8  to  14  days.  Kalberlah  had  equally  good 
results  with  tincture  of  iodine  and  charcoal. 
He  gave  from  7  to  16  drops  of  the  iodine  diluted 
in  water  from  3  to  6  times  a  day. 

The  use  of  vaccines  in  the  treatment  of  typhoid 
fever  and  to  some  extent  their  value  in  prophy- 
laxis, is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  although 
many  reports  have  been  published  on  the  subject 
in  the  last  few  years.  Watters,  after  analyzing 
1120  cases  of  typhoid  fever  treated  with  vac- 
cines, is  of  the  opinion  that  the  death  rate  is 
lower,  that  the  febrile  stage  is  10  days  shorter, 
and  that  relapses  are  less  frequent;  the  patients 
were  less  depressed,  and  averaged  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  the  ordinary  typhoid  case.  Ichi- 
kawa  has  used  sensitized  bacteria  by  intravenous 
injection.  His  method  is  as  follows:  living  ba- 
cilli are  treated  with  serum  from  convalescent 
typhoid  fever  patients,  then  washed,  and  finally 
suspended  in  salt  solution  containing  0.3  per 
cent  phenol.  The  vaccine  was  not  only  effectual 
in  typhoid,  but  also  in  paratyphoid  fever.  Ichi- 
kawa  explains  his  remarkable  results  by  saying 
tliat  in  typhoid  only  a  small  amount  of  anti- 
bodies is  produced,  so  that  the  bacteria  are  not 
all  killed.  By  injecting  a  large  niunber  of  sensi- 
tized bacteria  the  manufacture  of  antibodies  is 
enormously  stimulated  and  all  the  bacteria  are 
killed.    He  thinks  that  in  ordinary  subcutaneoUto 

Digitized  by  V:r005lC 


\ 


TYPHOID  JTJSvEB  6J 

injections  the  bacteria  are  retarded  in  their 
progress  and  consequently  the  amounts  of 
anti-bodies  are  too  small  to  overcome  the  infec- 
tion. 

Pfeiffer  and  Kolle,  in  Germany,  and  Wright 
and  Netley,  England,  published  tiie  results  of 
experiments  in  preventing  typhoid  fever  by  vac- 
cination with  B<icillu8  typhosus  killed  by  heat. 
The  New  York  Department  of  Health  has  pub- 
lished its  experiments  in  regard  to  inununizatlon 
with  typhoid  vaccine.  Many  different  varieties 
have  been  prepared  since  1896.  The  culture  used 
by  the  Department  of  Health  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows: "A  laboratory  culture  of  typhoid  bacilli 
which  has  lost  much  of  its  virulence  through 
long  artificial  cultivation  is  used.  Large  sur- 
faces of  agar  in  Blake  bottles  are  inoculated 
from  fresh  agar  cultures.  After  24  hours' 
growth  at  37  C.  the  bacteria  are  washed  from 
the  surface  of  the  agar  with  normal  salt  solu- 
tion. The  suspension  is  then  standardized  by 
counting  the  ba!cilli  by  the  Wright  method.  This 
is  done  by  mixing  an  equal  part  of  blood  and 
the  bacterial  suspension.  Smears  are  made  from 
this  mixture  and  strained.  The  number  of  ba- 
cilli and  red  cells  are  then  counted  under  the 
microscope  in  about  25  fields.  When  the  pro- 
portion between  the  two  has  been  determined, 
the  number  of  red  cells  per  c.c.  being  known,  the 
number  of  bacilli  per  c.c.  can  then  ^  estimated; 
suspension  is  then  heated  one  hour  at  66  C.  to 
kill  the  bacilli.  After  heating,  the  sterility  of 
the  suspension  is  tested  hj  inoculating  generous 
amounts  into  media  and  incubating  these  under 
lerobic  and  anaerobic  conditions.  If  no  growth 
occurs,  0.25  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid  is  added  to 
the  suspension,  which  is  diluted  with  0.25  per 
cent  carbolic  acid  in  normal  saline  solution,  so 
that  1  c.c.  contains  the  appropriate  dose.  It  is 
then  bottled  for  distribution."  While  a  few 
cases  developed  severe  reaction,  others  were  only 
partially  immunized  and  still  others  resisted  im- 
munization entirely.  The  evidence  is  overwhelm- 
ing that  immunization  by  vaccine  is  as  effective 
against  typhoid  fever  as  is  a  previous  attack  of 
the  disease,  and  this  immunity  lasts  from  at 
least  two  to  a  great  many  years,  in  all  but  a 
very  few  individuals.  Those  who  subsequently 
develop  the  disease  have  it  in  a  lighter  and  less 
fatal  form.  Warning  is  given  that  in  order  to 
avoid  severe  reactions  several  precautions  must 
be  observed.  Only  healthy  individuals  should 
be  vaccinated ;  individuals  below  par  for  any  rea- 
son should  not  receive  vaccination;  children  are 
not  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun  after  vaccination; 
and  alcohol  and  hard  work  should  be  avoided  in 
the  case  of  adults. 

The  full  text  of  this  valuable  article  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Jountal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association^  Jan.  2,  1915. 

TYPHUS  VEVBB.  The  work  on  epidemics 
by  Hippocrates,  the  father  of  medicine,  describes 
most  accurately  cases  of  fever  occurring  as  epi- 
demics, which  were  in  all  probability  cases  of 
typhus.  An  Athenian  pestilence  well  described 
by  Thucydides  was  probably  typhus.  In  the 
siege  of  Granada  in  1489  as  many  as  17,000  of 
Ferdinand's  soldiers  perished  of  "tabardillo,** 
doubtless  typhus.  It  is  the  old  "jail  fever," 
"ship  fever,"  or  "spotted  fever."  It  devastated 
Ireland;  it  was  prevalent  among  the  poor  of 
England;  and  it  has  followed  war  for  centuries. 
In  1914,  Harry  Plotz,  of  Mt.  Sinai  Hospital 
Staff,  New  York,  made  the  brilliant  discovery  of 


9  UGANDA  FBOTECTOBATE 

the  organism  causative  of  this  disease,  described 
as  a  small,  pleomorphic,  obligatory  anserobic 
gram-positive  bacillus,  not  motile,  not  encapsu- 
lated and  not  acid-fast,  varying  in  length  from 
0.9  to  1.93  microns,  usually  straight,  sometimes 
slightly  curved,  and  rarely  appearing  in  coccoid 
forms.  Plotz's  work  has  been  confirmed  by 
Wilder,  Ricketts,  and  others.  The  germ  is  car- 
ried by  the  body  louse  {pediadis  vestimenti), 
and  therefore  the  habits  of  this  insect  are  being 
studied  attentively.  Gasoline  or  benzine,  as  well 
as  passing  a  hot  iron  over  the  clothing,  kills  the 
vermin,  for  they  cling  to  the  inner  side  of  it, 
and  not  to  the  body,  when  the  patient  is  stripped. 
The  disease  has  desolated  large  parts  of  Serbia, 
and  between  50,000  and  6O,O0n5  people  have  died 
of  it  in  that  small  ooimtry.  An  American  sani- 
tary commission,  organized  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  Red  Cross  and  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation  of  New  York,  with  a  fund  of  $50,000, 
consisted  of  Drs.  Richard  P.  Strong,  Andrew  W. 
Sellers,  George  C.  Shattuck,  and  Francis  B.  Grin- 
nell  of  Boston;  Thomas  W.  Jackson  of  Spartan- 
burg, S.  C;  and  Hans  Zinssner  of  New  York; 
with  Charles  W.  Eby  of  Washington  as  secre- 
tary. Sixty  of  400  native  Serbian  physicians 
had  died  of  the  disease,  and  nurses  and  phy- 
sicians of  the  American  and  British  units  of  the 
Red  Cross  had  also  met  death  from  this  source. 
Acting  on  liie  clinical  observations  so  carefully 
made  by  Nathan  E.  Brill,  of  New' York,  in  in- 
vestigating "Brill's  Disease,"  determined  to  be 
typhus  by  the  brilliant  experimental  work  of 
Ricketts,  and  aided  by  the  work  of  Anderson 
and  Goldberger,  the  commission  was  able  to 
terminate  the  epidemic  of  the  disease  in  Serbia, 
and  save  countless  valuable  lives  of  the  unfortu- 
nate people  of  that  country  as  well  as  of  the 
divisions  of  invading  and  allied  forces  who  en- 
tered its  territory,  and  thus  doubtless  to  pre- 
vent the  imminent  spread  of  a  pestilence  over  all 
Europe.  The  names  of  Dr.  James  F.  Donnelly, 
who  died  at  Gevaglia  of  typhus,  and  Drs.  Ethan 
F.  Butler  and  Ernest  P.  Magruder,  both  of 
Washington,  D.  C,  should  be  mentioned  for  their 
heroism;  while  scores  of  assistant  physicians 
and  nurses  unnamed  risked  their  lives  in  the 
work.  The  erection  of  a  sufficient  laboratory, 
and  the  organization  of  a  pathological  and  bac- 
teriological bureau  at  the  Quarantine  station 
of  the  port  of  New  York  by  the  State  Health 
Officer  of  the  Port,  Dr.  J.  J.  O'Connell,  puts  the 
immigration  officials  in  good  condition  for  re- 
pelling this  disease,  if  danger  should  approach 
at  the  close  of  the  war.    See  also  Vital  Sta- 

TI8TIC8. 

TYBOL  (TiBOL).    See  Atjstbia-Hungaby. 

UGANDA  FBOTECTORATB.  A  British 
protectorate  in  east  Africa.  Pending  a  com- 
plete survey,  the  area  cannot  be  stated  with  ac- 
curacy ;  up  to  the  fifth  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
it  is  estimated  at  121,437  square  miles,  includ- 
ing 16,377  square  miles  of  water.  The  protec- 
torate is  divided  into  five  provinces — Rudolph, 
Eastern,  Northern,  Western,  and  Buganda.  The 
peculation,  as  estimated  March  31,  1014,  was 
2,009,122;  March  31,  1915,  2,927,494,  consisting 
of  2,923,031  natives,  3560  Asiatics,  and  903  Eu- 
ropeans. These  figures  for  native  inhabitants 
must  be  taken  with  some  reserve,  as  there  are 
insufficient  data  for  an  accurate  calculation. 
The  climate  is  not  healthful.  Sleeping  sickness 
has  ravaged  the  country,  and  malaria,  spirillum 
fever,  and  dengue  fever  are  prevalent, 


Digitized  by 


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UGANDA  FBOTECTOBATB 


660 


XnTEMPLOYMBNT 


191918  191814  1914-15 

ImporU    £770.046  £807,262  £687,101 

Exporta    467.010  605,854  616,526 

Local    reranue    288,665  256,550  282.880 

Orantinaid     85.000         10,000 

Expenditura     207,147  200.180  280,218 

The  principal  export  is  cotton;  others  are 
coffee,  skins,  cotton  seed,  and  ghee.  A  railway, 
61  miles,  extends  from  Jinja,  on  Victoria  Ny- 
anza,  to  Namasagali,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Nile 
on  Lake  Kioga.  Another  railway,  8  miles,  ex- 
tends from  Port  Bell  to  Kampala.  Steamers  ply 
Victoria  Nyanza,  connecting  at  Port  Florence 
with  the  Uganda  Railway,  which  is  wholly 
within  the  East  Africa  Protectorate.  Mengs  is 
the  native  capital ;  the  King  of  Uganda  is  Daudi 
Chua,  born  Aug.  8,  1896,  grandson  of  the  cele- 
brated Mutesa.  The  British  headquarters  is 
Entebbe. 

ULSTEB  AND  HOME  BULB.  See  Gbxat 
Britain,  History. 

UNEMPLOYMENT.  At  the  opening  of  the 
year  the  country  was  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
severe  unemployment  crisis  in  many  years;  worse 
conditions  had  not  been  experienced  since  1803- 
04  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  winter  of 
1007-08.  There  was,  however,  through  the  year 
steady  improvement,  conditions  of  employment 
at  the  end  of  the  year  being  better  than  nor- 
mal. In  European  countries  the  drafting  of 
many  millions  into  the  war  and  the  stimulation 
of  many  lines  of  production  by  military  needs 
had  likewise  changed  an  unfavorable  situation 
into  one  with  less  than  normal  unemployment. 
This  was  especially  true  in  England  and  France; 
but  in  the  Central  Powers  and  in  Russia  the 
utilization  of  women  in  many  occupations  was 
an  indication  that  the  demand  for  labor  was  not 
less  than  the  supply.  In  the  United  States  the 
conditions  of  the  winter  of  1014-15  impressed 
the  country  as  never  before  with  tiie  momentous 
nature  of  the  problem  of  unemployment.  The 
number  of  unemployed  in  New  York  was  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  140,000  to  500,000. 
Emergency  measures  included  bundle  day,  milk 
depots,  bread  lines,  relief  stations,  and  the  ac- 
tivities of  numerous  leagues  and  associations, 
and  of  the  city  government,  besides  those  of  a 
large  committee  of  citizens  led  by  Judge  E.  H. 
Gary.  The  Hotel  de  Gink  for  unemployed  en- 
joyed an  ephemeral  notoriety.  In  Chicago  there 
were  similar  efforts,  but  the  Industrial  Commis- 
sion created  to  deal  with  the  situation  declared 
the  problem  too  large  for  private  charity,  and 
the  mayor  declared  it  too  large  for  public  re- 
sources. In  the  education  of  the  public  an  im- 
portant agency  was  the  American  Association 
for  Labor  Legislation  (q.v.).  It  was  generally 
recognized  that  thorough  and  comprehensive 
study  both  of  the  industrial  situation  and  of  the 
men  and  women  out  of  work  was  needed;  that 
the  unemployed  should  be  classified  and  special 
provision  made  for  the  feeble-minded,  the  inebri- 
ate, the  lazy,  and  the  vagrant  by  State  farms 
and  institutions;  that  governments  must  learn 
to  codperate  by  dove-tailing  public  works  with 
variations  in  private  industry  by  plans  for  the 
drainage  of  swamp  lands,  provision  against 
floods,  building  roads,  development  of  irrigation 
plants,  and  reforestation;  and  that  some  plan 
of  unemployment  insurance,  preferably  compul- 
sory, under  government  supervision  is  necessary. 

United  States.    The  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 


tistics, in  oodperation  with  the  Metropolitan 
Life  Insurance  Company,  conducted  canvasses  as 
to  the  extent  of  the  unemployment  in  Greater 
New  York  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  New 
York  investigation  in  February  comprised  54,849 
families,  of  which  11,723,  or  over  20  per  cent, 
had  unemployed  wage  earners.  These  families 
comprised  229,000  persons,  of  whom  95,000  were 
wage  earners;  of  the  latter,  16.2  per  cent  were 
unemployed.  The  second  survey  covered  12  cities 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  Coast  States 
in  Jime  and  July.  It  comprised  36,537  families 
in  which  were  49,333  wage  earners.  It  was 
found  that  12.9  per  cent  of  all  these  wage  earners 
were  wholly  unemployed,  and  20.2  per  cent  were 
working  only  part-time.  The  highest  percentage 
of  unemployment  was  in  Portland,  where  20  per 
cent  were  wholly  unemployed,  and  17.3  per  cent 
were  partially  unemployed;  and  the  lowest  in 
Ogden,  Utah,  where  4.5  per  cent  were  unem- 
ployed, and  14.3  per  cent  were  working  part- 
time.  During  April  and  May  the  Bureau  made 
an  investigation  in  15  cities  of  the  East  and 
Middle  West  outside  of  New  York,  covering 
nearly  400,000  families  with  644,358  wage  earn- 
ers. It  was  found  that  73,800,  or  11.5  per  cent 
of  the  wage  earners,  were  wholly  unemployed, 
and  in  addition,  16.6  per  cent  were  working  on 
part-time.  The  highest  percentage  of  unemploy- 
ment was  in  Duluth  and  the  lowest  in  Bridge- 
port. The  proportion  of  part-time  workers 
ranged  from  32.3  per  cent  at  Wilkesbarre,  and 
29  per  cent  at  Pittsburgh  and  Milwaukee,  to  5.3 
per  cent  at  Minneapolis,  and  less  than  3.5  per 
cent  at  St.  Paul  and  Springfield,  Mo. 

The  very  sharp  upward  turn  in  business,  how- 
ever, during  the  late  summer  and  fall  changed 
the  unemplo3rment  situation  very  rapidly  for 
the  better.  This  was  especially  notable  in  all 
branches  of  the  metal  trades  due  to  the  enor- 
mous development  of  munitions  manufactures. 
This  included  all  branches  of  the  iron  and  steel 
industry.  The  movement  of  the  large  crops  and 
the  unprecedented  export  trade  not  only  in- 
creased the  employment  on  railroads  and  other 
transportation  facilities,  but  brought  the  rail- 
roads into  the  market  for  supplies.  Conditions 
improved  steadily  to  the  end  of  the  year,  the 
unemployment  in  the  later  months  being  less 
than  during  any  immediately  preceding  years. 
This  favorable  condition  for  labor  was  due  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  inunigration  fell  off  by 
more  than  500,000  during  the  year,  and  that 
emigration  of  reservists  had  drawn  off  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  unskilled  labor. 

Legislation.  The  legislation  of  the  year 
dealt  mainly  with  employment  offices.  Califor- 
nia provided  for  free  public  employment  offices 
under  the  Labor  Commission  and  appropriated 
$2000  for  an  investigation  of  unemployment. 
The  Legislature  also  passed  a  resolution  re- 
questing an  investigation  of  unemployment  by 
Congress  and  the  adoption  of  remedial  measures 
by  the  Federal  government.  Idaho  adopted  a 
memorial  reiterating  the  prohibition  against  the 
employment  of  aliens  upon  public  works  and  re- 
questing of  Congress  a  similar  rule  regarding 
Federal  undertakings  within  that  State.  The 
Legislature  also  adopted  a  law  requiring  county 
commissioners  to  provide  emergency  employment 
for  any  citizen  resident  not  less  than  six  months 
within  the  State.  Applicants  must  be  residents 
of  thdr  county  for  more  than  90  days,  must 
prove  their  inability  to  secure  employment,  and 


Digitized  by 


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TTNEMPLOYHENT 


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TTNEMPL07MENT 


that  they  possess  property  worth  at  least  $1000. 
They  must  also  state  the  number  of  dependents, 
and  the  amount  of  emergency  employment  dur- 
ing the  preceding  12  months.  The  applicant 
must  agree  to  work  with  reasonable  diligence 
and  efficiency,  and  failure  or  refusal  to  work  is 
regarded  as  an  offense;  a  second  offense  dis- 
qualifies the  individual  from  receiving  emergency 
employment  for  one  year.  No  person  may  re- 
ceive more  than  60  days  such  employment  in 
any  one  year.  The  payment  is  shared  equally 
by  the  State  and  the  county.  Illinois  amended 
its  free  public  employment  office  law  and  created 
a  commission  to  investigate  free  public  employ- 
ment offices  in  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  In- 
formation. A  resolve  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  directed  the  State  forester  to  give 
employment  to  worthy  needy  persons,  preferably 
citizens.  Nebraska  provided  for  the  licensing 
and  general  regulation  of  private  employment 
offices.  Similar  laws  were  enacted  in  Oregon, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Texas;  while  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania  established  free  public  employment 
offices  under  the  State  labor  departments. 

San  Francisco  Conference.  At  the  call  of 
Hon.  William  B.  Wilson,  secretary  of  labor,  a 
conference  was  held  early  in  August  at  San  Fran- 
cisco bv  representatives  of  municipal,  State,  and 
Federal  employment  agencies.  At  this,  steps 
were  taken  toward  the  development  of  coordina- 
tion among  all  such  agencies  from  one  part  of 
the  country  to  another.  It  was  pointed  out  that 
according  to  census  reports  more  than  3,000,000 
people  are  actually  idle  in  the  United  States  on 
an  average  of  2  months;  2,500,000  an  average  of 
6  months;  736,000  an  average  of  0%  months;  or 
a  general  average  of  2,177,000  persons  idle  an 
average  of  12  months  in  the  year  in  normal 
times  in  the  United  States.  To  meet  this  situa- 
tion there  have  been  created  special  activities  by 
the  Post-Office  Department,  the  activities  of  the 
Division  of  Information  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Immigration,  employment  offices  in  23 
States,  and  87  municipal  employment  offices.  In 
addition,  it  was  tiiought  that  the  agents  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  over  1300  counties 
could  be  used  for  the  collection  and  dissemina- 
tion of  information.  The  conference  resulted  in 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  advisory  board 
to  perfect  the  codperation  of  all  these  agencies 
and  to  urge  appropriations  by  city  councils. 
State  legislatures,  and  Congress  to  provide  for 
periods  of  wide-spread  industrial  depression. 

The  Division  of  Information  above  mentioned 
divided  the  United  States  into  18  zones,  with 
headquarters  in  the  following  cities:  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Norfolk, 
Jacksonville,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Cleveland, 
Chicago,  Minneapolis,  St.  Louis,  Denver,  Helena, 
Seattle,  Portland,  and  Los  Angeles.  An  immi- 
gration inspector  is  in  charge  at  each  headquar- 
ters. The  work  is  carried  out  largely  through 
the  assistance  of  the  50,000  postmasters  of  iSie 
country,  with  each  of  whom  application  blanks 
for  both  employer  and  employee  are  deposited. 
These  blanks,  when  filled  out,  are  forwarded 
without  charge  by  the  government.  The  em- 
ployer's blank  calls  for  references,  kind  of  work, 
length  of  employment,  hours  of  labor,  wages, 
frequency  and  manner  of  payment,  living  condi- 
tions, store  accommodations,  and  whether  labor 
disputes  exist.  The  employee's  blank  calls  for 
age,  physical  capacity,  occupation,  wages  desired, 
and  various  other  details.    The  number  of  appli- 


cants for  positions  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1915,  approximated  100,000,  while  the 
positions  filled  approximated  4600.  The  appli- 
cations during  1016  were  very  much  in  excess  of 
any  preceding  year,  being  about  five  times  as 
numerous  as  in  1914.  Of  the  applicants,  ap- 
proximately 85  per  cent  were  foreign  born  and 
not  naturalized,  the  remainder  being  citizens. 
Of  those  obtaining  help  in  the  fiscal  year  1915, 
farm  laborers  constituted  50  per  cent  and  ordi- 
nary laborers  nearly  30  per  cent.  A  great  out- 
burst in  the  activity  of  this  division  was  shown 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  six  months,  February  to 
July,  1915,  inclusive,  applicants  numbered  94,- 
482,  and  positions  filled  16,974.  During  the 
month  of  July  alone  there  were  1160  applications 
for  help  calling  for  8665  persons;  while  there 
were  18,061  applications  for  work  and  6035  per- 
sons actually  given  employment. 

Massachusetts.  The  31st  quarterly  report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  on  "Unemployment 
in  Massachusetts"  gave  returns  for  1092  labor 
organizations  with  162,315  members  for  the 
quarter  closing  September  30th.  These  organi- 
zations included  about  two-thirds  of  all  trade 
unionists  in  the  State.  Their  returns  showed  an 
average  of  7  per  cent  of  the  members  unemployed 
September  30th,  as  compared  with  10.6  per  cent 
unemployed  June  30th,  16.6  on  March  31st,  18.3 
on  Dec.  31,  1914,  and  9.9  June  30,  1914.  Thus 
there  had  been  steady  improvement  since  the 
close  of  1914;  moreover,  this  was  shown  in  all 
industries  and  all  localities. 

Gbeat  Bbitain.  According  to  the  Board  of 
Trade  Labor  Gazette,  the  number  of  unemployed 
among  representative  trade  unions  with  an  ag- 
gregate membership  of  nearly  1,000,000,  was 
slightly  less  than  1  per  cent  for  June,  1015,  as 
compared  with  2.4  per  cent  for  June,  1914.  The 
percentage  had  declined  steadily  from  7.3  for 
August,  1914,  and  2.5  for  January,  1915.  It  had 
fallen  to  .75  for  October.  A  comparison  of  nu- 
merous industries  showed  that  only  in  the  furni- 
ture and  glass  industries  was  a  larger  percentage 
of  unemployment  reported  in  June,  1915,  than  m 
June,  1914.  The  decreases  in  some  industries 
were  especially  striking,  the  unemployment  being 
only  one-fifth  as  great  in  engineering  in  June, 
1916,  as  in  June,  1914,  one-third  in  coal  mining, 
one-eleventh  in  shipbuilding,  one-eighth  in  cloth- 
ing, one-twelfth  in  leather,  and  one-fourth  as 
great  in  woolen  and  worsted  textiles.  Similarly 
the  reports  for  the  insured  trades,  including 
building,  engineering,  shipbuilding,  and  the  ve- 
hicle construction,  indicated  a  steady  decrease  in 
the  percentage  of  unemployment.  This  amounted 
to  only  0.9  in  June,  1915,  as  compared  with  3.5 
per  cent  in  June,  1914. 

France.  The  Ministry  of  Labor  investigated 
the  conditions  of  industry  in  January,  April, 
and  July.  It  was  found  that  in  37,380  establish- 
ments with  1,285,000  workers  before  the  war, 
that  24  per  cent  of  the  employees  were  mobilized 
in  August,  1914.  This  percentage  had  not 
changed;  but  whereas  41  per  cent  were  unem- 
ploy^  in  August,  1914,  30  per  cent  in  October, 
1914,  and  18  per  cent  in  January,  1915,  there 
were  only  12  per  cent  unemployed  in  April,  and 
7  per  cent  in  July.  It  was  found  that  women 
were  being  employed  in  many  new  industries, 
30,000  being  employed  in  munitions  plants  in 
July. 

Gebmany.  The  course  of  unemployment  in 
Germany  was  similar  to  that  in  other  countries. 


Digitized  by 


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UNEMPLOYMENT 


662 


TTNITBD  STATES 


A  very  bad  situation  in  the  fall  of  1014  steadily 
improved  during  1915.  Centralized  direction 
and  supervision  of  all  public  agencies  dealing 
with  the  problem,  especially  the  well-developed 
system  of  national  labor  exchanges,  was  per- 
fected soon  after  the  war  began.  This  resulted 
in  a  noticeable  shifting  of  labor  to  points  where 
needed.  That  the  problem  was  serious,  how- 
ever, in  the  winter  of  1014-15  was  revealed  by 
the  appropriation  of  $125,000  per  month  by  the 
Berlin  government  for  unemployed  relief.  The 
Federal  Council  issued  a  decree  in  1016  requir- 
ing all  free  employment  offices  to  make  reports 
to  the  imperial  statistical  offices.  Numerous  de- 
tails were  required,  the  object  being  to  perfect 
the  collection  of  information  and  we  distribu- 
tion of  work  and  workers.  According  to  the  re- 
ports of  36  trade  unions  with  the  toS&l  member- 
ship of  about  1,000,000,  the  proportion  of  mem- 
bers unemployed  decreased  steadily  from  22.4  per 
cent  in  August,  1914,  and  15.7  per  cent  in  Sep- 
tember, 1914,  to  2.9  per  cent  in  May,  1915,  2.6 
per  cent  in  June,  and  2.6  in  September.  By 
unions  the  percentages  in  September  varied  from 
0.4  for  tobacco  workers,  and  0.5  for  brewery 
workers,  to  11.3  for  porcelain  workers,  and  40.5 
for  hat  makers. 

UNEMPLOYMENT  INSUEANGB.  See 
Unemployment. 

UNION  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  in  1795  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  494.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  41.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year.  Benefactions  were  received  amount 
ing  to  about  $125,000.  The  productive  funds  of 
the  college  amounted  to  about  $1,000,000,  and 
the  annual  income  to  $150,000.  The  library  con- 
tained 49,000  volumes.  The  president  is  Rev.  C. 
A.  Richmond,  D.D. 

UNITABL^NS.  The  latest  available  sUtis- 
tics  of  membership  were  for  1906,  in  which  year 
the  Unitarians  had  70,542.  According  to  the  of- 
ficial year  book  for  1914-15  there  were  on 
July  1,  1914,  493  churches  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  540  ministers.  The  adminis- 
trative body  is  the  American  Unitarian  Associa- 
tion, whose  headquarters  are  in  Boston.  The 
denomination  carries  on  an  active  literary  propa- 
ganda and  promotes  conferences  for  the  promul- 
gation of  Unitarian  thought.  The  social  work  is 
in  charge  of  the  department  of  social  and  pub- 
lic service,  organized  in  1908.  The  department 
encourages  the  study  of  social  problems,  and  cul- 
tivates sympathetic  relations  between  the 
churches  and  the  wage  earners.  It  has  an  infor- 
mation bureau,  maintains  a  library,  and  pub- 
lishes a  bulletin.  There  are  also  department  of 
finance,  publicity,  foreign  relations,  comity  and 
fellowship,  schools  and  college  centres,  church 
extension,  religious  education,  etc.  The  depart- 
ment of  comity  and  fellowship  cooperates  with 
the  State  federations  of  churches  in  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  York, 
and  seeks  to  substitute  cooperative  for  competi- 
tive methods  in  Christian  work,  and  to  carry  out 
the  purpose  of  the  American  Unitarian  Associa- 
tion to  foster  union  and  sympathy  among  liberal 
Christians.  In  1915  the  association  aided  in 
supporting  over  100  churches  and  missions  as 
centres  of  Unitarian  thought  and  influence.  Di- 
vinity schools  of  the  denomination  are  main- 
tained at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Meadville,  Pa.,  and 


Berkeley,  Cal.  Missionary  work  is  carried  on  at 
many  points  among  the  Icelandic,  Norwegian, 
and  Swedish  inunigrants  of  the  United  States. 
There  are  academies  at  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  West 
Newton,  Mass.,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  Boston. 
The  periodicals  are  The  Christian  Register  and 
The  Beacon,  published  at  Boston;  The  Unitarian 
Advance  and  Unity,  published  at  Chicago;  and 
The  Pacific  Unitarian,  published  at  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  president  of  the  American  Unitarian 
Association  is  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Eliot,  and  the  sec- 
retary isRev.  Lewis  G.  Wilson. 

UNITED  BBETHBEN.    See  Moravians. 

UNITED  BBETBOtEN  IN  CHEI8T.  This 
evangelistic  denomination,  which  is  practically 
Methodist  in  theology,  was  founded  by  Philip 
William  Otterbein  towards  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  He  came  to  America  in  1752  as 
a  missionary  to  the  German  Reformed  Church. 
The  government  of  the  church  is  vested  in  a 
general  conference  held  everv  four  years,  and  to 
which  ministerial  and  lay  delegates  are  elected 
in  equal  proportions.  The  denomination  is  di- 
vided into  two  bodies:  The  United  Brethren  in 
Christ  (Old  Constitution),  and  United  Brethren 
in  Christ  (New  Constitution).  In  1915  the  to- 
tal membership  of  the  two  bodies  was  360,387; 
churches,  4022;  ministers,  2185.  The  United 
Brethren  Christian  Endeavor  Union  in  1915  had 
2301  societies,  with  93,988  members.  It  pub- 
lishes The  Watchiccrd,  of  which  Rev.  H.  F. 
Shupe,  Dayton,  Ohio,  is  the  editor. 

UNITED  XINGDOM.    See  Gbeat  Bbitain. 

UNITED  FEESBYTEBIAN  CHUBCH  OF 
NOBTH  AMERICA.  This  denomination  was 
founded  in  1853  by  a  union  of  associate  and  as- 
sociate reformed  churches.  For  several  years 
negotiations  leading  to  a  union  of  this  denomina- 
tion with  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  have  been  under  way.  The  denomination 
had  in  1915,  153,651  communicants,  1136 
churches,  and  1151  ministers.  There  are  13 
synods  and  72  presbyteries.  Missions  are  main- 
tained in  India,  Efi^t,  and  the  Sudan. 

UNITED  STATES.  Population.  The  esti- 
mated continental  population  of  the  United 
States  on  July  1,  1916,  was  100,399,318.  The 
population  of  the  several  States  and  territorial 
possessions  will  be  found  in  the  articles  dealing 
with  them. 

Agbicultube.  The  general  statistics  for  ag- 
riculture in  1915  in  the  United  States  and  de- 
pendencies will  be  found  in  the  articles  dealing 
with  agriculture  and  agricultural  products.  The 
section  Agriculture  in  each  State  article  gives 
the  acreage,  value,  and  production  of  the  prin- 
cipal crops  in  1915.  See  also  articles  Aoricctl- 
tubal  Credit;  Agbicultubal  Eduoation;  Aq- 
bioultubal    ezpebiment    stations;    aobicui/- 

TUBAL     LEGISLATION;     AOBICULTUBE;     HOBTICUL- 
TUBB;   IbBIGATION,  etc. 

Manufactures.  The  statistics  of  manufac- 
tures for  1915  will  be  found  in  the  articles  deal- 
ing with  the  chief  industries,  as  Cotton  ;  Tex- 
tile MaNUFACTUBINO  ;  STOCK  RAISING  AND  MEAT 

Pboduction;  etc. 

MiNEBAL  Pbodugts.  The  production  of  all 
metals  and  minerals  in  1914  will  be  found  in  the 
general  article  Minebal  Pboduction  of  the 
United  States.  Under  each  State  in  which  the 
mineral  production  is  important  will  also  be 
found  a  section  dealing  with  that  subject. 

Education.  For  information  in  r^^ard  to 
educational  matters  see  articles  £U>ugation  in 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


)  Harris  &  Ewlnir,  WMhinsrton,  D.  a 

ROBERT  F.  BROUSSARO 

Louisiana 


^  Harris  &  Ewin?,  Washintr 
THOMAS  WILL 


)  Harris  ABwUiif,  Wiu<hln8:ton,  I).  C. 

CHARLES  CURTIS 
Kansas 


FhotoffrCkph  by  Harris  A  Ewini 
PAUL  O. 
Wise 


FOUR  UNITED  STATES  SENATORS  ELECTED  IN  191 


lOogle 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ritory  will  be  found  a  paragraph  dealing  with 
educational  statiBtics. 

Religion.  For  information  of  the  year  relat- 
ing to  various  denominations,  see  the  articles 
on  these  denominations.  General  information 
relating  to  religious  bodies  in  1916  will  be  found 
in  the  article  Reliqioub  Denominations  and 
Movements. 


be  foimd  on  pages  i 
fered  a  summary,  in 
the  total  imports  and 
1014  and  1915;  in  Ti 
port  for  fiscal  years  ] 
chief  articles  of  expo 
1916. 


Tabiji  I 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED    STATES  IN  FISCAL  ^ 

ImporU 

Oountrie»  Twelve  mon 

XUBOPS  1914                             1916 

AuBtria-Huneftry    $20,110,884                $9,704,418              | 

SSSium  ^::7. 41,035.582            lo.asa.eeo 

Denmark     8.269,785                   B,160.e&9 

iV-ance     141,446,252                77,158,740              1 

Germany     189.919,186                91,373,710              8 

Greece      8,866.594                   4,226, 003 

Italy     56,407,671                 fi4,0?S,726 

Netherlands     86,294.010                33.5ie,&&0              1 

Norway     9.197,265                 10,608.864 

Portugal    6.165,065                   6,121,939 

Russia  in  Europe   20,881.184                   2.hltMl 

Spain     24,658,867                 18,027,492 

Sweden    11.590.107                 11.661,337 

Swiuerland     25,829,699                 19,8a5,4Sa 

Turkey  in  Europe 8,296,526                   6,673. 973 

United   Kingdom 298,661,804              £5C. 351,075              5 

Total  Europe    895,602,868 

NORTH   AlfKBICA 

Bermuda     695,419 

British   Honduras    2,099.276 

Canada    160,689,709 

Central  American   States: 

Costa  Rica    8,570.864 

Guatemala     4.078,612 

Honduras    8,180.828 

Nicaragua     1.895.248 

Panama     4,609.719 

Salvador    1,158.820 

ToUl    Central    American    SUtes. .  17.842,591 

Mexico     92.690,566 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 1,815,279 

West  Indies: 

British  West  Indies — 

Barbados     259.715 

Jamaica     6.701,918 

Trinidad  and  Tobago    6.875,104 

Other    British    1,714,127 

Total  British  West  Indies   15.550.859 

Cuba     131,803.794 

Danish   West   Indies    29.874 

Dutch   West   Indies    512.959 

French  West  Indies 59.968 

Haiti     691.807 

Santo    Domingo    8,876.884 

ToUl   West   Indies    152,025.595 

Total  North  America 427.899.854 

SOUTH   AUKBICA 

Argentina    45.128.988 

Bolivia     70 

Brazil    101.829.078 

Chile    25,722,128 

Colombia    16.051.120 

Ecuador    8.595.456 

Falkland  Islands    

Guiana: 

British     110.608 

Dutch    1,026.050 

French     

Paraguay     64.651 

Peru    12.175,728 

Uruguay     7.715.144 

Venezuela    9,768,069 

Totol   South  America    222.677.075              261.489,568              12 


614,854,645     1,4 

500,912 
1,848,800 
159,571,712      8 

8,545.167 
6.558.546 
2.598.524 
2.201.910 
4,888,186 
1.947,882 

21,284,665       I 

77,611,691       1 

1,891.668 

886,748 
5,561,585 
5,585,558 
1,768,476 

18,252,862       ] 

185,707,901       ( 

850.822 

598,972 

55,168 

1.542.886 

9.826.897 

211,884,458       S 

478,079,796      52 

78,776,258       4 

290 

99.178,728       2 

27.689.780       1 

18,958,028 

4,478,757 

1 

858.897 

686,509 

28.159 

28.126 

12.596,648 

10,492.649 

18,227,288 

loogle 


XTKITED  STATES 


Oountri4§ 


1914 

Aden    1,747.810 

China    40,811.840 

Bart  IndiM: 

British  EMt  Indies- 
British  India   78,680,880 

Straits  Settlements 26.307,860 

Other  British 11.064,787 

Total  Britbh  East  Indies 111.908,527 

Dutch  East  Indies 6,884.861 

Hongkong    8.086,840 

Japan    107,855.897 

Persia    1,948,088 

Russia  in  Asia 2.488,978 

Siam    146,645 

Turkey  in  Asis 12,546,652 

Other  Asia 76,482 

Total  Asia    286,952.486 

OCIANIA 

British  Oceania: 

Austrslia     17,088.684 

New  Zealand   5,126.086 

Other  British 204,692 

Total  British  Oceania 22.418.262 

French  Oceania   1,649.628 

German  Oceania 14.801 

Philippine  Islands 18.162,812 

Total  Oceania 42.144,398 

AFBIOA 

British  Africa: 

West     688.111 

South     2.469,849 

East     858,621 

Total  British  Africa 8,956,581 

Canary  Islands    ; 177,856 

Egypt    18,311.238 

German  Africa 134,959 

Portuguese  Africa 440^422 

Total  Africa 19,149,476 

Grand  total 1,898.926,657        1.674,169,740 

Imposts 


604  UNITED  STATES 

ImporU  BsporU 

Twsivs  motUhM  mudina  Jun 
1»15  1914 


1919 


1,190,205 
40,829.710 


61.982,708 
24,989,878 
10,204.666 

87.177,287 

9,245,784 

2,044,589 

98,882,688 

641.081 

881,659 

242,891 

6,555,384 

70.722 

247,770,108 


23,705.010 

8,589.029 

268,989 

27,508.028 

988.968 

66,887 

24,020,169 

52,522,652 


894,751 

4,947,811 

748,795 

6,090,857 

116,227 
17.871.992 

880.885 

24.058,081 


1,226.262 
26,846,084 


10.864.691 

4,184,674 

685,980 

15,626,195 

8,676,896 

10.696.214 

51.205.620 

2,848 

1,214.606 

886.870 

1,168,280 


118.425,616 


46.775.216 

8.950.124 

261.295 

54,986,685 

1,057.808 

219,892 

27.804.587 

88,568,417 


8.607,869 

14.834,974 

617,927 

18.960.770 

728,678 
1,980,016 

693.935 
2,587.472 

27.901,515 

2,864,579,148 


Tear 
ending 
June  30  Swope 

1914    895,602,868 

1915    614,854,645 


North  ^outh 

America  America 

427,899.354  222,677.075 

478.079,796  261,489,568 


Aeiaand 

Oceania  Africa 

329,096,884  19,149.476 

300,292,655  24,968,081 


1.687.676 
17.540,798 


11,696.094 

8.846,765 

488.87S 

15,980,784 

2.771,779 

8,186.815 

41.514.792 

1,852,279 

28.858.161 

619.707 

868,919 


114.467,695 


48.620.676 

8,866,973 

225.193 

62,211.842 

676,180 

121.888 

24,766.820 

77.764.726 


2.924,675 

14.727.964 

618.546 

18,271.085 

985.411 
2.879.241 

108.662 
8.089.460 

28,519.651 

2.768,689,840 


Total 
1.898.926.657 
1,674,169.740 


1914 
1015 


1,486,498,729 
1.971.482,182 


Exports 


628,644.962 
477,081,820 


124,589.909 
99,823.957 


196,994,038 
192,282,230 


27.901,515 
28,619,651 


2,864,679.148 
2.768.689,840 


Tabli  II 

CHIEF  ARTICLES  OP  IMPORT.  1914-1916 

Articlee  1914  1915 

Art   works    $86,010,449  $18,475,577 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes.  7,241,406  5.851,887 

Coflfee    110,725.392  106.765.644 

Copper,  and  manufactures  of  40,624,698  20.358,174 
Cotton,  snd  manufactures  of  10,456,588  23,206,960 
Earthen-,  stone-,  and  china- 
ware    10.629,178  8,681.472 

Fibres: 

Manufactures  of    42.420.950  27.791.890 

Unmanufactured    25,860.729  20.572.347 

Fruits,    including  nuts    20.787,865  17,497.187 

Furs,  and  manufactures  of.  8,840,821  7.768,848 
Hides   and   skins  and  other 

than   fur   skins    110,797,875  98,070,958 

India     rubber     and     gutta- 
percha and  crude 71.219,851  88.030,269 

Iron    and   steel,    and   manu- 
factures   of     6.875,659  4.598.629 

Precious  stones    17,796,099  8.452.117 

Lesther,  and  manufactures  of  0,487,969  7,678,516 

Oils     7,916.080  8.225.485 


Articlee  1914  1915 
Silk: 

Manufactures  of $16,582,808  $12,170,608 

Unmanufsctured    97,828,248  80.581.785 

Spirits,     wines,     and     malt 

liquors     15,988.848  10.641.498 

Sugsr    101.865,661  178.887.646 

Tea     16.785,802  17.512,619 

Tin,  in  bars,  blocks,  or  pigs  39,422,479  80,777,617 

Tobacco,  unmanufactured  . .  27.248,668  17.889.621 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of.  4.925.126  2.640.705 
Wool: 

Manufactures    of     24.019,666  20,580,656 

Unmanufactured     30,681,759  52,008.609 


Tabli  III 

CHIEF    ARTICLES    OF   EXPORT.    1914-1916 

Articles                                           1914  1915 

Agricultural  implements    ...   $81,965,789  $10,804,978 

AnimaU     5.808.659  77,958.686 

Automobiles     83.198.806  68.107.818 

Breadstufh     165,802.886  678,828.676 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


UNITED  STATES 

ArtieUB  1914 
Oh«inicalt,   drugs,  dyes,   and 

medicines    $27,079,002 

Coal     59.921,018 

Copper,  and  manafaetnres  of  140,222,566 
Cotton: 

Biannfactnres  of    51,467,288 

Unmanufactured    610,475,801 

Fertilisers     11.978,788 

Pish     12.842,178 

Fruits,   inelndins  nuts    81,850.892 

Iron   and   steel,    and   manu- 
factures of,  not  includ* 

ing  ore   251.480.677 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of  57.566,261 

Mineral  oils    152.174,056 

Meat  and  dairy  products   . .  146,227,780 

NsTal   stores    19.882,165 

Oil  cake  and  oil  cake  meal .  .  21.667.672 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of  20,668,684 

Paraffin  and  paraffin  wax..  6,516,888 

Seeds     8,190,745 

Tobacco : 

Manufactures    of     7,489,811 

Unmanufactured    58,968,670 

Vegetable   oils    16,251.486 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of.  108,179,640 


665 


UNITED  STATES 


1915 


$46,880,986 
55,906,140 
99,568.080 

71,978.497 

876.217.972 

8.870.887 

12.870,790 

84,988.117 


225,888,858 

120,727.156 

188,698,275 

220.052,990 

11,127,289 

28,879,051 

19,848,858 

10.589,848 

8,861,064 

6.468,688 
44,498,829 
25,881.745 
49,948,687 


CoMMEBCE  AND  THE  Was.  The  immense  com- 
mercial effects  of  the  war  may  he  suggested  by 
a  few  comparisons.  In  1913,  during  uie  calen- 
dar year,  imports  from  Germany  amounted  to 
$184,211,362,  as  against  $44,053,285  in  1915; 
from  Austria-Hungary  to  $19,083,336,'  as  against 
$5,324,750;  from  Russia  in  Europe  to  $22,322,- 
957,  as  against  $2,433,222;  from  France  to  $138,- 
933,883,  as  against  $77,918,758;  from  Belgium 
$41,358,376,  as  against  $2,626,440;  from  the 
United  Kingdom  to  $271,954,987,  as  against 
$258,295,853;  from  Italy  $56,322,304,  as  against 
$61,569,765. 

In  the  same  period — during  the  calendar 
year  1913 — exportis  to  Germany  amoimted  to 
$351,930,541,  as  against  $11,788,862  in  1915; 
to  Austria-Hungary  $22,244,699  as  against  $104,- 
525;  to  Russia  in  Europe  $25,965,351  as  against 
$124,663,056;  to  France  $153,922,526,  as  against 
$499,944,446;  to  Belgium  $64,317,469,  as  against 
$23,161,288;  to  the  United  Kingdom  $590,732,- 
398,  as  against  $1,191,669,781;  to  Italy  $78,675,- 
043,  as  against  $270,668>448.  The  total  exports 
to  Europe  in  the  calendar  year  1913  amounted 
to  $1,479,076,009,  as  against  $1,971,432,182  in 
1915. 

Gold.  The  situation  in  Europe  rapidly 
changed  the  United  States  from  a  debtor  to  a 
creditor.  On  this  head  the  Report  of  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  for  1915  said:  "Although 
the  panicky  condition  of  the  foreign  exchange 
market  caused  large  exports  of  gold  to  belliger- 
ent countries  in  September,  November,  De<^- 
ber,  1914,  and  January,  1915,  the  balance  of 
trade  began  early  in  the  present  calendar  year 
to  favor  the  United  States  and  increased  until, 
in  November,  it  amounted  to  more  than  a  billion 
and  a  half  dollars.  Our  stock  of  gold  coin  and 
bullion  increased  from  $1,805,876,580  on  Jan.  2, 
1915,  to  $2,198,113,762  on  Nov.  1,  1916,  by  far 
the  largest  amount  of  this  precious  metal  ever 
held  by  any  one  country.  The  indications  at  the 
time  of  writing  this  report  were  that  our  gold 
supply  would  be  greatly  augmented  in  the  im- 
mediate future  by  further  shipments  from  Great 
Britain,  South  Africa,  Canada,  and  Australia." 
See  also  Gold. 

Receipts  and  Disbursements.  The  following 
table,  compiled  from  figures  given  by  the  secre- 
tarv  of  the  treasury,  shows  the  receipts  and 
disbursements  of  the  Federal  government  for 
the  fiscal  years  1914  and  1915: 


1014  1915 

Customs     $292,820,014.51  $200,786,672 

Internal  revenue: 

Ordinary    808.659,782.56  283,898,760 

Corporation      and      in- 
come taxes 71.881,274.74  80.201,758 

Sales  of  public  lands. .          2,571.774.77  2,167,186 

Miscellaneous     59.740,870.18  70,287.872 

Ordinary  receipts   . .   $784,678,166.71     $697,910,827 

DUhwsements 

1914  1916 

Civil  and  miscel.   . .   $    170,530.285.45  $207,169,824 

Postal  deficiency    . .          6.686,592 

War  Department   .  .         178,522,804.20  172.973,091 

Navy  Department  . .         189,682,186.28  141,835,658 

Indians     20,215,075.96  22,180,850 

Pensions    173,440,231.12  164,887,941 

Int.  on  public  debt.           22,868,956.70  22,902,897 

Ordinary  dis- 

bursemento  ...         700,254,489.71       781,899,759 

Panama    Canal  dis- 

bursemento  ...  84,826,941.76         29,187,042 

Public  debt  dis- 
bursements .  . .  26,961,827.00  17,258,491 

Total,  exclusive  of 

postal    762,042.758.47       777.840.292 

Postal  expendi- 
tures             288,558,102.62       298.884,757 

Total,  including 

postal     $1,045,600,861.09  $1,071,725,049 

Excess   of   receipts    .$  28,093.79$      57,442,509* 

*  Deficit. 

National  Debt.  The  amount  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  United  States  national  debt  at  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year  1915  were  as  follows: 

June  80,  1915 
Interest-bearing  debt  at  from  2  to  4  per 

cent  and  redeemable  from  1908  to 

1961,  inclusive   $    969,759,090 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since 

maturity     1,607,260 

Debt  bearing  no  interest 872,974,758 

Gross  debt 1,844.241.104 

Cash  balance  in  general  fund 104.170.105 

Net  debt $1,189,070,999 

Coinage.  The  coinage  of  the  year  amounted 
to  $46,086,458.90,  of  which  $40,533,317.50  was 
gold,  $3,353,032.50  was  silver,  $1,718,776.95  was 
nickel,  and  $481,331.95  was  bronze.  This 
amount  includes  $30,000  in  $50  pieces,  $25,000 
in  $2.50  pieces,  and  $5500  in  $1  gold  pieces; 
also  $30,000  in  silver  half-dollar  pieces  struck 
at  the  San  Francisco  mint  for  the  Panama-Pacific 
International  Exposition. 

There  were  also  coined  at  the  Philadelphia 
mint  368,050  gold  pieces,  10,765,400  silver  pieces, 
and  11,024,300  nickel  pieces  for  Cuba;  5000  gold 
pieces  and  859,425  silver  pieces  for  Costa  Rica ;  2,- 
500,000  silver  pieces  for  Ecuador,  and  9,208,000 
nickel  pieces  for  Salvador.  The  mint  at  San 
Francisco  coined  for  the  Philippine  Islands 
1,870,000  silver  pieces  and  500  bronze  pieces. 

The  seigniorage  on  United  States  coinage  exe- 
cuted totaled  $3,687,564.41,  of  which  $1,862,- 
088.97  was  on  subsidiary  silver  coins  and  $1,825,- 
475.44  was  on  minor  coins. 

The  amount  of  silver  purchased  during  the 
fiscal  year  was  3,395,694.87  fine  ounces,  costing 
$1,736,599.16,  at  an  average  price  of  51  cents  per 
ounce,  fine.  There  were  also  received  491,021.14 
fine  ounces  of  United  States  mutilated  silver 
coins,  valued  at  $678,792,  and  Philippine  silver 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


Digitized  by 


Google 


UNITED  STATES 


671 


UNITED  STATES 


William  L.  Igoe,  Leonidat  C.  Dyer,  Walter  L.  Hensley, 
Joseph  J.  Russell,  Perl  D.   Decker,  Thomas  L.  Bubey. 

MONTANA. — Sknatoks:  *  Henry  L.  Myers, 
t  Thomas  J.  Walsh.  Rbpbksbntativks  (Democrats. 
2):     At  large,  John  M.  Evans,  Tom  Stout. 

NEBRASKA. — Sbnatobs:  *  Gilbert  M.  Hitchcock. 
X  George  W.  Norrie.  Rbpbbsbntativbs  (Democrats, 
8;  Republicans,  3):  Okarlee  F.  Reavie,  Charles  O. 
Lobeck,  Dan  V.  Stephens,  Charles  H.  Sloan,  Ashton  0. 
Shallenberger,  Moeee  P.  Kinkaid. 

NEVADA. — Sbnatobb:     t  Francis       G.       Newlands, 

*  Key  Pittman.  Rbpbbsbntativb  (Republican,  1): 
At  large,  B.  E.  Roberte.  ,    „    ^  „ 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.— Sbnatom:  ^ /aeob  H.  QaXL- 
inger,  t  Henry  F.  Hollis.  Rbpbbsbntativbs  (Republi- 
cans, 2):     Cyrus  A.  Sidloioay,  Edward  H.  Waeon. 

NEW  JERSEY. — Sbnatoes:  *  James  E.  Martine. 
$  William  Hughes.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (DemocraU.  4; 
Republicans,  8):  WUliam  J.  Browning,  Isaac  Bachor 
rack,  Thomas  J.  Scully,  Elifah  O.  HHtehiruon,  John  H. 
Capstiek,  Archibald  C.  Hart,  Dow  H.  Drukker,  Edward 
W.  Gray,  Richard  Wayne  Parker,  Frederick  R.  Lehl- 
bach,  John  J.  Eagan,  James  A.  Hamill. 

NEW  MEXICO. — Sbnatobb  :  *  Thomas  B.  Catron, 
t Albert  B.  Fall.  Rbprbsbntativb  (Republican.  1); 
At  large,  Benigno  O.  Hernandez. 

NEW  YORK. — Sbnatobb:  *  James  A.  O'Gorman, 
^  James  W.  Wadsworth,  jr.  Rbpbbsbntativks  (Demo- 
crats, 18;  Republicans,  24;  Socialist.  1):  Frederick 
C.  Hicks,  Charles  P.  Caldwell,  Joseph  V.  Flynn,  Harrv 
H.  Dale,  James  P.  Maher,  Frederick  W.  Bowe,  John  J. 
Fitzgerald.  Daniel  J.  Griffin,  Oscar  Wm.  Swift,  Reuben 
L.  Haskell,  Daniel  J.  Riordan.  M«jer  London,  George 
W.  Loft,  Michael  F.  Farley,  Michael  F.  Conry,  Peter 
J.  Dooling,  John  F.  Carew,  Thomas  G.  Patten,  Walter 
M.  Chandler,  Isaac  Siegel,  Murray  Hulbert,  Henry 
Bnickner,  WUliam  8.  Bmtnet,  Woodson  R.  Oglesby, 
James  W.  Husted,  Edmund  Piatt,  Charles  B.  Ward, 
RoUin  B.  JSanford,  James  8.  Parker,  WUHam  B.  Charles, 
Bertrand  H.  SiuU,  Luther  W.  Mott,  Homer  P.  Snyler, 
George  W.  Fairchild,  Waiter  W.  Magee,  Norman  J. 
Gould,  Harry  H.  Pratt,  Thomas  B.  Dunn,  Henry  O. 
Danforth.  8.  Wallace  Dempsey,  Charles  B.  Smith,  Dan- 
iel A.  Driscoll,  Charles  M.  Hamilton. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. — Sbnatobb:  tF.  M.  Sim- 
mons, t  Lee  S.  Overman.  Rbpbbsbntativbb  (Demo- 
crats. 0 ;  Republican,  1 ) :  John  H.  Small,  Claude 
Kitchin,  George  E.  Hood,  Edward  W.  Pou,  Charles 
M.  Stedman.  Hannibal  L.  Godwin,  Robert  N.  Page, 
Robert    L.     Dooghton.    Edwin    Y.    Webb,    James    J. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. — Sbnatobb:  *  Porter  J.  Me- 
Cumber.  XAsle  J,  Gronna.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Repub- 
licans, 8 ) :  Henry  T.  Helgesen,  George  M.  Young,  Pat- 
rick D.  Norton.  _ 

OHIO. — Sbnatobb  :  *  Atlce  Pomerene,  t  Warren  G. 
Harding.  JIbpbbsbntativks  (Democrats,  9:  Repub- 
licans, 18):  Nicholas  Longworth,  Alfred  0.  Alien, 
Warren  Gard,  /.  Edward  Russell,  Nelson  E.  Matthews, 
Charles  C.  Kearns,  Simeon  D.  Fees,  John  A.  Key,  Isaac 
R.  Sherwood.  Robert  M.  SwUzer,  Edwin  D.  RicketU, 
Clement  Brumbaugh,  Arthur  W.  Overmyer,  Seward  H. 
WiVHams,  WUHam  C.  Mooney,  Roscoe  0.  MeCuUoch, 
William  A.  Ashbrook,  David  A.  HoUingsworth,  John 
G.  Cooper,  William  (iordon.  Robert  Grosser,  Henry  I. 
Emerson'. 

OKLAHOMA. — Sbnatobb:  t  Thomas  P.  Qore, 
t  Robert  L.  Owen.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrats,  7 : 
Republican,  1):  James  S.  Davenport,  William  W. 
Hastings,  Charles  D.  Carter,  William  H.  Murray,  Jo- 
seph B.  Thompson.  Scott  Ferris,  James  Y.  McCnintic, 
Dick  T.  Morgan. 

OREGON. — Sbnatobb  :  t  George  E.  Chamberlain, 
}  Harry  Lane.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Republicans,  8): 
WiUis  C.  Hawley,  Nicholas  J.  Sinnott,  C.  N.  McAr- 
thur. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  —  Bbnatobs:      f  Boies     Penrose, 

*  George  T.  Oliver.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrats.  6; 
Republicans,  80) :  At  large.  Thomas  8.  Crago,  Mahlon 
M.  Garland,  Daniel  F.  Lafean,  John  R.  K.  Scott,  WU 
Ham  8.  Tare,  George  8.  Graham,  J.  Hampton  Moore, 
George  W.  Edmonds.  Peter  E.  CosteUo,  George  P.  Dar- 
row,  Thomas  8.  Butler,  Henry  W.  Watson,  WiUiam  W. 
Griest,  John  R.  Farr,  John  J.  Casey,  Robert  D,  Heaton, 
Arthur  G.  Dewalt,  Louis  T.  McFadden,  Edgar  R.  Kiess, 
John  V.  Lesher,  Benjamin  K.  Focht,  Aaron  8.  Kreider, 
Warren  W.  Bailey,  O.  WiUiam  Beales,  Charles  H.  Row- 
land, Abraham  L.  Keister,  Robert  F.  Hopwood,  Henry 
W.  Temple,  Michael  Liebel,  jr..  Henry  J.  Steele.  8. 
Taylor  North,  Samuel  H.  MiUer,  Stephen  G.  Porter, 
William  H.  Coleman,  John  M.  Morin,  Andrew  /.  Bareh- 
feld. 

RHODE  ISLAND. — Sbnatobb:  *  Henry  F.  Lip- 
pitt,  t  LeBaron  B.  Colt.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrat. 
1,  Republicans,  2):  George  F.  O'Shaunessy,  Walter 
R.  Stiness,  Ambrose  Kennedy. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. — Sbnatobb:  t  Benjamin  R. 
Tillman,  t  Ellison  D.  Smith.  Rbpbbbbntativbs 
(Democrats.  7):     Richard  S.  Wlialey,  James  F.  Byrnes, 


W)ratt  Aiken,   Samuel  J.  Nicholls,  David  E.  Finley,  J. 
Willard  Ragsdale,  Asbury  F.  Lever. 

SO XTTH   DAKOTA. — Sbnatobb:     t Thomas  Sterling, 


t  Edwin  S.  Johnson.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrat, 
1;  Republicans,  2):  Charles  H.  DUlon,  Royal  0.  John- 
son. Harry  L.  Gandy. 

TENNESSEE. — Sbnatobb:  *  Luke  Lea,  tJohn  K. 
Shields.  Rbpbbsbntativbb  (Democrats,  8;  Republi- 
cans, 2):  Sam  R.  Sells,  Richard  W.  Austin,  John  A. 
Moon,  Cordell  Hull,  William  C.  Houston,  Joseph  W. 
Byrns.  Lemuel  P.  Padgett,  Thetus  W.  Sims,  Finla  J. 
Garrett,  Kenneth  D.  McKellar. 

TEXAS. — Sbnatobb:  *  Charles  A.  Culberson, 
$  Morris  Sheppard.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrats, 
18 ) :     At  large,  Jeff.  McLemore,  James  H.  Davis ;  Eu- 

ene  Black,  Martin  Dies,  James  Young,  Sam  Rayburn, 
atton  W.  <Sumners,  Rufus  Hardy,  Alexander  W. 
Gregg,  Joe  H.  Eagle,  <}eorge  F.  Burgess.  James  P.  Bu- 
chanan, Robert  L.  Henry,  Oscar  Callaway,  John  H. 
Stephens,  James  L.  Slayden.  John  K.  Garner,  William 
R.  Smith. 

UTAH. — Sbnatobb:  ^  Reed  Smoot,  *  George  Suth- 
erland. Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrat,  1;  Republican, 
1 ) :     Joseph  HoweU,  James  H.  Mays. 

VERM()NT.— Sbnatobb:     ^WiUiam    P.    DUKngham, 

*  CarroU  8.  Page.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Republicans,  2) : 
Frank  L.  Greene,  Porter  H.  Dale. 

VIRGINIA. — Sbnatobb:     |  Thomas        S.        Martin, 

*  Claude  A.  Swanson.  Rbpbbsbntativbb  (Democrats, 
9:  Republican,  1):  WiUiam  A.  Jones.  Edward  E. 
Holland,  Andrew  J.  Montague,  Walter  A.  Watson,  Ed- 
ward W.  Saunders,  Carter  Glass,  James  Hay,  Charles 
C.  Carlin,  C.  Bascom  Slemp,  Henry  D.  Flood. 

WASHINGTON.— Sbnatobb:     ^Wesley     L.     Jones, 

*  MUes  Poindexter.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrat,  1; 
Republicans,  4):  WUHam  E.  Humphrey,  Lindley  H. 
Hadley,  Albert  Johnson,  WUliam  L.  LaFoUette,  0.  C. 
Dill. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.— Sbnatobb:  *  WiUiam  E.  Chil- 
ton, X  Nathan  Gof.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrats.  8; 
Republicans,  8):  At  large,  Howard  Sutherland;  ML 
ML.  Neely.  WiUiam  G.  Brown,  jr.,  Adam  B.  Littlepage. 
Hunter  H.  Moss,  jr.,  Edward  Cooper. 

WISCONSIN.— Sbnatobb:  *  Robert  M.  La  Fottette, 
t  Paul  O.  Httsting.  Rbpbbbbntativbs  (Democrats,  8; 
Republicans.  8) :  Henry  A.  <7oop«r,  Michael  E.  Burke. 
John  M.  Nelson,  WiUiam  J.  Gary,  WiUiam  H.  Stafford, 
Michael  K.  Reilly,  John  J.  Esch,  Edward  E.  Browne, 
Thomas  F.  Konop,  James  A.  Frear,  Irvine  L.  Lenroot. 

WYOMING. — Sbnatobb:  *  Clarence  D.  Clark, 
X  Francis  E.  Warren.  Rbpbbsbntativb  (Republican. 
1)  :     At  large,  Frank  W.  Mor^deU. 

ALASKA. — James  Wickersham. 

HAWAII.-^.  Kuhio  KdlanianaoU. 

PHILIPPINES.— Manuel  L.  Queson,  Manuel  Eam- 
shaw. 

PORTO  RICO.— Luis  Muflos  Rivera. 


CLASSIFICATION 

8BNATB  H0U8B 

Democrats    66   Democrats    228 

Republicans    40    RepubHcans     197 

—   Progressives     3 

Total 06    Progressive  Republicans     2 

Independent    1 

Socialist    1 

Prohibitionist     1 

Prog.-Protectionist    ...      1 
Vacancy     1 

485 


ToUl 


Appropriations,  The  table  below  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  the  appropriations  made  by  the  Sixty- 
third  Congress  in  1914  and  1015. 


1914  1915 

Deficiencies     $  27.080,512.29  $  24.028.999.41 

Legislative,    Executive, 

and     Judicial     85.172,484.50  87,680.781.87 

Sundry    Civil     106,749,582.01  108,080,275.74 

Support  of  the  Army.      94.266,145.51  101,019,212.50 

Naval    Service    140,718.484.58  144,868.716.61 

Indian    Service    9,486,819.67  9,771.902.76 

Rivers  and  Harbors   .     51.118.889.00  26,989.000.00 

Forts  and  Fortifications       5,218,250.00  5,627.700.00 

MiUtary  Academy    ...        1,099,784.87  997,899.54 


*  Term  expires  1917.     tTerm  expires  1919.     fTerm    expires    1921. 


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tJNITED  STATES 


672 


TTNITED  STATES 


1914  1915 

Po8t  OflRoe  Department       Indefinite  Indefinite 

Pensions     $180,800,000.00  $169,150,000.00 

Consular  A  Diplomatic  8.780.642.66  4,809.856.66 
Affricultural  Dept.  ..  17.986,945.00  19,865.882.00 
District    of    Columbia.      11,888.789.00       12,171.457.28 

Reclamation    Fund    

Reliefs  A  Miscellaneous  445, 197.82       14,085.091.20 

Totals  by  session 
acts  (exclusive  of 
PosUl  Act)    $684,757,276.26  $674,497,625.16 


Elections  in  1015.  The  year  1016  wm  not 
important  politically.  There  were  State  elec- 
tions in  Kentucky,  New  Jera^r,  New  York,  Mary- 
land, Maasachuaetta,  Mississippi,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Tennessee.  These  are  covered  in  tiie 
political  sections  under  those  States.  The  most 
important  issue  in  the  several  States  was  woman 
suffrage.  An  account  of  the  results  of  votes  on 
woman  suffrage  amendments  will  be  found  in  the 
article  Woman  Sutfiiaoe.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  single  event  relating  to  the  elections 
was  the  defeat  of  the  proposed  new  constitution 
in  New  York. 

The  results  of  the  elections  in  general  gave 
comfort  to  both  political  parties,  although  it 
was  apparent  that  the  Republicans  had  gained 
strength  in  many  of  the  States,  notably  in  Mass- 
achusetts, where  a  Republican  defeated  the  Dem- 
ocratic nominee  for  Governor. 

There  was  much  talk  of  presidential  possi- 
bilities in  1016.  President  Wilson  was  practi- 
cally the  only  Democratic  candidate  mentioned 
seriously,  while  for  the  Republicans  the  most 
conspicuous  names  proposed  were  those  of  Jus- 
tice Hughes,  Senator  John  W.  Weeks  of  Mass- 
achusetts, Senator  William  Borah  of  Idaho, 
Senator  Albert  B.  Cummins  of  Iowa,  former 
Senator  Burton  of  Ohio,  and  Governor  Whitman 
of  New  York. 

The  Democratic  National  Committee  met  in 
Washington  on  December  7th  and  selected  St. 
Louis  as  a  meeting  place  for  the  national  con- 
vention for  1016,  and  June  14th  was  fixed  as  the 
date.  The  committee  adopted  resolutions  calling 
for  the  renomination  of  President  Woodrow  Wil- 
son. The  Republican  National  Committee  on 
December  14th  selected  Chicago  as  a  meeting 
place  for  the  convention  in  1016,  and  fixed  the 
date  on  June  7th. 

Administration.  The  history  of  the  admin- 
istration of  President  Wilson  in  1016  is  told  in 
detail  through  many  articles  and  sections  of  ar- 
ticles in  the  Yeab  Book.  See  Congress,  supra; 
Foreign  Relations,  infra;  United  States  and 
the  Wab;  etc.  Here  are  given  only  such  inci- 
dents as  do  not  properly  fall  under  the  larger 
divisions. 

On  January  8th  the  President  delivered  the 
Jackson  Day  speech  in  Indianapolis.  It  was  di- 
rected largely  to  a  defense  of  the  policies  of  the 
administration,  and  especially  of  the  Mexican 
policy.  The  address  was  couched  in  a  familiar 
style  that  had  not  hitherto  characterized  Mr. 
Wilson's  public  utterances.  Two  important  ad- 
dresses were  given  in  April  and  May.  The  first 
of  these  was  delivered  at  the  Associated  Press 
luncheon  in  New  York  City  on  April  20th,  and 
the  second  at  Convention  Hall,  in  Philadelphia, 
on  May  10th.  Both  dealt  with  the  proper  at- 
titude of  the  United  States  toward  the  warring 
nations  in  Europe.  The  second  address  was  de- 
livered shortly  after  the  Lusitania  disaster. 
Mr.  Wilson  said,  in  the  course  of  its  delivery: 


"There  is  such  a  thing  as  a  nation  being  too 
proud  to  fight."  This  was  taken  to  have  a  spe- 
cial reference  to  the  situation  resulting  from  the 
destruction  of  the  Lusitania,  but  the  President 
hastened  to  disavow  any  such  application. 

On  October  6th  the  President  announced  his 
engagement  to  Mrs.  Norman  Gait  of  Washington. 
They  were  married  on  December  18th.  President 
Wilson  announced  on  October  6th  that  he  would 
vote  for  the  woman  suffrage  amendment  in  New 
Jersey. 

The  President  addressed  the  Manhattan  Club 
in  New  York  City  on  November  4th,  on  prepared- 
ness. 

FoBBiON  RxLATiONB.  The  most  important  re- 
lations of  the  United  States  with  foreign  coun- 
tries durinff  1016  concerned  the  war  in  Europe. 
These  are  dealt  with  in  the  article  United  States 
AND  THE  Wab,  and,  regarding  them,  the  sections 
on  History  under  various  Mllieerent  coimtries 
may  advantageously  be  consulted,  as  well  as  the 
article  Wab  op  the  Nations.  Scarcely  less  im- 
portant were  the  difficulties  with  Mexico,  which 
throughout  the  year  continued  in  an  acute  stage. 
This  question  is  treated  fully  in  the  article 
Mexico,  section  History.  The  United  States 
was  concerned  directly  with  uprisings  in  Haiti, 
which  began  in  the  spring  of  1016.  Conditions 
there  continued  so  threat^ing  that  in  June  the 
cruiser  Washington  was  sent  to  Cap  Haitien. 
In  a  riot  which  occurred  in  July,  a  number  of 
persons  were  killed.  These  included  General 
Oscar,  and  Gen.  Orestes  Zamor,  the  former  Pres- 
ident. The  President,  Guillaume,  had  taken  ref- 
uge in  the  Froich  legation.  He  was  removed  on 
July  28th,  and  was  shot.  American  marines 
and  bluejackets  were  landed,  and  had  an  en- 
gagement on  July  28,  with  Haitian  forces,  which 
opposed  them.  On  the  night  of  the  following 
day  two  American  sailors  were  killed  in  an  at- 
tack on  Pori-au-Prince.  In  this  attack  six  na- 
tives were  killed  and  two  wounded.  On  July 
31st  a  small  force  of  marines  from  the  French 
cruiser  Descartes  were  landed,  with  the  consent 
of  the  United  States  government,  to  guard  the 
Frendi  legation.  A  special  commission  was 
sent  on  August  2nd  by  Admiral  Caperton,  com- 
manding the  Washington,  to  Cap  Haitien  to 
bring  about  the  disbanding  of  the  revolutionary 
forces  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  but 
this  commission  failed  in  its  purpose.  On  Au- 
gust 6th,  the  American  forces  from  the  battle- 
ship Connecticut  occupied  the  fort  which  domi- 
nates Port-au-Prince.  Further  points  in  the 
city  were  occupied  on  the  following  day,  and  on 
August  8th  Aomiral  Caperton  reported  that  he 
had  taken  over  the  administration  of  the  cus- 
toms at  Cap  Haitien.  An  election  for  President 
was  held  on  August  12th.  Gen.  Sudre  Dartigue- 
nav  was  a  successful  candidate.  The  election 
was  followed  by  new  uprisings.  As  a  result  of 
these  the  American  forces  took  possession  of 
Cap  Haitien.  They  occupied  St.  Marc  on  Au- 
gust 18th,  overcoming  the  resistance  offered. 
On  August  23rd,  a  force  of  350  men  and  12  field 
guns  were  sent  to  Haiti  on  the  battleship  Ten- 
nessee. The  American  government  on  August 
24th  announced  that  it  had  addressed  a  note 
to  the  Government  of  Haiti,  expressing  its  de- 
sire that  there  should  be  accepted  without  de- 
lay the  draft  of  the  convention  for  10  years, 
under  which  there  should  be  established  an  ef- 
fective control  of  Haitian  customs,  and  that 
these  should  be  administered  by  a  receiver-gen- 


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i)  Harris  &  Ewingf  Washlnsrton,  D.  a 

WILLIAM  J.  STONE 

Senator  from   Missouri  and  Chairman  of  Comnnittee 

on  Foreign  Relations 


@  Harris  &  Ewinr,  Washineton.  D.  C. 

HENRY  PRATHER  FLETCHER 

Ambassador  to  Chile  and  Nominated  i 

Ambassador  to  Mexico 


Fhowgrapu  by  J'aui  luouipson 

Colonel  EDWARD  M.  HOUSE 
Personal   Representative  of  President  Wilson 


Pbotograph  by  Harris  &  Ewinif,  Waohlngtoa,  D.  0, 
FRANK  L.  POLK 
Counsellor  to  the  State  Department  /^^ 


-.  .wK'^-^nwuru  o,  rres.ueni  TT.ison  Counsellor  to  the  State  Department  ><^  T 

FOUR  MEN  PROMINENT  IN  THE  FOREIGN  POLICY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  wOOglC 


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t7NlTEI)  STATES 


673 


UNITED  BTATEB  AND  THE  WAB 


eral  appointed  by  the  American  government,  and 
with  American  employees.  Under  the  terms  of 
the  convention,  the  rural  and  municipal  police 
were  to  be  natives,  under  the  command  of  Amer- 
ican offices.  The  plan  included  the  payment 
of  the  debts  of  Haiti  to  foreigners,  ana  an  en- 
gagement that  no  Haitian  territory  should  be 
ceded  to  any  foreign  power.  On  September  3rd, 
Admiral  Gaperton  issued  a  proclamation  declar- 
ing martial  law  in  Port-au-Prince  and  adjacent 
territory  occupied  by  the  forces  under  his  com- 
mand. All  custom  ports  in  the  country  were 
under  United  States  control  by  the  middle  of 
September.  The  projected  treaty  was  signed  on 
September  16th,  and  still  later  the  new  Gov- 
ernment of  Haiti  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States.  A  party  of  American  marines  was  at- 
tacked by  Haitian  rebels  on  September  10th. 
Two  Americans  were  wounded,  and  16  rebels 
were  killed.  In  another  attack  near  Cap  Hai- 
tien  on  September  26th,  40  Haitians  and  1 
American  were  killed;  10  Americans  were 
wounded.  Another  American  was  killed  on 
September  27th.  On  September  20th  an  agree- 
ment was  signed  by  Colonel  Waller,  command- 
ing the  United  States  marines  in  Haiti,  and 
General  Petion,  leader  of  a  band  of  rebels.  The 
latter  agreed  to  lay  down  his  arms,  and  not  to 
further  resist  the  American  and  Haitian  au- 
thorities. Another  agreement  was  signed  on 
October  1st,  by  Colonel  Waller  and  Morency,  an- 
other rebel  leader.  The  Haitian  Chamber  of 
Deputies  on  October  7th  ratified  the  treaty 
with  the  United  States  by  a  vote  of  76  to  6. 
A  detachment  of  American  troops  on  the  same 
day  attacked  bands  of  rebels  who  refused  to 
lay  down  their  arms.  These  bands  were  dis- 
bursed, and  no  Americans  were  injured.  The 
American  forces  came  into  contact  with  other 
bands  of  rebels  during  the  month,  but  did  not 
meet  with  serious  resistance. 

The  Brazilian  Chamber  on  October  6th  ap- 
proved an  arbitration  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  Brazil.  Relations  with  other  coim- 
tries  of  the  North  and  South  American  conti- 
nents were  cordial  during  the  year. 

The  United  States  government  had  no  diffi- 
culties of  importance  with  Asiatic  countries. 
The  conditions  in  regard  to  Japanese  immigra- 
tion remained  as  in  1014.  There  is  practically 
no  immigration  from  Japan,  as  a  result  of  an 
understanding  between  the  governments  of  the 
two  nations.  The  passage  of  anti-alien  l^sla- 
tion  in  Arizona,  which  was  directed  chiefly  at 
Japan,  did  not  result  in  any  protest  from  the 
Japanese  government. 

UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  WAB. 
The  first  effect  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Euro- 
pean war  in  August,  1014,  upon  the  United 
States,  was  to  leave  the  people  amazed  and 
stunned  at  what  appeared  to  be  an  utter  col- 
lapse of  European  civilization.  Despite  the 
many  forewarnings  given  by  the  succession 
of  European  crises  durinpr  the  previous  10 
years,  few  persons  in  this  country  believed 
that  the  nations  of  Europe  would  plunge  into  a 
conflict  the  consequences  of  which  none  could 
foresee.  With  the  realization  that  the  great 
cataclysm  had  come,  there  spread  over  the  coun- 
try a  fear  approaching  panic  as  to  what  would 
be  the  effects  of  the  war  upon  the  United  States, 
l^e  complete  dislocation  of  international  trade, 
and  the  closing  of  all  the  great  stock  markets 
of  the  world,  gave  rise  to  financial  and  economic 

Y.  B.— 22 


problems  which  were  absolutely  unprecedented. 
By  the  close  of  the  year,  however,  the  country 
had  adjusted  itself  in  a  measure  to  the  new 
conditions.    But  it  soon  became  apparent  that 

Sroblems  far  more  serious  than  those  produced 
y  the  temporary  disturbance  caused  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  confronted  the  United 
States.  Many  incidents  forcibly  recalled  the 
situation  in  which  the  United  States  was  placed 
in  that  other  great  European  conflagration  100 
years  ago.  Then,  as  now,  the  United  States  was 
the  one  great  neutral  power.  Moreover,  it  was 
evident  that  now,  as  in  the  earlier  struggle,  this 
country  would  be  called  upon  to  furnish  large 
quantities  of  supplies  to  the  belligerent  powers. 
The  same  vexing  problems  of  neutral  trade,  con- 
traband, and  blockade  which  troubled  the  coun- 
try then,  once  more  arose.  In  one  respect,  how- 
ever, the  situation  of  the  United  States  in  the 
present  war  differed  materially  from  its  posi- 
tion during  the  Napoleonic  struggle.  The  coun- 
try is  now  far  more  a  world  power  than  it  was 
100  years  ago.  Our  economic  and  political  in- 
terests are  now  worldwide.  The  3000  miles  of 
water  which  separate  this  country  from  Europe 
are  not  the  barrier  now  that  they  were  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Moreover,  new  methods  of  warfare, 
especially  the  operations  of  submarines,  intro- 
duced new  and  perplexing  problems  for  both 
neutrals  and  belligerents.  All  of  these  condi- 
tions made  it  evident  that  the  situation  which 
confronted  the  United  States  government  in 
maintaining  its  neutrality  was  an  extremely 
difficult  one.  The  problem  was  made  more  seri- 
ous by  the  attitude  of  groups  of  persons  in  this 
country  whose  sympathies  were  with  one  or  the 
other  of  the  belligerents  in  Europe.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important  questions  which 
have  arisen  during  the  year  1015,  involving  the 
United  States  and  the  various  European  powers. 

The  Unitbd  States  and  Great  Britain. 
Blockade  and  Neutral  Trade,  During  the  early 
months  of  the  war  Great  Britain  establidied 
her  complete  control  of  the  seas,  except  in  so  far 
as  it  was  interrupted  by  the  operations  of  the 
German  submarines.  That  Great  Britain  would 
take  full  advantage  of  her  sea  power  was  to 
be  expected,  and  that  in  so  doing  serious  diffi- 
culties would  arise  in  regard  to  the  rights  oi 
neutral  nations  was  also  clear.  In  the  first 
place  there  was  the  always  vexed  question  of 
contraband.  There  was  no  Hague  Convention 
which  dealt  with  the  question  of  conditional 
and  absolute  contraband.  As  the  Declaration 
of  London  was  declared  by  Great  Britain  not 
to  be  in  force,  the  question  had  to  be  determined 
by  the  ^eral  rules  of  international  law.  But 
upon  this  question  there  was  no  general  agree- 
ment amon?  the  nations.  Belligerent  powers 
naturally  wished  to  extend  the  list  of  contra- 
band, while  neutral  powers  quite  as  naturally 
wished  to  restrict  it. 

A  more  serious  and  difficult  Question  affecting 
neutrals  arose,  due  to  the  peculiar  geographical 
position  of  Germany.  On  two  sides  Uie  coun- 
try was  bounded  by  neutral  powers  which 
touched  the  sea.  Through  Holland  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries  contraband  might  be 
shipped  from  the  United  States  or  other  neu- 
tral countries  to  Germany  and  thus  nullify  Eng- 
land's sea  power.  The  problem  which  con- 
fronted Great  Britain  was  how  to  prevent  con- 
traband articles  from  reaching  Germany  with- 
out interfering  with   legitimate  trade  between 


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UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  WAB        674        XTNITED  STATES  AND  THE  WAS, 


neutral  countries.  Shortly  after  the  outbreak 
of  hostilitiea,  Great  Britain  began  detaining 
American  ships  bound  for  neutral  ports  on  the 
ground  that  their  cargoes  were  destined  for  the 
enemy.  For  some  months  the  United  States 
government  did  not  protest,  hoping  that  Great 
Britain  would  modify  her  policy.  Finally  on 
Dec.  26,  1914,  the  United  States  addressed  a 
communication  to  Great  Britain  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  interference  by  the  latter  with 
American  commerce  with  neutral  nations,  on 
the  ground  that  goods  so  consigned  might  reach 
the  enemies  of  Great  Britain.  In  this  connec- 
tion  the  note  stated  that  "mere  suspicion  was 
not  evidence,  and  doubts  should  be  resolved  in 
favor  of  neutral  commerce,  not  against  it."  To 
this  note  Great  Britain  replied  on  Jan.  7,  1915, 
that  that  country  had  not  aimed  to  interfere 
with  the  "bona-flde"  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  neutral  countries,  but  figures  were  given 
showing  the  marked  increase  in  exports  of  such 
articles  as  rubber  and  copper  from  the  United 
States  to  neutral  countries  contiguous  to  Ger- 
many. It  was  stated  that  with  such  figures  the 
presumption  was  very  strong  that  such  goods 
were  ultimately  destined  for  a  belligerent  coun- 
try. The  note  further  stated  that  Great  Britain 
was  prepared  to  admit  that  foodstuflTs  should 
not  be  seized  without  the  presumption  that  they 
were  intended  for  the  armed  forces  of  the  enemy. 
In  regard  to  the  placing  of  cotton  on  the  list 
of  contraband  it  was  stated  that  the  British 
government  had  not  contemplated  any  such  ac- 
tion. In  conclusion  the  British  government 
agreed  to  make  reparation  for  any  injury  im- 
properly done  to  neutral  shipping. 

A  novel  question  arose  due  to  the  action  of 
the  German  government  in  placing  under  gov- 
ernmoit  control  all  of  the  food  supply  of  the 
Empire.  The  British  government  declared  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
food  intended  for  the  civilian  population  of 
Germany  and  food  to  be  used  by  the  German 
military  forces.  In  view  of  this  situation  the 
British  government  stated  that  foodstuffs  in- 
tended for  consumption  in  Germany  would  be 
considered  contraband.  A  test  case  was  made 
with  the  steamship  Wilhelmina,  which  reached 
England  Feb.  9,  1916,  from  the  United  States, 
loaded  with  grain  for  Germany.  She  was  placed 
in  the  Prize  Court,  and  on  April  13,  1915,  the 
British  government  announced  that  it  had 
agreed  to  purchase  the  cargo  of  the  Wilhelmina 
and  to  compensate  the  owner  for  loss.  This 
offer  was  accepted. 

For  some  months  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  Great  Britain  hesitated  to  declare  a  block- 
ade of  German  ports.  This  attitude  was  due, 
in  part  at  least,  to  the  recognized  difficulty  of 
rendering  such  a  blockade  effective  in  view  of 
the  geographical  position  of  Germany,  and  of 
the  activities  of  submarines.  But  events  forced 
Great  Britain  to  abandon  her  somewhat  anoma- 
lous position.  On  March  1,  1915,  Mr.  Asquith, 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  stated  that  Great 
Britain  and  France,  in  retaliation  upon  Ger- 
many for  her  declaration  of  the  "war  zone" 
around  the  British  Isles  (see  below  under  The 
United  States  and  Oermany),  would  confis- 
cate all  goods  of  "presumed  enemy  destination, 
ownership,  or  origin."  Such  action,  of  course, 
could  only  be  justified  under  the  existing  rules 
of  international  law  on  the  presumption  that 
a   lawful   blockade  of  German   ports   had   been 


declared.  In  answer  to  an  inquiry  from  the 
American  government  as  to  whether  such  a 
blockade  was  contemplated,  the  British  govern- 
ment stated  that  as  an  effective  "cordon"  con- 
trolling intercourse  with  Germany  had  been  es- 
tablished and  proclaimed,  the  importation  and 
exportation  of  all  goods  to  or  from  Germany 
was,  imder  the  accepted  rules  of  blockade,  pro- 
hibited. The  British  government  further  de- 
fined the  "radius  of  activity"  of  the  French  and 
British  fleets  in  enforcing  the  blockade  as  "Eu- 
ropean waters,  including  the  Mediterranean." 
It  was  further  stated  that  they  would  refrain 
from  exercising  the  right  to  confiscate  ships  and 
cargoes  for  breaches  of  the  blockade,  and  re- 
strict their  claim  to  stopping  cargoes  destined 
to  or  coming  from  the  enemy's  territory. 

In  an  extended  communication  addressed  to 
the  British  government  by  Secretary  Bryan  on 
March  30,  1915,  attention  was  called  to  the  un- 
usual character  of  the  proposed  blockade  and 
the  interference  with  l^ritimate  neutral  oom- 
merce  which  might  readily  result.  The  United 
States  government  was  willing  to  concede  that 
the  changed  conditions  of  naval  warfare,  espe- 
cially the  operations  of  submarines,  might  jus- 
tify some  modification  of  the  old  form  of 
''close"  blockade,  but  it  was  unwilling  to  con- 
cede the  right  of  belligerents  to  blockade  neutral 
ports.  It  was  further  pointed  out  that  alleged 
illegal  acts  of  Germany  could  not  be  offered  as 
an  excuse  for  unlawful  acts  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain.  In  conclusion  it  was  stated  that 
the  German  Baltic  ports  were  open  to  the  trade 
of  the  Scandinavian  countries,  although  it  is  an 
essential  element  of  blockade  that  it  bear  with 
equal  severity  upon  all  neutrals. 

For  some  months  the  question  was  allowed  to 
remain  in  abeyance,  due  to  more  serious  ques- 
tions which  had  arisen  in  connection  with  Ger- 
many's submarine  warfare  (see  below,  The 
United  States  and  Oermany).  It  was  clear, 
however,  that  irritation  at  the  continued  inter- 
ference by  Great  Britain  with  American  com- 
merce was  constantly  increasing.  On  Aug.  3, 
1915,  the  State  Department  at  Washington  pub- 
lished five  diplomatic  communications  which  had 
been  exchanged  between  the  two  governments  re- 
lating to  the  detention  of  American  ships  and 
cargoes.  In  response  to  the  American  note  of 
March  30,  1915,  on  the  subject  of  the  restric- 
tions imposed  on  American  commerce  by  the 
British  Orders  in  Council,  Sir  Edward  Grey  de- 
fended the  Orders  on  the  groimd  that  it  was 
necessary  for  Great  Britain  and  her  allies  to 
take  every  step  in  their  power  to  overcome  their 
common  enemy  in  view  of  the  shocking  violation 
of  the  recognized  rules  and  principles  of  civilized 
warfare  of  which  she  had  been  guiltv  during  the 
war.  He  further  denied  that  the  Orders  in  Coun- 
cil violated  any  fundamental  principle  of  inter- 
national law  by  applying  a  blockade  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cut  off  the  enemy's  commerce  through 
neutral  ports,  "if  the  circumstances  render  such 
an  application  of  the  principles  of  blockade  the 
only  means  of  making  it  effective."  It  was  con- 
tended that  the  only  question  that  can  arise  in 
regard  to  the  new  character  of  blockade  is 
whether  the  measures  taken  conform  to  "the 
spirit  and  principles  of  the  essence  of  the  rules 
of  war,"  as  stated  in  the  American  note  of 
March  30,  1915.  Sir  Edward  Grey  contended 
that  there  was  precedent  for  the  British  policy 
in  the  position  taken  by  the  United  States  dur- 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


XTNITBD  STATES  AlH)  THE  WA& 


675 


TTNITED  STATES  AND  THE  WA& 


ing  the  Civil  War.  In  order  to  prevent  contra- 
band being  shipped  from  neighboring  neutral 
territory  to  the  Confederacy,  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment enforced  the  doctrine  of  the  continuous 
voyage,  and  goods  destined  for  enemy  territory 
were  intercepted  before  they  reached  the  neu- 
tral ports  from  which  they  were  to  be  reexported. 
Such  action,  moreover,  was  upheld  by  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  case  of 
the  Springbok.  The  main  argument  of  the  Brit- 
ish government  was  that,  when  the  underlying 
principles  governing  blockade  and  contraband 
are  not  violated,  it  is  permissible  to  adopt  new 
measures  of  enforcemoit. 

The  final  chapter  of  the  year  in  this  contro- 
versy was  written  with  the  dispatch  on  Oct.  21, 
1916,  of  an  exhaustive  reply  by  the  United 
States  to  the  contention  of  Sir  Edward  Grey. 
It  was  couched  Hn  much  more  vigorous  language 
than  the  earlier  communications.  It  stated  that 
the  so-called  blockade  instituted  by  the  Allies 
was  "ineffective,  illegal,  and  indefensible,"  that 
the  "American  government  cannot  submit  to  a 
curtailment  of  its  neutral  rights,"  and  that  the 
United  States  "must  insist  that  the  relations  be- 
tween it  and  His  Majesty's  government  be  gov- 
erned, not  by  a  policy  of  expediency,  but  by  those 
established  rules  of  international  conduct  to 
which  Great  Britain  in  the  past  has  held  the 
United  States  to  account." 

Use  of  Neutral  Flags.  Early  in  the  year 
1916,  the  German  government  made  representa- 
tions to  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
that  British  ships  were  making  use  of  neutral 
flags  in  order  to  escape  capture.  Particular  at- 
tention was  called  to  the  action  of  the  captain 
of  the  British  steamer  Luaitania  in  raising  the 
United  States  flag  when  approaching  British 
waters,  and  it  was  stated  that  orders  had  been 
issued  by  the  British  government  to  all  com- 
manders to  make  use  of  neutral  flags  when  nec- 
essary. On  Feb.  10,  1916,  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment addressed  a  note  to  the  British  govern- 
ment calling  attention  to  this  matter.  Without 
disputing  that  in  exceptional  cases  there  was 
precedent  for  the  use  of  neutral  flags  by  mer- 
chant vessels  to  escape  capture,  it  was  pointed 
out  that  any  general  use  of  the  American  flag 
for  such  purposes  would  endanger  American 
ships,  by  raising  the  presumption  that  they  were 
of  belligerent  nationality.  In  answer  to  this 
the  British  government  stated,  on  Feb.  19,  1916, 
that  English  law  allowed  the  use  of  the  British 
flag  by  foreign  merchant  vessels  in  order  to  es- 
capee capture,  that  instances  were  on  record  of 
United  States  vessels  making  such  use  of  the 
English  flag  during  the  American  Civil  War,  and 
that  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  deny  to  British 
vessels  at  the  present  time  a  similar  privilege. 
It  was  stated,  however,  that  the  British  govern- 
ment had  no  intention  of  advising  their  mer- 
chant shipping  to  use  foreign  flags  as  a  general 
practice. 

Transfer  of  Belligerent  Merchant  Vessels  to 
Neutral  Registry.  The  question  of  the  right  to 
transfer  ship  ownership  from  a  citizen  of  a  bel- 
ligerent power  to  a  citizen  of  a  neutral  nation 
arose  in  the  case  of  the  steamer  Dacia.  This 
steamer,  formerly  owned  by  the  Hamburg-Amer- 
ican Line,  was  purchased  by  an  American  citizen 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  The  steamer  was 
admitted  to  American  registry  by  the  United 
States  authorities  and  prepared  to  sail  with  a 
cargo  of  cotton  to  Germany.    Great  Britain  had 


not  clearly  deflned  its  position  in  this  matter  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war.  When  the  question  of 
the  purchase  by  Americans  of  the  interned  (rer- 
man  ships  was  broached,  the  British  government 
indicated  that  it  would  not  object  to  a  "bona 
flde"  transfer,  if  such  transfer  was  not  used  for 
the  benefit  of  the  enemy.  Thus,  if  the  vessels 
were  to  be  used  in  the  South  American  trade, 
she  would  not  object,  but  if  they  were  to  be  used 
to  trade  with  Germany,  she  would.  As  the 
Dacia  was  to  be  used  for  the  latter  purpose. 
Great  Britain  served  notice  that  the  vessel  would 
be  seized.  A  request  from  the  United  States 
that  the  Daoia  be  allowed  to  make  one  trip  with- 
out interference  was  declined  by  Great  Britain 
on  the  ground  that  it  might  establish  a  prece- 
dent. Despite  this  warning  the  Dada  sailed 
from  Galveston  and  was  seized  by  a  French 
cruiser  and  taken  to  Brest.  The  question  was 
sent  to  the  French  Prize  Court,  which  decided 
that  the  transfer  of  registry  "was  tainted  with 
fraud  and  against  the  rights  of  belligerents," 
and  ordered  the  steamer  seized  as  a  prize.  The 
cotton  cargo,  however,  was  not  involved  in  the 
forfeiture,  but  was  purchased  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment. 

The  United  States  and  Germant.  Suhma- 
rine  Warfare  and  the  War  Zone.  The  present 
war  witnessed  for  the  first  time  the  use  of  the 
submarine  on  a  large  scale  in  naval  warfare.  It 
was  evident  that  the  introduction  of  this  new 
weapon  would  give  rise  to  a  number  of  novel 
questions.  The  frail  construction  of  these  boats 
made  them  an  easy  prey,  if  seen,  for  warships 
or  even  for  unarmed  merchantmen  which  might 
sink  the  submarines  by  ramming  them.  These 
conditions  made  it  necessary  for  the  submarines 
to  attack  quickly  and  without  warning.  Fur- 
thermore, the  old  method  of  capture,  by  which  a 
prize  crew  was  placed  on  the  captured  vessel, 
could  hardly  be  followed  by  the  submarine,  as 
the  size  of  the  crew  was  small  and  could  not  be 
spared  for  this  purpose.  The  only  feasible 
method  of  disposing  of  vessels  captured  by  sub- 
marines was  to  sink  them.  But  this  raised  the 
question  of  the  safety  of  passengers  and  crew. 
The  established  rules  of  international  law  re- 
quired that  merchant  vessels  could  not  be  sunk, 
unless  they  attempted  to  escape,  until  provision 
was  made  for  the  safety  of  passengers  and  crew. 
The  United  States  first  became  involved  in  the 
issue  when,  on  Feb.  4,  1916,  Grermany  declared 
the  waters  around  the  British  Isles  a  "war 
zone''  after  Feb.  18,  1916.  It  declared  its  inten- 
tion of  sinking  every  enemy  merchant  ship  found 
in  the  zone,  even  if  it  was  impossible  to  save 
the  crew  and  passengers.  It  also  stated  that 
neutral  ships  entering  the  "war  zone"  were  in 
danger. 

The  United  States  government  promptly  took 
notice  of  this  proclamation,  and  on  Feb.  10,  1915, 
sent  a  communication  to  the  German  govern- 
ment, calling  attention  to  the  serious  difliculties 
that  might  arise  if  the  policy  contemplated  were 
carried  out,  and  declaring  that  it  would  hold 
the  German  government  to  a  "strict  accounta- 
bility," if  any  merchant  vessel  of  the  United 
States  was  destroyed,  or  citizens  of  the  United 
States  lost  their  lives.  In  reply  to  this  note  the 
German  government  stated  on  Feb.  18,  1916, 
that,  in  view  of  the  illegal  methods  used  by 
Great  Britain  in  preventing  commerce  between 
Germany  and  neutral  countries,  even  in  articles 
which  are  not  contraband  of  war,  the  German 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


17VITBD  8TATB8  AND  THB  WAB        676        17VIT8D  8TACTS  AND  THE  WAB 


government  felt  justified  in  u«ing  all  means 
within  its  power  to  retaliate  on  England.  Com- 
plaint was  made  of  the  large  quantities  of  muni- 
tions of  war  which  were  being  sent  to  Great 
Britain,  and  it  was  stated  that  Germany  in- 
tended to  suppress  such  traffic  "with  all  means 
at  its  disposal."  Finally  it  was  suggested  that, 
in  order  to  avoid  mistakes,  all  American  vessels 
carrying  non-contraband  through  the  war  zone 
should  travel  under  convoy. 

In  order  to  avoid,  if  possible,  the  very  serious 
consequences  of  the  proposed  German  naval  pol- 
icy, the  Government  of  the  United  States  ad- 
dressed an  identical  note  to  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  suggesting  an  agreement  between  these 
two  powers  respecting  the  conduct  of  naval  war- 
fare. The  memorandum  contained  the  follow- 
ing suggestions:  (1)  That  neither  power  would 
sow  floating  mines  on  the  high  seas  or  in  terri- 
torial waters,  and  that  anchored  mines  should 
be  placed  only  in  cannon  range  of  harbors  for 
defensive  purposes,  and  that  all  mines  should 
bear  the  stamp  of  the  government  planting  them, 
and  be  so  constructed  as  to  become  harmless 
when  freed  from  their  anchorage.  (2)  That 
neither  would  use  submarines  to  attack  the  mer- 
chant vessels  of  any  nationality,  except  to  en- 
force the  right  of  visit  and  search.  (3)  That 
each  would  require  their  merchant  vessels  not  to 
use  neutral  flags  for  purposes  of  disguise. 

The  note  further  suggested  that  the  United 
States  government  designate  certain  agencies  in 
Germany  to  which  foodstuffs  from  the  United 
States  should  be  sent,  and  that  the  Grerman  gov- 
ernment guarantee  that  such  foodstuffs  be  used 
for  noncombatants  only.    Great  Britain  was  re- 

S nested  to  agree  not  to  put  foodstuffs  on  the 
ist  of  absolute  contraband,  and  that  ships  of 
foodstuffs  sent  to  the  designated  consignees  in 
Germany  should  not  be  interfered  with. 

Nothing  of  practical  importance  came  from 
these  suggestions.  Germany  replied,  accepting 
some  and  rejecting  others,  while  Great  Britain 
reviewed  the  alle^^  violations  of  international 
law  and  defended  the  stoppage  of  foodstuffs  des- 
tined for  Germany  as  a  legitimate  incident  of 
the  blockade. 

Thus  matters  rested  pending  the  first  case  in 
which  an  American  vessel  should  be  sunk  or 
American  lives  lost.  On  March  28,  1915,  news 
was  received  that  the  British  steamship  Falaba 
had  been  sunk,  and  that  among  those  lost  was 
an  American  citizen,  Leon  C.  Thrasher.  Ac- 
counts differed  as  to  the  actions  of  the  steam- 
ship when  called  upon  by  the  commander  of  the 
submarine  to  stop.  The  German  government  de- 
fended the  action  on  the  ground  that  the  Falaba 
had  attempted  to  escape  after  being  warned  and 
that,  upon  being  overhauled,  10  minutes  had 
been  allowed  for  the  crew  and  the  passengers  to 
take  to  the  life  boats  before  the  vessel  was  tor- 
pedoed. While  this  case  was  still  under  con- 
sideration by  the  United  States  government,  it 
was  reported  that  the  American  vessel  Cuahing 
had  been  attacked  by  a  German  aeroplane  in  the 
English  Channel  on  April  29,  1915,  one  bomb 
being  dropped  on  the  ship  which  caused  some 
damage  but  no  loss  of  life. 

Within  two  days  following  this,  word  was  re- 
ceived that  the  American  steamer  Ovlflight  had 
been  attacked  by  a  German  submarine  off  the 
Scilly  Islands  on  May  1st.  Two  members  of  the 
crew  were  drowned,  and  the  captain  died  of  heart 
failure  the  following  morning.    Before  the  Gov- 


ernment of  the  United  States  had  formulated 
any  action  in  connection  with  these  cases,  the 
civilized  world  was  shocked  at  the  terrible  news 
that  the  Cunard  Line  steamship  Lutitania  had 
been  sunk  on  May  7,  1915,  by  a  German  subma- 
rine off  Old  Head  of  Kinsale  at  the  southeastern 
point  of  Ireland,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  1162 
lives,  of  whom  114  were  Iniown  to  be  American 
citizens  (see  Lubitania).  Prior  to  the  sailing  of 
the  Lu9itonia  from  New  York  on  her  fatal  voy- 
age, an  advertisement  signed  by  the  German  em- 
bassy appeared  in  many  American  newspapers, 
warning  Americans  of  the  danger  of  traveling 
on  British  vessels  through  the  ''war  zone." 

The  first  feeling  of  horror  at  the  terrible  catas- 
trophe was  succeed  by  a  feeling  of  bitter  re- 
sentment in  this  countrv  at  what  appeared  to 
be  a  ruthless  sacrifice  of  innocent  lives.  It  ap- 
peared, at  first,  as  if  a  break  between  the  United 
States  and  Germany  was  inevitable.  President 
Wilson  waited  six  days  before  taking  definite  ac- 
tion, stating  that  it  was  important  to  act  "with 
deliberation  as  well  as  with  firmness."  In  the 
meantime  the  German  government  on  May  10, 
1915,  sent  a  communication  to  the  United  States 
government  expressing  its  sympathy  for  the  loss 
of  American  lives,  but  at  the  same  time  main- 
taining that  the  responsibility  rested  with  the 
British  government,  which,  "through  its  plan  of 
starving  the  civilian  population  of  Germany" 
by  prohibiting  the  importation  of  foodstuffs, 
had  forced  (^rmany  to  resort  to  retaliatory 
measures.  It  was  further  claimed  that  British 
merchant  vessels  were  generally  armed,  and  re- 
peated attempts  had  b^n  made  by  such  vessels 
to  ram  submarines.  Finally  it  was  stated  that 
the  Lusitania  carried  a  large  quantity  of  am- 
munition in  her  cargo,  and  warning  had  been 
given  by  Germany  that  such  vessels  were  liable 
to  destruction. 

On  May  13,  1915,  the  eagerly  awaited  state- 
ment of  the  United  States  was  sent  to  Germany. 
With  a  dignity  and  earnestness  which  the  grav- 
ity of  the  situation  called  for,  President  Wilson 
reviewed  the  series  of  acts  of  German  submarine 
commanders,  culminating  in  the  sinking  of  the 
Ltuitani€tf  which  he  said  "the  Government  of  the 
United  States  has  observed  with  growing  con- 
cern, distress,  and  amazement." 

Referring  to  the  claim  that  the  alleged  illegal 
acts  of  her  adversaries  justified  Germany  in 
adopting  retaliatory  measures,  the  American 
note  stated  that  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  could  not  admit  that  any  such  measures 
were  legal  which  infringed  the  clearly  estab- 
lished rights  of  neutrals  under  international 
law.  These  rights  include  the  protection  of  the 
lives  of  noncombatants  traveling  on  unarmed 
merchant  vessels,  and  the  right  of  neutrals  to 
travel  on  the  high  seas  wherever  their  legiti- 
mate business  calls  them.  In  view  of  these 
clearly  established  principles,  the  note  stated 
that  "it  confidently  expects  the  Imperial  Ger- 
man government  will  disavow  the  acts  of  whidi 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  complains; 
that  they  will  make  reparation  as  far  as  repara; 
tion  is  possible  for  injuries  which  are  without 
measure;  and  that  they  will  take  immediate 
steps  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  anything  so 
obviously  subversive  of  the  principles  of  war- 
fare, for  which  the  Imperial  German  govern- 
ment have  in  the  past  so  wisely  and  so  firmly 
contended."  In  conclusion  it  was  stated  that 
"the  Imperial  German  government  will  not  ex- 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


TJKITBD  STATES  AND  THE  WAB        677        TJKITED  STATES  AND  THE  WAB 


pect  the  Grovernment  of  the  United  States  to 
omit  any  word  or  any  act  necessarjr  to  the  per- 
formance of  its  sacred  duty  of  maintaining  the 
rights  of  the  United  States  and  its  citizens,  and 
of  safeguarding  their  free  exercise  and  enjoy- 
ment." 

During  the  days  immediately  following  the 
terrible  event,  newspaper  comment  in  Germany 
indicated  that  the  feeling  in  that  country  was 
characterized  by  regret  at  the  loss  of  so  many 
lives,  but  that  the  government  was  justified  in 
sinking  the  Lusiiama  on  the  ground  that  she 
was  carrying  large  quahtities  of  ammunition, 
and  that  she  had  guns  mounted  and  concealed 
between  decks.  The  last  charge  was  categor- 
ically denied  both  by  the  British  authorities  and 
the  American  port  officials  at  New  York. 

Some  hope  was  felt  that  the  German  govern- 
ment would  disavow  the  act,  when  on  May  11, 
1015,  a  note  was  issued  explaining  its  attitude 
with  respect  to  American  and  other  neutral  ships 
in  the  "war  zone."  It  stated  that  the  German 
government  had  no  intention  of  attacking  such 
neutral  ships  if  they  were  guilty  of  no  hostile 
act.  Even  if  such  ships  carried  contraband,  they 
were  to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  rules  of 
international  law  applying  to  prize  warfare.  It 
further  stated  that,  if  a  neutral  ^hip  should  be 
destroyed  by  mistake,  the  German  government 
would  "unreservedly  recognize  its  responsibility 
therefor."  While  this  did  not  cover  the  ques- 
tion involved  in  the  Lusitania  case,  viz.  the 
right  of  neutrals  to  travel  in  safety  on  merchant 
vessels  under  a  belligerent  flag,  nevertheless  it 
was  a  distinct  modification  of  the  policy  an- 
nounced in  the  proclamation  establishing  the 
"war  zone." 

On  May  28,  1915,  the  German  government  sub- 
mitted a  note  defining  its  position,  in  regard  to 
the  various  questions  raised  in  the  American 
note.  With  regard  to  the  cases  of  the  Oushing 
and  the  Chilflightf  it  was  stated  that  an  investi- 
gation was  in  progress  and  the  results  of  this 
investigation  would  be  communicated  to  the 
United  States  government  shortly.  (In  this  con- 
nection it  is  well  to  state  here  that  a  note  was 
sent  by  the  German  government  on  June  4,  1915, 
expressing  regrets  for  the  sinking  of  the  CM- 
flightf  explaining  that  no  distinctive  marks  were 
seen  on  the  vessel  by  which  she  could  be  identi- 
fied. Germany  further  agreed  to  furnish  full 
recompense  for  the  damage  done.  In  regard  to 
the  Cushinfff  the  German  government  ae^ed  for 
additional  information  in  the  possession  of  the 
American  government  in  order  that  a  conclusion 
might  be  reached  in  the  matter.)  In  regard  to 
the  FiUaha,  it  was  again  stated  that  the  com- 
mander had  disregarded  the  order  to  lay  to,  and 
had  sent  up  rocket  signals  for  help. 

Concerning  the  Lim/anta,  thje  German  govern- 
ment took  the  position  that  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  had  not  considered  all  of  the 
material  facts  in  the  case.  It  then  repeated  the 
charge  that  the  Lusitania  had  guns  on  board, 
mounted  under  decks;  that  the  British  govern- 
ment had  issued  orders  to  merchantmen  to  ram 
submarines;  and  that  in  view  of  these  alleged 
facts  the  Cierman  commanders  "were  no  longer 
in  a  position  to  observe  the  rules  of  capture 
otherwise  usual."  It  was  further  contended  that 
the  Lusitania  carried  large  quantities  of  ammu- 
nition and  a  number  of  Canadian  troops,  and 
that  the  German  government  was  justified  in  de- 
stroying war  munitions  destined  for  the  enemy. 


Finally  it  was  asserted  that  the  rapid  sinking 
of  the  Lusiiama  was  due  to  an  explosion  of  the 
cargo  of  ammunition.  The  German  government 
requested  the  American  government  to  care- 
fully consider  the  above  statements  and  express 
its. view  in  r^ard  to  them,  and  that  thereupon 
the  German  government  would  make  a  "final" 
statement  as  to  its  position.  This  note  did  not 
meet  the  issue  squarely  and  was  clearly  an  invi- 
tation to  further  negotiations  between  the  two 
governments. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  in  the  negotiations 
that  Mr.  Bryan  resigned  as  Secretary  of  State 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  unable  to  agree  with 
the  President  as  to  the  proper  policy  to  pursue 
in  dealing  with  our  difficulties  with  Germany. 
The  two  points  upon  which  Mr.  Bryan  in  his 
letter  of  explanation  stated  that  he  was  not  in 
agreement  with  the  President  were:  (1)  as  to 
submitting  the  Lusitania  case  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  an  international  commission,  and  (2)  as 
to  warning  Americans  against  traveling  on  bel- 
ligerent vessels  or  vessels  carrying  cargoes  of 
ammunition.  Mr.'Bryan  held  that  the  questions 
in  dispute  should  be  considered  by  an  interna- 
tional commission,  and  that,  secondly,  American 
travelers  should  be  warned  as  above  indicated. 
Much  comment  was  aroused  by  Mr.  Bryan's  act, 
and  the  consensus  of  opinion  appeared  to  be  that 
it  strengthened  rather  than  weakened  the  ad- 
ministration. 

The  next  move  in  the  diplomatic  game  was 
made  on  June  9,  1915,  when  the  American  gov- 
ernment replied  to  the  German  government  that 
it  noted  with  satisfaction  the  position  taken  by 
the  latter  in  the  cases  of  the  Gushing  and  Ovl- 
flight.  In  regard  to  the  Falaha  .the  United 
States  was  unwilling  to  admit  that  the  attempt 
on  the  part  of  merchantmen  to  escape  capture 
alters  the  obligation  of  the  commander  of  the  at- 
tacking vessel  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  the 
lives  of  those  on  board  the  merchantman. 

In  regard  to  the  stat^nents  made  by  Germany 
that  the  Lusitania  was  armed,  the  American  gov- 
emmoit  stated  that  it  had  official  information 
that  such  was  not  the  case.  With  regard  to 
the  carrying  of  contraband  bv  the  Lusitania,  it 
was  held  that  this  was  entirely  irrelevant  to  the 
question  of  the  legality  of  the  methods  used  in 
sinking  the  vessel.  Brushing  aside  these  ex- 
traneous issues  the  American  government  took 
its  stand  firmly  on  the  ground  that  it  was  "con- 
tending for  nothing  less  high  and  sacred  than 
the  rights  of  humanity,"  and  it  stated  that  it 
"very  earnestly  and  very  solemnly"  renewed  its 
representations  made  in  the  previous  note. 

A  reply  to  this  note  came  from  the  German 
government  on  July  8,  1915.  There  was  in  this 
communication  little  evidence  of  a  desire  to  meet 
the  issue.  There  were  the  usual  assertions  in 
regard  to  England's  "inhuman"  methods  of  war- 
fare and  a  suggestion  for  guarding  the  safety  of 
American  vessels  in  the  war  zone. 

The  rejoinder  to  this  note  sent  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  on  July  21,  1915,  in- 
dicated very  clearly  that  it  considered  the  Ger- 
man communication  evasive  and  unsatisfactory. 
It  stated  once  more  in  the  clearest  manner  pos- 
sible the  real  question  at  issue,  namely,  that  acts 
of  reprisal  against  an  enemy  are  indefensible 
when  they  deprive  neutrals  of  their  acknowl- 
edged rights.  The  note  further  gave  pointed 
evidence  that  the  United  States  government  felt 
that  the  discussion  had  gone  far  enough,  and 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


TJKITBD  STATES  AJTD  THE  WAB 


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TTNITBD  STATES  AJTD  THE  WAB 


that  'Mt  cannot  believe  that  the  Imperial  gov- 
ernment will  longer  refrain  from  disavowing  the 
wanton  act  of  its  naval  commander."  Despite 
this  urgent  suggestion  from  the  United  States 
that  the  matt^  should  be  speedily  settled,  the 
negotiations  dragged  on  during  the  remaining 
months  of  the  year.  There  was  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  the  Qerman  ^vernment  was  attempt- 
ing to  find  some  solution  which  would  concede 
most  that  the  United  States  was  contending  for, 
while  at  the  same  time  avoiding  the  appearance 
of  being  humiliated.  For  example,  on  Sept.  1, 
1916,  Ambassador  von  Bernstorff  in  a  letter  to 
Secretary  Lansing  gave  assurance  that  Cterman 
submarines  would  not  sink  any  more  liners  with- 
out warning.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  in- 
cluded ships  belonging  to  belligerents  as  well  as 
neutrals.  Finally,  in  November,  the  Qerman  ^v- 
ernment  authorized  its  ambassador  at  Washing- 
ton to  begin  negotiations  with  the  American  au- 
thorities looking  to  a  settlement  of  all  outstand- 
ing issues.  These  negotiations  were  still  in  prog- 
ress at  the  close  of  the  year. 

While  the  controversy  in  connection  with  the 
LusitatUa  was  in  process  of  settlement,  a  num- 
ber of  other  issues  had  arisen  due  to  attacks  on 
other  vessels  in  which  American  property  and 
lives  were  destroyed.  These  cases  will  be  briefly 
stated. 

On  Jan.  28,  1915,  the  American  schooner,  Wm. 
P.  Frye,  loaded  with  a  cargo  of  wheat  consigned 
to  an  English  firm,  was  sunk  b^  the  (German 
auxiliary  cruiser  Prina  Eitel  Fnedrich*  In  a 
communication  to  the  German  government  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  contended  that 
the  act  was  unwarranted  by  international  law, 
as  the  cargo  could  only  be  considered  condi- 
tional contraband,  and  there  was  no  evidence 
that  it  was  to  be  used  for  military  purposes. 
To  this  the  German  government  replied  on  April 
4,  1915,  asserting  that  the  act  was  justified  by 
the  Declaration  of  London,  and  the  German  Prize 
Law.  Nevertheless,  Germany  agreed  to  pay  for 
the  ship  and  cargo  provided  it  was  shown  that 
both  belonged  to  American  citizens.  This  ac- 
tion was  based  on  an  interpretation  of  the 
treaties  of  1799  and  1828  between  Prussia  and 
the  United  States.  It  was  provided,  however, 
that  the  case  should  go  before  the  German  Prize 
Court. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  replied 
to  this  note  on  May  5,  1915,  declining  to  submit 
the  question  to  the  German  Prize  Court,  and 
suggesting  direct  diplomatic  negotiations. 

A  further  German  note  on  June  7,  1915,  and 
an  American  rejoinder  on  June  24,  1915,  failed 
to  bring  the  question  any  nearer  to  a  solution. 
On  July  10,  1915,  the  German  Prize  Court  ren- 
dered its  decision  justifying  the  sinking  of  the 
Frye,  but  holding  that  Germany  must  pay  an 
indemnity  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  1799. 
The  German  government  then  suggested  that  the 
amount  of  indemnity  be  determined  by  two  ex- 
perts, one  appointed  by  each  government,  and 
that  the  differences  between  the  governments  as 
to  the  Interpretation  of  the  treaty  be  submitted 

*  The  Prinz  Eitel  Friedrieh  ftnd  the  Crown  Prince 
WHheln%,  two  German  commerce  destroyers,  entered  the 
harbor  of  Newport  News  after  extended  craises  in  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  daring  which  a  number  of 
French  and  English  vessels  were  destroyed.  At  first  the 
commanders  of  both  vessels  indicated  their  intention  of 
making  necessary  repairs  and  putting  to  sea  again.  The 
presence  of  English  war  vessels  outside  the  harbor  caused 
them  to  change  their  plans,  and  hoth  vessels  were  eventu- 
ally interned. 


to  arbitration  of  The  Hague  Tribunal.  These 
suggestions  were  accepted  by  the  United  States 
on  Aug.  10,  1915,  provided  that  arrangements 
should  be  made  for  the  immediate  submission 
to  arbitration  of  the  question  of  the  legality  of 
the  sinking  of  the  vessel.  The  United  States  fur- 
ther requested  a  statement  from  Germany  as  to 
whether  it  intended  to  govern  future  naval  op- 
erations, pending  the  arbitration,  according  to 
its  interpretation  of  the  treaty.  To  this  the 
German  government  replied  on  Sept.  23,  1915, 
that  no  more  American  merchantmen  would  be 
destroyed  when  carrying  conditional  contraband, 
but  that  it  reserved  the  right  to  sink  such  ves- 
sels carrying  absolute  contraband. 

In  a  further  note  the  United  States  govern- 
ment on  Oct.  18,  1915,  stated  that,  pending  ar- 
bitration, it  could  agree  to  the  sinking  of  Amer- 
ican vessels  carrying  absolute  contrtumnd  only 
on  condition  that  persons  on  board  such  vessels 
were  placed  in  "safety,"  and  that  this  condition 
would  not  be  satisfied  by  placing  them  in  life- 
boats in  the  open  sea.  To  this  suggestion  the 
German  government  replied  on  Nov.  29,  1916, 
stating  that  it  agreed  that  all  possible  provi- 
sions should  be  made  for  the  safety  of  persons 
on  a  vessel  to  be  sunk.  It  was  stated  that 
thereafter  no  persons  would  be  ordered  into  life- 
boats unless  conditions  of  weather  and  the  prox- 
imity of  land  made  it  "absolutely  certain  that 
the  boats  will  reach  the  nearest  port." 

This  closed  the  controversy  over  the  Frye  case, 
and  the  outcome  was  a  notable  victory  for  the 
American  contention  for  the  safety  of  innocent 
persons  on  the  high  seas. 

On  May  25,  1915,  the  American  steamer 
Nehraskan  was  torpedoed,  40  miles  southwest  of 
Fastnet,  off  the  coast  of  Ireland.  The  ship  was 
not  seriously  damaged  and  no  lives  were  lost. 
After  an  investigation,  the  German  government 
explained  that  the  attack  was  an  "unfortunate 
accident,"  due  to  the  fact  that  the  vessel  dis- 
played no  fiag  or  distinguishing  marks  to  indi- 
cate its  nationality.  Regret  was  expressed  and 
liability  for  damage  sustained  was  assumed  by 
Gtermany. 

The  destruction  of  the  Allan  liner  Heaperian 
on  Sept.  4,  1915,  by  which  an  American 
citizen  named  Wolff  was  drowned,  involved  a 
question  of  fact.  Germany  maintained  that  the 
skip  was  sunk  by  a  mine,  not  by  a  submarine. 
Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  asserted  that 
fragments  of  a  torpedo  had  been  picked  up  on 
the  deck  of  the  Hesperian  after  she  was  struck. 
Samples  of  this  metal  were  submitted  to  Amer- 
ican naval  experts  who  declared  that  they  were 
?iarts  of  a  torpedo.  The  United  States  authori- 
ies  held,  however,  that  there  was  no  conclusive 
evidence  that  the  fragments  of  metal  were  found 
on  the  Heaperian,  and  the  case  was  dropped. 

The  Arabic  Case.  The  White  Star  liner  Ara.- 
hiCf  outward  bound  for  New  York,  was  torpedoed 
and  sunk  by  a  German  submarine  off  Fastnet 
on  the  morning  of  Aug.  19,  1915.  Eighteen  pas- 
sengers and  21  members  of  the  crew  were  re- 
ported missing.  Among  those  lost  were  two 
American  citizens.  Depositions  of  survivors  in- 
dicated that  the  Arabic  was  torpedoed  without 
warning  and  had  made  no  attempt  to  escape  or 
to  ram  the  submarine.  A  formal  and  detailed 
communication  from  Ambassador  Gerard  on 
Sept.  7,  1915,  stated  that  the  German  govern- 
ment had  received  information  that  the  Arabic 
had   altered   its  course  while  approaching  the 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


Photograph  by  Paul  Thompson 

DR.  BERNHARD  DERNBURQ 
Repratantatfvo  of  G«rmany 


O  Harris  ft  Evrlng,  Washinflrton.  D.  a 

DR.  KONSTANTIN  THEODOR  DUMBA 
Austrian  EmbaMador 


€)  HarrU  &  Ewinsr,  Washinirton.  D.  C.  ®  Harris  &  Ewinir.  WashiDgrton,  D.  a 

CAPTAIN  FRANZ  VON  PAPEN  CAPTAIN  KARL  BOY-ED 

German  Military  Attache  German  Naval  Attache 

REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE  TEUTONIC  POWERS  IN   THE    UNITED   STATES, '' 


iGoogle 


Digitized  by 


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TTNITED  STATES  AJTD  THE  WAB 


679 


UNITED  STATES  AJSTD  THE  WAB 


submarine,  and  the  commander  of  the  latter  was 
led  to  believe  that  the  Arabic  was  attempting 
to  ram  his  vessel.  Furthermore,  the  (merman 
government  maintained  that  it  was  unable  to 
acknowledge  any  obligation  to  grant  any  indem- 
nity in  the  matter,  even  if  the  commander 
should  have  been  mistaken  as  to  the  aggressive 
intentions  of  the  Arabic.  The  note  further  sug- 
gested that  if  the  German  and  American  gov- 
ernments could  not  reach  an  agreement  in  the 
issue,  that  the  question  be  referred  to  The 
Hague  Tribunal  for  arbitration. 

'iniis  note  was  wholly  unsatisfactory  to  the 
American  government  and  a  grave  crisis  arose. 
The  President  and  Secretary  Lansing  stood  firm 
on  their  demand  that  Germany  should  disavow 
the  act  of  the  submarine  commander,  and  should 
pay  an  indemnity  for  the  loss  of  American  lives. 
The  crisis  was  passed  when,  on  Oct.  5,  1915, 
Count  Bemstorff  notified  the  American  govern- 
ment that  Germany  had  acceded  to  the  demands 
of  the  United  States,  and  that  the  instructions 
issued  to  the  commanders  of  submarines  had 
been  made  so  stringent  that  a  repetition  of  in- 
cidents similar  to  the  Arabic  case  was  consid- 
ered out  of  the  question. 

Bhipment  of  War  Muniiiona.  Shortly  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  large  orders  for  war 
munitions  were  olaced  by  the  Entente  Allies  with 
American  firms.  The  complete  control  of  the 
seas  by  the  British  and  French  fleets  made  it 
impossible  for  the  Teutonic  powers  to  obtain 
similar  supplies.  Comment  in  the  German  press 
indicated  that  the  feeling  in  Germany  was  very 
strong  that  the  United  States  was  not  observing 
a  strict  neutrality  by  allowing  such  shipments. 
On  April  4,  1915,  Ambassador  Bemstorff  called 
the  matter  to  the  attention  of  the  United  States 
government  officially.  He  maintained  that 
while  the  United  States  had  taken  no  action 
in  regard  to  alleged  violations  of  international 
law  by  Great  Britain  in  interfering  with  neu- 
tral trade,  it  had  allowed  American  firms  to 
supply  large  quantities  of  war  munitions  to 
Germany's  enemies.  He  maintained  that  con- 
ditions in  the  present  war  were  unique,  that 
while  theoretically  arms  might  be  shipped  from 
the  United  States  to  Germany,  practically  they 
could  be  sent  only  to  her  enemies.  A  real  spirit 
of  neutrality  called  for  the  stoppage  of  a  trade 
which  was  aiding  only  one  side. 

In  a  vigorous  reply  to  this  note  President 
Wilson  set  forth  clearly  the  position  of  the 
United  States.  He  first  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  our  relations  with  England  could  not 
be  made  a  subject  of  discussion  with  a  third 
government.  With  regard  to  the  shipment  of 
arms  and  ammimition,  the  President  pointed  out 
that  any  change  in  the  laws  of  neutrality  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  a  war  would  be  a  departure 
from  the  principle  of  strict  neutrality,  and  that 
the  placing  of  an  embargo  on  the  trade  in  arms 
would  constitute  such  a  change. 

In  reply  to  a  similar  protest  by  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  government  on  Aug.  1,  1915,  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  on  Aug.  12, 
1915,  made  an  exhaustive  statement  of  its  posi- 
tion. It  reiterated  the  statement  made  in  the 
reply  to  Germany  that  any  change  in  the  rules 
of  neutrality  made  during  a  war  would  violate 
the  spirit  of  neutrality.  In  addition,  it  pointed 
out  that  it  had  never  been  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  to  maintain  a  large  military  es- 
tablishment or  great  stores  of  ammimition,  and 


that  the  United  States  had  depended  upon  the 
right  to  purchase  arms  and  ammunition  from 
neutral  powers  in  time  of  war.  To  prohibit 
such  trade  would  compel  every  nation  to  have 
on  hand  sufficient  munitions  of  war  to  meet  any 
emergency,  and  would  practically  make  every  na- 
tion an  armed  camp.  Apart  then  from  any  ques- 
tion of  the  l^ality  of  an  embargo  on  arms,  the 
United  States  government  felt  that  it  would  be 
a  mistaken  policy  as  it  would  deliberately  en- 
courage the  spirit  of  militarism. 

Activities  of  Oerman  Agents  in  the  United 
States,  During  the  year  the  United  States  au- 
thorities were  called  upon  to  deal  with  a  num- 
ber of  serious  questions  involving  the  activities 
of  agents  and  officials  of  the  German  govern- 
ment, and  German  sympathizers  in  the  United 
States.  These  activities  included  the  obtaining 
of  false  manifests  and  clearance  papers  for  ves- 
sels sent  from  American  ports  with  supplies  for 
German  cruisers;  the  obtaining  of  fraudulent 
passports;  subsidizing  American  newspapers; 
and  efforts  to  hamper  the  shipment  of  arms  and 
ammunition  to  Great  Britain.  While  conclu- 
sive evidence  was  lacking  that  the  German  gov- 
ernment or  its  official  representatives  in  this 
country  were  responsible  for  such  of  these  acts 
as  violated  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  never- 
theless the  Government  of  the  United  States  con- 
sidered the  actions  of  two  German  officials,  Capt. 
Karl  Boy-Ed  and  Capt.  Franz  von  Papen,  the 
(xerman  naval  and  military  attache,  to  have 
been  sufficiently  culpable  to  demand  their  re- 
call. This  request  was  agreed  to  by  the  Grerman 
government.  Other  prominent  Germans  aroused 
by  their  actions  considerable  criticism.  Con- 
spicuous among  them  was  Dr.  Bernard  Dernburg, 
who  during  the  early  part  of  the  war,  had  been 
the  head  of  the  pro-German  propaganda  in  the 
United  States.  His  outspoken  defense  of  €rer- 
many  in  the  Lusitwnia  case,  and  his  general  ag- 
gressive attitude  caused  such  strong  protests 
that  he  voluntarily  returned  to  Germany.  Dr. 
Heinrich  F.  Albert,  financial  agent  of  the  Ger- 
man government  in  the  United  States,  was,  ac- 
cording to  a  series  of  articles  published  in  the 
New  York  World,  involved  in  an  elaborate 
scheme  to  subsidize  American  newspapers,  to 
establish  munition  factories  to  supply  arms  and 
ammunition  to  Germany,  and  in  general  to  fos- 
ter a  pro-German  sentiment  in  the  United 
States.  Dr.  von  Nuber,  the  consul  general  of 
Austria-Hungary,  was  accused  by  Dr.  Joseph 
Goricar,  formerly  Austro-Hungarian  consul  at 
San  Francisco,  of  plotting  to  destroy  munition 
factories  in  the  United  States.  Carl  Buenz, 
director  of  the  Hamburg-American  Steamship 
Company,  was  indicted  on  the  charge  of  con- 
spiracy to  defraud  the  United  States  by  pro- 
curing false  manifest  and  clearance  papers. 
Among  the  less  prominent  persons  whose  activi- 
ties attracted  wide  attention,  was  Lieutenant 
Robert  Fay,  an  ex-officer  of  the  German  army, 
who  was  arrested  for  having  large  quantities 
of  high  explosives  in  his  possession.  The  con- 
fession of  an  accomplice  clearly  indicated  that 
the  explosives  were  to  be  used  to  destroy  ships 
belonging  to  the  enemies  of  Germany.  Werner 
Horn,  a  German  subject,  was  arrested  for  at- 
tempting to  wreck  the  international  bridge  be- 
tween Vanceboro,  Maine,  and  St.  Croix,  New 
Brunswick. 

The  United  States  and  Austria-Hung  art. 
During  the  year  1915  two  serious  disputes  arose 


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TJKITBD  8TATE8  AJm  THE  WAB        680       ITKITEB  STATES  AND  THE  WAB 


inyolying  the  United  States  and  Auatria.  The 
flrat  of  these  concerned  the  aetiyitiea  of  the  Ana- 
tro-Hungarian  ambaasador  to  the  United  States, 
Dr.  Theodor  Dumba. 

On  Sept.  1,  1015,  James  F.  J.  Archibald,  an 
American  newspaper  correspondent,  was  arrested 
by  the  British  authorities  when  the  steamer  Rot- 
terdam put  into  Falmouth,  for  carrying  dis- 
patches from  the  German  and  Austrian  embas- 
sies at  Washington  to  Berlin  and  Vienna. 
Among  the  papers  was  a  letter  from  Dr.  Dumba, 
suggestinf^  a  plan  for  crippling  the  munitions 
factories  in  America  by  fomenting  strikes  among 
the  Austro-Hungarian  laborers  in  these  facto- 
ries. Dr.  Dumba  admitted  the  authenticity  of 
the  documents,  and  defended  his  action  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  his  duty  to  bring  to  the  at- 
tention of  his  fellow  countrymen  employed  by 
the  manufacturers  of  munitions  that  they  were 
engaged  in  enterprises  unfriendly  to  the  father- 
land, and  that  the  Imperial  government  would 
regard  them  as  guilty  of  a  serious  crime,  pun- 
ishable by  penal  servitude  should  they  return  to 
their  own  country. 

This  explanation  proved  unsatisfactory  to  the 
American  government,  and  Secretary  Lansing 
notified  the  Austrian  government  that,  as  Dr. 
Dumba  had  "conspired  to  cripple  legitimate  in- 
dustries of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and 
had  flagrantly  violated  diplomatic  propriety  by 
employing  an  American  citizen  protected  by  an 
American  passport  as  a  secret  bearer  of  official 
dispatches  through  the  lines  of  the  enemy  of 
Austria-Hungary,"  he  was  no  longer  acceptable 
to  the  United  States  as  the  ambassador  from 
Austria-Hungary.  In  answer  to  this  demand  the 
Austro-Hyngarian  government  agreed,  on  Sept. 
27,  1915,  to  recall  Dr.  Dumba. 

The  second  incident  involving  the  two  coun- 
tries was  the  sinking  of  the  Italian  steamer  An- 
c<ma  on  Nov.  7,  1915,  by  an  Austrian  submarine. 
The  Ancona  had  attempted  to  escape,  but  was 
overhauled.  It  was  charged  by  the  survivors 
that  the  submarine  continued  to  fire  after  the 
Anoona  had  stopped.  In  all,  more  than  200  lives 
were  lost,  among  them  nine  American  citizens. 
In  a  vigorous  note  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  on  Dec.  0,  1915,  demanded  that  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  government  should  disavow  the 
act,  that  the  commander  of  the  submarine  should 
be  punished,  and  that  an  indemnity  should  be 
paia  for  the  loss  of  the  lives  of  American  citi- 
zens. 

To  this  the  Austro-Hungarian  government  re- 
plied on  Dec.  15,  1915,  asking  for  more  specific 
information  upon  which  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  based  its  charges.  On  Dec.  19, 
1915,  the  American  government  replied,  stating 
that  it  based  its  charges  on  the  official  report 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  admiralty,  and  declined 
further  to  specify  the  additional  testimimy  tend- 
ing to  corroborate  the  admiralty's  report.  The 
incident  was  closed  by  the  Austro-Hungarian 
government  granting  practically  all  of  the  Amer- 
ican demands.  In  a  note  sent  Dec.  29,  1915,  it 
was  stated  that  the  submarine  commander  had 
been  pimished  for  not  taking  into  consideration 
the  panic  aboard  the  Ancona,  which  rendered 
disembarkment  difficult.  It  agreed  that  Aus- 
tria-Hungary should  indemnify  American  citi- 
zens affected.  While  disclaiming  responsibility 
for  lives  lost,  due  -to  shots  which  were  fired 
while  the  Ancona  was  attempting  to  escape,  or 
for  those  lost  by  the  faulty  lowering  of  life- 


boats, Austria  agreed  not  to  press  for  proof 
that  the  American  lives  were  lost  through  the 
fault  of  the  submarine  commander,  and  agreed 
''to  extend  indemnities  to  those  whose  cause  can- 
not be  established."  In  conclusion  the  note 
stated  that  the  Austro-Hungarian  government 
"reserved  to  itself  the  right  to  bring  up  for  dis- 
cussion at  a  later  time  the  difficult  questions  of 
international  law  connected  with  submarine  war- 
fare." 

SuifMABT.  Briefly  summarized,  the  outstand- 
ing results  of  these  various  controversies  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  different  Euro- 
pean powers  appear  as  follows: 

With  Great  Britain  little  was  accomplished 
during  the  year  in  reaching  a  satisfactory  under- 
standing in  regard  to  the  interference  with  neu- 
tral trade,  "nie  Grovemment  of  the  United 
States  had  placed  itself  on  record  as  considering 
the  blockade  of  Germany  as  "ineffective,  illegal, 
and  indefensible."  This  at  least  served  notice 
that  the  United  States  was  unwilling  to  acqui- 
esce in  what  appeared  to  be  an  imwarranted  ex- 
tension of  the  principle  of  the  blockade,  and  also, 
perhaps,  laid  the  foundation  for  future  claims 
for  damages  due  to  injuries  done  to  American 
trade. 

Greater  progress  was  made  during  the  year  in 
solving  the  difficulties  which  had  arisen  between 
Germany  and  the  United  States.  Starting  with 
the  assertion  that  all  belligerent  merchantmen 
in  the  war  zone  would  be  sunk  and  that  neutral 
vessels  entering  this  area  did  so  at  their  own 
risk,  Germany  gradually  retreated,  first  agreeing 
not  to  attack  neutral  vessels  and  to  offer  repara- 
tion for  such  as  might  be  sunk  by  "accident," 
and  second  that  if  any  vessel  should  be  simk,  full 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  "absolute 
safety"  of  persons  on  board.  The  one  important 
controversy  between  the  two  countries  which  re- 
mained unsettled  at  the  close  of  the  year  was 
that  growing  out  of  the  sinking  of  the  LusitaniOj 
and  tills  hinged  largely  on  the  question  whether 
Germany  was  willing  to  recognize  the  illegality 
of  that  act. 

Public  opinion  in  the  United  States  was 
sharply  divided  as  to  the  lessons  to  be  drawn 
from  the  war,  and  as  to  the  policy  which  this 
country  should  adopt.  On  the  one  hand  a  vigor- 
ous campaign  was  inaugurated  to  strengthen  the 
military  and  naval  defenses  of  the  Unit^  States. 
(See  MiLiTABT  Pbogbess;  Naval  Pboobess;  and 
Pbepabedness.)  It  was  urged  with  great  ear- 
nestness that  the  war  had  demonstrated  the 
futility  of  military  unpreparedness,  and  that  the 
United  States  was  in  particular  danger  because 
of  her  great  wealth,  which  other  nations  would 
covet. 

On  the  other  hand  it  was  urged  with  equal 
fervor  that  the  cause  of  the  war  was  primarily 
the  great  military  armaments  in  Europe,  and 
that  the  United  States  would  make  a  great  mis- 
take by  joining  in  the  competition  for  military 
preparedness.  It  was  pointed  out  by  the  advo- 
cates of  peace  that  the  energies  of  this  country 
should  be  devoted  to  finding  some  means,  if  pos- 
sible, to  end  the  war,  and  to  further  the  plans  for 
preventing  future  struggles.  If  not  the  most  ef- 
fective, certainly  the  most  picturesque,  of  the 
efforts  of  the  pacifists  in  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  year  was  the  expedition  organized  by 
Henry  Ford,  a  millionaire  automobile  manufac- 
turer. He  gathered  together  about  150  men  and 
women,  some  of  them  niore  or  less  prominent 


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UNITED  STATBS  AND  THE  WAB        681 


IT.  8.  NATIONAL  XTTSETTM 


Americans,  and  including  newspaper  and  maga- 
zine writers  and  moving  picture  men,  and  t(K>k 
them  with  him  to  Europe  with  the  purpose  of 
discovering  some  means  of  ending  the  war.  Of 
the  sincerity  of  Mr.  Ford  there  was  no  question, 
but  the  methods  used  in  organizing  the  move- 
ment, and  the  actions  of  some  of  the  persons 
prominently  identified  with  it,  seriously  im- 
paired the  chances  of  its  success.  The  United 
States  authorities  let  it  be  known  that  it  was 
in  no  sense  officially  sanctioned,  while  the  Euro- 
pean countries  at  war  clearly  indicated  that  the 
expedition  was  not  welcome.  Despite  these  dis- 
couragements the  party  sailed  on  the  Scandi- 
navian-American liner  Oscar  II  on  Dec.  4,  1916. 
During  the  voyage  serious  discord  developed 
among  the  members  of  the  party.  The  expedi- 
tion reached  Christiansand,  Norway,  on  Dec.  18, 
1915.  A  few  days  later  it  was  announced  that 
Mr.  Ford  would  have  to  leave  the  party  and  re- 
turn to  America  because  of  illness.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  party  went  on  to  Copenhagen, 
reaching  there  on  the  last  day  of  the  year.  The 
prospects  that  the  expedition  would  accomplish 
anytiiing  of  importance  toward  ending  the  war 
were  not  bright. 

XTNITEB  STATES  COKMISSION  ON  IN- 
DXTSTBIAL  RELATIONS.  See  Industrial 
Relations  Commission. 

UNITED  STATES  DEFABTMENT  OF  AG- 
BICTJLTXTEE.  On  July  1,  1915,  the  partial 
reorganization  of  the  Department  proposed  by 
Secretary  Houston  and  approved  by  Congress 
went  into  effect.  The  main  divisions  of  the  De- 
partment are  now  as  follows:  Office  of  the  sec- 
retary, including  the  offices  of  the  assistant  sec- 
retary, solicitor,  chief  clerk,  appointment  clerk, 
farm  management,  exhibits,  and  information; 
weather  bureau;  bureau  of  animal  industry; 
bureau  of  plant  industry;  forest  service;  States 
relations  service;  bureau  of  chemistry;  bureau 
of  soils;  bureau  of  entomology;  bureau  of  bio- 
logical survey;  bureau  of  crop  estimates;  office 
of  public  roads  and  rural  engineering  (including 
irrigation,  drainage,  farm  architecture,  etc.)  ; 
office  of  markets  and  rural  organization;  divi- 
sion of  accounts  and  disbursements;  division  of 
publications;  and  the  library. 

The  work  of  the  office  of  markets  and  rural 
organization  has  been  greatly  enlarged  and  now 
includes  studies  of  market  conditions,  methods 
of  grading,  standardizing,  packing,  and  ship- 
ping, the  means  by  which  farm  produce  gets  to 
the  consumer,  rural  credits,  insurance  and  com- 
munication, and  rural  social  and  educational 
activities. 

The  States  relations  service  represents  the 
secretary  of  agriculture  in  his  relations  with 
the  State  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations,  including  the  administration  of  the 
Hatch  and  Adams  Acts  relating  to  the  stations, 
the  cooperative  agricultural  extension  work  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Smith-Lever  Act  (see  Agricul- 
tural Extension  Work),  the  farmers'  co-opera- 
tive demonstration  work,  investigations  relat- 
ing to  agricultural  schools,  farmers'  institutes, 
and  home  economics,  and  the  maintenance  of 
agricultural  experiment  stations  in  Alaska, 
Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  Guam. 

The  library  now  contains  133,000  books  and 
pamphlets,  mainly  on  agriculture  and  agricul- 
tural science,  and  currently  receives  2128  peri- 
odicals. 

In  his  annual  report  for  1915  the  secretary 


of  agriculture  recommended  legislation  along 
the  following  lines — (1)  To  promote  better 
handling  and  storing  of  farm  products,  and  trad- 
ing on  the  basis  of  fixed  grades  and  standards, 
including  a  permissive  warehouse  act,  a  cotton- 
standard  act,  a  grain-grades  act,  and  provision 
for  a  market-news  service;  (2)  a  land-mortgage 
banking  act;  (3)  assistance  in  roadmaking  and 
similar  improvements  to  communities  near  the 
national  forests;  (4)  authority  to  grant  water- 
power  permits  within  the  national  forests  for 
fixed  periods;  (5)  classification  of  the  remain- 
ing public  grazing  lands;  (6)  more  effective 
control  over  the  production  of  hog-cholora 
serum;  (7)  continuance  of  appropriations  for 
the  purchase  of  forest  lands  in  the  Appalachian 
and  White  mountains. 

The  appropriations  for  the  Department  for 
the  year  ended  Jime  30,  1915,  amounted  to  $19,- 
865,832  for  ordinary  expenses,  in  addition  to 
permanent  and  special  appropriations  amount- 
ing to  $10,628,008,  making  a  total  of  $30,493,- 
840. 

The  forest  service  received  $2,481,469  from 
the  sale  of  timber  on  the  national  forests,  grac- 
ing and  water-power  permits,  condemned  prop- 
erty, etc.  Fines  and  recoveries  in  cases  aris- 
ing under  the  food  and  drugs  and  insecticide 
acts  amounted  to  $130,000;  and  court  decisions 
resulted  in  the  retention  in  the  national  forests 
of  about  18,000  acres  of  land  supporting  155,- 
000,000  feet  of  timber  worth  about  $700,000. 

llie  Department  continued  co5peration  with 
the  postmaster-general  in  the  improvement  of 
selected  mail-route  roads  for  which  Congress  ap- 
propriated $500,000,  conditioned  on  the  raising 
of  double  that  amount  by  the  States  in  which 
such  roads  are  located. 

The  appropriations  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1916,  for  ordinary  expenses  amounted  to  $22,- 
971,782,  but  most  of  the  increase  was  actually 
caused  by  the  inclusion  of  items  for  which  the 
Department  had  special  appropriations  the  pre- 
vious year.  In  the  main,  existing  projects  were 
continued  with  the  same  allotment  of  funds  and 
comparatively  few  new  lines  of  work  were  pro- 
vided for. 

In  1915  the  Department  issued  913  new  pub- 
lications and  a  large  number  of  reprints,  ag- 
gregating more  than  36,000,000  copies. 

iniere  were  16,223  employees  on  July  1,  1915, 
of  whom  3594  were  employed  in  Washington. 
The  number  of  women  employed  was  1921. 

UNITED  STATES  DEFABTMENT  OP  AG- 
BIOXTLTXTBE.  See  Agricultural  Education, 
Educational  Work  of  Department  of  Agrioul- 
ture. 

UNITED  STATES  MILITABY  ACAD- 
EMY. The  total  enrollment  in  the  acadony  in 
the  autumn  of  1915  was  627.  The  faculty  num- 
bered 125.  There  were  no  notable  changes  in 
the  membership  of  the  faculty  during  the  year, 
and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  received. 
The  library  contained  about  95,000  volumes. 
The  superintendent  in  1915  was  Col.  Clarence  P. 
Townsley. 

UNITED  STATES  NATIONAL  MUSEUM. 
The  museum  is  a  part  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution (q.v.),  and  the  assistant  secretary  in 
charge  for  1915  was  Richard  Rathbun.  For  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1915,  the  collections  re- 
ceived additions  of  1481  accessions,  aggregating 
about  304,647  specimens.  These  were  classified 
as  follows:     Anthropology,  15,140;  botany,  61,- 


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U.  8.  KATIONAIi  XTTSBUM 


682        UNIVEB8ITIES  AND  COLLEGBS 


206;    geology    and    mineralogy,    4063;    mineral 
technology,  607;  paleontology,  120,081;  sodlogy, 
101,028 ;  textiles  and  animal  and  vegetable  prod- 
ucts, 1611;  National  Gallery  of  Art,  122.    The 
most  important  gifts  in  ethnology  comprised  a 
Dutch  Borneo  collection  made  by  H.  C.  Raven 
and  donated  by  W.  L.  Abbott;  modem  Egyptian 
clothing  contributed  by  H.  £.  Winlock;  articles 
from  the  Plains  Indians,  collected  by  Maj.  6.  H. 
Palmer;  and  a  large  series  of  old  Japanese  art, 
collected  by  J.  C.  Lyon.    In  Old  World  arche- 
ology an  accession  of  00  Neolithic  stone  imple- 
ments was  received  in  an  exchange  from  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Brussels, 
Belgium,  and  H.  E.  Clark  presented  10  stone  im- 
plements for  addition  to  the  Palestine  collec- 
tion.   With  the  gift  of  a  collection  of  pianos,  24 
examples  of  European  make  and  46  American, 
from  Hugo  Worch  of  Washington,  D.  C,  the 
museum's  section  of  musical  instruments  is  now 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.    As  in  former 
years  the  museum  received  large  collections  of 
mammals  and  higher  animals,  this  year   from 
Dutch  East  Borneo  and  Kashmir,  for  which  it  is 
indebted  to  W.  L.  Abbott.    John  B.  Henderson, 
in  his  expedition,  obtained  for  the  museum  about 
10,000   moUusks    and   other    invertebrates,    and 
some  3000  fishes.    In  January,  1015,  the  gift  of 
Charles  L.  Freer  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  to  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  of  Art  was  increased  by  110  ar- 
ticles, of  which  8  are  American  and  102  Oriental. 
William  T.  Evans,  of  New  York,  contributed  four 
paintings  and  one  bronze.    During  the  year  14,- 
843  specimens  in  natural  history,  in   163  sets, 
w^e  distributed  among  American  schools  and 
colleges.    The  number   of  visitors  admitted  to 
the  new  building  during  the  year  were  262,135 
for  week  days  and  50,577  for  Sundays,  and  those 
admitted  to  the  older  building  totaled  133,202. 
Publications  for  the  year  comprised  0  volumes 
and   41    separate   papers,   and   of   these   64,000 
copies  were  distributed.    The  museum   partici- 
pated in  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  at  San 
Francisco,  and  in  the  Panama-California  Exposi- 
tion at  San  Diego. 

UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADElTr. 
The  total  enrollment  in  all  the  departments  in 
the  autumn  of  1015,  including  the  graduate  de- 
partment, was  033.  The  faculty  included  131 
members.  During  the  summer  investigations  re- 
lating to  conditions  bearing  on  examinations 
were  held.  These  began  on  June  7th  and  ended 
on  July  15th.  As  a  result  of  them  two  midship- 
men wore  dismissed  and  about  a  dozen  others 
disciplined.  It  was  charged  and  proved  that 
these  midshipmen  had  used  illegitimate  means 
to  secure  advance  information  in  regard  to  ex- 
aminations. In  addition  to  those  dismissed  or 
disciplined,  it  was  found  tiiat  other  members  of 
all  the  cUsses  had  received  information  in  re- 
gard to  examinations  prior  to  the  holding  of 
these  examinations.  Rear  Admiral  Fullam  was 
removed  as  superintendent  on  September  1st. 
Capt.  E.  W.  Eberle  was  appointed  superintendent 
to  succeed  him.  On  October  1st,  President  Wil- 
son issued  an  order  directing  the  dismissal  of  six 
midshipmen,  the  suspension  of  four  others  for 
one  year  without  pay,  and  the  turning  back  of 
15  midshipmen  into  the  next  lower  class  for 
hazing. 

VinrSD  STATES  STEEL  COBFOBA- 
TION.    See  Trusts. 

TJNIVEBSALISTS.  This  denomination  in 
1015  had  in  the  United  States  and  its  posses- 


sions 55,000  communicants,  656  ministers,  and 
763  churches,  the  Sunday  schools  containing 
about  60,000  pupils.  Foreign  missionary  work 
is  carried  on  in  Japan  and  China.  Social  work 
is  carried  on  by  the  commission  on  social  serv- 
ice, organized  in  1010,  which  has  undertaken 
the  educational  work  of  stimulating  interest  in 
the  subject  among  ministers,  divinity  students, 
men's  clubs,  women's  societies,  and  young  peo- 
ple's societies.  Social  service  topics  are  dis- 
cussed at  church  gatherings,  and  there  is  an  ex- 
change of  social  service  information  through  the 
church  press.  The  institutions  of  hisher  edu- 
cation are:  Tufts  College,  at  Medford,  Mass.; 
St.  Lawrence  University,  Canton,  N.  Y.;  Buch- 
tel  College,  Akron,  Ohio;  and  Lombard  College, 
Galesburg,  III. 

XTNIVBBSITIB8  AND  COLLEQES.  Ai^ 
TBNDAifCB.  The  only  available  statistics  of  at- 
tendance at  the  various  universities,  colleges, 
and  technological  schools  for  the  first  semester 
of  1015-16  are  found  in  an  article  by  Henry  T. 
Claus  in  the  Boston  Trtmmfripi,  The  enrollment 
in  60  institutions  is  giv«i  for  Nov.  1,  1014,  and 
Nov.  1,  1015.  The  total  number  of  students  in 
these  60  institutions  on  Nov.  1,  1015,  is  110,434. 
This  is  an  increase  of  nearly  7  per  cent  over  the 
previous  year. 

The  latest  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Ed- 
ucation covering  the  academic  year  1013-14 
shows  that  in  the  567  universities,  colleges,  and 
technological  schools  from  which  reports  were 
received,  there  were  216,403  studoits  in  the  col- 
legiate and  resident  graduate  departments. 
This  is  an  increase  of  7  per  cent  over  the  pre- 
vious year.  There  were,  in  addition  to  these, 
37,444  students  in  music,  art,  oratory,  business, 
etc.,  not  regriBtered  for  a  degree,  and  51,864  stu- 
dents who  were  in  the  preparatory  departments. 
Excluding  duplicates  these  institutions  enrolled 
in  all  departments  217,683  men  and  117,205 
women. 

Professional  schools,  including  theology,  law, 
medicine,  dentistry,  pharmacy,  and  veterinary 
medicine,  reported  66,873  students,  and  12,582 
instructors  in  1014.  There  were  15,686  gradu- 
ates. The  schools  of  medicine  and  pharmacy 
were  the  only  ones  not  showing  an  increase  in 
the  number  of  students.  The  following  table 
shows  the  enrollment  in  the  various  classes  of 
professional  schools  for  certain  years: 

CUua  Year 

1905  1910  1918  1914 

Theology     7.411  11,012  10,065  11.260 

Law     14,714  10,667  20,878  20.968 

Medicine    25,886  21,894  17,288  16,920 

Dentletry     7.149  6,489  8,015  0,315 

Pharmacy     4,944  6,226  6.165  5,980 

Veterinary    medicine..    1,260  2,717  2,824  2.481 

61,822     67.865     65,585     66,873 

A  preliminary  report  on  the  study  of  legal 
education  undertaken  by  the  Carnegie  Foimda- 
tion  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching  presents 
the  following  facts  regarding  physicians  and 
surgeons,  clergymen,  and  lawyers:  ''While  the 
number  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  the  coun- 
try, now  157,000,  and  of  clergymen,  now  133,000, 
has  recently  increased  uniformly  with  the  popu- 
lation, the  number  of  lawyers,  now  122,000,  in- 
creased only  one-third  as  fast  as  the  population 
between  1000  and  1010,  although  it  increased 
faster   than  the   population   between    1800  and 


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ITNIVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEGES        683        UKIVEESITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


1900,  from  89,000  to  114,000,  and  very  much 
faster  between  1880  and  1890,  from  64,000  to 
89,000." 

Academic  Freedom.  Two  cases  of  difficulty 
between  instructors  in  universities  and  the  ad- 
ministrative authorities  have  received  a  great 
deal  of  attention  during  the  year.  At  the  Uni- 
versity of  Utah  the  president  did  not  nominate 
four  professors  and  instructors  for  the  academic 
year  1915-16.  The  faculty,  alumni,  students, 
and  many  citizens  objected  to  this  action,  but 
on  March  17th  the  regents  sustained  the  presi- 
dent and  reelected  him  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
As  a  result  17  members  of  the  faculty  resigned 
their  positions  on  the  ground  that  it  seemed  to 
them  "impossible  to  retain  their  self-respect 
and  remain  in  the  university."  To  justify  their 
position  the  rq^ents  issued  a  statement  in  which 
they  said :  "Tne  university  enters  into  contracts 
with  its  professors  and  instructors  for  one  year 
at  a  time.  When  these  contracts  expire  the  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  are  at  liberty  to  decline 
further  employment  with  the  university.  The 
board  has  the  same  right  to  decline  again  to 
employ  them.  Professors  and  instructors  look 
after  their  best  interests  from  their  own  view- 
point. The  university  does  the  same.  Not  in- 
frequently professors  decline  further  employ- 
ment and  leave  the  university  because  they  can 
obtain  better  positions  or  more  remuneration 
elsewhere.  The  board  considers  that  both  par- 
ties have  equal  rights  as  to  freedom  of  con- 
tract." They  charged  that  one  instructor  had 
"seen  fit  to  belittle  the  university  and  to  speak 
in  an  uncomplimentary  way  of  the  administra- 
tion," that  another  instructor  had  "seen  fit  to 
speak  very  disrespectfully,  if  not  insultingly, 
of  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  regents."  The 
council  of  the  American  Association  of  Univer- 
sity Professors  authorized  the  appointment  of 
a  committee  of  inquiry  to  report  upon  the  case. 

A  number  of  departments  were  involved  in 
the  difficulty.  It  seemed  best  to  the  council  of 
the  American  Association  of  University  Pro- 
fessors "to  take  measures  to  secure  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  conditions  of  professorial 
service  in  the  university."  A  committee  was 
therefore  appointed  to  investigate  and  report  on 
the  case.  The  results  of  their  work  are  con- 
tained in  a  pamphlet  of  82  pages  entitled  The 
Report  of  the  ComnUttee  of  Inquiry  on  Condi- 
tions at  the  University  of  Utah.  The  charges 
made  by  President  Kingsbury  against  certain 
of  the  professors  are  summarized  as  follows: 
(a)  "speaking  in  a  very  imcomplimentary  way 
about  the  administration;"  (b)  "speaking  very 
disrespectfully  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Board 
of  Regents;"  (c)  "speaking  in  a  depreciatory 
way  of  the  university  before  classes;"  (d) 
"working  against  the  administration."  With 
regard  to  the  charges  specified  above  the  com- 
mittee finds  as  follows :  ( I )  Of  the  four  charges 
brought  against  these  professors,  two  specify 
acts — namely  (a)  uttering  in  a  private  con- 
versation with  a  colleague  an  unfavorable  opin- 
ion of  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  regents, 
and  (b)  speaking,  in  private  conversation,  in 
"a  very  uncomplimentary  way  of  the  university 
administration" — which  are  not  proper  grounds 
for  the  dismissal  of  university  teachers.  (2) 
The  president  of  the  university  and  the  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  regents,  by  sanctioning  the 
recent  action  and  publication  of  the  board,  vir- 
tually gave  notice  that  the  expression  by  a  pro- 


fessor, in  private  conversation,  of  an  unfavor- 
able judgment  of  their  qualifications  for  office 
would  be  a  ground  for  dismissal.  This  attitude, 
imjustifiable  in  general,  the  committee  regards 
as  especially  unsuitable  in  officials  of  a  State 
tmiversity. 

The  trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania terminated  the  connection  of  Dr.  Scott 
Nearing  with  the  institution.  Their  action 
called  forth  a  great  deal  of  discussion  and  criti- 
cism on  the  part  of  alumni  of  that  imiversity 
and  others  interested  in  imiversity  administra- 
tion. It  was  claimed  that,  for  the  past  two 
years,  it  had  been  repeatedly  stated  by  the  press 
that  Dr.  Nearins  would  be  dismissed  because 
his  views  differed  from  those  of  the  trustees. 
The  trustees  unanimously  adopted  a  resolution 
in  which  the  following  statement  of  conditions 
occurs:  "In  order  to  discharge  the  duty  laid 
upon  the  board  by  the  charter,  the  trustees  are 
required  to  observe  and  determine  the  qualifica- 
tions of  prospective  teachers  before  appointing 
them  as  professors.  The  usual  routine  is  an 
engagement  as  an  instructor,  an  advance  to  an 
assistant  professorship,  followed — ^if  justified — 
by  appointment  as  professor.  Dr.  Nearing  fol- 
lowed this  usual  course.  He  was  found  to  have 
an  attractive  personality  and  many  good  quali- 
ties as  a  teacher.  Durmg  the  entire  period  of 
the  few  years  in  which  he  was  connected  with 
the  university,  however,  his  efforts — although 
doubtless  perfectly  sincere — ^were  so  constantly 
and  continuously  misunderstood  by  the  public 
and  by  many  parents  of  students,  that,  much 
to  the  regret  of  the  trustees,  they  felt  unable 
to  give  him  the  promotion  to  a  professorship 
which  he  would  otherwise  have  obtained.  The 
termination  of  his  temporary  engagement  was, 
therefore,  absolutely  in  the  line  of  the  duty  laid 
upon  the  trustees  by  the  charter  and  in  justice 
to  Dr.  Nearing  himself,  who  was  thus  free  to 
employ  his  talents  in  fields  not  circumscribed 
by  either  requests  or  promises  to  avoid  strife 
and  turmoil,  which  are  neither  necessary  nor 
desirable  accompaniments  of  the  objects  for 
which  yoimg  men  are  sent  to  college  by  their 
parents." 

As  one  of  the  results  of  the  dropping  of  Dr. 
Nearing,  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  univer- 
sity urged  "the  definition  of  the  conditions  un- 
der which  professors  may  be  appointed  or  dis- 
missed." At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  trustees 
an  important  amendment  to  the  statutes  was 
adopted.  It  provides:  "There  shall  be  four 
grades  in  the  faculty — ^professor,  assistant  pro- 
fessor, instructor,  and  assistant.  Professors  are 
to  be  appointed  for  an  indefinite  term.  An 
assistant  professor  will  receive  a  first  appoint- 
ment for  three  years,  find  reappointments  for 
terms  of  five  years.  Instructors  and  assistants 
will  be  appointed  for  one  year."  The  section 
dealing  with  the  removal  of  a  professor  or  as- 
sistant professor  is  as  follows:  "A  professor 
or  an  assistant  professor  shall  be  removed  by 
the  board  of  trustees  only  after  a  conference 
between  a  committee,  consisting  of  one  repre- 
sentative from  each  of  the  faculties  in  the  uni- 
versity (such  representatives  being  chosen  by 
the  faculty  of  which  the  representative  is  a 
member),  and  a  committee  of  equal  number  from 
the  board  of  trustees,  at  which  conference  the 
provost  shall  preside,  and  upon  a  report  from 
such  conference  to  the  board  of  trustees  for  con- 
sideration and  action  by  them." 

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TTNIVEBSITIBS  AND  COLLBOBS       684       TTKIVEBSITIBS  AVD  COIXBOBS 

A  committee  of  inquiry  of  the  American  As- 
sociation of  University  Professors,  of  which 
A.  O.  Lovejoy  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  is 
chairman,  is  preparing  a  report  on  the  case. 

The  Ahebican  Association  or  Univebsitt 
Pbdrbboes.  a  meeting  called  for  the  purpose 
of  organizing  the  American  Association  of  Uni- 
versity Professors  was  held  in  New  York  City 
Jan.  1  and  2,  1915.  Over  250  were  in  attend- 
ance. Prof.  John  Dewey  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity was  elected  permanent  chairman,  and  Pro- 
fessor Overstreet  of  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York  was  made  recording  secretary.  The 
meeting  decided  upon  the  principles  involved  in 
the  several  articles  of  the  constitution.  A  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  draw  up  the  text  of  a 
provisional  constitution  in  conformity  with  the 
action  taken  bv  the  meeting.  This  draft  was 
to  be  submitted  for  ratification  at  the  next  an- 
nual meeting,  held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  De- 
cember, 1915.  The  decisions  with  respect  to 
some  of  the  principal  features  of  the  plan  of 
organization  were  as  follows:  Any  person  may 
be  nominated  for  membership  who  holds,  and 
for  10  years  has  held,  a  teaching  or  research 
position  in  any  one,  or  more  than  one,  American 
university  or  college,  or  in  a  professional  school 
of  similar  grade;  provided,  that  no  person  not 
having  teadiing  or  research  for  his  principal 
occupation,  and  no  administrative  officer  not 
giving  a  substantial  amount  of  instruction,  shall 
be  eligible.  For  the  ^idance  of  the  council  in 
acting  upon  nominations,  it  was  voted,  upon 
motion  of  Professor  Janeway,  that  "it  is  the 
sense  of  this  meeting  that  the  association  shall 
be  composed  of  college  and  uniyersi^  teachers 
of  recognized  scholarship  or  sdentinc  produc- 
tivity." In  an  introductory  address  Prof.  John 
Dewey  discussed  the  purposes  of  the  proposed 
association.  He  said:  "We  are  in  a  period  of 
intense  and  rapid  growth  of  higher  education. 
No  minister  of  piiblic  education  controls  the 
growth;  there  is  no  common  educational  legis- 
lature to  discuss  and  decide  its  proper  course; 
no  single  tribunal  to  which  moot  questions  may 
be  brought.  There  are  not  even  long-established 
traditions  to  guide  the  expansive  growth. 
Whatever  unity  is  found  is  due  to  the  pressure 
of  like  needs,  the  influence  of  institutional  imi- 
tation and  rivalry,  and  to  informal  exchange  of 
experience  and  ideas.  These  methods  have  ac- 
complished great  things.  Within  almost  a  sin- 
gle generation  our  higher  education  has  under- 
gone a  transformation  amounting  to  a  revolu- 
tion. And  I  venture  to  say  that,  in  spite  of  the 
deficiencies  we  so  freely  deplore,  no  country  has 
at  any  time  accomplished  more  in  the  same 
number  of  years.  .  .  .  The  need  of  a  voluntary 
organization  is  the  greater  because  of  certain 
facts  in  the  history  of  the  American  university. 
The  rapid  growth  already  referred  to  has  oc- 
curred imder  a  machinery  designed  for  very  dif- 
ferent conditions.  We  are  doing  our  educa- 
tional work  under  methods  of  control  developed 
decades  ago,  before  anything  like  the  existing 
type  of  university  was  thought  of.  Our  official 
methods  of  fixing  fundamental  educational  pol- 
ity as  well  as  of  recruiting,  appointing,  promot- 
ing, and  dismissing  teachers,  are  an  inheritance 
from  bygone  conditions.  Their  lack  of  adapta- 
tion to  the  present  situation  is  due  not  to  sin- 
ister intent,  but  to  the  fact  that  they  are  a  heri- 
tage from  colonial  days  and  provincial  habits. 
The  wonder  is  not  that  there  is  so  much  rest- 


lesancas  and  friction,  but  that  there  is  not  more. 
A  irjrBtem  inherently  absurd  in  the  present  sit- 
uation has  been  made  workable  because  of  the 
reasonableness  and  good  will  of  the  governors  on 
one  side  and,  even  more,  of  the  governed  on  the 
other.  .  .  .  Let  me  add  that  I  can  think  of  noth- 
ing so  well  calculated  to  lift  discussions  of 
educational  defects  and  possibilities  from  the 
plane  of  emotion  to  that  of  intelligence  as  the 
existence  of  a  truly  representative  body  of  pro- 
fessors. The  best  way  to  put  educational  prin- 
ciples where  they  belong — ^in  the  atmosphere  of 
scientific  discussion — ^is  to  disentangle  them 
from  the  local  circumstances  with  which  they 
so  easily  get  bound  up  in  a  given  institution. 
So  to  free  them  is  already  to  have  taken  a  step 
in  their  generalization.  The  very  moment  we 
free  our  perplexities  from  their  local  setting 
they  perforce  fall  into  a  truer  perspective.  Pas- 
sion, prejudice,  partisanship,  cowardice,  and 
truculenoe  alike  tend  to  be  eliminated,  and  im- 
partial and  objective  considerations  to  come  to 
the  front.  The  very  existence  of  a  recognized 
free  forum  of  discussion  with  one's  fellows  gath- 
ered from  all  parts  of  the  country  will  make 
for  sanity  and  steadiness  quite  as  much  as  for 
courage."  Newspaper  reports  had  frequently 
asserted  that  the  purpose  of  the  association  was 
to  safeguard  the  cause  of  academic  freedom. 
Professor  Dewey  maintained  that  cases  of  in- 
fringement upon  the  rights  of  instructors  were 
"too  rare  to  demand  or  even  suggest  the  forma- 
tion of  an  association.  Existing  learned  socie- 
ties are  already  disposed  to  deal  with  cases  of 
infringement  as  they  may  come  to  light.  The 
existence  of  publicly  recognized  and  enforced 
standards  would  tend  almost  automatically  to 
protect  the  freedom  of  the  individual  and  to  se* 
cure  institutions  against  this  abuse." 

Benefactions.  Ihe  aggregate  of  gifts  and 
bequests,  including  grants,  of  the  different  cit- 
ies and  municipalities  reported  for  the  year 
1913-14,  is  $26,670,017,  an  increase  of  $2,018,- 
059  over  the  previous  year.  Of  this  amount 
$4,598,372  was  designated  for  increase  of  plant, 
$3,648,780  for  current  expenses,  and  the  re- 
mainder, $18,422,856,  for  endowment.  Forty- 
five  institutions  reported  gifts  above  $100,000. 
During  1915  the  following  mstitutions  have  an- 
nounceid  gifts  and  bequests:  Barnard  College, 
$500,000,  by  Mr.  Jacob  H.  Schiff,  for  a  studenU' 
building;  University  of  Buffalo,  property  worth 
$140,000,  by  Women's  Educational  and  Indus- 
trial Union;  University  of  Cincinnati,  $250,000, 
by  Mrs.  Mary  M.  Kmory  for  a  Medical  College 
Building,  contingent  upon  raising  of  additional 
$250,000,  which  was  accomplished  by  July  Ist; 
Cornell  University,  $100,000,  bv  George  F.  Baker, 
for  dormitory;  Delaware  College,  $500,000  by 
one  who  refused  to  divulge  his  name;  Harvard 
University,  $150,000,  by  will  of  Mrs.  Eunice 
Melles  Hudson,  to  found  a  professorship  in 
ArchflDology;  $250,000,  by  Mr.  James  J.  Hill  and 
others,  for  establishment  of  instruction  in  scien- 
tific railroading;  $100,000  by  will  of  James  J. 
Myers;  Harvard  College  Observatory,  $150,000, 
by  will  of  Mrs.  Mary  Anna  Palmer;  University 
of  Illinois,  $215,000,  by  Capt.  Thomas  J.  Smith; 
Illinois  Weslepran  University,  $200,000,  from 
Mrs.  Martha  Buck;  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  two  anonymous  gifts  of  $150,000 
and  $100,000,  for  dormitories;  Miami  Univer- 
sity, $270,000,  by  will  of  Mrs.  Laura  L.  Ogden 
Whaling;  Middlebury  College,  $200,000,  by  Bar- 


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RAY  LYMAN  WILBUR,  A.M.,   M.D 
Pretident  Leiand  Stanford  Jr   University 


Tritf   htuvurtjf-d  JUSnffl  A.    tyiULrlf,    b  J. 

Preaident  of  Fordham  Univera'ty 


HENRY  SUZALLO.   Ph.D. 
President  Untveraity  of  Washington 


EDWARD  C.  ELLIOTT,  Ph.D. 
Chancellor  University  of  Montana 


FOUR  EDUCATORS  PROMINENT  IN  m5 


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TTNIVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEaSS 


686 


UJNIVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEaBS 


ton  A.  Hepburn,  for  men's  dormitory;  North- 
western, estate  valued  at  $1,006,000,  by  will  of 
Jobn  R.  Lindgren;  Oberlin  Coll^^e,  $3,000,000, 
by  will  of  Charles  M.  Hall;  $165,000,  by  Mrs.  D. 
F.  Allen,  for  erection  of  an  art  building ;  Pomona 
College,  complete  endowment  fund  of  $1,000,000; 
Princeton  University,  $125,000,  from  Mrs.  Wil- 
liam Church  Osborn  to  establish  Dodge  pro- 
fessorship of  mediaval  history;  $100,000  from 
anonymous  giver  to  endowment  of  professorship 
in  economics;  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Yale 
University,  $100,000,  by  Frederick  W.  Vander- 
bilt;  $100,000,  by  graduate  of  class  of  1887;  Sim- 
mons College,  $100,000,  by  will  of  Miss  Helen 
Collamore;  Stevens  Institute,  $100,000,  by  Wil- 
liam Hall  Walker,  for  laboratory  of  mechanical 
arts;  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
$500,000,  by  will  of  Miss  Grace  Hoadley  Dodge; 
University  of  Virginia,  $100,000,  from  John  B. 
Cobb,  for  a  new  laboratory;  Wellesley  College, 
completed  endowment  fund  of  $2,000,000;  Yale 
University,  about  $1,000,000,  by  will  of  Justus 
S.  Hotchkiss;  an  amount  estimated  from  $750,- 
000  to  $1,500,000,  by  will  of  Gen.  Brayton  Ives; 
$350,000  for  Anna  M.  R.  Lauder  Memorial 
Foimdation,  School  of  Medicine;  Yale  College, 
$150,000,  from  Charles  H.  Pine  for  scholarship 
fund. 

The  Carnegie  Foundation  fob  the  Advance- 
ment OF  Teaching.  The  ninth  annual  report  of 
the  president  and  the  treasurer  of  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching, 
for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1914,  shows  a  total 
endowment  of  $14,250,000,  a  surplus  of  $1,245,- 
000,  an  annual  income  of  $746,000,  and  an  an- 
nual expenditure  of  $716,000.  Of  this  $32,000 
was  spent  in  administration,  $47,000  in  educa- 
tional inquiry  and  $634,000  in  retiring  allow- 
ances and  pensions.  During  the  year  29  retir- 
ing allowances  and  15  widows^  pensions  were 
granted,  the  average  grant  being  $1648.  The 
total  number  of  allowances  now  in  force  is  332, 
the  total  number  of  widows'  pensions  100,  the 
general  average  grant  being  $1594.  The  total 
number  of  allowances  granted  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  foundation  is  595,  the  total  expendi- 
ture for  this  purpose  being  ^,551,000.  The  Di- 
\'ision  of  Educational  Inquiry  reported  three 
extensive  studies  in  hand:  First,  the  study  of 
legal  education,  undertaken  at  the  request  of  a 
committee  of  the  American  Bar  Association. 
The  requirements  and  examinations  for  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  in  each  of  our  States  were 
studied  at  first  hand  and  each  of  the  separate 
institutions  that  are  teaching  law  throughout 
the  country  has  been  or  will  be  visited.  Second, 
a  comprehensive  study  of  engineering  educa- 
tion, undertaken  at  the  request  of  a  joint  com- 
mittee representing  the  six  national  engineering 
societies.  Special  studies  were  made  of  the 
situation  of  the  student  upon  entering  and  upon 
leaving  his  engineering  studies.  Several  thou- 
sand engineers  are  coBperating  in  formulating 
the  views  of  the  profession  concerning  the  pres- 
ent methods  and  results  of  the  engineering 
schools.  Third,  a  study  of  the  training  of  teach- 
ers in  the  State  of  Missouri,  undertaken  at  the 
request  of  the  Governor,  the  State  Superintend- 
ent, and  representative  educators  of  the  State. 
All  of  the  institutions  providing  such  training 
are  being  studied  in  the  light  of  reports  upon 
the  training  and  status  of  each  of  18,000  teach- 
ers of  the  State. 

Degbebs.    The  567  institutions  reporting  to 


the  Bureau  of  Education  conferred  26,533  bac- 
calaureate, 5248  graduate  and  749  honorary  de- 
grees in  1914.  The  B.A.  degree  was  conferred 
upon  7368  men  and  7331  women,  the  B.S.  upon 
5026  men  and  1069  women,  the  M.A.  upon  1680 
men  and  853  women,  and  the  Ph.D.  upon  446 
men  and  73  women.  According  to  Science^  Oct. 
22,  1915,  556  degrees  of  Docior  of  Philosophy  or 
Science  were  conferred  in  1915.  Of  these  300 
were  in  the  natural  and  exact  sciences.  Eighty- 
five  were  given  in  Chemistry.  This  is  more 
than  twice  the  number  found  in  any  other  sub- 
ject. The  University  of  Chicago  conferred  79, 
Columbia  70,  and  Harvard  58. 

General  Education  Board.  During  the  year 
the  General  Education  Board  announced  the 
following  gifts:  Vassar  College,  $200,000;  Den- 
nison  University,  $125,000;  Pomona  College, 
$100,000;  Rural  Schools  in  the  South— White 
and  Colored,  $146,000;  Farm  Demonstrations 
and  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs,  Maine,  $21,000; 
Farm  Demonstrations  and  Boys*  and  Girls* 
Clubs,  New  Hampshire,  $10,000;  Carlton  Col- 
lege, $100,000;  Hobart  College,  $50,000;  Lafay- 
ette College,  $200,000;  Kalamazoo  College,  $25,- 
000;  Hampton  Institute,  $25,000;  University  of 
Chicago,  $75,000;  Stevens  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, $250,000.  At  the  June  meeting  of  the 
Board  it  was  resolved  to  enter  the  field  of  edu- 
cational investigation,  research,  and  experiment 
by  assisting  research  workers  connected  with 
institutions  of  learning,  in  addition  to  support- 
ing independent  investigators  and  experiments. 
In  accordance  with  this  resolution  appropria- 
tions have  been  made  for  studying  the  school 
system  of  Gary,  Ind.,  for  investigating  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  in  high  schools,  investigation  in 
beginning  reading,  study  of  the  Hampton  Insti- 
tute system,  and  several  other  projects. 

New  Presidents.  During  1015  the  following 
college  presidents  were  elected :  Frank  D.  Blodg- 
ett,  head  of  the  department  of  pedagogy,  One- 
onta  Normal  School,  was  made  president  of 
Adelphi  College;  Dr.  J.  W.  Cantwell  was  elected 
president  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Stillwater, 
Okla.;  Dr.  Harry  Means  Crooks,  president  of 
Albany  College,  Oregon,  was  made  president  of 
Alma  College,  Alma,  Mich.;  John  G.  Bowman, 
formerly  president  of  University  of  Iowa,  was 
elected  director  of  the  American  College  of 
Surgeons;  Dr.  Rufus  Von  Kleiss  Smid  was  made 
president  of  University  of  Arizona;  Dr.  Charles 
Wesley  Flint  was  elected  president  of  Cornell 
College,  Iowa;  Dr.  Charles  A.  Prosser  was  made 
director  of  the  William  Hood  Dunwoody  Insti- 
tute of  Minneapolis;  Dr.  John  Balcom  Shaw  was 
elected  president  of  Elmira  College;  Rev.  Joseph 
A.  Mulry  was  made  president  of  Fordham  Uni- 
versity; Dr.  Ray  Lyman  Wilbur  was  elected 
president  of  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University; 
Dr.  Edward  C.  Elliott,  director  of  the  School  of 
Education,  University  of  Wisconsin,  was  made 
chancellor  of  University  of  Montana.  This  is  a 
new  position  created  by  the  last  Legislature. 
The  chancellor  is  head  of  all  State  educational 
institutions,  including  the  State  University, 
Agricultural  College,  School  of  Mines,  and  State 
Normal  School;  Dr.  A.  Monroe  Stowe  was  made 
president  of  Toledo  University;  Dr.  Henry  Suz- 
zallo,  professor  of  sociology.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  was  elected  president  of 
University  of  Washington;  Dr.  Ernest  O.  Hol- 
land, Superintendent  of  Schools,  Louisville,  Ky., 
was  made  president  of  Washington  State  Col- 
Digitized  by  V:r005lC 


UNIVXBSITIBS  AVD  COLLEGES        686 


XTBUGUAY 


lege;  Dr.  Carl  G.  Doney  was  elected  president 
of  Willamette  University. 

TJKIVEBSITY    BTTILBINGS.     See    Abchi- 

TBCTPTBE^ 

XJPFEB  SENEGAL  AND  NIGEB.    One  of 

the  constituent  colonies  of  the  government-gen- 
eral  of  French  West  Africa.  It  extends  from 
Senegal  on  the  west  to  the  northern  part  of 
Dahomey  on  the  east,  lying  north  of  French 
Guinea,  the  Ivory  Coast,  the  Gold  Ckmst,  and 
Togo.  The  estimated  area  is  about  2,500,000 
square  kilometers.  This  includes  the  Saharan 
regions  occupied  by  nomads.  The  area  having 
a  sedentary  population  with  regular  adminis- 
tration (limited  by  the  17th  parallel)  does  not 
exceed  1,000,000  square  kilometers.  Of  the  pop- 
ulation some  1100  are  whites,  almost  entire!}' 
French.  The  number  of  Mohammedans  is  esti- 
mated at  1,405,000;  of  fetishists,  at  5,598,000. 
The  most  numerous  races  are:  Mossi,  number- 
ing about  1,797,000  (chiefly  fetishist) ;  Bambara, 
672,000  (chiefly  fetishist);  Marka  and  Sarako- 
let,  272,000  (chiefly  Mohammedan) ;  Peuhl,  689,- 
000  (chiefly  Mohammedan) ;  Gurinanche,  269,- 
000  (fetishist);  Bobo,  270,000  (fetishist).  The 
capital  is  Bamako,  the  latest  reported  population 
of  which  is  7052;  other  important  towns  are 
Ouagadougou,  19,332;  Kayes,  8952;  S^gou,  8405; 
Sikasso,  7408;  Timbuctoo,  6699;  Djenn«,  6699; 
Koudougou,  7052;  Bondoukuy,  6310;  Bobo- 
Dioulasso,  about  5000.  Grazing  and  agriculture 
are  practiced.  The  natives  raise  large  numbers 
of  cattle,  camels,  horses,  donkeys,  and  ostriches. 
Principal  crops  include  rice,  corn,  groundnuts, 
millet,  manioc,  and  tobacco.  Cotton  also  is 
cultivated,  and  the  natives  are  clever  in  manu- 
facturing cotton  cloth.  The  forests  yield  rub- 
ber, gums,  and  valuable  timber.  Imports  and 
exports  by  way  of  Senegal  were  valued  at  17,- 
606,305  and  2,918,846  francs  in  1911;  in  1912, 
9,803,799  and  3,422,410.  Importations  from  the 
United  Kingdom  amounted  to  3,171,706  francs 
in  1912;  otherwise  the  trade  is  almost  wholly 
with     France.    Principal     exports     in      1912: 

groundnuts,  1,049,442  francs;  rubber,  866,087; 
ard  gums,  555,813;  corozo  nuts,  358,290.  There 
is  also  a  considerable  trade  by  way  of  French 
Guinea,  the  Ivoiy  Coast,  the  Sahara,  etc.  A 
railway  extends  from  Kayes  to  Koulikoro,  553 
kilometers;  it  reaches  the  Niger  at  Bamako, 
kilometer  496.  At  kilometer  10  there  is  a 
branch  of  2  kilometers  to  M^dine.  Westerly 
from  Kayes  a  railway  extends  to  Ambidedi,  44 
kilometers.  Revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 
colony  in  1911,  8,963,342  and  8,616,963  francs 
respectively;  in  1912,  8,887,978  and  8,197,027. 
The  colony  is  administered  by  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  under  the  Governor-General  of  French 
West  Africa. 

TTBANITE.     See  Minbbalogt. 

TTRANTUM.    See  Cheicibtbt,  Industbial. 

ITBirGXrAY.  A  South  American  republic, 
bordering  the  Atlantic  and  the  Rfo  de  la  Plata, 
and  boimded  inland  by  Brazil  and  Argentina — 
officially  La  Rep4bUoa  Oriental  del  Uruguay. 
The  capital  is  Montevideo. 

Abka  and  Population.  According  to  a  recent 
planimetrie  calculation,  the  area  of  the  19  de- 
partments comprising  Uruguay  is  178,700  square 
kilometers  (68,996  square  miles).  The  area  is 
commonly  stated,  however,  at  186,925  square 
kilometers  (72,172  square  miles).  Uruguay  is 
the  smallest  of  the  South  American  republics,  but 
its  area  is  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  New  Hamp- 


shire, Vermont,  New  York,  and  Connecticut  (73,- 
074  square  miles),  or  of  non-Prussian  Grennany 
(74,161  square  miles).  The  census  of  Oct  12, 
1908,  returned  a  population  of  1,042,688  (530,- 
508  males,  512,178  females) ;  estimate  of  Dec. 
31,  1913,  1,315,714.  It  seems  not  unlikely  that 
the  latter  figure  somewhat  exaggerates  the  actual 
number  of  inhabitants  at  the  end  of  1913.  Of 
the  total  in  1908,  82.52  per  cent  were  natives, 
and  17.38  per  cent  foreign-bom.  The  foreigners 
included  62,357  Italians,  54,885  Spaniards,  27,- 
789  Brazilians,  and  18,600  Argentines.  In  1908 
the  city  of  Montevideo  had  291,465  inhabitants; 
its  population  at  the  end  of  1914  was  estimated 
at  about  374,000.  Paysandti  had,  in  1908,  20,953 
inhabitants;  Salto,  19,788;  Mercedes,  15,667; 
Minas,  13,345;  Melo,  12,355;  San  Jos^  12,297; 
Rocha,  12,200.  Marriages  in  1913  and  1914,  re- 
spectively, 7330  and  6073;  births  (including  still 
births),  40,315  and  38,571;  deaths  (including 
still  births),  15,374  and  15,350;  still  births, 
1463  and  1283;  excess  of  births,  24,941  and  23,- 
221;  arrivals,  261,148  and  264,232;  departures, 
232,644   and   251,098.     Of  the   living  births  in 

1912,  about  26  per  cent  were  illegitimate. 
Illiteracy,  though  common,  is  not  so  prevalent 

as  in  many  other  parts  of  South  America.  Pri- 
mary instruction  is  nominally  compulsory.    In 

1913,  public  primary  schools  numbered  976,  with 
an  enrollment  of  91,746  pupils;  there  were  also 
238  private  schools,  with  21,874  pupils.  Public 
primary  schools  in  1914  numbered  995,  with 
02,902  pupils.  Rural  public  primary  schools  in 
1913,  730;  in  1914,  765.  There  are  several  sec- 
ondary, normal,  and  special  schools,  and  at  Mon- 
tevideo a  university  with  faculties  of  mathe- 
matics, social  sciences,  law,  medicine,  veterinary 
medicine,  agriculture,  and  commerce. 

INDUSTBIES  AND  COMMERCE.  The  chief  source 
of  wealth  is  the  grazing  industry.  In  the  num- 
ber of  sheep,  Uruguay  is  seventh  among  the 
countries  of  the  world;  but  in  the  average  num- 
ber of  sheep  per  square  mile,  Uruguay  is  first. 
Without  minimizing  the  importance  of  stock 
farming,  the  government  realizes  that  the  essen- 
tial requirement  of  permanent  national  pros- 
perity is  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  hence  it  en- 
courages agricultural  endeavor;  in  1915  the  Con- 
gress authorized  the  President  to  expend  100,000 
pesos  for  seed  wheat  to  be  resold  to  farmers  at 
cost. 

In  1900  and  1908  (year  of  the  last  live  stock 
census),  horses  numbered  561,408  and  656,307, 
respectively;  mules  and  asses,  22,992  and  22,- 
099;  cattle,  6,827,428  and  8,192,602  (milch  cows 
in  1906,  565,854);  sheep,  18,608,717  and  26,- 
286,296;  goats,  20,428  and  19,951;  swine,  93,923 
and  180,099.  Domestic  fowls,  etc.,  in  1908  num- 
bered 3,386,397,  including  242,182  common  and 
690  African  ostriches. 

Below  are  shown  the  area,  in  hectares,  of  cereal 
crops  and  of  linseed,  the  production  in  metric 
quintals,  and  the  yield  per  hectare  in  the  crop 
year  1913-14: 

HBetaret  Qtdntals  Qt. 

1918-14   1914-16  1918-14  1914-15    ha. 

Wheat    868,846  815.000  1.602,277  980,000  4.8 

Corn     280,284  845,000  1.814.229  2,920,000  6.5 

Oats    39,484     88.581  266,580  150,890  6.8 

Barley     5,686        1,782  35,846  8,019  iS.3 

Rye 184             89  1,179  812  6.4 

Linseed     51,894     40,000  244,515  140.000  4.7 

The  foregoing  figures  for  1914-15  are  pre- 
liminary. 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


UBUOUAY 


687 


UTAH 


Imports  of  merchandise  for  congumption  and 
exports  of  domestic  produce  have  been  reported 
as  follows,  in  thousands  of  pesos  (par  value  of 
peso,  $1.03424) : 

1908  1909  1910  1911  1919  1918 
Imports  ..87.466  87,167  40,814  44,798  49,880  62,600 
Exports   .  .40,341  46,109  41.023  44.687  68.042  67,600 

In  1912,  about  nine-tenths  of  the  export  value 
represented  produce  of  the  grazing  and  meat 
industry.  Authentic  detliils  for  the  commerce 
of  1913  are  not  yet  available.  A  law  of  1916 
prohibits,  during  the  sreat  war,  the  exportation 
of  many  articles,  including  metals  and  metal 
manufactures,  medicines  and  industrial  chemi- 
cals, and  coloring  materials,  paints,  and  var- 
nishes. 

Shipping  entered  in  1914  totaled  13,641  ves- 
sels, of  12,092,482  tons  (of  which,  steam,  8748 
vessels,  of  11,162,926  tons) ;  cleared,  13,569  ves- 
sels, of  12,028,466  tons  (steam,  8702,  of  11,113,- 
766  tons).  The  merchant  marine  in  1912  in- 
cluded 46  steamers,  of  29,562  tons  (net),  and 
165  sail,  of  27,798  tons  (net). 

CoHHUNXCAiioivs.  The  length  of  railway  open 
to  trafOc  at  the  end  of  1914  is  reported  at  2577 
kilometers,  of  which  about  1700  kilometers  were 
operated  under  state  guarantee;  under  construc- 
tion, 266  kilometers. 

Telegraphs  in  1913:  57  offices,  with  4290  kilo- 
meters of  line  and  8600  kilometers  of  wire;  radio- 
telegraph stations,  4,  and  7  on  board  ship.  Tele- 
phone wire  in  1915,  about  38,000  kilometers. 
Post  offices  in  1913,  996. 

Finance.  T}&e  standard  of  value  in  Uruguay 
is  gold.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  peso,  whose 
par  value  is  $1.03424.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1914,  placed  the  revenue  at 
35,142,360  pesos  and  the  expenditure  at  35,133,- 
812  pesos.  The  budget  submitted  to  the  con- 
gress for  the  fiscal  year  1916  showed  estimated 
revenue  of  29,678,000  pesos  and  estimated  ex- 
penditure of  29,477,311  pesos.  Customs  reve- 
nue was  estimated  at  12,500,000  pesos  (customs 
revenue  in  the  fiscal  year  1915  was  11,367,700 
pesos).  The  largest  expenditure  is  on  account 
of  the  public  debt.  This,  at  the  end  of  1913, 
amount^  to  136,298,868  pesos,  consisting  of  the 
foreign  consolidated  debt  of  118,487,935  pesos, 
the  international  debt  of  2,190,500  pesos,  and  the 
internal  debt  of  15,620,423  pesos. 

Abmt.  The  establishment  of  compulsory  serv- 
ice for  all  able-bodied  men  in  the  republic  waa 
under  discussion  during  the  year  1915,  the  basis 
being  service  with  the  active  army  at  the  age 
of  20  to  21,  thus  affording  6000  recruits  each 
year,  in  addition  to  7000  or  8000  professional 
soldiers,  so  that  an  active  army  of  13,000  or 
14,000  men  would  be  formed.  Furthermore,  the 
project  contemplated  the  making  available  of 
160,000  reservists,  that  is  men  between  the  ages 
of  17  and  60;  while  50  batteries  of  475  milli- 
meter guns  each  would  be  established.  This 
would  give  an  army  available  for  defense  of  186,- 
000  men,  284  guns,  a  corps  of  military  aviators, 
fortification  mines,  submarines,  and  destroyers 
for  defense  of  the  coast. 

GovEBNMENT.  The  General  Assembly,  or  Con- 
gress, consists  of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Each  of  the  19  departments  is 
represented  by  a  senator  who  is  elected  for  six 
years  bv  indirect  vote.  There  are  90  representa- 
tives, elected  for  three  years  by  direct  vote.    The 


President  is  elected  for  four  years  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  and  is  not  eligible  for  the  suc- 
ceeding term.  He  is  assisted  by  a  responsible 
ministry  of  seven  members.  President  for  the 
term  ended  March  1,  1915,  Jos^  BatUe  y  Ord6fiez 
(he  was  President  in  1903-07) ;  for  the  term 
ending  March  1,  1919,  Feliciano  Viera. 

HiSTOBT.  Dr.  Feliciano  Viera  was  elected 
President  of  Uruguay  on  March  Ist  and  was 
inaugurated  two  days  later.  The  cabinet  which 
Dr.  Viera  appointed  consisted  of  Dr.  Manuel  B. 
Otero,  minister  of  foreign  relations;  Dr.  Balta- 
sar  Brun,  minister  of  interior;  Dr.  Pedro  Cosio, 
minister  of  finance;  €^.  Segundo  Bazzano, 
minister  of  war  and  marine;  Dr.  Juan  Jos^ 
Amezaga,  minister  of  commerce  and  industry; 
Dr.  Juan  Carlos  Blanco,  minister  of  public 
works;  Dr.  Josd  Espaiter,  minister  of  educa- 
tion. The  budget  for  1915-16  as  recommended 
by  the  President  estimated  the  revenue  at  $29,- 
1)78,000  and  the  expenditure,  $29,477,311.  On 
November  26th  Sefior  Santiago  Rivas  succeeded 
Sefior  Blanco  as  minister  of  public  works. 

On  January  26th  President  Wilson  nominated 
as  Minister  to  Uruguay  Robert  Emmett  Jeffery 
of  Newport,  Ark.,  to  succeed  Nicolay  A.  Grevsted, 
resigned.  Permission  was  given  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  in  April  to  the  National  City 
Bank  to  establish  in  Montevideo  a  sub-branch  of 
their  bank  at  Buenos  Aires.  Americans  felt  that 
this  bank  would  be  a  great  boon  to  American 
trade  in  Uruguay.  Already  there  was  an  en- 
couraging gain  in  the  trading  in  coal,  twine, 
agricultural  implements,  automobiles,  and  elec- 
trical supplies.  Uruguay  appointed  as  delegates 
to  the  Pan-American  Financial  Congress  at 
Washington  Gabriel  Ferra,  Daniel  Fortin,  and 
Pedro  Cosio,  Minister  of  Finance. 

USSINQITE.    See  Minebalogt. 

UTAH.  Population.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was  424,- 
300.    The  population  in  1910  was  373,351. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-16,  were  as  follows: 


Corn     1916 

1914 
Wheat    1915 

1914 
Oats     1915 

1914 
Rye     1915 

1914 
Barley    1915 

1914 
Potatoes     1915 

1914 
Hay    1915 

1914 
aToBB. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  146,000  and 
146,000,  valued  at  $12,656,000  and  $12,666,000; 
mules  numbered  2000  and  2000,  valued  at  $166,- 
000  and  $168,000;  milch  cows  numbered  96,000 
and  92,000,  valued  at  $5,962,000  and  $6,704,000; 
other  cattle  numbered  408,000  and  381,000, 
valued  at  $14,606,000  and  $13,640,000;  sheep 
numbered  2,089,000  and  2,068,000,  valued  at 
$11,281,000  and  $9,306,000;  swine  numbered  112,- 
000  and  98,000,  valued  at  $874,000  and  $1,000,- 
000.    The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and  1914 

Google 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

18,000 

442.000 

$854,000 

12,000 

420,000 

816.000 

820,000 

8,225,000 

7.074,000 

291.000 

7,275.000 

6,266.000 

100,000 

4,700,000 

2,115.000 

95,000 

4,750.000 

2.042.000 

18,000 

202,000 

181.000 

18.000 

228.000 

187,000 

84.000 

1,445,000 

751.000 

82,000 

1,440,000 

720.000 

20,000 

2,500,000 

1.575.000 

20.000 

2.800,000 

1,680.000 

894.000 

985,000 

7,880.000 

406,000  a  1.116.000 

8,598,000 

Digitized  by  ^ 


UTAH  6 

was  13,100,000  and  13,320,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

Mineral  Pboduction.  The  total  production 
of  gold  in  the  State  in  1914  was  $3,265,347,  com- 
pared with  $3,566,229  in  1913.  The  silver  output 
was  11,154,916  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $6,168,660, 
compared  with  13,084.831  ounces,  valued  at  $7,- 
903,240,  in  1913.  Utah  ranks  fourth  in  the 
Union  in  the  value  of  copper  produced.  In  1914 
the  production  amounted  to  152,034,602  pounds, 
valued  at  $20,220,522,  compared  with  161,445,- 
962  pounds,  valued  at  $25,024,124  in  1013.  With 
the  exception  of  1913  the  coal  production  of  1914 
was  higher  than  any  other  previous  year.  The 
production  in  1914  was  3,103,036  short  tons, 
valued  at  $4,935,454.  This  was  less  than  the 
production  of  1913  by  141,792  short  tons.  Not- 
withstanding the  decrease  in  the  total  produc- 
tion for  the  year  the  amount  of  coal  made  into 
coke  shows  an  increase  of  32,224  tons.  The 
amount  of  lead  produced  in  1914  was  86,662 
short  tons,  valued  at  $6,681,602,  compared  with 
83,063  tons,  valued  at  $7,309,579  in  1913.  The 
value  of  the  total  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $45,624,698,  compared  with  $53,606,520  in 
1013. 

EDUCATioif.  The  total  school  population  in 
1916  was  117,632.  There  were  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools  96,674  pupils,  with  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  79,173.  The  male  teachers 
numbered  719,  and  the  females  2040.  The  total 
expenditures  for  the  year  amounted  to  $4,674,- 
085. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  railway  mileage  in  the 
State  in  1915  was  2364  miles  of  main  track. 
The  railways  having  the  longest  mileage  are 
the  Denver  and  Rio  Qrande,  762;  the  Central 
Pacific,  273;  the  Oregon  Short  Line,  242;  the 
San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and  Salt  Lake,  498 ;  the 
Western  Pacific,  121;  the  Union  Pacific,  75. 
There  was  very  little  railway  construction  dur- 
ing the  year. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  from  all  sources 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Nov.  30, 1915,  amounted 
to  $4,358,004.  The  total  disbursements  for  the 
period  amounted  to  $4,889,893.  There  was  a 
balance  on  hand  Nov.  30,  1914,  of  $1,366,482, 
leaving  a  balance  on  Nov.  30,  1915,  of  $834,953. 
The  principal  items  of  expenditure  include  the 
maintenance  of  the  State  University,  Agricul- 
tural College.  State  Industrial  School,  State 
Mental  Hospital,  State  Prison,  State  Capitol, 
and  State  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind.  Large 
amounts  are  also  expended  during  the  year  for 
State  roads  and  interest  on  the  bonded  debt, 
which,  at  the  close  of  the  year,  amounted  to  $3,- 
060,000. 

Charities  and  Cobbections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  the  State 
Industrial  School,  State  Mental  Hospital,  State 
Prison,  and  the  State  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Blind. 

Politics  and  Govebnicent.  A  State-wide 
prohibition  bill  which  had  previously  passed 
the  Senate,  was  passed  in  the  House  by  a  vote 
of  40  to  6  on  March  2nd.  The  prohibition  meas- 
ure was  vetoed  by  the  Governor,  following  the 
adjournment  of  the  Legislature.  There  was, 
however,  placed  on  the  statute  books  a  law 
modeled  after  the  Webb-Kenyon  law,  imposing 
heavy  penalties  for  the  shipment  of  liquor  from 
wet  to  dry  territorv  in  the  State.  A  law  was 
enacted  requiring  all  mercantile  establishments, 
except  those  handling  food  and  drugs,  to  close  at 


)8  VACGINB  THEBAFT 

6  P.M.,  except  during  the  week  before  Christ- 
mas. The  Legislature  created  a  commissioner 
to  investigate  the  question  of  workmen's  com- 
pensation, and  report  a  bill  for  the  consideration 
of  the  next  Legislature. 

A  threatened  uprising  among  the  Piute  In- 
dians in  Utah  was  averted  by  the  prompt  action 
of  the  United  States  government  in  sending 
Gen.  Hugh  L.  Scott,  chief  of  staff,  to  adjust  the 
difficulty.  The  trouble  arose  through  the  al- 
leged murder  of  Juan  Chacon,  a  Mexican,  on 
the  Piute  reservation,  *by  an  Indian  named  Tse- 
Ne-Gat,  or  Everett  Hatch,  as  he  was  otherwise 
known.  Hatch  was  indicted  by  the  Federal 
Grand  Jury  on  October,  1014,  but  he  resisted 
arrest  and  escaped.  He  gathered  a  band  of 
Indians  and  took  to  the  hills.  His  father,  known 
as  "Old  Polk,"  gathered  another  band  of  50  or 
more  armed  Piutes,  which  joined  Hatch's  forces. 
A  posse  of  20  from  Denver  and  another  force 
from  Salt  Lake  City  endeavored  to  capture 
Hatch,  and  in  a  fight  outside  of  Bluff,  Utah,  on 
February  22nd,  2  Indians  were  killed  and  6 
taken  prisoner.  One  white  man  lost  his  life  and 
two  were  wounded.  The  fighting  continued  for 
three  days  without  any  advantage  on  either 
side.  Reinforcements  were  summoned.  On 
February  24th  Hatch  escaped.  Commissioner 
Sells,  of  the  Indian  Bureau,  gave  instructions  to 
employ  all  possible  means  to  induce  the  hostile 
Piutes  to  avoid  the  loss  of  more  lives.  General 
Scott,  in  whom  the  Indians  have  the  greatest 
confidence,  was  sent  to  plead  with  them,  and  on 
March  20th  he  returned  to  Bluff  with  "Old 
Polk,"  Hatch,  and  several  other  Indians.  This 
was  accomplished  by  peaceful  means,  and  ended 
the  rebellion.  Hatch  was  tried  in  the  Federal 
Court,  and  was  acquitted  on  the  charge  of 
murder  on  July  15th. 

State  Govebnment.  Governor,  William  Spry; 
Secretary  of  State,  D.  Mattson;  Treasurer,  J.  D. 
Jewkes;  Auditor,  L.  G.  Kelly;  Attorney-General. 
A.  R.  Barnes;  Adjutant-General,  £.  A.  Wedg- 
wood; Superintendent  of  Education,  E.  G. 
Gowans;  Commissioner  of  Insurance,  John 
James — all  Republicans. 

JuDiciABY.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Daniel  K.  Straup;  Justices,  J.  E.  Frick  and  W. 
M.  McCarty;  Clerk,  H.  W.  Griffith. 

State  Legislatxjbe; 

Senate  Hovee  Joint  BaiM 

Republicans    11  28              84 

Democrats     4  9              13 

Progressives     2  18              15 

Socialists     0  1                1 

Republican  majority    ....     5  0  5 

UTAH,  Univebsity  of.  A  State  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  in  1850,  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah.  The  attendance  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1327. 
The  faculty  numbered  106.  There  were  no  nota- 
ble changes  in  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and 
no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  received.  The 
university  is  supported  chiefly  from  income  from 
land  funds,  and  by  State  appropriations.  The 
library  contains  42,690  volumes.  The  president 
is  J.  F.  Kingsbury,  Ph.D. 

VACCINATION.    See  Smallpox. 

VACCINES.     See  Choleba. 

VACCINE  THERAPY.  Occasionally  a  se- 
vere reaction  occurs  at  the  site  of  an  ordinary 
vaccination  to  prevent  smallpox,  and  a  ragged 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


VACCINE  THERAPY 


689 


VAKNUTBLLI 


ulcer  results.  This  is  often  due  to  careless 
scratching  with  dirty  finger  nails,  which  intro- 
duces in  rare  instances,  tetanus  germs.  It  is 
most  frequent  in  children  who  have  ripped  off 
the  protective  dressing  applied  by  the  physician. 
But  in  a  few  instances  it  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  extraneous  organisms,  non-spore-bearing  bac- 
teria. To  get  rid  of  these,  Noguchi  has  carried 
on  a  series  of  experiments  culminating  in  success 
in  1915.  He  has  cultivated  vaccine  virus  through 
60  generations  in  the  testicle  of  the  rabbit,  and 
has  obtained  a  bacteria-free  virus.  The  idea  of 
cultivation  of  vaccine  in  vivo  originated  with 
Henseval  and  Convent,  of  Belgium,  who  carried 
on  similar  experiments  with  the  testicles  of 
bulls  in  1910.  The  cost  of  the  rabbit  vaccine  is 
a  trifle  less  than  that  of  the  calf. 

Vaccine  therapy  in  typhoid  fever  has  recently 
been  reviewed  by  Enunbhaar  and  Richardson  of 
Philadelphia,  and  favorable  results  are  shown 
in  95  per  cent  of  the  cases.  In  a  series  treated 
by  Petrowitch  the  mortality  was  3.2  per  cent,  as 
compared  with  8  per  cent  in  unvaccinated  pa- 
tients. Not  only  is  the  vaccine  useful  as  a  pre- 
ventive, but  Krumbhaar  regards  it  as  a  good 
routine  treatment  of  the  diseased  patient.  Gay 
and  Claypole  suggest  that  a  hyperleukocytosis 
follows  the  injection  of  the  virus,  which  forms  a 
good  theoretical  basis  for  its  use. 

Research  work  of  1915  included  the  prepara- 
tion and  use  of  pertussis  stock  vaccine,  which 
has  apparently  a  high  prophylactic  value  in 
whoopmg  cough,  which  causes  the  death  of  10,000 
American  children  annually.  The  pertussis  vac- 
cine has  shortened  the  duration  of  the  paroxys- 
mal stage  from  40  to  25  days,  and  mitigated  its 
severity. 

Casselman,  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  reaches  the  con- 
clusion, based  on  experiments,  that  vaccines 
should  not  be  heated  over  37  C,  but  that  their 
vegetative  powers  should  be  destroyed  by  some 
method  which  does  not  change  their  immunity 
reactions  from  those  of  living  bacteria.  He  sug- 
gests the  use  of  a  0.25  per  cent  tricresol  solution 
for  24  hours  at  37  C.  

VALFABAISO  TTNIVEBSITY.  An  insti- 
tution for  higher  education,  founded  in  1873  at 
Valparaiso,  Ind.  The  total  attendance  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1915  was  about  6000.  The  instructors 
numbered  218.  There  were  no  notable  changes 
in  the  faculty  during  the  year,  and  no  note- 
worthy benefactions  were  received.  The  library 
contained  about  17,500  volumes.  The  president 
was  Henry  B.  Brown,  A.M. 

VAN  AMBINOEy  John  Howard.  American 
educator,  died  Sept.  10,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia  in  1835,  and  graduated  from  Colum- 
bia College  in  1860.  The  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  of  mathematics.  He  became  ad- 
junct professor  in  1863,  full  professor  in  1865, 
and  professor  emeritus  in  1910.  From  1892- 
1910  he  was  head  of  the  department  of  math- 
ematics, and  from  1894-96  he  was  dean  of  the 
School  of  Arts.  He  was  dean  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege from  1896-1910,  and  in  1899  served  as  presi- 
dent pro  tempore.  He  was  for  50  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  Columbia  University,  and 
for  more  than  20  years  dean.  He  was  a  scholar 
of  the  older  type,  and  through  his  popularity 
and  influence  was  a  strong  factor  in  imiversity 
affairs.  He  belonged  to  many  learned  and  other 
societies,  and  wrote  pamphlets  on  vital  statis- 
tics, life  insurance,  and  similar  subjects.  He 
also  wrote  a  history  of  Columbia  College  and 


University,  and  many  articles  and  addresses  re- 
lating thereto. 

VANDEBBHiT  TTNIVEBSITY.  An  insti- 
tution for  higher  education,  founded  in  1872 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  about 
1000.  The  faculty  numbered  125.  During  the 
year  Dr.  James  F.  Morris  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  and  Dr.  E.  E.  Reinke  was 
appointed  assistant  professor  of  biology.  The 
productive  funds  amounted  to  $250,000.  The  an- 
nual income  to  about  $270,000.  The  library  con- 
tains 58,000  volumes.  The  president  in  1915 
was  Henry  B.  Brown,  A.M. 

VAN  HOBNEy  Sib  William  Cobnelius. 
Canadian  financier,  died  Sept.  11,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Joliet,  111.,  in  1843,  and  in  1866  at  the 
time  of  his  father's  death  was  obliged  to  work 
as  an  office  boy  in  a  local  railroad  station.  A 
year  later,  at  the  age  of  14,  he  became  a  tele- 
graph operator  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad. 
He  was  connected  at  various  times  with  the 
Illinois  Central,  Michigan  Central,  Chicago  and 
Alton,  and  other  imporSint  railroads,  and  became 
known  as  one  of  the  leading  authorities  on  rail- 
road matters.  From  1881,  when  he  was  made 
general  manager  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, until  his  death,  he  was  the  dominating 
figure  in  Canadian  transportation.  Largely 
through  his  efforts  a  great  railroad  system  ex- 
tending throughout  Canada  and  the  Northern 
States  of  the  United  States,  and  a  Pacific  steam- 
ship system  reaching  from  China  and  Japan 
were  completed.  He  was  for  many  years  presi- 
dent and  chairman  of  the  board  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad.  He  resigned  from  the  last 
position  in  1910,  but  remained  a  director  of  the 
company  until  his  death.  After  he  had  com- 
pleted the  larger  part  of  his  work  in  Canada, 
he  turned  his  att^tion  in  the  late  nineties  to 
the  development  of  Cuba,  and  constructed  that 
country's  largest  railway  system.  This  was 
operated  by  the  Cuba  Company,  of  which  he  was 
the  president.  Aside  from  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
his  interests  in  Canada  covered  many  activities, 
including  farming,  forestry,  mining,  and  the 
manufacture  of  paper  pulp  and  steel.  In  all 
these  he  amassed  a  large  fortune.  In  addition 
to  his  activities  as  railroad  official  and  financier, 
he  found  time  to  become  a  practical  engineer, 
electrician,  surveyor,  geologist,  botanist,  painter, 
and  antiquarian,  and  a  student  of  art,  litera- 
ture, and  history.  His  collection  of  paintings 
and  rare  books  was  one  of  the  best  in  Canada. 
He  was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  for  his  work 
in  developincf  railways  in  Canada. 

VANNTJTELLI,  Sebafino.  Italian  Roman 
Catholic  cardinal,  died  Aug.  19,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  the  village  of  Genazzano,  Italy,  in  1834, 
and  was  a  member  of  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished families  of  that  country.  He  was  a 
brother  of  Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  who  was  also 
a  cardinal.  At  the  age  of  17  Serafino  went  to 
Rome  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  there  decided 
to  enter  the  priesthood.  At  the  suggestion  of 
Pope  Pius  IX,  he  entered  the  College  Capranica, 
and  he  here  distinguished  himself  in  various 
branches,  principally  in  philosophy  and  natural 
science,  and  also  obtained  degrees  of  doctor  of 
theology  and  jurisprudence.  He  was  appointed 
canon  to  St.  Peter's,  and  shortly  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Vincenzo,  as  professor  of 
theology  at  the  Vatican  Seminary.  He  resigned 
both  these  offices  in  1864  in  order  to  accompany 

Digitized  by  V:r005lC 


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690 


VENSZtTBLA 


the  newly  appointed  nuncio  to  Mexico.  He  re- 
mained in  that  country  until  the  death  of  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  after  which  he  accompanied 
the  nuncio  on  his  miesion  to  the  United  States. 
During  this  visit  he  conceived  an  admiration  for 
American  people  and  institutions,  which  con- 
tinued throughout  his  life.  On  his  return  to 
Italy  he  was  sent  to  Munich  and  afterwards  to 
Peru  in  a  diplomatic  capacity.  In  1869  he  went 
to  Brussels  as  secretary  to  the  delegate  at  that 
post.  Three  years  later  he  was  sent  to  Vienna, 
and  the  year  following  returned  to  Belgium  as 
nuncio.  While  holding  this  post,  he  achieved 
a  high  reputation  for  tact  and  diplomacy.  When, 
on  account  of  the  education  question,  diplomatic 
relations  between  Belgium  and  the  Holy  See 
were  temporarily  suspended,  he  was  appointed 
nuncio  at  Vienna.  There  he  won  such  popu- 
larly and  dealt  so  successfully  with  religious 
and  lay  controversies  that  request  was  made  that 
he  be  made  cardinal.  At  the  Consistory  held  on 
March  14,  1887,  this  was  done.  In  1893  he  was 
nominated  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Bologna.  He 
was  considered  the  most  probable  successor  to 
the  papacy  on  the  death  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  In 
1903,  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  Bishop  Oreglia, 
Vannutelli  became  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College. 
In  this  office  he  was  the  senior  counselor  of  two 
pontiffs.  After  the  death  of  Pope  Pius  X,  and 
prior  to  the  election  of  the  present  Pope,  he  was 
the  senior  of  the  four  cardinals  highest  in 
Church  councils.  In  1913  both  he  and  his 
brother  retired  to  voluntary  exile  from  Rome. 
It  was  reported  that  this  was  the  result  of  the 
rise  in  power  of  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val,  Papal 
Secretary  of  State  under  Pius  X. 

VASSAB  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for  the 
higher  education  of  women,  founded  in  1861  at 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1120. 
The  faculty  numbered  138.  Prof.  Burges  John- 
son was  appointed  to  the  diair  of  English,  and 
Prof.  Durant  Drake  to  the  chair  of  philosophy. 
In  October  the  college  celebrated  with  appro- 
priate ceremonies  the  50th  anniversary  of  its 
founding.  The  productive  funds  at  the  end  of 
the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $1,641,125,  and  the 
income  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  1915 
was  $349,000.  The  library  contained  about  86,- 
000  volumes.  The  president  in  1915  was  Henry 
Noble  MacCracken. 

VENEBEAL     DISEASES.    See     Pbobtitu- 

TIOW. 

VENEZUELA.  A  republic  on  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  between  Colombia  and 
British  Guiana.    Capital,  Caracas. 

Area  and  Popuultion.  The  estimated  area 
is  1,020,400  square  kilometers  (393,976  square 
miles),  an  area  somewhat  larger  than  Arkansas, 
Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  which  total  389,288  square 
miles.  The  population,  as  estimated  for  March 
31,  1916,  was  2,812,668.  It  is  not  imlikely  that 
this  figure  exaggerates  the  actual  number  of  in- 
habitants. Marriages  in  1913  and  1914,  respec- 
tively, 9863  and  7492;  births,  76,588  and  75,817 ; 
deaths,  62,847  and  51,697;  immigration,  11,536 
and  10,610;  emigration,  10,681  and  9742.  The 
birth  rate  at  Caracas  in  1913  was  24.99,  and  the 
death  rate  38.47.  Urban  populations  are  vari- 
ously estimated.  Caracas  is  supposed  to  have 
about  80,000  inhabitants,  Maracaibo  50,000,  and 
Valencia  40,000. 

Primary  instruction  is  nominally  compulsory, 
but  illiteracy  is  prevalent.     At  the  end  of  1912, 


there  were  1408  schools,  with  45,516  pupils  en- 
rolled, including  118  private  schools,  with  5280 
pupils.  These  schools  are  ofllcially  reported  as 
"one-teacher"  schools.  In  addition,  graded 
schools,  generally  with  six  teachers,  numbered 
62,  with  an  enrollment  of  7099.  The  average  at- 
tendance in  the  one-teacher  schools  was  only 
32,415,  and  in  the  graded  schools  4853.  Of  the 
46,615  pupils  enrolled  in  the  one-teacher  schools, 
21,270  were  illegitimate  children.  The  state  re- 
ligion is  Roman  Catholicism.  The  country  is  di- 
vided into  412  parishes,  with  (in  1912)  477 
churches  and  chapels  and  428  priests. 

PBODUonoN  AND  CoMicEBCK.  Cultivated  crops 
include  coffee,  sugar  cane,  cacao,  and  cereals. 
The  forests  yield  rubber,  balata,  oopaiba,  and 
vanilla.  Large  mineral  deposits  exist,  but  gold, 
copper,  asphalt,  salt,  petrolemn,  and  iron  are 
the  only  minerals  worked  in  commercial  quanti- 
ties. Imports  and  exports  have  been  valued  as 
follows,  in  thousands  of  dollars: 

1905  1910  1911  191B  1918  1914 
Imports  .  .  8,589  12.288  18,895  20,669  18,080  18,987 
Export!   ..18,164  17,949  22,684  26,261  29,484  21,521 

In  the  years  1912-13  and  1913-14,  the  princi- 
pal exports  were  valued  as  follows,  in  bolivars: 
coffee,  78,702,479  and  74,679,745;  cacao,  12,009,- 
555  and  22,804,201;  rubber  and  balata,  12,344,- 
129  and  8,085,729;  hides,  10,668,177  and  10,167,- 
105;  cattle,  1,067,291  and  3,391,579;  gold,  6,- 
131,345  and  2,425,644.  The  coffee  export  in 
1913-14  amounted  to  62,876  metric  tons;  rub- 
ber and  balata,  1743;  cacao,  17,798;  raw  suga.r, 
3163;  tonka  beans,  155.  Trade  by  countries,  in 
thousands  of  dollars: 

Imports  BxpofU 

1918      1914  1918      19U 

United  States 6.944     6,015  8.476     9.879 

United  Kingdom    4.296     2,898  2.208     1.427 

Germany     2,587     1.590  5.564     1.980 

Prance     1,094        778  9,988     6.019 

Total,    including   other  18,080  18,987  29,484  21.521 

In  1914  there  were  entered  at  the  ports  1089 
vessels,  of  1,057,878  tons. 

Communications.  The  country  is  very  in- 
adequately supplied  with  roads  and  railways,  but 
there  are  some  11,000  miles  of  navigable  river. 
The  railways  extend  from  coastal  points  into  the 
interior,  but  are  not  connected  to  form  a  ttysUm. 
In  1914  there  were  12  railways  in  operation,  ag- 
gregating 960  kilometers  (597  miles) ;  5  of  the 
lines  are  national,  and  7  foreign. 

Telegraphs  in  1914,  211  offices,  with  8780  kilo- 
meters of  line;  telephones  in  1914,  6900  kilome- 
ters of  line  and  20,930  kilometers  of  wire;  post 
offices  in  1914,  296. 

Finance.  The  standard  of  value  is  gold. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  bolivar,  whose  par 
value  is  equivalent  to  the  franc,  or  19.295  cents. 
Revenue  and  expenditure  in  the  fiscal  year  1914- 
15  were  60,370,993  and  64,873,598  bolivars,  re- 
spectively. For  the  fiscal  year  1915-16,  the 
budget  balanced  at  39,594,500  bolivars.  Esti- 
mated receipts  included  customs,  10,700,000  boli- 
vars, and  stamps  and  taxes  on  salt,  spirits,  and 
cigars,  14,775,000.  The  larger  estimated  dis- 
bursements were:  finance  and  the  public  debt, 
12,881,744  bolivars;  war  and  marine,  9,535,147; 
interior,  8,895,702;  fomento,  2,563,710;  public 
instruction,    2,252,073.    Public    debt,    Dec.    31, 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


VEKEZUEIiA 


601 


VEBMONT 


1914:  foreign,  112,105,296  bolivars;  internal,  60,- 
631,834;  total,  172,737,130. 

GoYEBNiCENT.  Under  the  oonstitution  bearing 
date  of  June  19,  1914,  the  Congress  consists  of  a 
Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Senators 
are  40  in  number,  elected  for  three  years  by  the 
legislative  assemblies  of  the  several  states. 
Deputies  are  chosen  by  direct  vote  for  three 
years,  one  deputy  for  each  35,000  inhabitants. 
The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  President, 
elected  by  the  Congress  for  seven  years. 

HiSTOBT.  Pr€9idenoy  of  Juan  Oomez,  On 
May  3rd  the  National  Congress  of  Venezuela  by 
unanimous  ballot  elected  Gen.  Juan  Vicente 
Gomez  President  of  the  republic  for  a  term  ex- 
tending from  1915  till  April  19,*  1922.  Gomez 
was  first  vice-president  when  Cipriano  Castro 
held  office,  and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  when 
the  latter  retired  in  1909.  In  April,  1910,  Gomez 
was  elected  President  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
and  in  1914  he  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  V.  Mftr- 
quez  Bustillos.  He  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Venezuelan  army  at  this  time,  and 
held  the  post  till  elected  President  on  May  3rd. 
In  June  and  July  Congress  passed  several  im- 
portant laws,  including  statutes  regulating  the 
transfer  of  real  property,  public  credit,  revenue, 
public  instruction,  certificates  and  official  titles, 
public  registry,  elections,  and  the  tariff.  In 
July  the  government  announced  that  the  imports 
for  1914  totaled  $13,987,465,  while  the  exports 
equaled  $21,520,534.  The  budget  for  1915-16,  as 
announced  in  August,  balanced  the  expenses 
and  receipts  at  39,594,500  bolivars,  or  $7,641,- 
738.50. 

Oollaj^e  of  Revolution,  Late  in  August  ad- 
vices reaching  Curacao  stated  that  the  revolt 
which  had  b^  begun  in  September,  1914  (see 
1914  Year  Book),  in  the  eastern  part  of  Vene* 
zuela  had  been  crushed.  General  Du  Charme, 
the  revolutionary  leader,  was  captured  bv  gov- 
ernment troops  after  a  battle  at  Maturin,  August 
23rd,  and  was  executed  without  trial.  The  revo- 
lutionary movement  had  been  carried  on  under 
the  name  of  Gen.  Jos6  Manuel  Hernandez  ("El 
Mocho")  for  a  year  before  the  Gomezgovemment 
was  able  to  suppress  it  in  August.  With  the  de- 
feat of  the  revolutionists,  guerilla  bands  sprang 
up  in  the  eastern  states,  offering  much  trouble 
to  the  government  forces  and  terrorizing  the  dis- 
trict. 

VEBMONT.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
362,452.     The  population  in  1910  was  355,956. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 

Acreage  Prod.  Bu.  Yalue 

Corn     1916  47.000  2,256.000  |1,895.000 

1014  45.000  2.115,000  1.718.000 

Whe«t     1915  1,000  80,000  82,000 

1914  1,000  29,000  29,000 

Oats     1915  81,000  8,488,000  1,846.000 

1914  79,000  8.858,000  1.847,000 

Rye    1915  1,000  17,000  14,000 

1914  1,000  20,000  16,000 

Barley     1915  12,000  420.000  815.000 

1914  12,000  414,000  810,000 

Potatoes     1916  24,000  2,592,000  2.100,000 

1914  25.000  4,200,000  1,974,000 

Hay    1916  970.000  a  1,810,000  20,805.000 

1914  990.000  1.188,000  17,845.000 

Tobacco     1915  100  h  180,X)00  14,000 

1914  100  170,000  81.000 

a  Tons,     h  Pounds. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  89,000  and 
88,000,  valued  at  $11,570,000  and  $11,528,000; 
milch  cows  numbered  273,000  and  268,000,  valued 
at  $14,742,000  and  $13,936,000;  other  cattle  num- 
bered 170,000  and  167,000,  valued  at  $3,961,000 
and  $3,858,000;  sheep  numbered  100,000  and 
105,000,  valued  at  $590,000  and  $536,000;  swine 
numbered  113,000  and  108,000,  valued  at  $1,164,- 
000  and  $1,404,000.  The  production  of  wool  in 
1915  and  1914  was  571,000  and  589,000  pounds, 
respectively. 

MiNEEtAL  Products.  Stone  is  the  only  impor- 
tant mineral  product  of  Vermont.  In  1914  the 
value  of  the  output  was  $6,635,477,  compared 
with  $7,313,355  in  1913.  The  value  of  the  total 
mineral  product  in  1914  was  $8,665,867,  com- 
pared with  $9,647,985  in  1913. 

Tbanspobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  on  July  30,  1913,  was  1080.  Rail- 
ways having  the  longest  mileage  were  the  Rut- 
land Railway  Company,  the  Central  Vermont, 
and  the  Boston  and  Maine.  There  was  no  con- 
struction of  railway  track  in  1914  or  1915. 

Eduoation.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  in  1915  was  65,095.  The  teachers 
numbered  3018.  The  total  expenditures  for  the 
year  were  $2,325,214. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  July  12,  1915,  amounted  to  $1,876,- 
652.  There  was  a  balance  on  hand  on  July  1, 
1914,  of  $252,721.  The  disbursements  during  the 
period  amounted  to  $1,916,680,  leaving  a  cash 
balance  on  hand,  July  12,  1915,  of  $212,693. 

Chabities  and  Corbections.  The  institu- 
tions under  the  control  of  the  State  include  the 
State  Penitentiary  at  Windsor,  House  of  Correc- 
tion at  Rutland,  Industrial  School  at  Vergennes, 
State  Asylum  for  the  Insane  at  Waterbury,  Sol- 
diers' Home  at  Bennington,  and  the  Vermont 
Sanatorium  at  Pittsford.  There  are  also  10  hos- 
pitals under  State  control.  There  is  no  board  of 
charities  in  the  State. 

Politics  and  Government.  C.  W.  Gates  was 
inaugurated  Governor  of  the  State  on  January 
7th.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  discussed  at 
length  the  relations  and  responsibilities  of  the 
different  departments  of  the  State  government, 
and  their  attitude  toward  the  people.  The  Leg- 
islature on  March  22nd  passed  an  act  providing 
for  eugenic  marriages.  A  fine  of  $500  was  fixed 
for  any  person  who  should  marry  outside  the  re- 
quirements of  the  law. 

In  the  voting  on  March  2nd,  4  cities  in  the 
State  were  gained  for  prohibition;  16  towns  and 
cities  out  of  a  total  of  246  voted  for  licenses. 
On  February  12th  a  bill  passed  the  Senate  ex- 
tending the  franchise  to  women  in  the  town  and 
city  e&ctions,  and  for  presidential  electors.  It 
was  defeated  in  the  House.  The  Legislature 
voted  to  submit  a  prohibition  law  to  the  people 
at  the  municipal  election  in  the  spring  of  1916. 
The  measure  proposed  forbids  the  sale  of  liquor 
even  for  medical  purposes.  A  workmen's  com- 
pensation law  was  passed. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Charles  W. 
Gates;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Hale  K.  Darling; 
Secretary  of  State,  Guy  W.  Bailey;  Treasurer, 
Walter  F.  Scott;  Auditor,  Horace  F.  Graham; 
Adjutant-Goieral,  Lee  S.  Tillotson;  Attorney- 
General,  Herbert  G.  Barber;  Commissioner  of 
Education,  U.  S.  Stone;  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, E.  S.  Brigham — all  Republicans^ 

Digitized  by  VrrOOQlC 


VSBMOVT  61 

JUDiciABT.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Loveland  Munson;  Aseociate  Justioet,  John  H. 
Watson,  William  H.  Taylor,  Seneca  Haselton, 
George  M.  Powers ;  Clerk,  L.  C.  Moody. 

State  Legislatube: 


Republicans 

Democrats 

Progressires 


Senate 

*ffou«« 

Joint  BaOot 

80 

175 
80 
24 

205 
80 
24 

80 


121 


151 


Republican   majority. 

*  Honse  also  had  14  additional  members.  Political 
affiliations  not  stated. 

VEBMONTy  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education,  founded  at  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  in  1791.  The  attendance  in  all  depart- 
ments in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  about  600. 
The  faculty  numbered  about  100.  No  note- 
worthy benefactions  were  received  during  the 
year,  and  there  were  no  notable  changes  in  the 
faculty.  The  productive  funds  amounted  to 
about  $250,000.  The  library  contained  92,000 
volumes.  The  president  was  Guy  Potter  Benton, 
D.D. 

VETESINABY  KEDICINE.  At  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  American  Veterinary  Medical 
Association  held  at  Oakland,  Cal.,  from  August 
30th  to  September  2nd.  1916,  R.  A.  Archibald 
was  elected  president;  V.  A.  Moore,  R.  W.  Ellis, 
A.  Eichhorn,  C.  D.  McGilvray,  and  G.  H.  Hart, 
vice-presidents;  F.  H.  Schneider^  treasurer;  and 
C.  M.  Haring,  secretary.  A  plan  for  reorganiza- 
tion was  rejected  by  the  members  present,  who, 
however,  adopted  a  new  standard  for  entrance  re- 
quirements. The  acquisition  of  an  official  publi- 
cation was  authorized  at  this  meeting,  which 
resulted  in  the  purchase  of  the  American  Veter- 
inary Revietc.  This  publication,  the  oldest 
veterinary  journal  published  in  America,  after 
having  completed  its  47th  volume  was  trans- 
ferred the  1st  of  October,  and  became  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Veterinary  Medical  Aeeodation, 
Dr.  Pierre  A.  Fish  of  the  New  York  State  Col- 
lege of  Veterinary  Medicine  was  elected  by  the 
committee  in  charge  and  accepted  the  editor- 
ship of  the  new  journal,  three  numbers  of  which 
were  issued  before  the  close  of  the  year,  the  first 
from  New  York  City,  following  which  the  trans- 
fer of  the  publishing  and  editorial  departments 
to  Ithaca  was  made. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  emphasized  the 
fact  that  the  meat  supply  of  the  country  can 
easily  be  materially  increased  by  controlling  or 
eliminating  the  common  live  stock  diseases,  the 
direct  losses  from  which  are  enormous  while 
the  indirect  losses  can  not  be  estimated  at  all. 
It  was  conservatively  estimated  on  the  basis  of 
data  for  30  years  that  the  annual  direct  losses 
from  animal  diseases  are  approximately  $212,- 
000,000,  distributed  as  follows:  Hog  cholera, 
$76,000,000;  Texas  fever  and  cattle  ticks,  $40,- 
000,000;  tuberculosis,  $26,000,000;  contagious 
abortion,  $20,000,000;  blackly,  $6,000,000;  an- 
thrax, $1,600,000;  scabies  of  sheep  and  cattle, 
$4,600,000;  glanders,  $6,000,000;  other  live  stock 
diseases,  $22,000,000;  parasites,  $6,000,000;  and 
poultry  diseases,  $8,760,000. 

FooT-AND-MouTH  DISEASE.  The  work  of  eradi- 
cating the  foot-and-mouth  disease,  which  first 
appeared  in  Michigan  in  October,  1914,  was 
pressed  with  great  vigor  under  the  appropriation 
of  $2,600,000.  After  months  of  work  the  out- 
break was  brought  under  control,  its  spread  was 


(2  VETBBIKABY  MBDICnTE 

checked,  and  there  was  a  steady  diminution  in 
the  number  of  cases  until  June  18th,  when  the 
last  herd  known  to  be  infected  at  that  time  had 
been  slaughtered  and  buried  and  the  premises 
disinfected.  On  July  28th,  however,  it  was  dis- 
covered in  Steuben  Coun^,  N.  Y.,  and  seven 
herds  were  slaughtered.  AgaAnf  on  August  8th, 
it  appeared  at  Wheeling,  Cook  County,  III.,  and 
shortly  afterwards  a  diseased  herd  was  found 
in  each  of  the  States  of  Indiana  and  Minnesota. 
In  October  it  appeared  at  Leicester,  Mass.,  but 
by  November  10th,  it  had  been  eradicated  in 
every  State  but  Hlinois,  where  11  counties  had 
been  reinfected  and  the  slaui;hter  of  some  400 
herds  was  made  necessary.  Subsequent  investi- 
gations have  shown  the  outbreak  at  Wheeling  to 
have  been  produced  by  contaminated  hog  cholera 
serum  prepared  in  Chicago  in  October,  1914,  at 
an  establishment  where  the  disease  had  not  been 
known  to  exist  at  any  time.  Twenty-one  States 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  had  been  invaded 
by  the  scourge  up  to  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30th;  162,167  head  of  afflicted  or 
exposed  animals,  distributed  in  3021  herds  on 
2707  premises,  had  been  slaughtered,  of  which 
69,742  were  cattle,  73,674  were  swine,  8742  were 
sheep,  and  99  were  goats.  The  total  appraised 
value  of  these  animals  amotmted  to  $6,243,138.66, 
while  the  disposal  of  the  carcasses  cost  a  total 
of  $166,049.22  and  property  to  the  value  of  $22,- 
168.61  was  destroyed  in  disinfection.  One-half 
of  these  amounts  and  the  salaries  and  expenses 
of  inspectors  were  paid  by  the  Federal  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

The  disease  in  an  exceedingly  mild  form  spread 
rapidly  among  the  National  Dairy  Show  cattle, 
all  but  7  of  the  719  animals  proving  to  be  sus- 
ceptible to  it.  None  of  these  animals  succumbed 
to  the  disease,  although  76  per  cent  of  the  calves 
that  were  born  while  the  cows  were  affected  died. 
While  the  udders  of  many  of  the  cows  were  af- 
fected, but  six  cows  lost  one  or  more  quarters. 
After  thorough  tests  had  proved  that  they  did 
not  harbor  the  affection,  they  were  released  on 
May  3l8t,  having  been  kept  in  quarantine  for 
seven  months  at  an  expose  per  head  which 
amounted  to  several  times  the  average  value  of 
farm  cattle.  The  agricultural  appropriation  act 
authorized  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  re- 
imburse the  owners  of  this  herd  to  the  extent  of 
one-half  of  the  expense  incurred  on  account  of 
the  quarantine,  the  total  expense  not  to  exceed 
one-half  of  the  beef  or  dairy  value  of  such 
cattle. 

Splsitetic  or  Texas  Feyeb  and  Tick  Ebadt- 
CATioN.  The  slogan  "Dip  the  Tick"  was  adopted 
by  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture  for  a 
special  campaign  against  the  cattle  tick,  a  para- 
site which  costs  the  South  more  than  $40,000,- 
000  each  year.  Two-color  posters  were  displayed 
in  every  post  office  in  the  tick-infested  country, 
and  circulars  and  leafiets  profusely  illustrated 
with  halftone  cartoons  and  diagrams  empha- 
sizing the  importance  of  tick  eradication  were 
prepared  for  broadcast  distribution  to  farmers 
m  the  South.  The  work  of  tick  eradication  con- 
ducted by  the  Federal  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  cooperation  with  the  State  authorities 
was  prosecuted  with  vigor  under  an  appropria- 
tion of  $438,800  and  was  making  possible  a  fuller 
development  of  the  cattle  industry  in  the  South. 
With  the  release  on  December  1st  of  12,313  square 
miles,  an  aggregate  of  some  60,000  square  miles 
had  been  released,  making  a  total  area  of  276,- 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


VETEKINABY  MSDICIirE 


603 


VICTOBIA 


782  released  since  the  work  was  commenced  in 
1906,  or  more  than  one-third  of  the  original  area. 
Cattle  dipping  vats  to  the  number  of  6678  were 
in  operation  where  cattle  were  dipped  imder 
Federal  or  State  supervision  to  rid  them  of  ticks 
and  11,268,668  inspections  were  made  of  cattle 
for  ticks. 

Hog  Choleba.  Field  experiments,  demonstra- 
tions, and  educational  and  preventive  work  were 
carried  on  during  the  year  under  the  appropria- 
tion made  by  Congress.  The  use  of  properly  pre- 
pared senim  had  a  pronounced  effect.  Syste- 
matic eradication  work  conducted  in  16  counties 
in  nearly  as  many  States  showed  that  whereas 
178  hogs  in  1000  died  from  cholera  in  1912  and 
169  in  1913,  only  49  in  1000  died  in  1914.  But 
62,690  died  in  these  counties  in  1914,  as  com- 
pared with  approximately  200,000  in  each  of  the 
two  years  preceding.  Tlie  results  of  the  work 
indicate  that  the  eradication  of  hog  cholera  from 
the  United  States,  if  it  can  ever  be  accomplished, 
must  be  a  work  of  many  years. .  During  the 
vear  80  places  were  licensed  to  manufacture  anti- 
hog-cholera  serum  and  hog-cholera  virus. 

DouBiNE.  Gk>od  progress  was  made  in  the 
eradication  work  with  dourine  carried  on  during 
the  year  in  Montana,  Nebraska,  North  and  South 
Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  on  the  Navajo  Indian 
Reservation  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  In 
the  course  of  this  work  52,896  samples  of  blood 
were  tested,  of  whidi  1515  or  2.7  per  cent  gave 
positive  reactions,  most  of  the  positives  coming 
from  other  sections  than  those  covered  during 
the  previous  year. 

TiTBiEBOULOsis.  Studies  of  tuberculosis  in 
progress  for  a  number  of  years  led  the  Federal 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  to  the  conclusions 
(1)  that  its  propagation  among  cattle  depends 
more  largely  on  actual  contact  between  tubercu- 
lous and  healthy  cattle  than  on  any  other  pos- 
sible cause  of  infection;  (2)  that  no  wide  sepa- 
ration between  stables  and  pens  occupied  by 
tuberculous  and  healthy  herds  of  cattle  is  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  latter  against  infectious  ma- 
terial discharged  by  the  former;  (3)  that  a 
thorough  cleaning  of  an  infected  stable  in  pre- 
paring it  for  a  healthy  herd  is  a  factor  of  pos- 
sibly even  greater  importance  than  the  use  of 
disinfectants;  and  (4)  that  tuberculosis  among 
hogs  depends  almost  exclusively  on  their  direct 
exposure  to  tuberculous  cattle  and  to  material 
derived  from  such  cattle,  and  only  very  slightly 
on  the  exposure  of  healthy  to  tuberculous  hogs. 

Anthrax.  In  an  experimental  preparation 
of  an  immune  serum  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  spore  vaccine  for  the  immunization  of 
animals  against  anthrax  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  met  with  considerable  success, 
having  proved  the  effectiveness  of  the  simul- 
taneous method  of  vaccination  beyond  a  doubt. 
The  serum  was  also  found  to  have  a  consider- 
able curative  value. 

Bacillart  White  Diarrhcea  of  Chicks.  It 
was  foimd  possible  by  means  of  the  macroscopic 
agglutination  test  of  the  blood  for  Bacterium 
pullorum  to  remove  infected  fowls  from  breeding 
flocks.  Such  testing  was  successfully  carried  on 
by  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  and  was 
commenced  by  the  Massachusetts  Experiment 
Station. 

Rabies.  A  serious  wave  of  rabies  infection 
of  wild  and  domesticated  animals,  particularly 
of  coyotes,  which  threatened  to  become  wide- 
spread in  the  Northwest,  led  the  Federal  De- 


partment of  Agriculture  to  start  control  work 
m  Northern  California  in  codperation  with  the 
State  authorities. 

Trichinosis.  Further  investigations  led  to 
the  discovery  that  refrigeration  at  a  temperature 
not  higher  than  5**  F.  tor  a  period  of  20  days  is 
effective  in  destroying  Trichinella  8pir€Ui8  in 
pork. 

Scabies.  During  the  course  of  the  work  of 
eradicating  parasites  causing  scabies  15,659,624 
sheep  were  inspected,  of  which  3,790,967  wero 
dipped;  1,264,009  cattle  were  inspected,  and  588,- 
228  dipped;  and  3105  horses  were  inspected,  of 
which  2682  were  dipped. 

Ox  Wabbles.  Investigations  reported  by  Car- 
penter and  his  assistants  in  Ireland  and  later 
confirmed  by  Hadwen  in  Canada  show  that  Hypo- 
derma  hovie  may  enter  its  host  by  penetrating 
the  skin. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  works  published 
were  the  following:  P.  Cagny  and  R.  Oouin, 
BygiMte  et  mdladieg  du  h4ia4l  (2  ed.,  Paris, 
1915) ;  R.  A.  Craig,  Common  Diseases  of  Farm 
Animals  (Philadelphia  and  London,  1915) ;  W. 
EUenberger  and  H.  Baum,  Lehrhuch  der  Topo- 
graphis^en  Anatomie  des  Pferdes  (Berlin, 
1914);  L.  Franck,  Handbuoh  der  iierarztHchen 
QeburtshUfe  (5th  rev.  and  enL  ed.,  Berlin,  1914) ; 
C.  Kunk,  Die  Vitamins  (Wiesbaden,  1914) ;  F. 
B.  Hadley,  The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease 
(Philadelphia  and  London,  1915) ;  E.  W.  Hoare, 
editor,  A  System  of  Veterinary  Medicine  (vol. 
ii,  Chicago,  1915);  G.  S.  Hopkins,  A  Guide  to 
the  Dissection  of  the  Blood  Vessels  and  Nerves 
of  the  Pectoral  and  Pelvic  Limbs  of  the  Horse 
(Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1914);  W.  W.  Keen,  Animal 
Eoperimentation  and  Medical  Progress  (Boston 
and  New  York,  1914) ;  J.  A.  Kolmer,  Infection, 
Immunity,  and  Specific  Therapy  (Philadelphia, 
1915);  R.  Ostertag,  trans,  by  E.  V.  Wilcox, 
Quide  for  Meat  Inspectors  (New  York,  1915) ; 
H.  C.  Redes,  The  Common  Colics  of  the  Horse, 
Their  Causes,  Symptoms,  Diagnosis,  and  Treat- 
ment (3d  ed.,  Chicago,  1914) ;  C.  G.  Saunders, 
Canine  Medicine  and  Surgery  (Chicago,  1915) ; 
R.  Schmaltz,  Atlas  de  Anatomie  des  Pferdes 
(part  3,  Berlin,  1914) ;  F.  8.  Schoenleber  and 
R.  R.  Dykstra,  Castration  of  Domesticated  Ani- 
mals (New  York,  1915) ;  S.  Sisson,  The  Anatomy 
of  the  Domestic  Animals  (2d  ed,  rev.,  Philadel- 
phia and  London,  1914) ;  E.  J.  Wortley,  Poul- 
try Diseases  (New  York,  1915);  H.  Zins- 
ser, Infection  and  Resistance  (New  York, 
1914). 

VICTORIA.  A  state  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia,  bounded  by  New  South  Wales  on 
the  north  and  South  Australia  on  the  west.  The 
area  is  87,884  square  miles.  Population,  ac- 
cording to  the  1911  census,  1,315,551,  exclusive 
of  full-blooded  aboriginals;  1914  estimate,  1,430,- 
667. 

The  capital  is  Melbourne,  which  is  also  the 
temporary  capital  of  the  Commonwealth;  its 
population,  including  surburbs,  was  588,971  in 
1911.  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a 
Governor  appointed  by  the  crown  and  aided  by 
an  executive  council  of  12  members.  There  is 
a  Parliament  consisting  of  two  Houses — ^the 
Legislative  Council  of  34  members,  elected  for 
the  17  provinces  for  six  years,  and  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  of  65  members,  elected  for  three 
years.  There  is  universal  adult  suffrage.  Gov- 
ernor in  1915,  Sir  Arthur  Lyulph  Stanley;  Lieu- 
tenant-Ck>vemor,  Sir  J.  Madden;  premier,  treas- 

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VIBOIKIA 


iirer,  and  minister  of  labor,  Sir  Alexander  James 
Peacodc    Bee  Australia. 

Railways.  The  government  railways  of  Vic- 
toria during  the  year  1915  suffered  from  dimin- 
ished returns  due  to  a  lessened  traffic  and  war 
conditions  generally.  The  causes  assif;ned  were 
reduction  in  schedule  rates  for  starvmg  stock, 
fodder,  and  seed-wheat,  as  well  as  for  military 
men,  animals,  and  equipment  for  the  expedition- 
ary forces  carried  at  one-half  full  rates,  for  in- 
creased material  for  road  making  for  which  a 
low  rate  was  made,  and  an  unusually  large  and 
unproductive  train  mileage  due  to  bought,  and 
the  reduction  in  tonnage  of  freight.  As  the  re- 
sult of  the  decreased  revenue  and  the  increase 
in  working  expenses  due  to  the  payment  of  higher 
wages,  passenger  fares  and  freight  rates  were 
increaised  and  these  higher  rates  came  into  opera- 
tion on  October  Ist,  from  which  an  increase  of 
£260,000  it  was  hoped  would  be  secured.  There 
were  on  June  30,  1915,  3875  miles  of  line  open 
for  traffic  as  compared  with  3835  miles  on  June 
30,  1914. 

Progress  on  the  electrification  of  the  Melbourne 
suburban  railways  was  considerably  retarded  by 
the  abnormal  conditions  due  to  the  war.  Ac- 
cordingly it  was  not  possible  to  give  any  indi- 
cation of  the  probable  date  of  the  introduction 
of  electric  traction. 

HiSTOBT.  In  March  the  Victorian  Rifle  Asso- 
ciation raised  a  special  corps  of  sharpshooters 
for  the  front.  Late  in  April  the  State  of  Vic- 
toria invited  subscriptions  in  London  to  a  loan 
of  £2,250,000  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
railways.  The  money  raised  was  to  be  entirely 
expended  in  Great  Britain  in  the  purchase  of 
supplies.  London  capitalists  subscribed  to  the 
full  amount  of  the  loan.  Difficulties  with  Ger- 
man mining  interests  in  Victoria  in  August 
caused  the  introduction  of  a  bill  providing  for 
the  cancellation  of  all  contracts  with  German 
capitalists  and  the  reorganization  of  several  of 
the  mining  companies  so  as  to  exclude  German 
capital. 

VILKITZSY'S  EXPLORATIONS.  See  Ex- 
ploration; and  PoLAB  Reseabch. 

VILLA,  Francisco.    See  Mexico,  History. 

VIBQINIA.  PoPTTLATiON.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915,  was 
2,171,014.    The  population  in  1910  was  2,061,612. 

AoRiouLTURE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Value 

$42,999,000 

81,898.000 

18,832.000 

12,200,000 

8,094.000 

1,717.000 

944,000 

679,000 

261,000 

229,000 

10.675,000 

6,606,000 

14,886,000 

8,050.000 

18,671,000 

10,288,000 

870,000 

880,000 


Acreage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Oorn    

..1916 

2,125,000 

60,562,000 

1914 

1,921,000 

89,380,000 

Wheat     . . 

..1915 

1,230,000 

16,974,000 

1914 

779,000 

11,296.000 

OtkiM    . . . . 

..1915 

225,000 
191,000 

5,625.000 

1914 

2.960.000 

Rye     . . . . 

..1915 

70,000 

1.015.000 

1914 

58,000 

754,000 

Barley     .  . 

..1915 

12,000 

848,000 

1914 

11,000 

286,000 

Potatoes 

..1916 

140.000 

17,500,000 

1914 

112.000 

7,280,000 

Hay     .... 

. . 1915 

700,000 

a  945,000 

1914 

650,000 

468,000 

Tobacco 

..1915 

192,000 

b  144,875 

1914 

175.000 

118.750 

Cotton     .  . 

..1915 

36,000 

c  16.000 

1914 

45,000 

25,000 

a  Tons,     h  Pounds,     e  Bales. 


Live  Stock.    The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.   1,  1916, 


and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  361,000  and 
354,000,  valued  at  $35,739,000  and  $38,586,000; 
mules  numbered  64,000  and  62,000,  valued  at  $7,- 
680,000  and  $7,936,000;  milch  cows  numbered 
359,000  and  349,000,  valued  at  $14,898,000  and 
$15,182,000;  other  cattle  numbered  472,000  and 
450,000,  valued  at  $13,310,000  and  $12,870,000; 
sheep  numbered  734,000  and  720,000,  valued  at 
$3,597,000  and  $3,240,000;  swine  numbered  1,- 
023,000  and  956,000,  valued  at  $7,161,000  and 
$7,552,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  1,978,000  and  2,063,000  pounds,  re- 
spectively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  total  production 
of  iron  ore  in  the  State  in  1914  was  346,382  long 
tons,  compared  with  492,649  long  tons  in  1913. 
The  marketed  value  of  the  product  in  1914  was 
$719,415,  compared  with  a  value  of  $983,279  in 
1913.  Ilie  production  of  coal  in  the  State  wai 
7,959,535  short  tons,  valued  at  $8,032,448.  This 
was  868,533  tons  less  than  in  1913,  with  a  de 
cline  in  value  of  $920,205.  In  spite  of  this  the 
output  was  greater  than  in  any  year  previous  to 
1913.  The  number  of  men  employed  in  the  coal 
mines  in  1914  was  9183.  The  value  of  the  total 
mineral  production  in  1914  was  $16,400,347, 
compared  with  $17,178,580  in  1913. 

Transportation.  The  total  railwav  mileage 
of  the  State  on  June  30,  1914,  amounted  to  7401 ; 
of  this  3497  was  main  track.  About  185  miles 
of  new  track  was  constructed  during  the  year. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
the  State  in  1914  was  616,168.  The  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  was  427,927.  The  average 
daily  attendance  was  281,976.  The  teachers  em- 
ployed numbered  11,336,  of  whom  9383  were  fe- 
males, and  1953  were  males.  The  average 
monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  was  $60.59,  and 
of  females  $40.66. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  auditor  of  pub- 
lic accounts  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1915,  showed  a  balance  on  Oct.  1,  1913,  of  $482,- 
823.  The  receipts  for  the  year  amounted  to  $7,- 
797,532;  the  disbursements  to  $7,645,357,  leaving 
a  balance  on  Oct.  1,  1914,  of  $635,417. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control 
of  the  State  include  the  Penitentiary  at  Rich- 
mond, State  Farm  at  Lassister  Post  Office,  the 
State  Hospital  at  Petersburg,  the  Eastern  State 
Hospital  at  Williamsburg,  Southern  Hospital  at 
Marion,  Western  Hospital  at  Staunton,  Virginia 
State  Epileptic  Colonv  and  Virginia  Colony  for 
Feeble-minded  at  Madison  Heights,  the  Catawba 
Sanatorium  at  Catawba,  the  Virginia  School  for 
the  Deaf  and  Blind  at  Staunton,  and  the  Vir- 
ginia School  for  the  Colored  Deaf  and  Blind  at 
Newport  News.  In  addition  there  are  several 
institutions  supported  by  the  State,  but  owned 
and  controlled  by  independent  boards.  The  State 
Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections  has  control 
of  the  jails  and  alms  houses. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Henry  C. 
Stuart;  Lieutenant-Governor,  J.  T.  EUyson; 
Secretary  of  Commonwealth,  B.  O.  James;  Audi- 
tor, C.  Lee  Moore;  Treasurer,  A.  W.  Harman, 
Jr.;  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  R.  C. 
Stearnes;  Attorney-General,  J.  Garland  PolUrd; 
Adjutant-General,  W.  W.  Sale;  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture,  George  W.  Koiner;  Commis- 
sioner of  Insurance,  Joseph  Button — all  Demo- 
crats. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals;  Chief 
Justice,  James  Keith;  Justices,  S.  G.  Whittle, 


Digitized  by 


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VIBGIKIA  695 

JoBeph  L.  Kelly,  George  M.  Harriaoii,  and  Rich- 
ard H.  Cardwell;  Clerk,  H.  Stewart  Jones. 

State  Lbqislatube: 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


SenaU 

Democrats     86 

Bepablicani    4 

Democratic  majority. .     82 


Howe      Joint  BaUot 
88  124 

12  16 


76 


108 


VIBGINIAy  Univebsitt  of.  A  State  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  in  1818  at 
Charlottesville,  Va.  The  total  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  1014. 
There  were  100  members  in  the  faculty,  including 
professors,  instructors,  and  assistajits.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  faculty  during 
the  year.  Bequests  and  donations  amounting  to 
$286,790  were  received.  The  endowment  funds 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  amoimted  to  $2,211,- 
472,  and  the  total  income  to  $344,316.  The 
library  contained  about  100,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  £.  A.  Alderman,  D.C.L.,  L.L.D. 

VIBOIK  ISLANDS.  A  presidency  of  the 
Leeward  Islands  colony.  Tortola  is  the  largest 
island  (tnere  are  about  32) ;  Road  Town  (in 
Tortola),  the  chief  town,  had  in  1911,  410  in- 
habitants. Cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  limes  are 
grown. 

1907-8  1909-10  1910-11  1918-14 

Imports     £  7.009  &  7,679  &  8,717  &  8.897 

Exports     5,961  7,519  6.684  7,801 

Revenue    2,885  2,871  6,091  7.886 

Expenditure    .      2,050  2,884  5,964  6.086 

Slupping*     ..    18,796  12,858  12,770  18,195 


*  Tonnage  entered  and  cleared. 


VITAL  STATISTICS.  The  decrease  in  the 
birth  rate  throughout  the  Western  world  has 
been  noticeable  for  years.  In  Great  Britain  it 
was  22.9  per  thousand  during  the  last  year,  a 
decrease  of  3.3  below  the  mean  rate  for  10  pre- 
ceding years.  At  the  same  time  the  death  rate 
shows  an  increase,  beinff  14.9  per  thousand,  1.2 
above  the  mean  for  the  last  decade.  A  compila- 
tion of  the  birth  and  death  rates  in  several 
foreign  countries  yields  the  following  statistics. 
In  1913  the  birth  rate  per  thousand  population 
was  as  follows:  Russia,  43.9;  Bulgaria,  42.0; 
Rumania,  39.2;  Serbia,  38.6;  Austria,  32.6;  Him- 
gary,  36.7;  Italy,  33.3;  Spain,  33.1;  Portugal, 
32.3;  Germany,  29.8;  Holland,  28.6;  Denmark, 
27.6;  Norway,  26.1;  Sweden,  24.7;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 26.0;  Switzerland,  26.0;  Belgium,  23.6; 
France,  19.6.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  decrease 
in  birtii  rate,  however,  the  death  rate  similarly 
decreased  from  East  to  West.  The  death  rate 
per  thousand  population  in  1913  was:  Italy, 
28.9;  Rumania,  24.8;  Bulgaria,  23.6;  Serbia, 
22.1;  Hungary,  23.1;  Spain,  23.3;  Austria,  23.0; 
Portugal,  19.8;  France,  17.8;  Germany,  16.2; 
Belgium,  16.2;  Switzerland,  16.1;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 14.0;  Sweden,  14.0;  Holland,  13.6;  Denmark, 
12.9.  From  the  comparison  of  these  two  series 
of  numbers,  the  following  conclusion  can  be 
drawn.  The  increase  of  population  in  1913  per 
thousand  population  has  b€«n:  Bulgaria,  18.6; 
Serbia,  16.4;  Holland,  16.0;  Russia,  16.0;  Den- 
mark, 14.6;  Rumania,  14.4;  Germany,  16.6; 
Italy,  13.4;  Portugal,  12.7;  Norway,  12.6;  Hun- 
gary, 12.1;  Austria,  11.3;  Great  Britain,  11.0; 
Sweden,  10.7;  Switzerland,  7.9;  Spain,  9.8;  Bel- 
gium, 8.6;  France,  1.8. 

During  the  war  period,  of  course,  the  birth 


rate  has  sensibly  diminished.  The  year  1914 
closed  in  Berlin  with  a  birth  record  which  was 
3600  less  than  in  1913.  The  excess  of  births 
over  deaths  was  6100  less.  Parkee  of  Great  Brit- 
ain estimates  the  total  destruction  of  life  in 
Europe  in  the  two  years  of  war  as  nearly  20,000,- 
000  persons.  The  factors  causing  unfavorable 
conditions  for  the  birth  rate  after  the  war  are 
an  increase  in  the  excess  of  females,  and  the  sur- 
vival of  the  weaker  men,  physically  and  men- 
tally. History  shows  that  after  war  the  birth 
rate  declines,  but  rises  again  in  the  following 
years,  above  the  position  it  occupied  before.  A 
victorious  war  is  followed  by  an  economic  ad- 
vance, during  which  also  fertility  is  increased. 

In  New  York  State  the  infant  mortality  has 
dropped  from  137  to  112  births  per  thousand, 
which  denotes  an  actual  saving  of  over  1400 
lives  annually,  and  which  followed  an  educa- 
tional campaign  of  a  year,  costing  $14,600. 
New  York  City's  death  rate  was  14  per  1000. 
The  mortality  of  children  of  alien  parents  is 
lower  than  that  of  the  native  population.  This 
is  explained  by  the  statement  that  foreign  moth- 
ers stay  at  home  more,  and  are  more  with  their 
children,  and  that  health  authorities  come  into 
more  frequent  and  personal  contact  with  the 
foreign  mothers.  According  to  a  recent  bulletin 
issucSi  by  the  Census  Bureau,  the  total  number 
of  deaths  in  the  26  States  comprised  within  the 
r^stration  area,  for  1914,  was  898,069,  cor- 
responding to  a  death  rate  of  13.6  per  thousand, 
which  is  16  per  cent  less  than  the  average  for 
the  decade  between  1901  and  1906.  Rhode  Is- 
land, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts, 
Vermont,  Connecticut,  Indiana,  Maine,  and  New 
Hampshire  showed  decreases,  while  Michigan 
showed  a  slight  increase  in  the  death  rate.  In 
cities  of  100,000  or  over  the  tendency  is  still  to 
show  a  decrease,  notably  Jersey  City,  New  York, 
San  Francisco,  Denver,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Los 
Angeles,  Pittsburgh,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Lowell,  Mass., 
and  Paterson,  N.  J.  But  from  these  figures  the 
relative  health  advantages  of  different  States 
cannot  be  inferred  without  further  investigation. 
Nearly  18  per  cent  of  all  deaths  were  of  infants 
imder  1  year,  and  more  than  26  per  cent  were 
among  children  under  6  years.  After  6  years  the 
highest  rates  obtained  between  the  ages  of  70  and 
74  for  both  sexes,  a  little  higher  for  women  alone. 
The  death  rate  for  tuberculosis  declined  from 
149.6  per  thousand  in  1912  to  147.6  in  1913. 
The  rates  for  typhoid  fever,  scarlet  fever,  diph- 
theria, croup,  pneumonia  (all  forms),  diarrhoBa, 
and  enteritis  have  shown  a  general  decline  since 
1900;  while  there  has  been  an  almost  continuous 
increase  from  year  to  year  since  1900  in  the 
death  rates  from  cancer,  organic  heart  dis- 
eases, endocarditis,  and  nephritis.  The  rate  for 
cancer  rose  from  63  per  hundred  thousand  in 
1900  to  78.9  in  1913.  Similar  alarming  increase 
of  the  death  rate  from  cancer  is  noted  in  Great 
Britain.  See  also  Statistical  Association, 
American. 

The  following  statistics  as  to  contagious  dis- 
eases throughout  the  world  are  compiled  from 
the  United  States  Public  Health  Reports.  While 
in  many  instances  incomplete  and  misleading, 
they  are  the  best  obtainable. 

Smallpox.  Arabia,  67  cases,  63  deaths;  Ar- 
gentina, 1  death;  Australia,  470  cases,  3  deaths; 
Austria-Hungary,  1436  cases,  260  deaths;  Bel- 
gium, 8039  cases,  14  deaths;  Brazil,  1114  cases, 
414   deaths;    British   South   Africa,   3   cases,    1 


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VITAL  STATISTICS 


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VOLCANOES 


death;  British  Honduras,  1  case;  Bulgaria,  121 
cases;  Canada,  190  cases,  7  deaths;  Canary  Is- 
lands, 3  deaths;  Ceylon,  459  cases,  125  deaths; 
China,  112  cases,  164  deaths;  Cuba,  8  cases,  2 
deaths;  Dutch  East  Indies,  3205  cases,  825 
deaths;  Egypt,  243  cases,  70  deaths;  France, 
"present";  Germany,  03  cases,  2  deaths;  Great 
Britain,  72  cases,  10  deaths;  Greece,  08  cases,  83 
deaths;  Guadalupe,  "present";  India,  1346  cases, 
1164  deaths;  Indo-China,  163  cases,  33  deaths; 
Italy,  0  cases;  Japan,  147  cases,  45  deaths;  Mar- 
tinique, 5  cases;  Mexico,  078  cases,  477  deaths; 
Netherlands,  5  cases,  1  death;  Newfoundland,  1 
case;  Norway,  8  cases,  2  deaths;  Persia,  "pres- 
ent"; Peru,  "epidemic";  Philippine  Islands,  2 
cases;  Porto  Rico,  3  cases,  1  death;  Portugal, 
83  cases;  Russia,  2220  cases,  583  deaths;  Serbia, 
366  cases;  Santo  Domingo,  2  deaths;  Siam,  1 
death;  Spain,  1446  cases,  253  deaths;  Straits 
Settlements,  20  cases,  11  deaths;  Sweden,  1  case, 
1  death ;  Switzerland,  162  cases ;  Turkey  in  Asia, 
423  cases,  127  deaths;  Union  of  South  Africa, 
4  cases;  Venezuela,  "present";  Zanzibar,  7 
deaths;  at  sea,  1  case,  1  death. 

Pulque.  Areentina,  1  case;  Azores,  "pres- 
ent"; Bahrein,  20  cases,  0  deaths;  Brazil,  46 
deaths;  Ceylon,  130  cases,  122  deaths;  China, 
00  cases,  85  deaths  (increasing  40  deaths  daily 
estimated);  Cuba,  21  cases,  0  deaths;  Dutch 
East  Indies,  7017  cases,  6260  deaths;  Ecuador, 
382  cases,  157  deaths;  Egypt,  170  cases,  62 
deaths;  Greece,  20  eases,  20  deaths;  Hawaii,  4 
cases,  3  deaths;  India,  427,381  cases,  347,821 
deaths  (Jan.  1  to  Oct.  30,  1015);  Indo-China, 
501  cases,  385  deaths;  Japan,  473  cases,  390 
deaths;  Mauritius,  00  cases;  Persia,  86  cases, 
82  deaths;  Peru,  557  cases,  100  deaths;  Russia, 

0  cases,  2  deaths;  Senegal,  "present";  Siam,  22 
deaths;  Straits  Settlements,  34  cases,  24  deaths; 
Turkey  in  Asia,  1456  cases,  1064  deaths;  Union 
of  South  Africa,  30  cases,  22  deaths;  Zanzibar, 
4  deaths. 

Choleill.  Austria-Hungary,  2325  cases,  640 
deaths;  Borneo,  71  deaths;  Ceylon,  0  cases,  2 
deaths;  China,  "present,"  10  cases,  0  deaths; 
Dutch  East  Indies,  1630  cases,  1305  deaths;  Ger- 
many, 1203  cases,  231  deaths;  India,  1642 
deaths;  Indo-China,  3461  cases,  1860  deaths; 
Italy,  4  cases;  Japan,  11  cases,  1  death;  Philip- 
pine Islands,  104  cases,  60  deaths;  Persia,  175 
cases,  10  deaths;  Russia,  317  cases,  114  deaths; 
Serbia,  2  cases;  Siam,  24  deaths;  Straits  Settle- 
ments, 160  cases,  118  deaths. 

Yellow  Fever.  Brazil,  6  cases,  3  deaths; 
Canal  Zone,  4  cases;  Ecuador,  6  cases,  4  deaths; 
French  Guiana,  15  cases,  8  deaths;  Mexico,  4 
cases,  2  deaths;  Venezuela,  1  case. 

Typhus  Feyeb.  Austria-Hungary,  11,504 
cases,  12  deaths;  Azores,  "present,"  1  case;  Ber- 
muda, 1  case;  Canada,  1  case,  1  death;  Canary 
Islands,  4  deaths;  China,  15  cases,  3  deaths; 
Cuba,  2  cases,  2  deaths;  Curacao,  4  cases,  1 
death;  Dominican  Republic,  2  deaths;  Dutch 
East  Indies,  423  cases,  64  deaths;  E<Tvpt,  741 
cases,  586  deaths ;  France,  1  case,  1  death ;  Ger- 
many, 564  cases,  11  deaths;  Great  Britain,  41 
cases,  4  deaths;  Greece,  283  deaths;  Guatemala, 
"present";  Italy,  68  cases,  20  deaths;  Jamaica, 

1  case;  Japan,  62  cases,  3  deaths;  Mexico,  16 
deaths;  Netherlands,  1  case;  Russia,  2307  cases, 
201  deaths;  Serbia,  "epidemic"  (500  daily); 
Spain,  13  deaths;  Sweden,  5  cases;  Switzerland, 
8  cases;  Turkey  in  Asia,  72  cases,  30  deaths. 

VI V  ISECTxON.    A   partial   enumeration  of 


the  benefits  of  animal  experimentation  appeared 
in  an  address  by  Landis,  health  officer  of  Cin- 
cinnati. He  showed  that  the  objects  sought  are 
simply  the  prevention  of  suffering,  disease,  and 
death,  and  the  prolongation  of  life  of  man  and 
of  animals.  The  lower  animals  have  been  so 
far  benefited  that  many  diseases  which  formerly 
levied  a  tremendous  toll  of  animal  lives,  are 
now  under  control  or  stamped  out  in  large 
areas.  Anthrax,  which  killed  millions  of  stock 
a  few  years  ago;  pleuropneumonia  (entirely 
eliminated  in  this  country  at  a  cost  of  1(1,500,- 
000),  which  caused  in  England  alone  a  loss  of 
$450,000,000  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  threatened  to  ruin  the  cat- 
tle industry  in  the  United  States;  glanders  for- 
merlv  causing  thousands  of  deaths;  Texas  fever 
which  destroyed  thousands  of  cattle;  hoff  chol- 
era and  bovine  tuberculosis — all  these  diseases 
are  now  understood  and  their  prevention  is 
being  increasingly  brought  about,  and  largely 
through  animal  experimentation.  Turning  to 
the  consideration  of  human  beings,  diphtheria 
in  Cincinnati,  for  example,  was  so  controlled  by 
the  use  of  antitoxin,  that  the  mortality  fell 
from  71  to  12  per  cent.  Had  the  deaths  from 
this  disease  kept  pace  with  the  population  as 
in  the  days  before  Behring's  discove^  was  util- 
ized, 56,345  children  woiild  have  died  in  that 
city  alone  from  diphtheria,  who  were  saved 
through  the  knowledge  gained  by  animal  experi- 
mentation. The  prevention  of  lockjaw  and  of 
hydrophobia  is  aue  to  results  obtained  from 
similar  experiments,  and  likewise  the  control  of 
cholera,  the  plague,  smallpox,  malaria,  yellow 
fever,  and  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis. 
Many  rats  were  sacrificed  to  learn  how  to  con- 
trol the  plague,  as  well  as  a  vast  number  of 
perfectly  innocent  mosquitoes  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  malaria.  In  his  brilliant  and  successful 
work  which  terminated  in  the  devising  of  the 
successful  serum  for  meningitis,  Flexner  used 
25  monkeys  and  100  guinea  pigs.  Childbed 
fever,  in  the  olden  time,  claimed  as  many  as  75 
per  cent  of  the  inmates  of  maternity  hospitals. 
Through  the  results  of  the  animal  experimenta- 
tion of  Lister  and  Pasteur^  the  mortality  now 
is  1  per  cent.  Landis  sums  up  thus:  "All  ad- 
vances in  therapy,  whether  due  to  specific  se- 
rums, vaccines,  antitoxins,  or  drugs,  are  the 
direct  results  of  experiment  on  man  or  animals." 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  See  Educa- 
HON  IN  THE  United  States. 

VOCATIONAL  TSAININQ,  Federal  Aid 
FOB.  See  Education  in  the  United  States, 
section  so  entitled. 

VODKA.    See  Russia. 

VOISINS-SEQALEN-LABTIQUE  EXPE- 
DITION.    See  Exploration,  Asia. 

VOLGANISM.    See  Gboloot. 

VOLCANOES.  The  continued  manifestations 
of  activity  by  Lassen  Peak,  which  suddenly 
broke  out  in  eruption  on  May  30,  1914,  attracted 
much  attention  during  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1915,  when  they  assumed  a  rather  violent 
phase.  No  lava  was  ejected,  but  large  amounts 
of  ash  and  clouds  of  vapor  gave  a  formidable 
aspect  to  the  rejuvenated  volcano  which  long 
had  been  thought  to  be  extinct.  On  May  19, 
1915,  a  river  of  mud  poured  from  the  north 
side  of  the  crater  down  the  mountain  and  into 
Hat  Creek;  it  inflicted  much  damage  to  the 
ranches  in  the  vicinity  and  to  the  government 
forests.    After  this  the  conditions  b^me  more 


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tranquil,  and  it  appeared  that  the  volcano  had 
spent  its  force.  Aa  eruption  in  the  .volcanic 
belt  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  was  brought  to 
lif^t  by  reports  from  the  ship  Paiieraon  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey;  loud 
detonations  and  the  fall  of  ash  were  observed 
on  July  6,  1914,  while  the  ship  was  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Korovin  Island.  The  source  of  the 
disturbance  was  thought  to  be  Pavlof  volcano, 
about  50  miles  away,  which  later  was  proved 
to  be  the  case.  Spasmodic  activity  has  been 
manifest  in  this  section  for  some  time.  See 
Gbologt. 

VOLXTNTSEBS  OF  AMEBICA,  The.  A 
Christian  and  social  organization  modeled  on 
the  United  States  army,  and  incorporated  in 
1896  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Although  ruled  by  military  discipline  and  meth- 
ods, it  is  democratic  in  its  constitution,  which 
was  ftramed  by  a  Grand  Field  Council  which 
consists  of  representatives  of  minor  and  local 
councils  of  offices  elected  annually.  The  Vol- 
unteers in  1916  had  48  homes  and  charitable 
institutions  in  the  leading  cities  and  towns  of 
the  United  States.  During  1915  the  Volunteer 
workers  visited  and  aided  28,362  families,  and 
in  their  charitable  institutions  241,297  free 
lodgings  were  given.  Lodgings  were  paid  for 
by  work  found  for  247,855  persons;  free  meals 
were  given  to  875,000  x>erBons,  and  303,200  meals 
were  given  to  persons  who  paid  for  them  either 
by  money  or  work.  The  Volunteer  Prisoners* 
League  had  enrolled  in  1915  upwards  of  81,000 
members,  had  organized  leagues  in  28  State  pri- 
sons, and  by  means  of  its  Hope  Halls  had  en- 
abled more  than  70  per  cent  of  the  discharged 
prisoners  to  lead  better  lives.  During  1915, 
783,279  persons  attended  indoor  meetings,  and 
1,895,686  persons '  attended  open-air  meetings. 
Nearly  5500  persons  were  converted  at  the  serv- 
ices. At  the  Volunteer  Hospital  in  New  York 
City  there  have  been  2212  ambulance  calls,  11,- 
713  days'  treatment  of  patients  in  the  surgical 
and  medical  wards,  9435  new  cases  treated,  and 
14,298  old  cases  treated.  Large  quantities  of 
Christian  literature  have  been  sent  to  the  State 
prisons,  jails,  hospitals,  soldiers'  homes,  and 
children's  homes.  The  Volunteers  have  also  or- 
ganized different  departments  for  sewing  classes, 
financial  relief,  fresh  air  resorts,  hospital  nurs- 
ing, etc.  The  headquarters  are  at  34  West 
Twenty-eighth  Street,  New  York  City.  The  of- 
ficers are:  Gen.  and  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth, 
presidents;  Gen.  Edward  Fielding,  vice-presi- 
dent; Col.  Walter  J.  Crafts,  treasurer;  and  Col. 
James  W.  Merrill,  national  secretary. 

VON  PAFEN,  Captain  Fbanz.  See  United 
States  and  the  War. 

VOEABLBEBO.    See  Austbia-Hungabt. 

VOTINOy  Pbefebential.  See  Municipal 
Governkent,  Proportional  Voting, 

WAGES.  See  Labor;  Labor  Legislation; 
MiNiHXTH  Wage. 

WALDTEUFEL,  Emile  Chables.  A  French 
composer,  died  Feb.  17,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Alsace  in  1837,  and  at  the  Conservatory  in 
Paris  he  studied  composition  and  the  piano.  Al- 
though successful  as  a  pianist  and  appointed 
pianist  to  the  Empress  Eug§nie,  he  was  chiefly 
known  as  a  composer  of  dance  music.  His  nu- 
merous compositions  for  a  time  rivaled  the  pop- 
ularity of  those  of  Johann  Strauss.  His 
waltzes  were  played  by  orchestras  throughout 
the  world- 


WALES.    See  Great  Britain. 

WALSH,  Blanche  (Mrs.  W.  M.  Travers). 
American  actress,  died  Oct.  31,  1915.  She  was 
bom  in  New  York  City  in  1873,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  and  in  the  New  York 
Normal  Collie.  She  made  her  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  in  Chicago  in  September,  1889,  as 
''Queen  Elizabeth"  in  Amy  Bohaart.  In  the  same 
year  she  appeared  in  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre 
as  "Olivia"  in  Twelfth  Night,  Her  success  was 
pronounced  from  the  beginning  of  her  career, 
and  she  appeared  in  many  plays,  among  them 
Aristocracy,  Trilby,  Secret  Service,  The  Cheat 
Diamond  Robbery,  and  The  Conquerors,  She 
was  seen  first  in  London  in  1897,  in  Secret  Serv- 
ice,   In  1900  she  married  William  M.  Travers. 

WALTON,  William.  American  artist,  died 
Nov.  23,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1843,  and  was  educated  in  the  public  schools. 
He  studied  painting  at  the  Penn^lvania  Acad- 
emy of  the  Fine  Arts,  at  the  National  Academy 
of  Design,  New  York,  and  under  Carolus  Duran 
at  Paris.  His  reputation  was  gained  chiefly  as 
a  painter  of  figures  and  landscapes.  He  wrote 
much  on  sublects  connected  with  art. 

WAB  BOOKS.  See  Literature;  Philoso- 
PHT;  and  works  noted  in  War  of  the  Nations. 

WAB  BBEAB.    See  Food  and  Nutrition. 

WABD,  Edgar  Melville.  American  artist, 
died  May  16,  1915.  He  was  born  in  1838  at 
Urbana,  Ohio,  and  graduated  from  Miami  Uni- 
versity in  1858.  He  spent  the  next  eight  years 
in  Paris  in  the  study  of  art,  receiving  there  a 
medal  for  the  "Sabot  Maker,"  which  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Paris  Salon,  and  was  later  ac- 
quired by  the  French  jifovernment.  Among  the 
works  which  gained  him  fame  before  he  returned 
to  the  United  States  were  ''Paternal  Pride," 
"Blessing,"  and  "Brittany  Washer-women."  In 
1887  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  and  professor  of  drawing 
and  painting  in  the  academy  school.  Some  of 
his  best  known  works  are  "The  Coppersmith," 
"The  Block  Maker,"  "The  Last  Sheaf,"  and  the 
"Quilting  Party." 

WAJOiy  William  Rorebt.  American  archi- 
tect and  educator,  died  June  9,  1915.  He  was 
bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1832,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  in  1852.  From  1860-81  he 
practiced  architecture  in  Boston,  and  from 
1865-81  was  professor  of  architecture  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  same  chair 
in  Columbia  University,  and  held  this  position 
until  1903,  when  he  became  professor  emeritus. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  and  an  honorary  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects.  He  was  the  author  of,  notably,  two 
books — Modem  Perspective  (1882)  and  the 
American  Vignola  (1903). 

WAB  LOANS.  See  Financial  Review,  For- 
eign Credits. 

WABNEB,  Anna  Bartlett.  An  American 
writer,  died  Jan.  22,  1915.  She  was  bom  in 
New  York  City  in  1828,  and  at  an  early  age 
began  writing  under  the  pen  name  of  ''Amy 
Lothrop."  She  was  a  sister  of  the  late  Susan 
Warner,  who  was  also  well  known  under  the 
pen  name  of  "Elizabeth  Wetherell."  She  wrote 
many  novels  and  stories  for  children,  and  a  bi- 
ography of  her  sister.  Miss  Warner  was  the 
owner  of  the  Gilbert  Stuart  painting  of  Wash- 
ington, and  bequeathed  the  portrait  U>  the  corp^ 


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WAB  OF  THE  KATIOira 


of  cadets  at  West  Point,  where  it  is  hung  in 
the  Headquarters  bnildinff. 

WAB  OF  THB  KATIOKS,  The.  The  his- 
tory of  the  war  during  the  year  1916  is  treated 
below  under  the  following  captions  : 

I.    The  War  in  Brief. 

II.      CONTBOVEBSIAUSTS  ON  THE  WaB. 
in.      DiFLOMACT   or  THE   WaB. 

IV.    The  Situation  on  Jan.  1,  1915. 
V.    Miutabt  Operations. 

(1)  The  Allied  Offensive  in  France: 

January-April. 

(2)  Winter  Campaigns  in  Poland  and 

East   Prussia:    January-Febru- 
ary. 

(3)  The    Russians    in     Galicia    and 

Bukovina :  January-April. 

(4)  The  Dardanelles:  February-June. 
(6)  The    Second    Battle    of    Ypres: 

April-May. 

(6)  The  Battle  of  Artois:  May- June. 

(7)  Von  Mackensen's  Drive  in  Gali- 

cia: May- June. 

(8)  Italy's  Intervention:   May. 

(9)  Lull  in  the  Serbian  Operations: 

January-September. 

(10)  Von  Hindenburg's  Drive:  August- 

September. 

(11)  The  Anglo-French  Forward  Move- 

ment in  France:  September-Oc- 
tober. 

(12)  The    Diplomatic    Failure    in    the 

Balkans. 

(13)  The  Conquest  of  Serbia:  October- 

November. 

(14)  The  Battle  of  the  Vardar:    De- 

cember. 

(15)  The  Allies   at   Saloniki:    Decem- 

ber. 

(16)  Montenegro  and  Albania:  Decem- 

ber. 

(17)  Italy's     Achievement:      June-De- 

cember. 

(18)  Failure    on    Gallipoli:     June-De- 

cember. 

(19)  The  Menace  to  Egypt. 

(20)  The  British  in  Mesopotamia. 

(21)  The  Russians  in  Armenia  and  in 

Persia. 

(22)  The  Russian  Army  at  Bay:  Octo- 

ber-December. 

(23)  The   Deadlock   in    France:    Octo- 

ber-December. 

(24)  Conquest  of  the  German  (Dolonies. 
VI.    Naval  Operations.  ♦ 

VII.    AfiBiAL  Operations. 
VIII.    The  Situation  at  the  Close  of  the 
Year. 
IX.    Peace  Negotiations. 
X.    Birliooraphy. 

I.    The  War  in  Brief 

On  June  28,  1914,  the  Austrian  heir-apparent, 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  was  assassinated 
with  his  wife  at  Sarajevo.  Accusing  Serbia  of 
complicity  in  the  crime,  and  alleging  that  the 
anti-Austrian  machinations  of  Serbian  patriots 
menaced  the  Hapsburg  empire,  Austria-Hungary 
on  July  23,  1914,  delivered  an  ultimatum  con- 
taining demands  with  which  Serbia  would  only 
partially  comply.  Despite  the  diplomatic  re- 
monstrances of  other  powers,  Austria-Hungary 
declared  war  on  Serbia,  July  28,  1914.    The  be- 


ginning of  Russian  mobilization,  and  the  refusal 
of  Russia  to  countermand  the  mobilization  or- 
der, were  considered  by  the  German  government 
sufficient  cause  for  declaring  war  on  Russia, 
Aug.  1,  1914.  Two  days  later,  (Germany  declared 
war  on  Russia's  ally,  France.  Preparatorv  to 
the  invasion  of  France,  German  troops  had  al- 
ready occupied  the  neutral  Duchy  of  Luxemburg, 
August  2nd,  and  b^^un  to  invade  Belgium,  Au- 
gust 4th,  notwithstonding  Belgian  opposition. 
The  British  government  r^i^rded  the  (German 
violation  of  Belgian  neutrality  as  a  camA8  heUi, 
and  declared  war  against  Germany,  August  4th. 
Serbia  and  the  "Allies,"  or  Entente  Powers — 
Russia,  France,  and  Great  Britain — ^were  subse- 
quently joined  by  Montenegro  (Aug.  8,  1914), 
Japan  (Aug.  23,  1914),  and  Italy  (May  23, 
1915).  The  "Teutonic,"  or  Central  Powers— 
Austria-Hungary  and  Germany — on  the  other 
hand,  while  they  failed  to  receive  the  support 
of  their  former  confederate,  Italy,  succeeded  in 
enlisting  the  aid  of  Turkey  ("state  of  war"  with 
Russia,  Oct.  30,  1914;  attacked  by  Great  Brit- 
ain and  France,  Nov.  5,  1914)  and  Bulgaria 
(Oct.  14,  1916).  From  the  outset  the  British 
and  Allied  navies  commanded  the  seas,  putting 
an  end  to  German  overseas  traffic  and  compell- 
ing the  German  battle  fleet  to  remain  in  home 
waters  under  the  protection  of  mines  and  for- 
tresses. A  few  daring  German  commerce  raid- 
ers and  the  surprisingly  effective  German  sub- 
marines were  able  to  inflict  considerable  dam- 
age upon  the  Allied  and  neutral  merchant  ma- 
rines, but  not  to  break  the  virtual  blockade  by 
means  of  which  Great  Britain  hoped  to  starve 
out  her  enemy.  The  naval  engagements  in  the 
Bight  of  Heligoland  (Aug.  24,  1914),  off  Coro- 
nel  (Nov.  1,  1914),  off  the  Falkland  Islands 
(Dec.  8,  1914),  and  near  Dogger  Bank  (Jan. 
24,  1916)  were  of  secondary  importance.  The 
military  operations  may  be  briefly  summarized 
as  follows:  (1)  In  the  Franco- Belgian  theatre, 
the  gallant  Belgian  defense  of  Li^ge  (Aug.  4-16, 
1914),  the  stand  at  Mons-Namur-Charleroi 
(Aug.  21-^,  1914),  and  a  French  counter-in- 
vasion of  Alsace  failed  to  stop,  the  onward 
sweep  of  the  German  armies  through  Belgium, 
Luxemburg,  and  Lorraine  toward  Paris.  The 
high  tide  of  the  German  invasion  was  reached 
in  the  battle  of  the  Mame  (Sept.  6-10,  1914), 
after  which  the  German  right  wing  fell  back 
upon  the  Aisne  River  and  extended  itself  north- 
ward through  Artois  and  Flanders  to  the  Bel- 
gian coast.  From  October,  1914,  to  December, 
1915,  the  long  intrenched  battle  line  from  Flan- 
ders to  Alsace  has  remained  almost  stationary, 
although  terrific  attempts  to  break  through 
have  l^n  made  by  the  Germans  at  Ypres  (Oc- 
tober-November, 1914),  again  at  Ypres  (April- 
May,  1915),  and  in  the  Argonne  (July,  1915) ; 
and  by  the  Allies  at  Neuve  Chapelle  (March  10, 
1915),  at  the  Labyrinth  (Jime,  1915),  in  Cham- 
pagne (September-October,  1915),  and  in  Ar- 
tois near  Lens  ( September--October,  1916).  (2) 
In  the  East,  the  initial  Russian  offensive  in 
East  Prussia  was  shattered  at  Tannenberg  ( Aug. 
26-31,  1914) ;  an  Austro-German  counter-inva- 
sion of  Russian  Poland  was  checked  before  War- 
saw (February,  1916) ;  Russian  armies  invading 
Austrian  Galicia  reached  the  passes  of  the  Car- 
pathians earlv  in  1915,  but  were  almost  com- 
pletely expelled  from  Austrian  territory  by 
"von  Mackensen's  Drive"  (May-June,  1916) ; 
and  an  Austro-German  invasion  of  Russia,  un- 


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WAB  OF  THE  NATIONS  01 

der  the  masterly  direction  of  Field  Marshal  von 
Hindenburg,  after  conquering  Warsaw  (August 
5),  Brest-Litovsk  (August  25),  and  Vilna  (Sep- 
tember 18),  was  halted  only  by  the  swamps  be- 
fore Riga,  the  lakes  before  Dvinsk,  and  the 
marshes  of  the  Pripet.  (3)  After  two  impor- 
tant Austro-Hungarian  attempts  to  "punish 
Serbia"  had  failed  (in  August  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1914),  a  new  Austro-German  invasion  of 
Serbia  was  undertaJcen  in  October,  1916,  with* 
the  aid  of  Bulgaria,  and  by  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber Serbia  was  completely  conquered.  Anglo- 
French  forces  attempting  to  interfere  with  the 
conquest  of  Serbia  were  defeated  in  the  battle 
of  the  Vardar  and  driven  back  upon  their  base, 
Saloniki,  in  Greek  territory  (December,  1916). 
(4)  Turkish  armies  engaged  the  Russians  in 
the  Caucasus  region,  invaded  Persia,  repelled  an 
Anglo-French  naval  attack  on  the  Dardanelles 
(March  18),  withstood  Anglo-French  troops  on 
the  Gallipoli  peninsula  (April  25,  1916,  to  Jan- 
uary, 1916),  delivered  futile  attacks  on  the 
Suez  Canal,  and  opposed  a  British  invasion  of 
Mesopotamia.  (5)  The  Italians,  from  May  to 
December,  1915,  advanced  only  a  few  miles  into 
Austrian  territory,  towards  Trent  and  towards 
Gorizia.  (6)  Almost  all  of  the  German  colo- 
nies were  captured:  Kiaochow  (in  China)  by 
the  Japanese  (Nov.  6,  1914)  ;  the  German  is- 
land possessions  in  the  Pacific  by  the  British 
and  Japanese;  Togoland  and  Kamerun  in  Africa 
by  Anglo-French  forces;  and  German  Southwest 
Africa  by  British  South  Africans.  German 
East  Africa,  however,  repelled  the  British  at- 
tacks. 

Detailed  accounts  of  the  events  here  sum- 
marized will  be  found  in  the  Yeab  Book  for 
1914  under  the  Wab  of  the  Nations,  in  the 
present  article,  and  in  the  articles  on  the  Ger- 
man colonies.  Additional  information  bearing 
on  the  war  is  given  in  the  articles  on  Agbicul- 
TUBE,  The  War  and  Agriculture;  Antiseptics; 
Labor,  German-Auetrian  Activitiea;  Militabt 
Pboobess;  Naval  Pboobess;  Sociausm;  in  the 
sections  entitled   History  under   Atjstbia-Htjn- 

OABT,      BtTLGABIA,      FRANCE,      GeBMANT,      GbEAT 

Bbttain,  Gbeece,  Italy,  Russia,  Txtbkey; 
United  States  and  the  Wab;  and  in  the 
biographical  articles  on  conspicuous  generals 
and  statesmen. 

II.      OONTBOVEBSIALISTS    ON    THE    WaB 

Less  sanguinary  than  the  battles  in  the 
trenches,  but  hardly  less  fiercely  contested,  was 
the  wordy  conflict  waged  between  "pro-German" 
and  "pro-Ally"  controversialists.  Journalists 
like  Dr.  £.  J.  Dillon,  sober  historians  like  J. 
Holland  Rose,  lawyers  like  James  M.  Beck,  econo- 
mists like  Dr.  Karl  Helfferich,  statesmen,  psy- 
chologists, and  retired  university  presidents,  all 
have  argued  the  case  from  a  himdred  different 
angles.  The  publication  of  an  Austro-Hunga- 
rian Red  Book,  a  Serbian  Blue  Book,  an  Italian 
Oreen  Book,  a  second  Belgian  Orey  Book,  and 
additional  British,  German,  Turkidi,  and  Rus- 
sian correspondence  furnished  valuable  material 
confirming  the  story  of  the  negotiations  as  out- 
lined in  the  Yeab  Book  for  1914  (article:  Wab 
OP  THE  Nations,  ///.  The  Outbreak  of  War). 
Although  the  documents  appearing  in  these 
publications  provided  subject-matter  for  many 
a  controversial  discussion,  and  although  the 
Red  Book,  the  Blue  Book,  and  the  CHreen  Book, 


19  WAB  OF  THE  NATIONS 

taken  together,  might  have  furnished  the  mate- 
rial for  an  illuminating  study  of  the  Austro- 
Serbian  dispute,  less  interest  was  taken  in  the 
many-colored  official  publications  than  in  the 
doeiunents  semi-officially  published  by  the  Nord- 
dcutsohe  Allffemeine  Zeitung,  and  alleged  to  have 
been  discovered  in  the  Belgian  government's  ar- 
chives by  German  invaders.  To  these  documents 
the  German  apologists  triumphantly  referred  in 
support  of  their  contention  that  Belgium  had 
surrendered  her  neutrality  to  the  Allies,  since 
Belgian  military  authorities  had  conferred  with 
British  military  attaches  in  1906,  and  in  1912, 
and  had  discussed  plans  for  joint  military  ac- 
tion against  Germany.  The  Belgian  govern- 
ment frankly  admitted  that  such  conversations 
had  taken  place,  and  justified  them  on  the 
ground  that  preparation  to  resist  invasion  was 
the  duty  of  a  neutral  state.  But  the  Belgian 
government  refused  to  admit  the  German  alle- 
gation that  the  Anglo-Belgian  military  conver- 
sations were  in  the  nature  of  a  "convention" 
or  formal  agreement  binding  the  governments 
of  the  two  nations;  and  a  second  Belgian  Orey 
Book  was  published  to  prove  that  the  Belgian 
government  had  never  contemplated  allowing 
British  troops  to  be  landed  in  Belgium  for  hos- 
tile operations  against  Germany,  except  in  case 
Belgian  neutrality  had  previously  been  violated 
by  Grermany.  Even  granting  that  no  unneu- 
tral obligation  had  b^n  contracted  by  the  Bel- 
gian government,  German  polemists  maintained 
that  by  revealing  her  military  secrets  to  the 
Allies,  by  preparing  her  German  frontier  more 
strongly  than  her  French  frontier,  and  by  omit- 
ting te  concert  plans  with  Germany,  as  she  had 
done  with  the  Allies,  for  the  defense  of  her  neu- 
trality, Belgium  had  violated  the  spirit  of  neu- 
trality. Furthermore,  affidavits  were  repro- 
duced by  Mr.  Alexander  Fuehr,  in  his  book  on 
The  yeutrality  of  Belgium,  to  prove  that 
French  officers  and  soldiers  had  violated  Bel- 
gian neutrality  before  the  German  army 
crossed  the  frontier.  In  reply,  pro-Ally  contro- 
versialists pointed  out  that,  regardless  of  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  these  more  recent  accusa- 
tions against  Belgium,  the  German  government, 
according  to  the  public  confession  of  the  Grer- 
man  chancellor,  had  consciously  violated  inter- 
national law  by  invading  Belgium;  that  the 
German  declaration  of  war  against  Belgium 
was  based,  not  upon  Belgium's  alleged  con- 
spiracy with  the  Allies,  but  upon  Belgium's  per- 
fectly proper  refusal  to  permit  German  armies 
to  pass  through  her  territory;  and,  finally,  that 
Belgium's  guilt  should  have  been  proved  before, 
rather  than  after,  Belgium  had  been  "pun- 
ished." While  the  more  active  controversialists 
continued  to  debate  specific  questions,  the  gen- 
eral public,  particularly  in  neutral  lands,  wear- 
ied of  the  discussion  of  details  and  tended  more 
and  more  to  disregard  the  ever-increasing  mass 
of  "official"  documents,  from  which  apparently 
such  contradictory  conclusions  could  be  drawn. 
"The  vindication  of  the  sanctity  of  treaty  ob- 
ligations" still  figured  as  one  of  the  ends  for 
which  the  Allies  were  fighting;  but  more  fre- 
quently .the  war  was  conceivwi,  by  "pro- Ally" 
writers  and  speakers,  simply  as  a  defense  of 
democratic  institutions  against  German  bureau- 
cracy, of  small  nations  against  German  impe- 
rialism, of  peace-loving  peoples  against  Ger- 
man militarism,  and  of  "humanity"  against 
German    "barbarism."    From    this    rather    un- 


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critical  standpoint,  the  suceeaa  of  the  (German 
military  machine  in  conquering  Belgium,  Po- 
land, and  Serbia,  and  the  development  of  a 
frankly  annexationist  sentiment  in  Germany 
(see  Gkbmant,  Debate  on  Peace  Terme)  ren- 
dered the  German  megalomania  more  than  ever 
menacing  to  the  free  nations  of  Europe— and 
America,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  more  ex- 
citable prophets  of  disaster.  The  spokesman  of 
the  Teutonic  powers  likewise  evinced  a  tend- 
ency to  forget  the  particular  incidents  which 
precipitated  the  struggle,  and  to  regard  the  war 
as  the  culmination  of  British  commercial  jeal- 
ousy, of  French  revenge  for  1871,  of  Russian 
Pan-Slavic  aspirations,  of  Italian  perfidy.  Both 
Germans  and  Allies  delighted  to  picture  thdlr 
antagonists  as  savages  devoid  of  ordinary  hu- 
manity. The  Germans  accused  the  Belgians  of 
the  most  revolting  crimes  against  civilians  as 
well  as  of  "sniping"  German  soldiers;  the  Serbs 
had  committed  similar  outrages  against  Aus- 
trian troops;  the  English  had  used  ''dum  dum" 
bullets;  the  Russians  had  massacred  Polish 
Jews.  Similarly  the  Allies  published  impres- 
sive official  investigations  of  German  "atroci- 
ties'* in  Belgium  and  France,  of  Austrian 
crimes  in  Serbia,  and  of  Turkidi  atrocities  in 
Armenia.  The  Germans  reproached  the  British 
for  endeavoring  to  "starve"  innocent  women 
and  children  in  Germany;  the  British  charac- 
terized German  Zeppelin  raids  and  the  sinking 
of  the  Lueiiania  as  wanton  murder.  The  Ger- 
mans taunted  their  antagonists  with  reliance 
upon  black  and  yellow  soldiers — men  of  "in- 
ferior" races — and  upon  British  "mercenaries." 
The  Allies  reproached  the  Teutons  for  dragging 
in  the  infidel  Turk  and  the  Bulgars  stained  with 
the  wanton  blood  of  the  Balkan  War.  The  ef- 
fect of  such  recriminations  was  to  fortify  the 
impression  that  the  war  was  a  war  in  defense 
of  civilization,  each  side  representing  itself  as 
the  defender.  Meanwhile  expressions  of  opinion 
in  influential  circles  in  the  belligerent  coun- 
tries began  to  afford  a  more  precise  indication 
of  the  concrete  interests  at  stake.  Belgium  was 
fighting  for  independence  and  indemnity;  Ser- 
bia, for  Greater  Serbia,  including  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  provinces  of  Bosnia,  the  Herzegovina, 
and  possibly  Dalmatia,  the  Banat,  and  Croatia. 
France  was  determined  to  reconquer  Alsace-Lor- 
raine. British  patriots  were  divided,  some  de- 
manding the  "complete  destruction  of  German 
militarism,"  others  contenting  themselves  with 
the  restoration  of  Serbia  and  Belgium  to  inde- 
pendence, Alsace-Lorraine  to  France,  in  addi- 
tion to  indemnities,  the  maintenance  of  Britidi 
naval  supremacy,  and  possibly  the  annexation 
of  some  German  colonies.  British  commercial 
organs  gave  the  war  a  more  predominantly  eco- 
nomic character,  and  urged  British  business 
men  to  "capture  German  trade."  Members  of 
the  Russian  government  officially  expressed  the 
hope  that  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  parts  of 
Poland  would  be  reunited  with  Russian  Poland 
under  the  Russian  sceptre,  and  that  Russia 
would  gain  freer  access  to  the  open  sea  to  the 
southward,  presumably  by  the  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople; under  Russian  control,  the  ancient 
citadel  of  Eastern  Christendom  would  again  be- 
come the  recognized  capital  of  the  Orthodox 
Christian  nations  of  eastern  Europe.  The  Ital- 
isn  government  went  into  the  war  purely  and 
simply  for  territorial  aggrandizement:  for  the 
Italian-speaking  districts  of  Trent  and  the  Aus- 


trian seaport  of  Trieste  (inhabited  by  Italians), 
for  a  foothold  in  Albania,  ensuring  command 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  possibly  for  privileges  in 
Asia  Minor.  On  the  other  side,  Enver  Pasha 
and  his  "Young  Turk"  associates  were  per- 
suaded that  Turkey,  in  alliance  with  German 
capital  and  with  the  aid  of  German  industrial 
and  military  efficiency,  was  on  the  eve  of  a  won- 
derful rejuvenation;  at  the  very  least,  Persia 
and  Egypt  would  be  emancipated  and  incor- 
porated in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Bulgaria  was 
obviously  determined  to  conquer  Macedonia,  to 
win  a  seaport  at  Salonikl,  and  to  re«iin  the 
ancient  Bulgar  capital  of  Oehrida.  For  the 
Dual  Monarchy,  the  war  was  a  desperate  battle 
against  the  Pan-Slavic  movement  which  threat- 
ened to  sunder  Galicia,  Croatia,  Bosnia-Herze- 
govina, and  other  Slavic  provinces  from  the 
Hapsburg  Empire;  if  successful,  the  war  would 
place  a  temporary  restraint  upon  Russian  Pan- 
Slavism,  permanently  abolish  Pan-Scrbianism, 
and  secure  Austro-German-Bulgar  supremacy  in 
the  Balkans.  Lastly,  for  Germany,  the  war  was 
popularly  conceived  as  defensive,  but  the  ruling 
classes  hinted,  and  the  mass  of  the  population 
appeared  to  be  persuaded,  that  not  only  must 
Germany  prevent  Russia  from  annexing  East 
Prussia  and  Posen,  France  from  regaining  Al- 
sace-Lorraine, and  Great  Britain  from  "captur- 
ing German  trade,"  but  in  addition  Germai^y 
must  fight  to  obtain  "guarantees"  for  her  fu- 
ture safety  and  prosperity;  stronger  strategic 
frontiers  must  be  scquired  by  annexing  a  strip 
of  French  territory  from  Verdun  to  Belfort  and 
a  part  of  Western  Russia;  the  Baltic  provinces 
of  Russia  must  be  "recovered";  Poland  must  be 
reconstituted  under  German  influence  as  a  buffer 
state  against  Russia;  Great  Britain  must  be 
compelled  to  respect  the  "freedom  of  the  seas"; 
and  Germany's  economic  development  must  be 
ensured  by  obtaining  commercial  access  to  Ant- 
werp, by  strengthening  the  Turco-Teutonic  Em- 
pire in  the  Near  East,  and  by  restoring,  if  not 
enlarging,  the  German  colonial  possessions. 
Only  the  most  extreme  imperialists  favored  the 
annexation  of  ail  Franco-Belgian  territory  now 
in  German  possession;  more  temperate  patri- 
ots looked  for  the  barter  of  Belgium  and 
northern  France  for  colonial  territory. 

III.      DiPLOMAGT   OF   THE    WaB 

Whereas,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war 
German  diplomacy,  with  its  blustering  ultima- 
tums and  its  clumsy  explanations,  failed  to  en- 
list the  sympathies  either  of  Italy,  Germany's 
ally,  or  of  neutral  nations  outside  of  Europe, 
during  the  year  1916  Grerman  diplomacy  re- 
gained much  of  its  lost  prestige.  The  negotia- 
tions by  which,  on  the  one  hand,  Turkey  was 
persuaded  to  cede  the  Dedeagatch  Railway  to 
Bulgaria  (see  Buloabia),  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  possible  conflicts  were  obviated  be- 
tween Austria-Hungary's  Balkan  ambitions  and 
Bulgaria's  Macedonian  claims,  to  the  end  that 
Bulgaria  might  join  in  a  quadruple  alliance  with 
Turkey,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Germany,  were 
not  made  public  as  yet,  but  their  result,  the 
joint  invasion  of  Serbia  and  the  opening  up  of 
the  road  from  Berlin  to  Constantinople,  was  on 
its  face  a  notable  triumph  for  Teutonic  diplo- 
macy. Moreover,  Rumania  was  kept  neutral  by 
well -calculated  promises,  if  the  Bulgarian  pre- 
mier's statement  may  be  credited;   King  Con- 


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KING  PETER  OF  SERBIA 


KINU  htKDiNAND  OF  BULGARIA 


KING  CONSTANTINE  OF  GREECE  KING  FERDINAND  OF  RUMANIA 

FOUR  RULERS  OF  BALKAN  STATES^ 

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WAB  OF  THE  NATIONS 


Btantine  of  Greece  was  strengthened  in  his  ob- 
stinate refusal  to  allow  the  Venizelist  parlia- 
mentary majority  to  make  war  on  Turkey; 
Ptince  von  Buelow  delayed  the  entry  of  Itidy 
into  the  war  during  t^e  spring,  when  the  Cen- 
tral Powers  needed  all  their  troops  on  the  Rus- 
sian and  Franco-Belgian  fronts.  In  justifying 
Gkrmany's  submarine  policy  to  neutral  nations, 
and  notably  to  the  United  States,  the  German 
diplomatists  were  less  successful,  but  at  any 
rate  they  avoided  open  rupture,  without  sac- 
rificing submarine  warfare.  The  diplomacy  of 
the  Entente  Powers,  on  the  other  hand,  suf- 
fered two  serious  reverses.  First,  Italy  could 
not  be  induced  to  throw  in  her  lot  with  the  Al- 
lies until  many  months  had  been  i^irasted  in.  par- 
ley. Second,  by  pursuing  a  mistaken  policy  in 
the  Balkans,  the  Entente  not  only  failed  to 
achieve  its  object — ^the  reconstitution  of  the 
Balkan  alliance  against  Turkey — ^but  also  es- 
tranged Rumania  and  Greece,  so  that  instead 
of  entering  the  war  in  January,  1916,  as  had 
been  expend,  they  remained  neutral  through- 
out the  year.  Over  against  these  failures  may 
be  set  one  great  accomplishment,  the  inclusion 
of  Italy  and  Japan  in  the  Pact  of  London.  The 
Pact  of  London,  it  will  be  recalled,   was  the 

Teement  signed  in  London  by  representatives 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  Sept.  6, 
1914,  binding  their  respective  nations  not  to 
make  peace  except  in  concert  with  the  others. 
Japan  was  included  in  the  agreement  on  Oct. 
19,  1915.  Italy's  adhesion  was  announced  by 
Baron  Sonnino  to  the  Italian  Parliament,  Dec. 
1,  1915.  As  far  as  pledges  could  bind,  the  Pact 
of  London  would  be  a  bulwark  of  the  solidarity 
of  the  Coalition  against  the  Quadruple  Alliance, 
and  would  make  it  impossible  for  Grermany  to 
force  her  antagonists  separately  to  surrender 
upon  humiliating  terms.  For  further  details 
regarding  the  entry  of  Italy  into  the  war,  con- 
sult the  paragraph  on  that  subject  in  this  ar- 
ticle, and  the  separate  article  on  Italy;  for  de- 
tails regarding  the  Balkan  situation,  see  The 
IHpl<miaiio  Failure  in  the  BalkanB  (infra)  and 
the  separate  articles  on  ALBAifiA;  Bulqabia; 
Franob;  Gbeat  Bbitauv;  Gbebob;  Rumania; 
Serbia;  Tubket. 

rv.    The  Situation  on  Jan.  1,  1915 

The  course  of  the  war  in  1915  mav  be  made 
intelligible  only  after  the  essential  elements  in 
the  situation  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  have 
been  clearly  grasped.  The  battles  of  1914,  it 
must  first  of  all  be  remembered,  were  significant 
principally  because  they  exposed  two  momentous 
fallacies.  The  belief  that  before  the  terrific  on- 
slaught of  the  German  army,  with  its  unrivaled 
discipline  and  its  ponderous  howitzers,  the  re- 
sistance of  France  would  wither  and  crumple 
up,  was  definitely  relegated  to  the  realm  of  fancy 
by  the  battle  of  the  Mame  (Sept.  6-10,  1914) ; 
the  magnificent  holding  battle  fought  by  the 
French,  after  a  long  and  a  discouraging  retreat, 
effectively  dispelled  the  illusion  that  the  swift 
Prussian  victory  over  France  in  1871  could  be 
repeated  in  1914.  By  the  close  of  the  year, 
therefore,  a  sudden  decisive  German  victory  in 
the  West  was  no  longer  hoped  for — or  feared. 
The  second  fallacy  was  the  popular  Anglo-French 
confidence  in  the  hugeness  of  Russia.  In  the 
autumn  of  1914,  military  critics  in  Allied  coun- 
tries had  cheerfully  predicted  that  if  the  Anglo- 


Franco-Belgian  line  could  be  held  intact  for  a 
few  months  longer,  the  Russian  "hordes"  would 
overwhelm  Germany  from  the  East,  like  an 
enormous  military  ''steam-roller"  or  an  irresist- 
ible ''tidal  wave."  After  five  months  of  the 
war,  neither  "steam-roller"  nor  "tidal  wave" 
had  materialized;  the  Russian  invasion  of  €ral- 
icia  was  offset  by  the  Teutonic  invasion  of  Po- 
land; several  disastrous  defeats  had  overtaken 
Russian  armies;  and  it  was  already  becoming 
apparent  that  without  ade<]uate  railway  facil- 
ities, without  proper  training  and  equipment, 
and  without  sufficient  ammunition,  the  "Rus- 
sian hordes"  could  not  seriously  menace  Ger- 
many. In  short,  by  the  close  of  the  year  1914 
it  had  become  reasonably  clear  that  neither  the 
efficiency  of  the  Germans  nor  the  numbers  of  the 
Russians  would  suffice  to  achieve  an  immediate 
Victory.  In  1915,  consequently,  the  war  re- 
vealed itself  as  a  contest  of  endurance,  in  which 
mere  battles  might  play  a  far  less  decisive  rdle 
than  political  and  economic  factors.  Regarding 
the  situation  in  this  light,  the  principal  factors 
upon  which  the  Allies  might  count  may  be 
summarized  briefly  as  follows:  (1)  The  im- 
mense naval  superiority  of  the  British  and  Al- 
lied fleets  would  enable  the  Allies  to  make  full 
use  of  their  commercial  and  colonial  resources, 
to  draw  upon  neutral  nations  for  munitions  and 
food,  to  transport  troops  freely  from  the  re- 
motest regions  of  Australasia  to  European  bat- 
tlefieldi^  and  possibly  to  "starve  Germany  out" 
by  destroying  her  commerce  and  cutting  off  her 
food-imports;  (2)  the  Allies  expected  that 
"Kitchener's  army,"  several  millions  strong, 
amply  supplied  with  munitions  from  Engli^ 
factories,  would  make  possible  a  great  offensive 
movement  against  the  German  lines  in  Belgium 
and  France;  (3)  Italy's  entry  into  the  war 
seemed  comparatively  certain;  (4)  negotiations 
were  under  way,  in  January,  for  the  recon- 
stitution of  the  Balkan  alliance  of  Bulgaria, 
Greece,  Serbia,  and  Rumania,  for  a  new  war 
against  Turkey;  (6)  the  attitude  of  a  few 
Socialists  in  Germany  (see  Gebmant)  and  the 
publication  of  reports  regarding  popular  un- 
rest in  Austria-Hungary  (see  Austbia-Hun- 
GABT)  led  Allied  journals  to  predict  an  upris- 
ing of  the  masses  against  the  ruling  military 
aristocracy  in  the  Central  Powers.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Germans  might  hope:  (1)  That  econ- 
omy, industrial  efficiency,  and  submarines  might 
compensate  Germany  for  the  loss  of  her  overseas 
trade;  (2)  that  the  superior  training  and  equip- 
ment of  the  German  and  Austro-Hungarian 
troops  might  more  than  counterbalance  any 
numerical  superiority  which  the  Allies  might 
achieve;  (3)  that  by  skillful  diplomacy  Italy 
might  be  persuaded  to  remain  neutral,  or  at 
least  to  delay  a  declaration  of  war  until  the 
Central  Powers  had  further  strengthened  their 
position;  (4)  that  Bulgaria  and  possibly  Ru- 
mania would  espouse  the  Turco-Teutonic  cause, 
out  of  self-interest;  (5)  that  the  discontented 
millions  in  Egypt  and  in  India,  as  well  as  the 
disgruntled  Irish  Nationalists  and  the  paciflst 
labor  organizations  in  England,  might  cripple 
the  British  Empire  in  the  war;  (6)  that  the 
amazing  inefficiency  already  revealed  in  certain 
branches  of  the  Allies'  organization,  the  absence 
of  unity  in  the  Allies'  political  and  military  pro- 
grammes, and  the  apparent  inability  of  the 
British  and  Russian  governments  to  command 
the  confidence  of  the  people,  might  lend  inval- 


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uable  assistance  to  the  Central  Powers;  (7) 
and,  finally,  that  the  superior  strate^c  situa- 
tion of  the  Teutonic  Powers,  with  their  ability 
to  transfer  troops  quickly  from  point  to  point 
on  the  battle-line,  thanks  to  a  wonderful  system 
of  railway  communications,  would  contribute  to 
the  ultimate  achievement  of  victory. 

V.      MiLITABT  OpEBATIONS 

(1)  The  Allied  Offensive  in  France:    Janua/rjf- 
April, 

The  first  great  German  offensive  in  the  West 
had  been  repulsed  at  the  battle  of  the  Marne 
(Sept.  6-10,  1914) ;  the  second  serious  (German 
offensive  in  the  West,  the  "drive  to  Calais,"  had 
been  stopped  in  October  and  November  by  the 
valiant  resistance  of  the  Belgians  on  the  Yser, 
the  British  colonials  and  French  troops  before 
Ypres,  and  the  Anglo-French  line  in  Artois.  By 
the  beginning  of  January,  1015,  the  600-mile 
battle  line  in  Belgium  and  France,  extending 
from  the  coast  of  the  Channel  to  the  border  of 
Switzerland,  had  become  almost  stationary,  and 
was  so  formidably  intrenched  and  fortified  that 
it  could  not  possibly  be  broken  except  at  a  ter- 
rible cost  of  life  and  with  an  enormous  expendi- 
ture of  shells.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulty, 
the  Allies  confidently  planned  to  undertake  a 
general   offensive  movement  during  the   spring 


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■         '1        ta       f       *=        la       J^         f*^ 

T^^Sh2 

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5=^!^|i 

Allies'  Line,  Januabt,  1916 

months  of  1915.  The  progress  made  up  to  the 
fourth  week  of  April,  when  the  Allied  offensive 
was  interrupted  by  a  German  counter-attack  at 
Ypres,  will  be  more  easily  evaluated  if  the  Al- 
lied front  is  considered  as  three  sectors:  (a)  the 
northern  sector,  extending  in  a  line  over  a 
hundred  miles  long  from  the  Belgian  town  of 
Nieuport  east  of  Ypres  and  Armenti^res,  west 
of  Lille,  east  of  Arras,  west  of  P6ronne,  east  of 
Roye,  and  through  Noyon  to  a  point  on  the  Oise 
River  a  few  miles  north  of  Compile,  and  held 
by  Belgian  and  French  troops  from  Nieuport  to 
Ypres,  by  British  from  Ypres  to  B6thune,  and 
by  French  alone  from  B^thune  to  the  Oise;  (b) 
the  central  sector,  exclusively  French,  from  the 
Oise  to  Soissons  on  the  Aisne,  following  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Aisne  for  perhaps  twenty 
miles,    then    swinging    southeast    through    the 


Champagne  country,  northeast  of  Reims, 
through  Perthes  across  the  forested  ridge  of 
Argonne  to  the  Meuse  River,  just  west  and 
north  of  Verdun;  (c)  the  eastern  sector,  swing- 
ing around  the  great  fortifications  of  Verdun, 
bending  back  sharply  to  the  Meuse  again  at  St. 
Mihiel  (about  10  miles  south  of  Verdun),  turn- 
ing east  again  from  St.  Mihiel  to  strike  the 
Moselle  River  at  a  point  near  the  Lorraine 
frontier,  extending  southeast  along  the  Lorraine 
border,  and  crossing  over  the  crest  of  the  Vosges 
into  Upper  Alsace,  where  Thann  was  still  re- 
tained by  the  French.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  Belgians  held  only  18  miles  and  the  British 
only  31  miles  of  the  front,  while  the  Frendi 
army,  about  two  and  a  half  millions  strong,  de- 
fended the  remaining  543  miles. 

(a)  The  fighting  on  the  northern  sector, 
from  January  1st  to  April  21st,  effected  little 
change  in  the  line.  On  the  extreme  north,  the 
Allies  captured  a  sand  dune  of  some  strategic 
importance  just  east  of  Nieuport,  January  28th, 
repelled  German  attacks  at  Ypres  and  west  of 
La  Bass^,  January  25th-February  5th,  and  cap- 
tured a  brickfield  east  of  Cuinchy,  February  6th. 
The  first  ambitious  offensive  in  this  sector  was 
undertaken  on  March  10th  by  the  British,  who 
by  this  time  numbered  well-nigh  500,000  men. 
Early  in  the  morning  a  terrific  bombardment  of 
the  German  trenches  west  of  Neuve  Chapelle 
(about  two-thirds  the  distance  from  Arras  to 
Armenti^res)  and  of  the  village  itself  prepared 
the  way  for  an  infantry  attack.  Before  noon 
the  village  of  Neuve  Chapelle,  now  a  smolder- 
ing heap  of  ruins,  was  completely  in  British 
possession.  The  attacking  forces  north  of  the 
village,  where  the  artillery  preparation  had  not 
been  so  effective  in  demolishing  the  G^man  de- 
fenses, were  caught  in  barbed  wire  entangle- 
ments and  cruelly  decimated  by  German  ma- 
chine-gun fire;  but  in  spite  of  losses  the  attack 
succeeded.  On  the  afternoon  of  March  10th, 
however,  and  on  the  two  succeeding  days,  the 
British  failed  to  push  their  advantage  with 
energy;  the  Germans  were  allowed  to  recover 
from  the  surprise  and  demoralization  of  the 
sudden  bombardment;  the  British  artillery  was 
poorly  aimed  during  the  cloudy  weather  of  the 
second  and  third  days'  fighting,  and  as  a  result 
of  the  destruction  of  telephonic  communications 
orders  were  imperfectly  obeyed.  Consequently 
the  British  failed  to  gain  the  commanding  ridge 
east  of  N^ve  Chapelle.  At  the  cost  of  13,000 
men  Sir  John  French  had  advanced  his  line  a 
mile  or  so,  on  a  front  of  three  miles.  Three 
days  after  the  British  offensive  had  come  to  a 
standstill,  the  British  minister  of  war.  Lord 
Kitchener,  told  the  House  of  Lords  that  the 
supply  of  war  munitions  was  causing  him  **very 
serious  anxiety."  Sir  John  French's  dispatch 
describing  the  battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle,  pub- 
lished on  April  14th,  likewise  referred  to  the 
pressing  need  of  "an  almost  unlimited  supply 
of  ammunition."  Hence  it  may  be  concluded 
that  one  very  potent  factor  in  the  British  fail- 
ure to  make  Neuve  Chapelle  a  great  victory  was 
the  lack  of  artillery  support  after  the  initial 
bombardment.  This  first  move  in  the  Allied  of- 
fensive on  the  northern  sector  met  with  ill  suc- 
cess; Lille  had  been  its  final  objective,  and  Lille 
had  not  even  been  seriously  menaced.  For  over 
a  month  no  important  action  was  fought  on 
the  northern  sector,  until  the  capture  of  a 
hill  near  Ypres  (Hill  60)  by  the  British,  April 


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AN  ANGLO-INDIAN  SOLDIER  IN  A  FRENCH  TRENCH  USfNQ  ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUN 

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nth,  precipitated  a  violent  German  counter-at- 
tack. 

(b)  Meanwhile  in  the  central  sector  a  lucky 
French  attack  had  won  Hill  132  north  of  Sois- 
Bons,  January  8th,  but  Oeneral  von  Kluck  had 
quickly  returned  the  attack  with  two  German 
army  corps,  and  not  only  had  forced  the  French 
back  to  their  old  position  across  the  Aisne 
River,  but  for  a  time  had  seriously  threatened 
to  capture  Soissons.  Further  east,  in  Cham- 
pagne, the  French  during  the  month  of  January 
captured  Perthes  and  a  near-bv  hill  of  some 
strategic  importance;  the  attack  was  renewed 
in  February  with  strong  artillery  support;  but 
only  painfully  slow  progress  was  made  towards 
the  east-and-west  railway  which  General  Joffre 
hoped  to  cut.  On  the  Argonne  ridge  the  French 
aimed  chiefly  to  cut  the  railway  to  Apremont, 
but  the  fighting  was  indecisive. 

(e)  On  the  eastern  sector,  on  the  extreme 
right  wing,  the  French  Alpine  Chasseurs  de- 
scended from  the  Vosges  heights  into  the  Thur 
Valley  and  captured  the  Alsatian  town  of  Stein- 
bach,  January  3rd.  Other  French  forces  men- 
aced Muelhausen.  The  Germans,  however,  re- 
taliated by  expelling  the  French  from  their 
advantageous  position  on  a  shoulder  of  Hart- 
mannsweilerkopf,  January  19th.  In  the  last 
week  of  March  the  French  regained  a  foothold 
on  Hartmannsweilerkopf,  and  throughout  April 
and  May  the  mountain  was  alternately  claimed 
by  French  and  by  Germans.  The  fighting  on  the 
snow-clad  slopes  of  the  Vosges  was  picturesque; 
but  the  really  important  efforts  of  the  French  in 
the  eastern  sector  were  directed  against  the 
wedge  which  the  Crown  Prince  had  thrust  into 
the  French  line  at  St.  Mihiel,  not  far  south  of 
Verdun.  As  there  was  no  possibility  of  break- 
ing the  strong  apex  of  the  wedge  by  frontal  at- 
tacks on  St.  Mihiel  and  Camp  des  Romains,  the 
French  endeavored  to  press  the  sides  of  the 
wedge  together,  with  the  hope  that  if  the  wedge 
could  be  considerably  compressed,  the  German 
forces  at  the  apex,  finding  their  communications 
imperiled,  would  be  compelled  to  withdraw  from 
St.  Mihiel.  The  French  position  at  Verdun 
would  thereby  be  immensely  strengthened.  In 
February,  therefore,  the  French  began  their  at- 
tack by  capturing  the  village  of  Les  Eparges  on 
the  northern  side  and  the  Bois  le  Prdtre  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  wedge.  On  April  5th  the 
attack  was  resumed  against  the  strongly  forti- 
fied German  position  on  the  heights  bdiind  hea 
Eparges.  During  four  days  attack  and  counter- 
attack left  the  result  in  doubt,  but  finally  the 
French  victory  was  assured,  February  9th,  and 
the  heights  of  Les  Eparges  remained  in  French 
possession.  About  the  same  time.  General  Du- 
bail  brought  heavy  pressure  to  bear  against  iha 
southern  side  of  the  wedge.  Small  advances 
were  made,  but  the  main  object,  to  destroy  the 
wedge,  was  not  achieved. 

To  sum  up,  by  the  middle  of  April  the  Allied 
offensive  in  the  West  had  made  small  local 
gains  "nibbling"  at  the  Grerman  lines,  but  had 
failed  to  accomplish  any  strategically  important 
object,  either  in  the  movement  toward  Lille,  in 
the  advance  against  the  Champagne  railway,  or 
in  the  attack  on  the  St.  Mihiel  salient.  In  the 
fourth  week  of  April  "the  war  of  attrition'*  in 
the  West,  that  is,  the  gradual  "nibbling"  at  the 
German  lines  and  the  gradual  depletion  of  the 
German  forces,  was  suddenly  interrupted  by  a 
spectacular  Gkirman  counter-offensive  at  Ypres, 


which  developed  shortly  after  the  capture  of 
Hill  60,  near  Ypres,  by  the  British.  The  battle 
of  Ypres  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  para- 
graph; for  the  present  the  situation  in  the  Rus- 
sian theatre  of  war  commands  attention. 

(2)  Winter    Campaigns    in    Poland    and    East 
Prussia:    January-February, 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  Russian 
armies  were  strung  out  in  a  battle  line  almost 
900  miles  long.  The  centre  of  the  Russian  line, 
under  General  Ruzsky,  was  strongly  entrenched 
in  Russian  Poland,  bdiind  the  Rawka  and  Bzura 
rivers,  with  the  stronff  fortresses  of  Novo 
Georgievsk,  Warsaw,  and  Ivangorod  along  the 
Vistula  River,  forming  an  almost  impregnable 
line  of  defense  upon  which  the  Russians  might 
fall  back  if  hard  pressed.  The  right  or  northern 
wing  of  the  Russian  army,  likewise  under  Ruz- 
sky's  general  command,  stretched  northeast- 
wards to  the  north  of  the  Narew  River,  and 
through  the  Masurian  Lake  region  of  East  Prus- 
sia, to  the  Niemen  River.  The  left  or  southern 
wing  of  the  Russian  army,  under  General  Ivanov, 
included  General  Ewarts's  army  on  the  Nida 
River,  west  of  Kielce,  Gen.  Radko  Dmitriev's 
army  in  Galicia  holding  Tamow  behind  the 
Donajetz  and  Biala  rivers.  General  Brussilov's 
army  holding  the  northern  approaches  to  the 
Carpathian  Mountain  passes.  General  Sell- 
vanov's  army  besieging  the  isolated  Austrian 
fortress  of  Przemysl  (on  the  San),  and  General 
Alexeiev's  army  operating  in  Bukovina.  Oppos- 
ing the  Russian  right  wing  were  four  German 
army  corps  in  East  Prussia;  the  Russian  centre 
was  confronted  by  strong  German  forces  under 
Von  Mackensen;  on  the  left  wing  was  General 
Dankl's  depleted  army  west  of  the  Nida  River; 
south  of  that.  General  Woyrsch's  army  west  of 
the  Donajetz;  and  the  extreme  Russian  left 
flank  in  the  Carpathians  was  harried  by  the 
Austrian  Archduke  Eugene  from  the  south. 
Since  their  disastrous  defeat  in  East  Prussia 
(see  Year  Book  for  1914),  the  Russians  had  de- 
voted their  attention  chiefly  to  General  Ivanov's 
campaign  in  Galicia,  which  constituted  a  three- 
fold menace:  (1)  to  the  invaluable  grain-grow- 
ing plains  of  Hungary,  across  the  Carpathians; 
(2)  to  the  important  Galician  city  of  Cracow; 
and  (3)  to  the  strategically  and  industrially  im- 
portant German  province  of  Silesia.  The  Rus- 
sian centre  meanwhile  rested  on  the  defensive 
in  Poland,  and  the  right  wing,  during  January, 
contented  itself  with  cavalry  attacks  upon  the 
railway  communications  north  of  Tilsit.  The 
Teutonic  plan  of  campaign  was  to  deliver  frontal 
attacks  on  Ruzsky's  army  before  Warsaw,  in 
order  to  compel  the  Russian  generalissimo. 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  to  reSnforce  his  Polidi 
line  at  the  expense  of  his  Galician  forces.  The 
plan  had  been  successfully  put  into  operation  in 
October,  1914,  when  the  Russian  armies  were  ap- 
proaching Cracow,  and  it  forced  the  Russians 
to  retire  to  the  San  River.  It  had  been  tried 
at  the  close  of  November  and  early  in  Decem- 
ber, to  check  the  renewed  Russian  advance  on 
Cracow.  Again,  in  the  third  week  of  December, 
1914,  General  von  Mackensen  had  furiously  as- 
sailed the  Russian  centre  just  at  the  time  when 
the  Russian  campaign  in  Galicia  seemed  to  be 
developing  favorably.  For  a  fourth  time  the 
plan  was  put  into  execution  in  February,  1916, 
in  the  hope  that  a  strong  German  attack  in  Po- 

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land  would  compel  the  Russians  to  retire  in 
Galicia  and  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Przeroysl. 
Having  prepared  the  attack  by  a  terrific  bom- 
bardment of  the  Russian  lines  west  of  Warsaw, 
General  von  Mackensen  launched  his  attack, 
with  140,000  men,  on  a  seven-mile  front  opposite 
Bolimov,  40  miles  west  of  Warsaw.  On  Feb- 
ruary 1st,  under  cover  of  artillery  fire,  and  in 
the  face  of  a  blinding  snow-storm,  the  German 
infantry  masses  recklessly  rushed  the  first-line 
trenches  east  of  the  Rawka  River.  On  February 
2nd  the  Russian  second-  and  third-line  trenches 
were  taken.  On  February  3rd  and  4th  the  Ger- 
man troops  advanced  five  miles  along  the  rail- 
way towards  Warsaw.  The  attempt  to  pierce 
the  Russian  line  seemed  to  have  met  with  bril- 
liant success,  well  worth  the  heavy  cost  in  casu- 
alties. Russian  reinforcements,  hastily  rushed 
to  the  front  by  rail  from  Warsaw,  arrived  on 
the  spot  towards  the  evening  of  Februaiy  4th, 
just  in  time  to  save  the  Russian  line.  Mile  bv 
mile  the  German  assailants  were  forced  ba^ 
over  their  newly-gained  territory,  until  by  Feb- 
ruary 8th  the  Germans  had  been  pushed  back  cm 
the  Rawka. 

The  Gesican  Attack  fbom  East  Prussia. 
While  von  Mackensen  was  attacking  west  of 
Warsaw,  von  Hindenburg  was  preparing  a  sur- 
prise for  the  Russians  in  East  Prussia.  During 
the  first  week  of  February  he  concentrated  nine 
army  corps  in  East  Prussia  to  hurl  against  the 
Russian  Tenth  Army,  which  consisted  of  four 
army  corps  under  Baron  Sievers.  On  February 
7th  von  Hindenburg  delivered  the  first  blow:  a 
German  army  advancing  eastward  from  Tilsit 
along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Niemen,  thrust 
itself  between  the  two  northernmost  Russian 
army  corps.  The  ^Oth  Russian  corps,  consist- 
ing of  30,000  men  under  General  Bulgakov, 
which  had  been  holding  the  line  of  the  Angerap 
River,  was  thus  exposed  to  a  fatal  fiank  attack 
from  the  north.  General  Bulgakov's  retreat 
speedily  became  a  rout,  and  the  20th  was  an- 
nihilated in  the  forest-belt  north  of  Suwalki. 
The  northernmost  Russian  corps  having  con- 
tinued its  retreat  towards  Kovno,  General  vcm 
Eichom,  commanding  the  extreme  right  wing  of 
von  Hindenburg's  une,  crossed  the  Russian 
frontier  and  occupied  Mariampol,  February  12th. 
Meanwhile  von  Buelow,  directing  the  German 
attack  on  the  two  remaining  Russian  corps  in  the 
Masurian  Lake  region,  completely  cleared  East 
Prussia  and  pressed  forward  against  the  Rus- 
sian fortresses  of  Grodno  and  Ossowietz.  By 
February  20th,  however,  the  remnant  of  the  Rus- 
sian forces — ^the  Germans  claimed  to  have  cap- 
tured 75,000  men  and  300  guns — ^had  entrenched 
itself  along  a  line  running  southward  from 
Kovno  parallel  to  the  Niemen,  well  in  front  of 
Olita,  Miroslav,  Drusskeniki,  and  Grodno,  and 
bending  southwest  along  the  northern  bank  of 
the  river  Bohr,  north  of  Ossowietz,  and  continu- 
ing to  the  north  of  the  Narew.  General  von 
Eichorn,  continuing  to  press  forward  in  the 
north,  won  on  February  20th  a  foothold  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Niemen  north  of  Grodno  and 
reached  a  point  only  10  miles  from  the  Warsaw- 
Petrograd  Railway.  Simultaneously  von  Bue- 
low  began  to  bombard  Ossowietz.  Both  on  the 
Niemen  and  on  the  Bobr  (at  Ossowietz)  the  Ger- 
mans encountered  such  stubborn  resistance  that 
they  fell  back,  in  March,  towards  their  own 
frontier. 

Thb  Battle  of  Pbzasntsz.    The  attack  on  the 


Niemen  and  on  the  Bobr  rivers  had  expelled  the 
Russians  from  the  Kaiser's  "beloved"  province 
of  East  Prussia ;  it  had  furthermore  drawn  Gen- 
eral Ruzsky's  attention  to  his  extreme  right.  In 
the  hope  that  the  Russian  forces  west  and  north 
of  Warsaw  had  been  depleted  to  refoforce  the 
Bobr  and  Niemen  lines,  von  Hindenburg  now 
swiftly  struck  at  Przasnysz,  between  Ostrolenka 
and  Mlawa,  50  or  00  miles  north  of  Wanaw. 
The  admirably  laid-out  strategic  railways  of 
East  Prussia  would  enable  him  suddenly  to  shift 
the  weight  of  the  East  Prussian  attack  from  the 
east  to  the  west.  By  an  unexpected  stroke  he 
would  cross  the  Narew  River  southeast  of 
Przasnysz  and  cut  the  Warsaw-Bielostock-Petro- 
grad  Railway  to  the  south  of  the  Narew.  War- 
saw could  then  be  oicircled  and  invested.  The 
Russian  army  which  in  January  had  moved 
northwestward  alone  the  Vistula  to  within  40 
miles  of  Thorn,  ana  had  been  pushed  back  in 
February  to  Plock  and  Raciaz,  60  miles  north- 
west of  Warsaw,  would  be  compelled  by  thifl 
fianking  movement  to  retreat  in  hot  haste;  if 
von  Hindenburg  moved  swiftly  enou^  the 
Plock-Raciaz  army  might  be  enveloped  and  de- 
stroyed. On  February  22nd,  just  as  the  attsdc 
on  the  Niemen  and  on  the  Bobr  was  expiring, 
two  German  army  corps  from  the  direction  of 
Soldau  and  Willenburg  (on  the  southern  border 
of  East  Prussia)  began  their  march  southward 
on  Przasnysz.  At  first  things  went  splendidly. 
Przasnysz  was  captured  on  February  24th  to- 
gether with  about  half  of  the  brigade  which  had 
been  left  to  defend  the  town;  Krasnosieloe  wai 
occupied  on  the  way  from  Przasnysz  to  the 
fortress  of  Ostrolenka;  the  only  real  resistance 
was  encoimtered  at  the  hands  of  a  single  Riu- 
sian  division  which  stubbornly  held  its  ground 
on  the  ridge  southwest  of  Przasnysz.  But  on 
the  evening  of  February  24th  Russian  re^force- 
ments  began  to  arrive  from  Ostrolenka,  Rozan, 
and  Pultusk.  The  gallant  defenders  of  the 
ridge,  after  battling  for  almost  two  days  against 
overwhelming  odds,  were  now  relieved.  Prza- 
snysz and  &asnosielce  were  recovered  on  Feb- 
ruary 27th.  Ten  thousand  Germans  were  cap- 
tured, according  to  the  Russian  statement.  By 
February  28th  the  Germans  were  in  full  retreat 
towards  the  East  Prussian  frontier.  The  three 
phases  of  the  German  winter  campaign  in  Po- 
land and  East  Prussia  may  now  be  summed  up: 
von  Mackensen's  desperate  frontal  attack  on 
Warsaw  had  been  thwarted;  East  Prussia  had 
been  cleared  of  invaders;  and  a  brilliantly  con- 
ceived flank  attack  on  the  Russian  centre  had 
met  with  disaster. 

(S)  The   RusBians   in    QiUicia   and   Bukovim: 
January-AfHril. 

It  has  already  been  explained  that  one  of  the 
principal  motives  for  the  German  offensives  in 
Poland  and  East  Prussia  was  to  relieve  the  pres- 
sure on  Austria-Hungary.  At  the  banning  of 
January  General  Brussilov's  Russian  army  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Carpathian  ridge  was 
threatening  to  penetrate  through  the  central  Car- 
pathian passes  (Dukla  Pass,  Lupkow  Pass,  and 
Uzsok  Pass) ,  south  of  Przemysl  and  to  pour  down 
the  converging  valleys  of  the  mountain  streams 
into  the  valley  of  the  Theiss  and  the  Hungarian 
plain.*  Simultaneously  Russian  troops  were 
overrunning   Bukovina,   which   commanded  the 


'  See  sketch  map  an.  p.  716. 

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WAJt  07  THE  NATIONS 


toutheastern  end  of  the  CarpathUn  barrier. 
The  Russian  force  in  Bukovina  was  only  15  or 
20  thousand  strong,  but  it  succeeded  on  January 
6th  in  capturing  the  town  of  Kimpolung,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  province;  the 
northern  part  of  Bukovina  had  been  held  by  the 
Russians  since  September,  1014;  on  January 
17th  the  Russians  gained  the  pass  of  Kirlibaba, 
leading  from  the  southeastern  part  of  Buko- 
vina westward  into  Hungary.  With  the  Rus- 
sians successfully  occupying  the  very  provinces 
— Bukovina  and  Transylvania — which  Rumania 
coveted  for  herself,  Rumania  was  likely  to  enter 
the  war  and  codperate  with  the  Russians,  turn- 
ing the  eastern  flank  of  the  Carpathian  ridge, 
while  the  Russians  swarmed  over  the  central 
Carpathian  passes.  The  situation  called  for 
strenuous  and  immediate  action  on  the  part  of 
Austria-Hungary.  The  supersession  of  Count 
Berehtold  by  Baron  Stephan  Burian,  a  friend 
and  compatriot  of  the  Hungarian  premier 
(Count  Tisza),  as  foreign  minister  of  the  Dual 
Monarchy,  January  13th,  was  interpreted  as  a 
sign  of  the  Emperor's  determination  to  defend 
Hungary  at  all  costs.  While  von  Hindenburg 
prepared  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  Rus- 
sians by  attacks  in  Poland  {aupra),  Archduke 
Eugene  of  Austria  marshaled  his  forces  in  three 

Seat  armies  for  a  supreme  effort  to  secure  the 
irpathian  ridge,  relieve  the  hard-pressed  gar- 
rison of  Przemysl,  free  Bukovina,  and  intimidate 
Rumania.  In  the  second  half  of  January  the 
campaign  was  launched.  The  first  Austrian 
army,  imder  General  Boehm-Ermolli,  moved  up 
into  the  three  central  Carpathian  passes 
(Dukla,  Lupkow,  and  Uzsok)  with  the  object  of 
advancing  north  to  the  relief  of  Przemysl.  The 
second  Austro-German  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  German  (General  von  Linsingen, 
operated  from  Munkacs  northward  in  the 
passes  east  of  Uzsok.  The  third  army,  com- 
prising both  German  and  Austro-Hungarian 
troops,  was  led  by  General  von  Pflanzer  against 
the  Russians  in  Bukovina.  General  von  Pflan- 
zer made  rapid  progress.  Klrlibaba  Pass  was 
retaken;  the  weak  Russian  defense  of  Czerno- 
witz  succumbed  on  February  18th;  and  the 
Austro-Germans  turned  northeastward  into  Gal- 
icia,  passing  Kolomea,  and  holding  the  impor- 
tant railway  centre  of  Stanislau  (70  miles 
southeast  of  Lemberg)  for  a  brief  space,  until 
they  were  forced  back  on  Kolomea,  March  3rd. 
General  von  Linsingen,  however,  failed  dismally 
in  his  attempt  to  advance  from  Munkacs  to^ 
ward  Lemberg.  Even  more  disappointing  was 
the  result  of  General  Boehm-ErmoUi's  cam- 
paign against  the  central  passes:  after  two 
months  of  bitter  battles  in  the  snow-bound 
mountain  deflles,  the  Russians  at  the  end  of  the 
third  week  of  March  still  held  the  Dukla  Pass 
and  the  northern  entrance  to  Lupkow. 

Fall  or  Pbzsmtsl.  The  culminating  failure 
of  the  Austrian  counter-offensive  and  the  crown- 
ing success  of  the  Russian  Galieian  campaign  in 
the  spring  of  1016  was  the  surrender  of  the 
Austrian  fortress  of  Przemysl,  March  22nd, 
which  had  been  besieged  by  the  Russians  ever 
since  Nov.  12,  1014.  The  situation  of  the  be- 
leaguered garrison  had  become  alarming  early 
in  March,  1015.  After  a  breach  had  Men  ef- 
fected by  the  Russians  in  the  outer  ring  of  de- 
fenses, March  13th,  General  von  Kusmanek  had 
ordered  a  last  desperate  sortie,  March  18th. 
This  failing  disastrously,  he  destroyed  the  re- 

Y.  B.— 28 


maining  stores  of  ammunition,  and  surrendered 
the  city,  March  22nd.  By  the  capture  of 
Przemysl  the  Russians  won  120,000  prisoners, 
about  a  thousand  guns,  and  less  important 
stores  of  small  arms  and  ammunition.  More 
important  still,  the  railway  leading  westward 
from  Lemberg  through  Przemysl  to  Tarnow  and 
Cracow  was  at  last  cleared,  and  General  Seli- 
vanov's  army  of  100,000  men  was  released  for 
aggression  elsewhere.  The  Russians  proflted  by 
their  improved  position  to  renew  the  offensive 
in  the  Carpathian  passes,  and  by  the  end  of 
April  they  were  in  possession  of  the  Carpathian 
crest  for  75  miles,  commanding  Dukla,  Lupkow, 
and  Rostok  passes,  and  were  fiercely  attacking 
Uzsok  Pass. 

(4)  The  Dardanelles:  February-June. 

The  Naval  Attack  (Februaby-March).  Of 
the  three  great  aggressive  movements  by  which 
the  Triple  Entente  hoped,  during  the  first  three 
months  of  1015,  at  the  same  time  to  weaken 
their  enemies  and  to  convert  Italy,  Rumania, 
and  Greece  from  hesitant  friends  into  active 
allies,  two  have  already  been  described,  viz.,  the 
Anglo-French  offensive  in  the  western  theatre 
of  war,  and  the  Russian  advance  in  Galicia. 
Hie  third,  the  attack  on  the  Dardanelles,  al- 
though of  secondary  magnitude  in  respect  of  the 
forces  engaged,  was  of  primary  importance  both 
as  regarded  its  immediate  strategic  aims  and 
its  indirect  political  consequences.  Forcing  the 
Dardanelles,  the  British  Admiralty  had  every 
reason  to  believe,  would  be  a  difficult  and  hazard- 
ous operation.  To  be  sure,  a  British  squadron 
under  the  command  of  the  gallant  Admiral 
Duckworth  had  accomplished  the  feat  in  1807; 
but  since  then  ineffective,  antiquated  fortifica- 
tions in  the  straits  had  been  replaced  by  the 
most  modern  and  scientific  defensive  works;  ex- 
pert German  advisers  had  directed  the^  emplace- 
ment of  formidable  batteries  to  command  the 
approach  by  land  and  sea;  and  14-inch  Krupp 
guns  would  now  be  trained  on  an  invading 
fleet.  But  if  the  hazard  was  great,  the  stakes 
to  be  won  were  still  greater.  Once  through  the 
Dardanelles  straits,  a  victorious  fleet  would 
have  Constantinople  at  its  mercy,  and  Turkey, 
if  not  totally  eliminated  from  the  war,  would  at 
the  very  least  be  cut  in  two  and  gravely  crippled. 
All  serious  danger  of  Turkish  attacks  on  Egypt, 
Persia,  or  India  would  have  been  obviated.  The 
Russian  armies  in  the  Caucasus  region  could  be 
partly  withdrawn  and  sent  to  reinforce  the  line 
in  Poland.  Moreover,  the  straits  being  opened, 
Russia  would  at  last  flnd  a  free  outlet  for  her 
stores  of  wheat.  The  guns  and  ammunition  of 
which  the  Russian  army  was  in  sore  need  could 
now  be  freely  and  cheaply  imported  by  way  of 
the  Dardanelles,  as  fast  as  the  factories  of 
France,  England,  and  America  could  turn  them 
out.  The  moral  effect  of  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople would  be  tremendous.  Not  only 
would  it  put  new  life  into  discouraged  patriots 
in  France,  Russia,  and  Great  Britain;  not  only 
would  it  be  an  object  lesson  teaching  awe-strucK 
respect  to  the  Mohammedan  millions  in  Egypt 
and  in  India;  it  would  also,  by  increasing  the 
probability  of  the  Entente's  ultimate  victory, 
hasten  the  decision  of  Italy  to  join  the  winning 
side.  But  most  important  of  all,  it  would  prob- 
ably bring  the  Balkan  nations  into  the  war  on 
the  side  of  the  Entente;   wavering  Greece  and 


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WAJt  OF  THB  NATIONS 


Rumania  needed  only  such  a  victory  to  convince 
them  that  it  would  be  safe  to  join  the  Entente; 
and  Bulgaria,  suspected  of  secret  leanings  to- 
ward the  Central  Powers,  would  not  dare  to 
oppose  the  Entente  Allies,  for  Greece,  Serbia, 
Rumania,  and  the  Allied  forces  at  Constanti- 
nople would  completely  encircle  and  crush  her. 


The  Dabdankllbs  Campaign,  1915 


For  the  sake  of  so  momentous  a  victory,  the 
British  Admiralty  risked  a  powerful  fleet  in  the 
attack  on  the  Dardanelles.  During  February 
the  warships  which  had  been  watching  the  Dar- 
danelles since  the  beginning  of  the  war  were  re- 
enforced  by  new  arrivals,  until,  at  the  time  the 
principal  attack  was  delivered.  Vice  Admiral 
John  Michael  De  Robeck  could  command  13  Brit- 
ish battleships — including  the  newly-constructed 
super-dreadnought  Queen  Elizabeth  with  her 
eight  15-inch  guns,  besides  the  JnfUxiblef  Agar 
memnony  ComicalliSy  Vengeance,  Triumph,  Irre- 
sistible, Albion,  Ocean,  Lord  Nelson,  Prince 
Oeorge,  Majestic,  and  Swiftsure,  In  addition, 
the  French  Rear  Admiral  Gu^pratte  had  the 
French  battleships  Bouvet,  Suffren,  Oaulois,  and 
Charlemagne,  Altogether  the  Allied  fleet 
mounted,  besides  the  powerful  15-inch  guns  of 
the  Queen  Elizabeth,  almost  70  12-inch  guns  and 
an  even  greater  number  of  secondary  guns.  The 
first  task  which  the  Anglo-French  fleet  set  itself 
to  accomplish  was  the  reduction  of  the  outer 
forts  of  the  Dardanelles.  The  entrance  to  the 
Dardanelles  is  about  two  and  three-eights  miles 


wide,  and  was  defended  by  forts  at  Gape  Helles 
and  Sedd-el-Bahr  on  the  tip  of  the  Grallipoli 
Peninsula,  on  the  northern  side,  and  by  forts 
Kum  Kale  and  Orkanieh,  on  the  southern  or 
Asiatic  side.  At  Sedd-el-Bahr  there  were  six 
10.2-inch  guns;  at  Cape  Helles,  two  9.2-inch 
guns;  at  Kum  Kale  four  10.2-  and  two  5.9-ineh 
guns;  and  at  Orkanieh  two 
9.2-inch  guns.  On  February 
19th,  the  fleet  began  a  heavy 
bombardment  of  these  onto* 
forts.  As  the  batteries  on 
shore  were  enormously  outnum- 
bered and  outranged  by  the 
guns  of  the  battleships,  the 
Turks  made  no  effort  to  reply 
to  the  bombardment,  until  in 
the  afternoon,  when  the  British 
Admiral  Garden  <who  was 
later  superseded  by  De  Ro- 
beck), thinking  he  had  put  the 
forts  out  of  action,  ordered  his 
ships  to  steam  in  close  to  shore 
in  order  to  clinch  the  victory. 
Twilight  came  before  either 
the  forts  or  the  ships  oouM 
score  any  important  success. 
The  second  attack  on  the  four 
outer  forts  was  delivered  on 
Febniary  25th.  This  time  the 
superiority  of  the  Allies'  guns 
was  utilized  with  greater  ef- 
fect. The  Queen  Elizaheth, 
safe  out  of  range  of  the  land 
guns,  rained  15-inch  shells  on 
the  Turkish  gunners  at  Cape 
Helles.  The  Agamemnon,  the 
Irresistible,  and  the  Oaulois 
shelled  the  forts  with  compara- 
tive safety  from  a  somewhat 
shorter  distance,  the  only  cas- 
ualty being  the  loss  of  three 
men  killed  and  five  wounded  on 
board  the  Agamemnon,  caused 
by  the  bursting  of  one  well- 
directed  Turkish  shell.  About 
noon  the  Vengeance,  ComicalHs, 
Suffren,  Charlemagne,  and  a 
little  later  Triumph  and  Al- 
bion, steamed  in  close  to  the 
forts;  by  evening  the  last  Turkish  gun  had 
been  put  out  of  action.  The  next  day,  land- 
ing parties  were  sent  ashore  to  blow  up  the 
remains  of  the  Turkish  forts  which  had  bem 
silenced  the  previous  evening;  at  Kum  Kale 
the  landing  party  was  surprised  by  Turkish 
troops  and  forced  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 
Again  on  March  4th  a  landing  party  was  re- 
pulsed at  Kum  Kale.  However,  the  fleet  had 
little  more  to  fear  from  either  shore  of  the  en- 
trance to  the  straits,  as  the  big  guns  of  the  four 
forts  had  been  put  out  of  action.  Trawlers  had 
swept  the  first  few  miles  of  the  channel  clear 
of  mines,  northeast  of  Sedd-el-Bahr  and  Kum 
Kale,  so  that  battleships  could  now  venture  into 
the  lower  end  of  the  straits,  in  order  to  bombard 
the  forts  situated  14  or  15  miles  from  the  en- 
trance. These  forts,  Kilid  Bahr  on  the  western 
sliore  and  Chanak  on  the  eastern  shore,  located 
at  a  point  where  the  channel  narrowed  to  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width,  were  the  cen- 
tral defenses  of  the  Dardanelles.  Here  the  Ger- 
man advisers  of  the  Turkish  government  had 
planted   their .  14-inch    Krupp   gius.    The   four 


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WAJt  OF  THE  NATIONS 


forts  at  the  entrance  to  the  Dardanelles  had  been 
mere  outposts,  designed  to  dehiy  rather  than  to 
stop  the  invader.  The  decisive  battle  would  be 
the  battle  for  the  Narrows.  On  March  6th, 
while  the  Vengeance,  Albion,  Majestic,  Prince 
George,  and  8uffren  steamed  up  into  the  straits 
and  engaged  the  subsidiary  forts  just  below  Gha- 
nak  and  Kilid  Bahr,  the  Queen  Elizabeth,  Aga- 
memnon, and  Ocean,  lying  in  the  Gulf  of  Saros, 
trained  their  powerful  guns  on  the  forts  at  Cha- 
nak.  As  the  hills  of  the  Grallipoli  Peninsula 
lay  between  the  three  last  mentioned  ships  and 
their  target,  the  bombardment  was  directed  en- 
tirely by  aeroplane  observation.  On  March  7th, 
the  forts  at  the  Narrows  were  again  subjected 
to  bombardment.  At  the  close  of  the  dav's  ac- 
tion, the  British  withdrew  in  elation,  believing, 
that  they  had  put  the  Ghanak  forts  out  of  com- 
mission without  losing  a  single  ship,  and  sus- 
taining only  slight  injuries  to  the  Oaulds,  Aga- 
memnon, and  Lord  Nelson,  London  was  jubi- 
lant at  the  news.  By  March  18th  all  was  ready 
for  the  supreme  effort  which  would  carry  the 
Anglo-French  fleet  past  the  dangerous  Narrows 
and  on  into  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  With  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  calm  sea  and  a  clear  sky  in  their 
favor,  the  Queen  Elizabeth,  Inflewible,  Agamem- 
non, Triumph,  Prince  George,  and  Lord  Nelson 
entered  the  straits  and  took  up  a  position  7  or 
8  miles  distant  from  the  Narrows.  A  little 
over  an  hour  later,  a  second  squadron,  composed 
of  the  four  French  ships,  steamed  up  in  front  of 
the  English  ships  and  from  a  closer  range  con- 
centrated their  fire  against  the  Turkish  forts. 
As  the  forts  ceased  f&ing  the  fleet  opened  the 
third  and  culminating  phase  of  the  attack.  Six 
English  battleships,  the  Albion,  Vengeance, 
Swiftsure,  Majestic,  Ocean,  and  Irresistible, 
were  to  close  in  on  the  Narrows  forts.  The 
French  squadron  had  to  shift  its  position  to 
make  way  for  this  new  attack.  Then  suddenly 
forts  which  were  supposed  to  have  been  dis- 
mantled blazed  forth  again.  Floating  mines 
were  sent  down  the  channel  (being  carried  by 
the  current  which  runs  toward  the  JBgean). 
Three  large  shells  and  a  mine  simultaneously 
struck  the  French  ship  Bouvet,  Within  three 
minutes,  almost  before  the  echoes  of  the  mighty 
explosion  had  died  and  the  cloud  of  smoke 
cleared  away,  the  Bouvet  sank,  with  her  crew 
on  board.  Another  mine  hit  the  Irresistible; 
but  the  crew  of  the  British  ship  was  picked  up 
by  destroyers,  under  Are.  The  next  victim  was 
the  Ocean,  suddenly  sunk  by  a  mine.  Mean- 
while the  Turkish  guns  had  proved  unable  to  sink 
any  of  the  attacking  battleships,  but  they  had 
set  the  Inflewible  on  fire,  opened  a  great  gap  in 
the  armor-plate  of  the  Gaulois,  and  inflicted  se- 
vere  punishment  on  other  ships.  At  twilight 
the  great  fleet  quietly  steamed  out  of  the  straits, 
followed  by  a  salvo  of  parting  shots  from  the 
forts  which  the  fleet  had  striven  to  annihilate. 
More  than  two  thousand  men  and  three  battle- 
ships had  been  sacrificed  in  vain. 

Instead  of  admitting  defeat  and  abandoning 
the  Dardanelles  campaign  entirely,  however,  the 
Allies,  probably  at  the  insistent  demand  of  the 
British  government,  decided  to  land  troops  on 
the  Gallipoli  Peninsula  in  the  hope  that  a  land 
attack  might  succeed  where  the  navy  had  failed. 
From  March  18th  to  April  25th,  while  it  waited 
for  troops  to  arrive  on  the  scene,  the  Allied  fieet 
continued  a  desultory  bombardment  of  the  forts 
inside  the  straits  and  prevented  the  Turka  from 


repairing  the  ruined  forts  at  Kum  Kale  and 
Sedd-el-Sahr.  Smyrna  was  shelled  by  way  of 
diversion.  A  British  submarine,  the  E-15,  was 
imluckily  grounded  and  had  to  be  blown  up,  lest 
it  should  fall  into  the  possession  of  the  Turks. 

The  Land  Attack  on  the  Dardanklles 
(ApRiii-JuNE),  The  land  attack  on  the  Dar- 
danelles was  undertaken  at  the  end  of  April  by 
an  Anglo-French  expeditionary  force  of  120,000 
men  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Sir  Ian  Ham- 
ilton. The  expeditionary  force  was  a  motley 
affair,  made  up  of  an  Australian  division,  a 
New  Zealand  division,  a  detachment  of  Indian 
troops,  a  division  of  British  Territorials^  the 
British  Naval  Division  (which  had  been  sent  to 
Antwerp  at  an  earlier  sta^e  of  the  war),  and 
the  29th  Division  of  the  British  army.  As  Gen- 
eral Joffre  was  unwilling  to  spare  any  regular 
troops  from  the  battle  line  in  France,  the 
French  contributed  only  a  small  detachment  of 
Fusiliers  Marins,  colonials,  and  the  Foreign  Le* 
gion.  This  heterogeneous  aggregation,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  three  army  corps,  was  destined  to 
attack  a  much  stronger  Turkish  army,  com- 
manded by  a  skillful  German  General,  Liman 
von  Sanders,  and  ensconced  in  practically  im- 
pregnable positions.  The  Gallipoli  Peninsula 
extends  southwest  from  its  neck  at  Bulair  about 
45  miles  to  its  tip  at  Gape  Helles  (near  Sedd-el- 
Bahr),  broadening  out  from  3  miles  in  width 
(at  a  point  just  west  of  Bulair)  to  more  than 
10  miles  (in  the  middle)  and  then  narrowing 
down  again  towards  the  tip.  The  tip  of  the 
peninsula  strongly  resembles  a  human  foot,  with 
its  heel  almost  closing  the  straits  at  Kilid  Bahr, 
and  its  toe  at  Sedd-el-Bahr.  Just  where  the 
ankle  bone  ought  to  be,  we  find  the  hill  called 
Pasha  Dagh.  Down  nearer  the  toe  is  another 
hill,  Achi  Baba,  dominating  the  town  of  Krithia. 
Above  the  ankle  is  the  hill  of  Sari  Bair.  The 
ultimate  aim  of  the  expeditionary  force  was  to 
capture  the  forts  at  the  heel  of  the  foot,  at 
Kilid  Bahr,  either  by  directly  attacking  or  by 
encircling  and  isolating  them.  Three  plans  of 
campaign  are  suggested  by  a  glance  at  the  map. 
(1)  An  army  might  be  landed  near  Bulair  and 
work  back  down  into  the  peninsula  cutting  com- 
munications with  Gonstantinople  and  taking  the 
forts  in  the  rear.  (2)  Armies  might  be  landed 
along  the  ankle  and  shin — to  continue  the  met- 
aphor of  the  foot — at  Gaba  Tepe,  Ari  Bumu, 
and  Suvla  Bay,  and  fight  their  way  across  the 
ankle,  first  capturino-  the  hill  of  Sari  Bair,  over 
to  Maidos  and  Kilid  Bahr.  (3)  A  frontal  at- 
tack might  be  made,  beginning  at  the  tip  of  the 
toe,  and  encountering  the  strong  Turkish  posi- 
tions at  Achi  Baba  and,  5  miles  further  on,  at 
Pasha  Dagh.  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  elected  to  com- 
bine the  second  and  third  plans.  On  a  beautiful 
Sunday  morning,  at  daybreak,  April  25th,  Brit- 
ish troops  were  landed  at  six  different  points 
on  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula,  while  French  troops 
were  disembarked  on  the  Asiatic  coast  at  Kum 
Kale.  One  of  the  British  landing  parties,  made 
up  of  Australian  and  New  Zealand  troops, 
landed  at  Ari  Burnu  to  fight  their  way  across 
the  ankle.  (The  landing  b^ch  was  called  Anzae 
Gove,  the  name  ''anzac''  being  composed  of  the 
initials  of  ''Australian  and  New  Zealand  Army 
Oorps.")  The  other  five  British  landings,  at 
beaches  "Y,"  "X,"  "W,"  "V,"  and  "S,"  were  all 
directed  against  the  toe  of  the  foot.  At  Ari 
Bumu,  north  of  Gaba  Tepe,  the  Australasian 
landing  party  gallantly  charged  up  the  boush 

Digitized  by  VnOO^lC 


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708 


WAJt  OF  THB  HATIOlffl 


under  heavy  fire,  ousted  the  Turkish  riflemen 
from  their  trenches^  and  then  scrambled  up  the 
cliffs  which  rose  abruptly  40  feet  from  the 
water's  edge.  There  the  Australasians  with- 
stood a  fierce  Turkish  counter-attack,  February 
26th,  made  good  their  position,  and  feverishly 
proceeded  with  the  work  of  constructing  trenches. 
At  Beach  "Y,"  which  is  due  east  of  Krithia,  the 
landing  was  easily  accomplished,  but  a  Turkish 
counter-attack  compelled  the  landing  party  to 
reSmbark,  leaving  the  Turks  in  undisputed  pos- 
session of  the  beach.  At  beach  ''X"  the  landing 
party  was  strongly  assailed,  but  held  its  ground. 
At  beach  *'W"  the  troops  were  caught  in  wire 
entanglements  and  mowed  down  by  concealed 
machine  guns,  but  the  position  won  on  the  shore 
was  maintained  against  all  attacks.  The  land- 
ing at  beach  "V,"  close  to  Sedd-el-Bahr,  was  per- 
haps the  most  difficult  of  all,  and  was  accom- 
plished only  with  severe  losses.  At  beach  '^S," 
near  Eski  Hissarlik  Point,  the  landing  was  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  from  trawlers.  The 
French  landin&r  party  at  Kum  Kale  was  bril- 
liantly successful ;  after  capturing  600  prisoners, 
the  French  troops  were  able  to  come  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  British  at  beach  "S"  and  take  up 
a  position  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  line.  The 
landing  parties  from  beaches  "S,"  "V,"  "W," 
and  ''X"  advanced  together,  April  28th,  in  the 
direction  of  Krithia,  until  the  Anglo-French 
line  ran  from  a  point  3  miles  north  of  Gape 
Tekke,  on  the  iEgean  side,  to  a  point  1  mile 
north  of  Eski  Hissarlik,  on  the  Dardanelles 
side.  By  May  Ist,  practically  the  entire  expe- 
ditionary force  had  been  landed;  the  Austral- 
asian Corps  had  entrenched  itself  north  of  Gaba 
Tepe,  its  purpose  being  to  hold  the  attention  of 
as  many  Turkish  troops  as  possible,  while  the 
main  Anglo-French  force  at  the  toe  of  the  pen- 
insula, approximately  two  army  corps,  delivered 
the  principal  attack  on  the  Turkish  position  at 
Krithia.  By  moonlight,  May  1st,  the  Turlcs 
made  a  determined  effort  to  dislodge  the  invader 
south  of  Krithia.  Furious  bayonet  charges 
pierced  the  line  of  British  and  French  trenches, 
but  at  dawn  of  May  2nd  the  Allies  rallied  for  a 
counter-attack  which  forced  the  Turks  to  retire 
precipitately.  In  a  three-day  battle.  May  6-8, 
the  Anglo-French  line  made  a  supreme  attempt 
to  expel  the  Turks  from  Krithia.  By  dint  of 
desperate  infantry  charges,  covered  by  field  and 
naval  artillery,  the  Allies  were  barely  able  to 
advance  a  thousand  yards.  To  their  intense 
disappointment  and  chagrin  they  realized  that 
the  terrain  had  been  carefully  prepared  by  ex- 
pert engineers;  wire  entanglements,  concealed 
trenches,  and  hidden  batteries  were  encountered 
at  every  turn.  The  Turkish  guns  on  the  hill  of 
Achi  Baba  commanded  the  whole  position,  and 
were  so  well  protected  that  even  the  heavy  guns 
of  the  British  dreadnoughts,  which  assisted  in 
the  attack,  could  not  disable  them.  In  the  sec- 
ondary theatre  of  operations  at  Gaba  Tepe,  the 
Australasian  corps  captured  three  lines  of  Turk- 
ish trenches  on  the  slopes  of  Sari  Bair,  and  im- 
mediately lost  them.  May  0-10.  Ten  days  later. 
May  10th,  the  Turks  fiercely  attacked  the 
trenches  which  the  Australasian  troops  had 
hastily  dug  in  the  form  of  a  great  semi-circle 
about  the  landing  beach.  The  Australasians 
manfully  stood  their  ground,  and  by  night  the 
Turks  were  forced  to  admit  defeat,  leaving  over 
7000  of  their  men  (according  to  British  reports) 
killed  or  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle.     Mean- 


while the  fighting  on  the  Krithia  front  had  con- 
tinued without  decisive  results.  An  importaat 
advance  was  made  on  May  28th  by  the  French 
troops  (on  the  extreme  right  of  the  battle  line), 
who  after  many  bootless  attempts  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  "Le  Haricot,"  a  redoubt 
which  the  Turks  had  concealed  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Kereves  Dere  Valley.  A  third  gen- 
eral attack  on  the  Krithia  line  was  ordered  by 
Gen.  Sir  Ian  Hamiltcm  for  June  4th.  On  a  front 
of  3  miles  the  British  line  was  moved  forward 
about  500  yards,  but  the  French  lost  "Le  Hari- 
cot." The  battle  of  June  4th  marked  the  fail- 
ure of  the  Allies'  campaign  on  the  tip  of  Ga.1- 
lipoli :  three  bloody  battles  had  been  fought,  am- 
munition had  been  wasted  in  terrific  Iwmbard- 
ments,  and  somewhere  between  40,000  and  70,000 
men  had  been  sacrificed;  yet  the  principal  Turk- 
ish position  at  Achi  Baba  remained  unconquered 
and  unconquerable,  blocking  the  path  to  Kilid 
Bahr.  Furthermore,  suoport  for  the  land  forces 
was  no  longer  to  be  had  from  the  big  guns  of  the 
fleet;  for  after  the  loss  of  three  iMiSleships  in 
May — ^the  Ooliath,  torpedoed  by  a  Turkish  de- 
stroyer, May  12t]i;  the  Triumph,  torpedoed  by 
a  (German  submarine  in  full  davlight,  while 
numerous  destroyers  were  on  the  lookout.  May 
26th;  and  the  Majestic,  torpedoed,  probably  by 
the  same  submarine.  May  27th — the  Queem 
Elizabeth  and  the  more  powerful  of  the  battle- 
ships prudently  withdrew  from  the  i£gean,  leay- 
ing  at  the  Dardanelles  only  a  few  battleships  of 
antiquated  type,  with  a  number  of  French  and 
British  cruisers,  a  flotilla  of  destroyers,  a  moni- 
tor, and  some  submarines.  At  the  end  of  April, 
it  should  be  remarked,  two  British  submarines 
had  covered  themselves  with  glory  by  raiding  the 
Sea  of  Marmora.  The  E-H,  commanded  by  Ed- 
ward C.  Boyle,  had  penetrated  the  Narrow^s,  en- 
tered the  Sea  of  Marmora,  sunk  two  Turkish 
gunboats  and  a  transport,  and  returned  safely. 
The  E-11,  commanded  by  Eric  Naismith,  haid 
done  even  better,  sinking  three  Turkish  trans- 
ports, three  store  ships,  and  a  gunboat. 

(5)  The  Second  Battle   of  Ypres:    April-May. 

The  failure  to  force  the  Dardanelles  was  only 
one  item  in  the  long  list  of  disappointments 
which  the  Allies  experienced  in  1016.  First  the 
long-expected  "spring  offensive"  in  France  had 
netted  the  British  one  little  village,  Neuve  Gha- 
pelle,  March  10th.  The  French  had  not  been 
much  more  successful.  Then  the  Dardanellea 
naval  attack  had  proved  futile,  March  18th. 
The  assistance  so  impatiently  expected  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  from  Rumania  and  Greece 
was  never  proffered.  Italy  delayed  entering  the 
war  until  the  end  of  May.  And  meanwhile  the 
Russian  campaign  in  Galicia,  so  promising  in 
March,  met  with  terrible  disaster  in  May,  as 
will  presently  appear,  and  disheartening  news 
came  from  the  Western  front.  At  the  very  time 
when  military  critics  in  England  and  France 
were  pointing  out  that  General  Joffre's  *'nib- 
bling"  tactics  were  wearing  down  the  strength 
of  the  German  line  in  the  West,  a  new  blow  waa 
delivered  with  tremendous  force  by  the  German 
army  in  Belgium.  On  April  17th  the  British 
sappers  had  blown  up  the  German  trenches  on 
Hill  60,  a  little  more  than  2  miles  southeast 
of  Ypres,  and  the  summit  had  been  occupied  by 
British  infantry.  Failing  to  retake  Hill  60 
by    reckless   infantry   assaults   and   by   furious 

Digitized  by  V:r005lC 


WAB  07  THE  NATIONS 


709 


WAB  07  THE  NATIONS 


artillery  bombardment,  the  Germans  on  the  even- 
ing of  April  22nd  suddenly  attacked  the  op* 
posite  side  of  the  '^Ypres  salient,"  and  crum- 
pled up  the  northern  arc  of  the  roughly  semi- 


Thb  Second  Battll^  of  Yi'Riis,  xU'bil-May,  ID  15 

circular  line  in  front  of  Yiwes.  This  time  the 
way  for  the  infantry  attack  had  been  prepared* 
not  by  artillery,  but  by  a  cloud  of  greenish  va- 
por, which  a  gentle  breeze  wafted  towards  the 
Allies'  trenches.  The  vapor,  as  the  Allied  troops 
soon  learned  to  their  amazement  and  consterna- 
tion, was  chlorine  gas,  which  chokes  and  asphyx- 
iates with  horrible  effect.  The  French  troops 
holding  the  line  from  Steenstraate  to  Lange- 
marck,  north  of  Ypres,  broke  and  fled  before 
this  novel  and  peculiarly  cruel  form  of  attack. 
The  Canadian  troops  holding  the  line  southeast 
of  the  French  were  less  seriously  affected  by  the 
gas-attack,  but  the  precipitate  retreat  of  the 
French  had  uncoverea  the  left  wing  of  the  Ca- 
nadian division.  For  a  time  the  situation  of 
the  Allied  line  east  of  Ypres  was  most  perilous. 
To  the  north  of  the  city,  the  Germans  had 
crossed  the  Yser  Canal  and  obtained  a  foothold 
at  Lizeme.  If  the  Germans  could  advance  but 
a  few  miles  further  into  the  breach  made  by  the 
chlorine  fumes,  the  Canadians  would  be  encir- 
cled and  the  other  Allied  forces  on  the  Ypres 
salient,  from  Broodseinde  to  Hill  60,  would  be 
able  to  extricate  themselves  only  with  extreme 
difficulty.  The  situation  was  saved  by  the  gal- 
lant resistance  of  the  Canadians,  and  by  the 
timely  arrival  of  five  British  battalions  under 
Colonel  Geddes  to  fill  in  the  gap  between  the 
Canadians  and  the  Yser  Canal.  But,  on  April 
24th,  the  Allies  were  again  driven  back,  choking 
and  gasping,  by  another  cloud  of  chlorine  gas. 
St.  Julien  was  abandoned  to  the  Germans,  Feb- 
ruary 24th.  By  May  3rd  Grafenstafel,  Zonne- 
beke,  Westhoek,  and  Veldhoek  had  been  relin- 
quished. Hill  60  was  captured  by  the  Germans 
May  5th.  New  German  assaults  on  May  8th 
and  9th  forced  the  British  back  from  Frezen- 
berg  to  Verlorenhoek.  On  May  13th  British 
cavalry    brigades     (dismounted),    holding    the 


line  from  Hooge  to  Verlorenhoek,  were  badly 
battered.  On  May  24th  the  gas  attack  was  vig- 
orously renewed.  But  early  in  June  the  battle 
may  be  said  to  have  died  away,  leaving  the 
Ypres  salient  very  much  reduced,  but  still  in- 
tact, with  Bixschoote  and  Lizerne  once  more  in 
the  Allies'  hands,  Pilkem,  St.  Julien,  Zonnebeke, 
Veldhoek,  and  Hill  60  in  German  possession. 
The  significance  of  the  battle  of  Ypres,  however, 
lay  not  so  much  in  the  loss  of  ground  to  the 
Germans,  as  in  the  convincing  demonstration  of 
the  ability  of  the  German  army  to  assume  the 
offensive  against  superior  numbers,  relying  on 
its  own  superior  mechanicaj  equipment.  Hence- 
forth the  Allies,  ^nd  above  all  the  British,  la- 
bored with  feverish  anxiety  to  supply  the  equip- 
ment of  hand-grenades,  bombs,  high  explosive 
shells,  machine  guris,  and  respirators  (for  pro- 
tection against  chlorine  attacks),  without  which 
attacks  against  the  German  lines  were  fore- 
doomed to  costly  failure. 

(6)   The  Battle  of  Artois:   May-June, 

If  any  further  demonstration  were  needed  of 
the  advantage  which  the  Germans  derived  from 
their  superior  technique  in  the  art  of  trench- 
warfare,  the  results  of  the  Allied  offensive  in 
May  and  June  supplied  it.  In  May,  after  the 
first  fury  of  the  German  attack  on  Ypres  had 
spent  itself.  General  Foch,  commanding  the 
"northern  sector,"  ordered  the  resumption  of 
the  Allied  offensive.  On  May  9  the  French  just 
north  of  Arras  and  the  British   further  north 


The  Scene  of  the  Battle  of  Artois,  May- 
June,  1915 

in  the  vicinity  of  Neuve  Chapelle,  simultane- 
ously assailed  the  German  lines.  The  immedi- 
ate object  of  the  French  attack  was  the  impor- 
tant railway  centre  of  Lens;  that  of  the  Brit- 


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WAB  07  THE  NATIONS 


710 


WAB  07  THB  NATIONS 


ish  was  the  Aubers  ridge  east  of  Neuve  Ghapelle. 
If  Buccensful,  from  Lens  and  Aubers  the  Allies 
could  press  on  towards  Lille.  By  the  eyeninff 
of  May  12th,  Carency,  the  fortified  chapel  w 
Notre-Dame  de  Lorette,  and  the  cemetery  of 
Neuville  St.  Vaast  had  fallen  into  French 
hands.  From  May  13  to  the  third  week  in  June 
the  French  were  engaored  in  capturing  the  iso- 
lated fortins  or  redoubts  which  the  German  en- 
gineers had  constructed  with  astounding  inge- 
nuity, blocking  the  way  to  Lens.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  June  the  most  formidable  of  these  defen- 
sive works,  the  so-called  "Labyrinth"  (between 
Arras  and  Neuville  St.  Vaast) — an  intricate 
maze  of  trenches  and  subterranean  tunnels — 
was  mastered  by  the  French.  But  Lens  re- 
mained uncaptured.  The  British  in  the  mean- 
time had  failed  in  their  fitst  assault  on  the 
Aubers  ridge,  May  9th,  because  of  insufficient 
artillery  preparation.  A  second  assault  on  the 
German  lines  was  delivered  by  the  British  at  a 
point  a  little  further  south.  May  16th.  This 
second  assault,  *'the  battle  of  Festubert,"  con- 
tinuing for  10  days,  placed  the  British  in  pos- 
session of  "the  entire  flrst-line  system  of 
trenches"  on  a  front  of  3200  yards,  according 
to  Sir  John  French's  report,  and  of  the  first 
and  second  lines  of  German  trenches  on  a  front 
of  two  miles  more.  It  was  a  distinct  victory, 
but  the  objective  of  the  attack  had  not  been 
gained,  and  the  British  had  once  more  been 
forced  to  admit  the  superiority  of  the  German 
technique  in  trench  warfare.  The  only  other 
important  fighting  on  the  Western  front  dur- 
ing the  summer  was  the  German  offensive  con- 
ducted by  the  Crown  Prince  in  the  Argonne 
from  June  20th  to  the  middle  of  July.  The 
German  front  in  the  Argonne,  as  the  result  of 
the  midsummer  battle,  was  advanced  about  400 
yards;  the  forces  engaged,  however,  were  rela- 
tively small,  and  the  strategic  idea  obscure.  A 
British  historian  derisively  describes  the  Ar- 
gonne battle  as  "an  attempt  to  retrieve  a  some- 
what damaged  reputation  on  the  part  of  a  gen- 
eral (the  Crown  Prince),  whom  birth  had  cast 
for  a  part  he  could  not  fill." 

(7)   Von  M€ick€n8en*8  Drive  in  Galicia:  Majf- 
June, 

While  in  the  West  and  on  Gallipoli,  the  Brit- 
ish and  French  armies  were  meeting  with  dis- 
couraging results,  in  Galicia  the  Russian  ar- 
mies of  General  Tvanov  were  sustaining  a  dis- 
astrous defeat.  Up  to  the  end  of  April,  the 
Russian  offensive,  in  spite  of  the  inadequate 
supply  of  munition  which  hampered  General 
Ivanbv's  campaign  in  Galicia,  seemed  to  offer  the 
brightest  prospects  of  success  to  which  the  Al- 
lies could  look.  The  "military  experts"  of  Eng- 
lish and  French  journals  optimistically  debated 
the  question  whether  Cracow  or  Hungary  would 
be  General  Ivanov's  next  objective.  Then  sud- 
denly the  amazing  news  was  received  that  the 
Russian  armies  in  Galicia  were  in  full  retreat, 
pursued  relentlessly  by  General  von  Mackensen. 
Tlie  reason  for  the  surprise  was  simple.  With 
marvelous  secrecy  and  speed  Austrian  and  Ger- 
man armies,  aggregating  about  2,000,000  men, 
had  been  concentrated  for  a  prodigious  blow  in 
Galicia.  Probably  as  many  as  1500  heavy 
guns,  and  thousands  of  lighter  field  pieces,  with 
unlimited  supplies  of  ammunition,  had  been 
placed   in   position.    The  whole  group  of   Aus- 


tro-German  armies — ^Including  von  Woyrsch's 
army  operating  north  of  the  Galician  frontier. 
Archduke  Joseph  Fredinand's,  and  von  Mack- 
ensen's  own  armies-— concentrated  east  of  Cm- 
cow  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Carpathians, 
Boehm-Ermolli  attacking  northward  in  the 
central  Carpathians,  von  Linsingen  further  east 
menacing  Stryj  from  Munkacs,  and  von  Both- 
mer  and  von  Pflanzer  in  the  extreme  east.  By 
feints  in  the  direction  of  Stryj  the  Russians 
were  kept  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  direction 
from  which  the  attack  was  to  be  delivered,  if, 
indeed,  the  Russians  realised  at  all  the  danger 
in  which  they  stood.  After  a  preliminary  ad- 
vance east  of  Neu  Sandec  towards  Gorlice,  the 
main  attack  began  on  May  1st  with  an  artillery 
bombardment  of  unprecedented  magnitude.  The 
Russian  trenches  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Biala  River,  between  Tamow  and  Gorlice,  were 
blasted  out  of  existence.  In  order  lo  visualise 
the  operation,  the  north-and-south  line  of  the 
Biala  River  between  Tamow  and  Grybow  may 
be  conceived  as  the  cross-bar  of  a  huge  letter 
H  lying  on  its  side.  The  northern  1^  of  the  H 
was  the  east-and-west  railway  running  through 
Tamow;  the  southern  leg  was  the  parallel  rail- 
way running  through  Novo  Sandec,  Grybow,  and 
Gorlice.  The  brunt  of  the  German  attack  was 
on  the  cross-bar  of  the  H,  south  of  Tamow.  In 
the  middle  of  the  cross-bar,  the  Biala  River 
was  crossed  at  Ciezkowice,  May  2nd.  Other 
Teutonic  armies  were  thrown  across  the  Dona- 
jetz  River,  north  of  Tamow.  Simultaneously 
an  advance  was  made  eastward  along  the  south- 
em  leg  of  the  H,  where  Gorlice  was  captinred. 
May  2nd.  If  the  legs  of  the  H  are  continued 
eastward,  a  second  cross-bar  will  be  discovered 
in  the  Wisloka  River,  about  20  miles  east  of 
Tamow  and  Gorlice.  To  this  position  the  Rus- 
sians fell  back  after  the  defeat  of  May  2nd,  and 
in  new  trenches  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Wisloka  they  waited  with  grim  determination 
for  von  Mackensen's  attack.  It  will  be  noted 
that  Dukla  Pass  Hes  almost  due  south  of  the 
Wisloka  cross-bar,  and  that  if  the  Germans 
could  cross  the  Wisloka,  the  Russian  troops 
which  had  penetrated  into  Dukla  Pass  would  be 
virtually  cut  off.  Realizing  this  danger,  the 
Russian  defenders  of  the  Wisloka  fought  des- 
perately. But  irresistibly  von  Mackensen 
pressed  on  until  he  had  crossed  the  Wisloka  at 
Jaslo,  May  7th.  The  Russians  from  Dukla  Pass 
fled  towards  the  Wystok  River,  east  of  the  Wis- 
loka. Here  again  they  were  hotly  pursued  by 
a  German  force,  which  crossed  the  Wystok,  May 
8th.  Large  bodies  of  fugitive  Russian  troops 
were  made  captive.  A  considerable  part,  how- 
ever, of  the  Russian  Army  of  the  Passes  extri- 
cated itself  in  time  to  join  the  more  northerly 
portions  of  Ivanov's  armies  in  a  stand  on  the 
line  of  the  San.  The  c«itre  of  the  Russian  line, 
on  May  12th,  before  the  battle  of  the  San,  rested 
on  the  San  River,  from  the  fortress  of  Przemysl 
to  a  point  well  north  of  Jaroslav ;  the  right  was 
in  front  of  the  San ;  the  left  wing  was  bait  bade 
behind  the  San.  The  battle  of  the  San,  one  of 
the  most  momentous  engagements  of  the  war, 
began  on  May  15th  with  a  Russian  counter-at- 
tack, and  ended  on  May  17th  with  the  Austrians 
crossing  the  river  at  Jaroslav,  under  the  personal 
observation  of  the  German  Emperor.  Przemysl, 
further  south,  held  out  until  June  2.  Mean- 
while von  Linsingen,  striking  north  through  tiie 
Carpathians,  captured  Stryj,  June  1st,  and  ad- 


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THE  GERMAN   EMPEROR  AND  GENERAL  VON  MACKENSEN 
The  German  Campaign  Against  Russia 


I'hututrraphs  by  I'aul  Thoiii|iH<ii) 

FORTIFICATIONS  ON  THE  WEST  BANK  OF  THE  DVINA  RIVER 

THE  WAR  IN  EUROPE 


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vainced  north  acroBS  the  Dniester.  Although 
yon  Linftin^n  suffered  severe  punishment  at  the 
hands  of  General  Brussilov,  the  Austro-German 
advance  continued  to  make  progress.  On  June 
20th  von  Mackensen  captured  Rawa  Russka, 
north  of  Lemberg. 

Von  Mackensen's  victory  at  Rawa  Russka  ren- 
dered Lemberg  untenable  and  compelled  the 
Russians  to  evacuate  the  strong  line  of  lakes, 
river,  and  marshes  which  constituted  the  '*Gro- 
dek  position/'  just  west  of  Lemberg.  On  June 
22nd  the  Austrian  General  Boehm-Ermolli  tri- 
umphantly reentered  the  city  which  the  Russians 
had  captured  nine  months  before.  The  fall  of 
Lemberg  may  be  taken  as  the  crowning  achieve- 
ment of  the  first  phase  of  von  Mackensen's  great 
drive.  The  Russians  had  been  driven  out  of 
the  Carpathian  passes  in  headlong  rout.  Tar- 
now,  Jaroslav,  Przemysl,  and  Lemberg  had  been 
reconquered,  and  the  Russians  all  but  expelled 
from  Galicia — they  still  held  a  strip  of  Eastern 
Galicia,  including  Sokal,  Brody,  and  Tarnopol 
— ^within  an  incredibly  brief  space  of  time.  At 
the  end  of  June  and  during  the  first  part  of 
July,  von  Mackensen's  battering  ram  was  pointed 
north,  into  Russian  Poland,  presaging  an  even 
more  ambitious  Teutonic  offensive. 

During  June  alone  the  Teutonic  forces  cap- 
tured 145,000  prisoners,  80  heavy  guns,  and  268 
machine  guns.  In  recognition  of  his  brilliant 
success,  von  Mackensen  was  appointed  a  field 
marshal.  Archduke  Frederiek,  commander-in 
chief  of  the  Austrian  army,  was  similarly  hon- 
ored. 

(8)   Italy's  Intervention:   May, 

In  May,  w^hile  the  Russians  were  in  full  re- 
treat and  while  the  British,  slowly  perceiving 
the  gravity  of  the  situation,  were  reconstructing 
their  cabinet  and  establishing  a  ministry  of 
munitions  to  remedy  the  shortage  of  machine 
guns  and  high  explosive  shells,  a  new  factor 
became  prominent,  upon  which  the  Allies  had 
long  counted  to  redress  the  balance  of  power  in 
their  favor.  Belligerent  speeches  by  Italian 
patriots  during  the  winter  and  spring,  when  the 
situation  had  seemed  more  favorable  to  the  Al- 
lies, had  stimulated  popular  enthusiasm  for 
war  to  such  a  d^ree  that  in  May,  in  spite  of 
the  Russian  retreat  and  the  British  crisis,  the 
momentum  of  the  anti- Austrian  movement  car- 
ried Italy  into  the  war.  From  the  Oreen  Book 
published  by  the  Italian  government  to  justify 
the  war,  and  from  the  information  made  public 
on  the  other  side  by  the  Austro-Hungarian  and 
German  governments,  it  is  now  possible  to  re- 
construct at  least  the  main  outlines  of  the  dip- 
lomatic maneuvres  which  preceded  the  Austro- 
Italian  break.  The  secret  Triple  Alliance 
treaty,  first  negotiated  in  1882,  when  Italy  was 
full  of  resentment  against  France  for  seizing 
Tunis,  and  renewed  in  1887,  in  1891,  in  1903, 
and  most  recentlv  in  1912,  bound  Italy  to  the 
Central  Powers  in  a  defensive  alliance.  From 
clauses  III  and  IV  of  the  treaty  (as  pieced  to- 
gether by  the  Vossiache  Zeitung  from  the 
phrases  disclosed  in  course  of  the  negotiations 
in  1914-15),  it  appears  that  if  either  or  both 
of.  her  Allies,  "without  direct  provocation  on 
their  part"  should  be  attacked  by  another 
Power,  Italy  would  be  obliged  to  join  in  the  war 
against  the  attacking  Power  (III).  If  either 
Ally  should  be  forced  to  declare  offensive  war 


against  a  Great  Power  which  menaced  its  secur- 
ity, the  other  members  of  the  Triple  Alliance 
would  either  join  in  the  war,  or  "maintain 
benevolent  neutrality  towards  their  Ally."  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Nations,  in  Au- 
gust, 1914,  Italy  had  remained  neutral,  an- 
noimcing  that  since  Germany  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary were  engaged  in  an  offensive  war,  the 
casus  foederis  of  clause  III  did  not  exist.  Italy 
was  therefore  obliged  simply  to  observe  ''benevo- 
lent neutrality"  (clause  IV).  As  the  war  pro- 
gressed, however,  the  spirit  of  Italy's  neutrality 
became  less  and  less  "benevol«it,"  and  the  Ital- 
ian government  accused  Austria-Hungary  of 
violating  clause  VII,  which  stipulated  that  as 
far  as  the  "territorial  status  quo  in  the  East" 
was  concerned,  the  Allies  "will  give  reciprocally 
all  information  calculated  to  enlight^  eadi 
other  concerning  their  own  intentions  and  those 
of  other  Powers,"  "Should,  however,  the  case 
arise  Uiat,  in  the  course  oif  events,  the  main- 
tenance of  the  status  quo  in  the  territory  of  the 
Balkans  or  of  the  Ottoman  coasts  and  islands 
in  the  Adriatic,  or  the  uEgean  Sea  become  im- 
possible, and  that,  either  in  consequence  of  the 
action  of  a  third  Power,  or  for  any  other  reason, 
Austria-Hungary  or  Italy  should  be  obliged  to 
change  the  status  quo  for  their  part  by  a  tem- 
porary or  a  permanent  occupation,  such  occupa- 
tion would  take  place  only  after  previous  agree- 
ment between  the  two  Powers,  which  would  have 
to  be  based  upon  the  principle  of  a  reciprocal 
compensation  for  all  territorial  or  other  advan- 
tages that  either  of  them  might  acquire  over 
and  above  the  existing  status  quo,  and  would 
have  to  satisfy  the  interests  and  rightful  claims 
of  both  parties."  The  clause  had  been  invoked 
by  Austria-Himgary  in  the  Turco-Italian  War 
to  restrict  Italy's  operations  against  Turkey. 
It  was  now  invoked  by  Italy,  in  December,  1914, 
to  justify  a  demand  for  "compensation,"  since 
the  Austro-Hungarian  government  had  failed  to 
inform  Italy  in  advance  of  the  intention  to  send 
an  ultimatum  to  Serbia,  and  had  failed  to  ar- 
range to  compensate  Italy  for  the  new  advan- 
tage which  the  attack  on  Serbia  would  give  to 
the  Dual  Monarchy.  The  Austro-Hungarian 
government  could  retort  that  Italy  had  been  in- 
formed as  early  as  the  summer  of  1913  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary's intention  of  taking  action 
against  the  Serbian  menace  (this  fact  was  re- 
ferred to  by  Signor  Giolitti  in  a  speech  before 
the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  December, 
1914).  Furthermore,  no  "temporary  occupa- 
tion" of  Serbian  territory  existed,  and  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian government  had  declared  its  in- 
tention of  respecting  Serbia's  territorial  integ- 
rity. The  Italian  government,  however,  per- 
sisted in  its  demands.  The  port  of  Avlona  on 
the  Albanian  coast,  whither  an  Italian  landing 
party  was  dispatched  late  in  December,  1914 
(see  Albania),  would  only  partially  compen- 
sate Italy.  In  addition,  Austria-Hungary  would 
have  to  cede  to  Italy  the  Italian  speaking  dis- 
tricts aroimd  Trent  and  a  strip  of  land  along 
the  Isonzo  River.  This  amazing  interpretation 
of  the  Triple  Alliance  treaty  was  accepted  in 
principle  by  the  Austro-Hungarian  government 
on  March  9th,  but  only  after  a  new  Austro- 
Hungarian  foreign  minister  had  been  appointed 
(see  AusTBiA-HuNGABY).  The  German  govern- 
ment, which  had  consistently  advised  the  con- 
ciliation of  Italy,  and  had  sent  Prince  von 
Buelow  to  urge  moderation  in  Rome,  offered  to 


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guarantee  the  execution  of  whatever  terms 
should  be  agreed  upon.  The  Italian  demands, 
as  formulated  Anally  in  April,  embraced  (1) 
the  cession  of  the  Trentino  including  the  towns 
of  Rovereto,  Trent,  and  Bozen;  (2)  an  exten- 
sion of  the  eastern  Italian  frontier  along  the 
TsonKo  Hiver  to  include  the  strong  positions  of 
Tolmino,  Gorina,  Gradisca,  Pleszo,  Monfalcone, 
and  Malborghetto;  (3)  the  erection  of  Triefffce 
into  an  autonomous  state;  t4)  the  cession  of 
several  Dalmatian  Islands;  (5)  the  recognition 
of  Italian  sovereignty  over  Avlona,  and  the  dec- 
laration of  Austria-Hungary's  disinterestedness 
in  Albania.  At  first  Austria-Hungary  abso- 
lutely refused  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  de- 
mands, and  modified  the  first  by  reserving 
Bozen.  On  May  4th  Italy  denounced  her  treaty 
of  alliance  with  Austria-Hungary.  Unmistak- 
able preparations  for  war  were  pushed  forward. 
Before  the  final  rupture,  Austria-Hungary  made 
a  last  attempt  to  purchase  Italy's  neutrality, 
according  to  a  statement  made  by  von  Beth- 
mann-Hollweg,  May  18th,  by  offering  (1)  the 
Italian  part  of  the  Tyrol;  (2)  the  western  bank 
of  the  Isonzo,  "in  so  far  as  the  population  is 
purely  Italian,"  and  the  town  of  Gradisca;  (3) 
sovereignty  over  Avlona  and  a  free  hand  in  Al- 
bania; (4)  special  privileges  for  Italian  na- 
tionals in  the  Dual  Monarchy,  and  amnesty  for 
political  prisoners  who  were  natives  of  the  ceded 
provinces;  (5)  "Trieste  to  be  made  an  impe- 
rial free  city,  receiving  an  administration  giv- 
ing an  Italian  character  to  the  city,  and  to 
have  an  Italian  university."  Moreover,  the 
Austro-Hungarian  government  accepted  the 
Italian  demand  that  the  concessions  should  be 
made  as  soon  as  the  new  boundaries  could  be 
delimited,  instead  of  awaiting  the  conclusion  of 
the  war.  8ignor  Salandra,  however,  having 
tested  the  strength  of  the  war-spirit  by  tenta- 
tively resigning  (see  Italy),  was  so  confident 
of  popular  8upi>ort  that  he  refused  to  bargain 
longer,  and  on  the  evening  of  May  23rd  the  Ital- 
ian government  announced  that  the  war  against 
Austria-Hungary  would  begin  the  following  day. 
Italian  intervention  in  the  war  must  not  be  re- 
garded simply  as  the  culmination  of  unsuccess- 
ful haggling  over  a  few  paltry  patches  of  ter- 
ritory. Italy  went  to  war  first  of  all  because 
the  people  had  been  aroused  to  wild  enthusiasm 
for  a  war  of  emancipation  to  "redeem"  the  Ital- 
ian populations  of  Trent  and  Trieste  from  the 
hereditary  enemy  of  Italian  national  unifica- 
tion. At  the  same  time  chauvinistic  journals 
had  already  begun  to  preach  the  doctrine  that 
Italy  as  a  great  and  growing  Power  must  con- 
test the  possession  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  with  her 
rival  Austria- Hungary,  and  must  secure  new 
territories  outside  of  the  Italian  peninsula. 
While  chauvinists  were  frankly  urging  an  ag- 
gressive war  for  imperial  expansion,  humani- 
tarian radicals  were  exhorting  the  Italian  nation 
to  join  in  the  defense  of  civilization,  democracy, 
and  liberty  against  Austro-Grerman  militaristic 
imperialism.  These  three  powerful  sentiments 
— anti-Austrian  nationalism,  aggressive  imperi- 
alism, and  anti-German  liberalism — enabled  at 
least  a  majority  of  the  Italian  nation  to  accept 
with  approval,  if  not  with  actual  jubilation,  the 
result  of  the  diplomatic  contest.  The  Italian 
declaration  of  war,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
was  received  with  delight  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, with  deep  resentment  in  the  "Teutonic" 
countries.    It  is  significant  that  notwithstand- 


ing its  abhorrence  of  Italy's  '^treachery,"  the 
German  government  remained  at  peace  with 
Italy;  a  possible  explanation  of  this  anomaly 
might  be  the  belief  in  Germany  that  after  break- 
ing her  strength  against  impregnable  Austrian 
fortifications,  Italy  could  be  induced  to  make 
peace  separately,  deserting  the  Entente  Powers. 
The  Italiait  Plan  of  Caiipaion.  Italy's  en- 
try into  the  war  added  to  the  Allied  forces  a 
field  army  of  1,000,000  with  2,000,000  reserves 
(territorial  militia),  under  the  nominal  com- 
mand of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  the  actual 
command  of  Count  Luigi  Cadoma,  and  a  navy 
comprising  4  dreadnoughts,  10  older  battleships, 
20  submarines,  40  destroyers,  and  other  craft, 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzd. 
Austria-Hungary  at  the  outset  was  too  much 
occupied  in  the  Galician  campaign  (sifpro)  to 
take  the  offensive  against  Italy,  and  contented 
herself  with  a  naval  and  atrial  raid  on  the 
Italian  coast,  from  Venice  to  Brindisi,  early  in 
the  morning  of  May  24th.  Against  Austria- 
Hungary's  weakened  resistance,  it  was  predicted 
that  Count  Cadorna's  army  would  make  bril- 
liant progress.  His  plan  of  campaign  was 
largely  determined  by  geographic  factors.  The 
main  strength  of  the  Italian  army  was  concen- 
trated at  the  railheads  along  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  Austro-Italian  frontier,  for  an 
attack  in  force  against  the  Isonzo  River,  just 
east  of  the  border  line.  Within  a  week  the  Ital- 
ian armies  had  penetrated  Austrian  territory  as 
far  as  the  Isonzo  and  were  ready  to  assail  the 
main  Austrian  defenses,  the  fortified  heights 
east  of  the  Isonzo,  from  Monte  Nero  in  the 
north  to  Monfalcone  and  the  Carso  plateau  on 
the  coast:  if  this  line  could  be  carried,  the  way 
would  be  opened  for  the  capture  of  Trieste  and 
the  invasion  of  Camiola.  Against  the  middle 
sector  of  the  Austro-Italian  frontier,  which  is 
simply  a  northward-bulging  mountain  ridge. 
General  Cadoma  sent  only  a  comparatively  thin 
line  of  troops,  with  the  commission  of  guarding 
the  passes  and  preventing  an  Austrian  counter- 
invasion.  In  the  first  week  of  the  war  the  Ital- 
ians possessed  themselves  of  the  mountain  pass 
called  Val  d'Infemo  in  the  centre  of  the  middle 
sector,  and  captured  Cortina,  in  the  Val  d'Am- 
pezzo, at  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Strada 
d'Allemagna,  an  important  pass  at  the  western 
end  of  the  sector.  The  third  or  western  sector 
of  the  Austro-Italian  frontier  was  formed  by 
the  irregular  triangle  of  the  Trentino,  jutting 
southward  into  Italy.  The  strong  popular  sen- 
timent demanding  the  "liberatioir'  of  the  Ital- 
ian inhabitants  of  the  Trentino,  taken  in  com- 
bination with  the  military  necessity  of  fore- 
stalling an  Austrian  invasion  from  commanding 
heights  of  Trentino,  furnished  ample  justifica- 
tion for  an  Italian  offensive  in  this  region. 
With  Trent  as  its  ultimate  objective,  one  Ital- 
ian army  penetrated  the  blunt  apex  of  the  tri- 
angle, following  up  the  valley  of  the  river  Adige 
and  the  basin  of  Lake  Garda  towards  Rovereto 
and  Riva.  Simultaneously  small  parties  of 
Italian  mountaineers  attacked  the  mountain 
passes  along  both  sides  of  the  triangle,  threat- 
ening Trent  from  the  east  and  from  the  west. 

(.9)   Lull  in  the  Serbian  Operations:  January- 
September 

After  the  exhausting  campaign  of  December, 
1914    (described  in  the  Ybab  Book  for  1914), 


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when  the  retreating  Serbian  armies  had  sud- 
denly rallied,  surprised  the  too  confident  invader 
by  tne  vigor  of  their  attack,  and  swiftly  expelled 
him  from  Serbian  territory,  a  period  of  inaction 
ensued  in  the  Serbian  theatre  of  war.  Serbs 
and  Austrians  alike  had  suffered  heavily  and 
needed  time  to  repair  their  losses.  Inclement 
weather  and  impassable  roads  added  to  the  dis- 
inclination of  either  party  to  renew  active  op- 
erations. About  the  end  of  January  consterna- 
tion was  caused  in  Serbia  and  in  the  other  Bal- 
kan countries  by  the  report  that  an  immense 
Austro-German  army  was  being  massed  for  a 
new  invasion  of  Serbia.  The  story  may  have 
been  a  canard,  fabricated  for  the  simple  purpose 
of  intimidating  Rumania  and  Greece — ^for  Ru- 
mania and  Greece  then  appeared  to  be  on  the 
point  of  joining  the  Triple  Entente— or  pos- 
sibly the  movement  of  German  troops  prepara- 
tory to  the  great  offensive  movement  against 
Russia  was  honestly  misinterpreted  by  the  press. 
At  any  rate,  rumor  of  an  impending  Austro- 
German  invasion  of  Serbia  in  the  spring  of  1916 
was  not  borne  out  by  the  facts.  The  diplomatic 
correspondence  published  in  the  Italian  Green 
Book  throws  some  light  on  the  situation.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Oreen  Book,  the  Italian  govern- 
ment on  February  17th  warned  Austria-Hungary 
that  any  military  action  undertaken  by  that 
Power  in  the  Balkans  without  previous  agree- 
ment regarding  the  compensation  to  be  allowed 
Italy,  would  lead  to  grave  consequences.  In 
other  words,  Italy  warn^  Austria-Hungary  that 
the  inauguration  of  a  new  campaign  against 
Serbia  would  precipitate  a  crisis  between  Aus- 
tria-Hungary and  Italy;  and  Austria-Hungary, 
still  hoping  that  Italy  could  be  kept  out  of  the 
war,  consented  to  postpone  the  invasion  of  Ser- 
bia. Meanwhile,  profiting  by  the  inactivity  of 
Austria-Hungary,  Serbia  not  only  repaired  the 
ravages  which  the  typhus,  in  combination  with 
the  past  year's  campaigns,  had  wrought  in  her 
army,  but  also  invaded  Albania,  with  the  co- 
operation of  Montenegrin  forces  (see  Albania, 
History),  Serbian  patriots  began  to  discuss  the 
extent  of  the  territories  that  Serbia  should  an- 
nex at  the  termination  of  the  war,  and  a  debate 
was  carried  on  between  Italian  and  Serbian  jour- 
nals respecting  the  relative  merits  of  the  Ital- 
ian and  the  Serbian  claims  to  Dalmatia.  The 
consensus  of  opinion  seemed  to  sanction  Italy's 
claim  to  a  predominant  position  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  Adriatic,  providing  that  Serbia 
should  be  given  access  to  a  port.  In  April  an 
Austrian  aeroplane  raid  on  Podgoritza,  Monte- 
negro, resulted  in  137  casualties,  of  which  28 
were  fatal.  In  August,  after  a  lapse  of  many 
months,  the  Austrians  resumed  the  bombard- 
ment of  Belgrade  with  heavy  howitzers.  The 
bombardment  was  presently  discontinued,  how- 
ever, and  the  Serbian  front  remained  compara- 
tively quiet  until  October. 

{10)   Von   Hindenhurg's  Drive:    August-Sep- 
tember. 

General  Strategy.  In  July  and  August, 
while  the  Italians  were  pushing  their  campaign 
for  Trent  and  Trieste,  and  while  the  Franco- 
British  line  in  the  West  was  enjoying  a  period 
of  comparative  repose  before  undertaking  an 
autumnal  general  forward  movement,  Field  Mar- 
shal von  Hindenburg  laimched  a  tremendous  of- 
fensive against  the  Russians  in  Poland.     ''Von 


Hindenburg's  drive,"  as  the  movement  was  pop- 
ularly called,  was  the  mightiest  effort  yet  put 
forth  in  any  theatre  of  war.  Its  aim  was  obvi^ 
ously  (1)  to  push  the  Russians  back  to  a  safe 
distance  from  Galicia  and  East  Prussia,  (2) 
to  conquer  Russian  Poland,  which  the  Teutonic 
coalition  desired  for  military,  economic,  and  po- 
litical reasons,  and  (3)  either  to  shatter  the 
Russian  field  army  completely,  or  to  drive  it 
back  in  a  badly  battered  condition  to  a  disad- 
vantageous strategic  position,  where  it  would 
be  forced  to  remain  inactive  throughout  the 
coming  winter.  A  much  clearer  conception  of 
the  whole  situation  in  the  East  will  be  gained 
if  the  reader  will  examine  the  Russian  railway 
system,  as  shown  on  the  map  on  page  715. 
Warsaw,  the  capital  of  Russian  Poland,  forms 
the  western  apex  of  a  westward-pointing  wedge 
of  railways.  The  northern  face  of  the  wedge  is 
the  all-important  line  running  southwest  from 
Petrograd  through  Dvinsk,  Vilna,  Grodno,  and 
Bialystok  to  Warsaw.  The  southern  face  is  the 
main  line  running  southeast  from  Warsaw 
through  Lublin,  Gholm,  Kovel,  and  Kiev  to  Ros- 
tov. Branches  of  this  southern  line  link  up 
Warsaw  with  the  Black  Sea  port  of  Odessa. 
Between  the  northern  and  southern  faces  of  the 
wedge  were  two  important  lines  connecting  Mos- 
cow directly  with  Brest-Litovsk  and  indirectly 
with  Warsaw:  the  more  northerly  route  from 
Brest-Litovsk  to  Moscow  passed  through  Baran- 
ovitchi,  Minsk,  and  Smolensk;  the  other  route 
reached  Moscow  by  way  of  Pinsk,  Gomel,  and 
Kaluga.  Warsaw  and  the  railway  junctions  im- 
mediately east  of  Warsaw  thus  formed  the 
western  point,  of  convergence  of  the  Russian 
railway  salient.  The  importance  of  defending 
Warsaw  was  fully  realized  by  the  Russian  Gen- 
eral Staff.  Not  only  was  the  city  itself  for- 
midably fortified,  but  on  the  north  a  line  of  for- 
tresses— Novo  Georgievsk,  Pultusk,  Ostrolenka, 
Lomza  and  Ossowietz — ^made  the  natural  line  of 
the  Narew  River  a  still  stronger  protection 
against  a  flank  attack;  while  to  the  southeast 
the  broad  line  of  the  Vistula  with  its  fortifica- 
tions at  Warsaw  and  at  Ivangorod  was  deemed 
sufficiently  strong  to  repel  a  flanking  attack 
from  the  southwest.  If  the  Warsaw  angle  of 
forts  were  lost,  the  Russian  armies  could  still  fall 
back  to  the  line  Kovno-Grodno-Bialystok — ^Brest- 
Litovsk-Gholm-Sokal,  with  the  Niemen  River  to 
strengthen  their  right  wing  and  the  upper  Bug 
to  support  their  left.  Once  that  secondary  line 
of  defenses  gave  way,  tlie  Russian  right  would 
be  thrust  back  to  Riga  and  Dvinsk  on  the  Dvina 
River;  the  centre  would  flounder  about  in  the 
vast  marshes  of  the  Pripet  around  Pinsk;  the 
left  wing  would  rest  on  the  fortress-triangle  of 
Lutsk-Rovno-Dubno,  but  would  be  virtually 
separated  from  the  northern  armies  by  the  Pri- 
pet swamps.  There  would  be  no  convenient 
north-and-south  railways  to  facilitate  the  shift- 
ing of  troops  from  point  to  point  along  the  line 
to  meet  unexpected  attacks.  In  a  word,  the 
loss  of  the  apex  of  the  railway  salient  would 
put  the  Russian  armies  at  a  serious  disadvan- 
tage. This  was  precisely  von  Hindenburg's  (^ 
ject.  The  "drive"  may  well  be  divided  into 
three  phases.  Ihiring  the  first  phase,  the  Rus- 
sians were  forced  to  abandon  the  Warsaw  angle 
of  forts  at  the  tip  of  the  salient;  during  the 
second  phase  the  secondary  line  from  Kovno 
through  Grodno-Bialystok  and  Brest-Litovsk 
was  lost;  during  the  third  and  final  phase  of  this 


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famous  drive  the  Ruuian  line  was  preeeed  back 
to  the  Riga-Dvinaic-Pripet  Marshes-Rovno  poBi- 
tion. 

The  FntST  Phase.  At  the  end  of  June,  jutt 
after  the  fall  of  Lemberg  (June  22nd),  the  Rus- 
sian armies  were  still  in  complete  possession  of 
the  railway  salient,  their  line  stret<^ing  from 
Windau  on  the  Baltic  6ea  southward  in  front 
of  Shavli,  Kjovno,  and  Grodno;  bending  west- 
ward through  Ossowietz,  Lomza,  Ostrolenka,  and 
Przasnysz;  curving  southward  again  in  front  of 
Pultusk,  Novo  Georgievsk,  and  Warsaw;  sweep- 
ing southeast  through  Radoro;  and  passing  con- 
siderably south  of  Krasnik,  Sokal,  Brody,  and 
Tarnopol.  During  the  last  week  of  June  and 
the  first  two  weeks  of  July  the  extreme  south- 
ern tip  of  the  Russian  left  wing  in  Galicia  was 
pushed  bade  from  Halicz  to  the  northeastern 
banks  of  the  Zlota  Lipa  and  Dniester  rivers. 
During  the  same  period,  von  Madcensen  and 
Archduke  Joseph  turned  northward  from  Ga- 
licia and  captured  Zamosc  and  Krasnik,  respec- 
tively, where  they  were  within  striking  distance 
of  Lublin  and  Cholm,  on  the  southernmost  of 
the  sheaf  of  railways  converging  on  Warsaw. 
At  the  same  time  preliminary  actions  were  be- 
gun at  various  points  along  the  German  front. 
The  great  offensive  opened,  all  along  the  line, 
on  July  l4th.  On  that  day  the  main  blow  was 
delivered  by  General  von  Gallwitz  against  the 
Warsaw  angle  of  forts;  having  captured  the 
town  of  Przasnysz,  he  assailed  and  partially 
pierced  the  line  of  the  Narew  River  near  Pul- 
tusk. Simultaneously  von  Mackensen  captured 
the  town  of  Krasnostov,  July  16-18,  and  ad- 
vanced to  within  10  miles  of  the  railway  at 
Cholm.  Archduke  Joseph,  just  west  of  von 
Mackensen,  threatened  Lublin,  on  the  same  rail- 
way, from  the  direction  of  Krasnik.  Still  fur- 
ther west,  General  von  Woyrsch  took  Radom, 
and  drove  the  Russians  back  on  their  fortress 
of  Ivangorod.  While  these  three  armies  were 
menacing  the  southern  face  of  the  Russian  rail- 
way salient,  Generals  von  Gallwitz,  von  Scholtz, 
and  von  Eichorn  were  pressing  against  the 
northern  face,  from  Novo  G^orgievsk  to  Kovno. 
In  the  extreme  north,  General  von  Buelow  cap- 
tured Tukkum  and  Windau,  July  20th,  and  ad- 
vanced toward  Riga.  These  simultaneous  at- 
tacks on  the  northern  and  southern  faces  of  the 
railway  salient  rendered  the  position  of  the  Rus- 
sian centre  at  Warsaw  extremely  precarious. 
At  any  moment  von  Mackensen  might  cut  the 
southern  railway  at  Gholm  and  von  Gallwitz  or 
von  Scholtz  might  cut  the  northern  railway  be- 
tween Warsaw  and  Grodno;  from  the  north  and 
from  the  south  the  Teutonic  armies  would  bite 
into  the  salient  behind  Warsaw,  and  the  Russian 
army  of  the  centre  would  be  caught  between  the 
jaws  of  the  great  German  offensive.  Grand 
Duke  Nicholas,  realizing  this  peril,  chose  to  sac- 
rifice Warsaw  rather  than  expose  his  central 
armies  to  almost  certain  disaster.  The  wisdom 
of  the  decision  was  demonstrated  when  von 
Woyrsch  forced  the  passage  of  the  Vistula  be- 
tween Warsaw  and  Ivangorod,  July  28th,  and 
when  on  the  next  day  von  Mackensen  cut  the 
Warsaw-Kiev  railway  between  Lublin  and 
Oholm.  With  feverish  haste  the  Russians  trans- 
ported their  foxna  and  stores  from  Warsaw  east- 
ward to  safety.  During  the  night  of  August 
4th  the  Russian  army  evacuated  Warsaw,  blow- 
ing up  the  Vistula  bridges  to  prevent  pursuit. 
The  German  cavalry  triumphantly  entered  the 


city  on  the  morning  of  August  5th,  with  Prince 
Leopold  of  Bavaria  in  command. 

'ras  Sboond  Phase.  The  fall  of  Warsaw 
marked  the  success  of  the  first  phase  of  the  great 
Teutonic  drive ;  within  three  wedcs  the  Russians 
had  been  forced  to  abandon  their  strongly  forti- 
fied position  around  Warsaw.  An  isolated  anny 
at  Novo  Georgievsk  held  out  for  a  fortnight 
longer;  but  the  main  body  of  the  Russian  centre 
during  the  second  wedc  of  August  raced  back 
madly  towards  the  secondary  line  of  defense. 
For  a  time  it  seemed  as  though  a  large  part  of 
the  Russian  army  would  be  entrapped.  But  the 
stubborn  defense  of  Ossowietz  protected  the 
northern  flank  of  the  retreating  Russian  centre, 
and  the  secondarv  line,  from  Kovno  through 
Grodno,  and  Bialystok  to  Brest-Litovsk,  was 
safely  reached.  The  second  phase  of  von  Hin- 
denburg's  campaign  was  directed  against  this 
line.  The  line  was  forced  on  August  17th  at 
both  ends.  In  the  north,  the  Russian  fortress 
of  Kovno,  inadequately  prepared  for  attack,  was 
surrendered  by  a  Russian  general  who  later  was 
brought  up  on  charges  of  criminal  neglect  of 
duty.  In  the  south,  on  the  same  day,  the  line 
was  turned  by  von  Mackensen's  advance  east  of 
Cholm  towards  Kovel.  Ossowietz  fell  five  days 
later;  Bialystok  and  Brest-Litovsk,  on  August 
25th;  and  Olita  on  August  26th.  By  the  end 
of  August,  Grodno  alone  remained  of  the  Rus- 
sian secondary  line.  The  third  phase  of  von 
Hindenburg's  thrust  had  begun. 

The  Thibd  Phase.  The  third  phase  of  von 
Hindenburg's  drive  lasted  through  the  greater 
part  of  September.  Its  aim  was  to  thrust  the 
battered  Russian  line— since  May  2nd  the  Rus- 
sians had  lost  300,000  killed  and  wounded,  and 
1,100,000  prisoners— back  cm  the  Riga-Dvinsk- 
Minsk-Pinsk-Rovno  line  and,  if  possible,  to 
envelop  part  of  the  right  wing  while  the  centre 
floimdered  about  in  the  Pripet  Marshes.  Dur- 
ing this  phase  of  the  battle,  the  Russians  offered 
more  stubborn  resistance,  possibly  because  the 
cautious  Russian  generalissimo,  Grand  Duke 
Nicholas,  had  been  removed  to  the  Caucasus, 
September  8th,  and  Czar  Nicholas,  with  General 
Alexeiev  as  his  chief  of  staff,  was  determined  to 
sacrifice  no  more  Russian  territory.  On  Sep- 
tember Ist  the  Russian  line  was  being  pressed 
back  on  Riga  in  the  extreme  north;  it  was  still 
more  than  20  miles  west  of  Dvinsk  and  Vilna» 
and  shielded  the  transverse  railway  from  Riga 
through  Dvinsk  and  Vilna  to  Grodno;  south  of 
Grodno  the  line  bent  back  east  of  Bialystok, 
Brest-Litovsk,  Kovel,  and  Vladimir  Volinski; 
the  right  wing  rested  on  the  fortress  triangle  of 
Lutsk-Rovno-Dubno.  During  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember the  Russian  right  wmg  was  pushed  bade 
from  Lutsk,  September  1st,  and  Dulmo,  Septem- 
ber 10th,  in  soite  of  successful  Russian  counter- 
attacks further  south  near  Tarnopol,  in  Ga- 
licia. The  Russian  centre  lost  the  fortress  of 
Grodno,  September  2nd,  and  fell  back  east  of 
Pinsk  and  Baranovitchi  (the  railway  junction 
just  east  of  Slonim).  In  the  extreme  north, 
Riga  was  gravely  menaced  by  G^eral  von 
Beseler,  whose  troops  had  stormed  the  bridge- 
head at  Friedrichstadt  and  were  attempting  to 
envelop  Riga  from  the  southeast.  But  the  cen- 
tral feature  of  the  September  fighting  was  the 
battle  of  Vilna.  The  important  railway  junc- 
tion of  Vilna  was  defended  by  the  Russians  with 
imprudent  valor.  For  while  the  Russian  army 
west  of  Vilna  was  holding  in  check  the  German 


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advance  from  Kovno,  other  (German  armies  were 
striking  at  Vilna's  communications.  German 
troops  from  the  direction  of  Grodno  were  at- 
tacking Lida.  North  of  Vilna  German  troops 
cut  the  railway  at  Svientsiany,  September  13th, 
and  cavalry  swept  southeast  to  Smorgon   and 


rtf^nt  t«n  *tr.^avti 


The  Russian  Battle-Line  Afteb  von  Hinden- 
bebg's  Drive 

Molodetchna,  behind  Vilna.  The  Russians  still 
delayed;  but  finally  on  September  18th,  they 
evacuated  -Vilna.  A  delay  of  one  or  two  days 
more  might  have  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the 
entire  Vilna  army.  As  it  was,  the  Russians  ex- 
tricated themselves  with  the  greatest  diflSculty, 
while  fighting  brilliant  holdin^r  battles  to  safe- 
guard their  retreat  against  the  German  army 
attacking  from  Grodno,  which  had  captured 
Lida,  September  19th,  and  against  the  northern 
flanking  force  which  had  struck  towards  Vileika, 
Smorgon,  and  Molodetchna.  By  October  1st  the 
German  drive  had  come  to  a  standstill,  and  the 
Russian  armies  rested  from  their  retreat:  the 
right  wing  strongly  holding  the  Dvina  River 
from  Riga  to  Dvinsk,  and  the  lake  region  from 
Dvinsk  thrbugh  Vidzy,  and  Postavy  to  Smor- 
gon; the  centre  holding  an  almost  straight 
north-and-south  line  from  Smorgon  to  Lipsk, 
and  a  zig-zag  line  through  the  marshes  east  of 
Pinsk;  the  right  fighting  for  possession  of  the 
Lustk-iDubno-Rovno  fortress  triangle,  and  an- 
noying the  Austrians  near  Tamopol. 

(11)   The   Anglo-French   Forward  Movement  in 
France:  September-October. 

Just  as  von  Hindenburg's  drive  against  Rus- 
sia was  completed,  the  Allies  began  a  general 
forward  movement  in  France.  Throuo^hout  July 
and  August  they  had  been  husbanding  their  re- 
sources of  men  and  munitions  in  preparation 
for  the  great  effort.  In  September  the  renewed 
activity  of  Allied  aviators  and  the  furious  bom- 
bardment of  the  Grerman  lines  in  France  indi- 
cated that  the  Allies  were  about  to  strike.    The 


attack  began  on  September  25th.  While  unim- 
portant assaults  were  delivered  at  Hooge  (near 
Ypres),  and  at  other  points  along  the  line,  the 
main  force  of  forward  movement  was  concen- 
trated at  two  points,  the  first  in  Artois  just 
north  of  Arras,  the  second  in  Champagne  mid- 
way between  Reims  and  Verdun.  In  the  Ar- 
tois region,  the  initial  attack  on  September  25th 
and  26th  met  with  brilliant  success.  The 
French  Tenth  Army,  north  of  Arras,  captured 
Souchez,  September  26th,  and  reached  Hill 
140,  and  tire  ridge  dominating  the  town  of 
Vimy.  Sir  John  French,  cooperating  in  the  Ar- 
tois attack,  reported  that  "On  the  morning  of 
the  25th  inst.,  the  First  and  Fourth  (British) 
Corps  attacked  and  carried  the  enemy's  first  and 
most  powerful  line  of  intrenchments,  extending 
from  our  extreme  right  flank  at  Grenay  (just 
west  of  Lens)  to  a  point  north  of  tlie  Hohen- 
zollern  redoubt — a  distance  of  6500  yards.  The 
position  was  exceptionally  strong,  consisting  of 
a  double  line,  which  included  some  large  re- 
doubts, and  a  network  of  trenches  and  bomb- 
proof shelters.  Dugouts  were  constructed  at 
short  intervals  all  along  the  line,  some  of  them 
being  large  caves  30  feet  below  the  ground.  The 
Eleventh  Corps,  in  general  reserve,  and  the 
Third  Cavalry  Division  were  subsequently 
thrown  into  the  fight,  and  finally  the  Twenty- 
eighth  Division."  British  troops  occupied  the 
village  of  Loos  and  the  outskirts  of  Hulludc 
between  Lens  and  La  Bass^e.  "The  enemy's 
second  line  posts  were  taken,  the  commanding 
position  known  as  *Hill  70'  in  advance  [east] 
of  Loos  was  finally  captured,  and  a  strong  line 
was  established  and  consolidated  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  German  third  and  last  line." 
Meanwhile,  in  Champagne,  according  to  a  French 
report  dated  October  3rd,  the  Fr^ich  during 
September  26th  and  27th  "succeeded  north  of 
Souain  and  Perthes  in  occupying  a  front  facing 
north,  and  in  contact  with  the  German  second 
line  along  a  stretch  of  seven  and  a  half  miles. 
The  ground  thus  conquered  represented  an  area 
of  some  15^  square  miles,  and  was  traversed 
by  lines  of  trencnes  graduated  to  a  great  depth. 
The  borders  of  the  woods  were  organized  for  de- 


The  French  Advance  in  Champagne 

fense,  and  innumerable  subterranean  passages, 
trenches,  and  parallels  facilitated  resistance  foot 
by  foot."  After  the  shock  of  the  initial  attack, 
however,  the  French  and  British  in  Champagne, 
and  in  Artois  failed  to  press  on,  as  popular 
critics  expected,  to  capture  the  German  railway 


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tack  upon  Egypt,  menacing  an  important  Britiah 
posaeflsion  and  threatening  England's  cherished 
route  through  the  Sues  Canal  to  India  and  Aus- 
tralasia, would  be  one  of  the  most  advantageous 
campaigns  in  which  Turkey's  Gallipoli  army 
could  he  employed,  it  was  not  surprising  that 
at  the  dose  of  the  year  rumors  became  frequent 
that  a  great  Turkish  invasion  of  Egypt  was  be- 
ing prepared.  In  the  light  of  this  new  situa- 
tion, the  earlier  Turkish  attack  on  the  Suez 
Canal  assumed  new  significance  and  interest. 
The  difficulties  of  military  operations  against  the 
Suez  Canal  were  enormous.  The  attacking 
forces  must  drag  their  artillery  and  carry  their 
pontoons  more  than  a  hundred  miles  through  the 
desert  of  the  Sinai  Peninsula.  At  the  end  of 
their  arduous  journey,  the  Turks  would  find  the 
canal  watchfully  guarded  by  warships  and  by  a 
considerable  force  of  British  colonial  and  Egyp- 
tian troops.  It  was  therefore  an  unpromising 
and  a  hazardous  mission  which  Djemal  Pasha 
undertook  in  the  opening  months  of  1915.  Dur- 
ing January,  1915,  the  Turkish  commander's 
army,  variously  estimated  at  from  25,000  to 
65,000  men,  accomplished  the  difficult  feat  of 
crossing  the  Sinai  Peninsula.  Advanced  guards 
of  the  Turkish  army  were  encountered  and 
driven  back  by  the  British  defenders  of  the  canal 
as  early  as  January  25th.  The  main  Turkish 
columns,  however,  did  not  come  up  until  a  week 
later.  While  feint  attacks  were  delivered,  Feb- 
ruary 2nd,  against  El  Kantara  and  Ismailia,  the 
strongest  column  of  Djemal  Pasha's  army  was 
directed  against  the  section  of  the  canal  be- 
tween Tussum  and  Serapeum,  south  of  Ismailia. 
During  the  night  of  February  2-3,  the  Turks 
draggra  their  pontoons  and  rafts  to  the  water's 
edge  and  began  to  construct  a  pontoon  bridge 
across  the  canal.  They  were  discovered  by  the 
British  troops  on  the  western  embankment,  and 
about  3  A.  M.  the  battle  began  in  earnest.  Under 
the  murderous  fire  of  the  British  Maxims,  the 
Turks  attempted  te  cross  the  canal  in  boats  or 
rafts.  One  boatload  actually  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing the  western  bank,  and  attacked  the  British 
from  the  rear.  Six  batteries  of  field  artillery 
were  brought  up  bv  the  Turks  during  the  course 
of  the  morning  of  February  3rd.  The  British 
defenders,  however,  with  the  aid  of  terpedo- 
boats  and  gunboats,  frustrated  the  attempt  to 
bridge  the  canal  and  in  the  middle  of  the  after- 
noon the  Turks  turned  and  fled,  leaving  500 
men  killed  and  600  prisoners.  The  main  Turk- 
ish force,  however,  made  good  its  retreat.  A 
month  and  a  half  later,  a  body  of  Turkish  troops, 
about  1000  strong,  was  encountered  near  Suez  and 
driven  back  towards  Nakhl.  With  this  skirmish, 
the  first  Turkish  attack  on  Egypt  may  be  said 
to  have  ended.  Djemal  Pasha's  force  had  been 
too  small,  and  the  expedition  had  been  too 
feebly  equipped,  to  constitute  a  serious  menace 
to  the  canal;  at  the  close  of  the  year  1915,  how- 
ever, the  Turks  had  available  a  lar^r  army  than 
Djemal  Pasha's;  they  were  receiving  munitions 
from  Germany  by  way  of  conquered  Serbia ;  and 
German  engineers  might  expedite  the  crossing 
of  the  Sinai  Peninsula  by  constructing  military 
railways  through  the  desert.  Whether  under 
these  more  favorable  circumstances  Enver  Pasha 
would  again  send  a  Turkish  army  to  invade 
Egypt  remained  one  of  the  most  interesting  ques- 
tions for  the  year  1916  to  answer. 

The  Suez  Canal  route  to  India  was  menaced 
from   yet   another   direction   by   Arab  assaults 


upon  the  British  fortress  of  Aden,  at  the 
southern  gateway  to  the  Red  Sea.  Late  in  De- 
cember the  British  Indifi  Office  published  the 
following  statement  regarding  this  attack:  "The 
statement  that  the  Turks  have  had  far-reaching 
military  successes  at  Aden  is  a  complete  misap- 
prehension. In  July  last  the  Turks,  having  oc- 
cupied Lahej,  advanced  to  Sheikh  Othman,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Aden,  and  looted  it.  They 
were,  however,  driven  out,  and  withdrew  inland 
and  have  not  ventured  to  advance  again  on  the 
fortress  of  Aden.  Such  skirmishes  as  there  have 
been  during  the  last  three  months  resulted  favor- 
ably to  us;  but  there  has  been  no  material 
change  in  the  situation  during  that  period.  .  .' . 
So  far  as  the  security  of  the  Suez  Canal  route 
to  India  is  concerned,  the  present  situation  at 
Aden  may  be  left  out  of  account."  Egypt,  it 
should  be  mentioned,  was  attacked  from  the  west 
in  December  by  comparatively  small  bodies  of 
Senussi  tribesmen  from  the  Ubyan  frontier. 

(20)  The  BritiMh  in  Me§opotamia. 

Before  Enver  Pasha,  the  ambitious  Turkish 
minister  of  war,  undertook  a  new  offensive  cam- 
paign against  E?ypt,  it  seemed  probable  that  he 
would  send  reSnioreemente  to  the  Turkish  troops 
resisting  British  and  Russian  aggression  in  Me- 
sopotamia, Armenia,  and  Persia.  Up  to  the  end 
of  1915  the  campaigns  in  these  regions  were  of 
distinctly  secondary  importance.  The  force  or- 
iginally sent  by  the  British  from  India  to  Shat- 
el-Arab  (at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf)  in- 
cluded only  three  Indian  regiments  and  had,  aa 
far  as  could  be  discerned  at  the  time,  no  other 
important  object  than  the  protection  of  the  An- 
glo-Persian Oil  Company's  pipe-line,  near  Basra. 
The  Turkish  garrison  of  Basra,  advancing  to 
repel  the  British,  was  crushingly  defeated,  Nov. 
17,  1914,  and  Basra  was  occupied  by  the  British. 
Hie  British  then  advanced  to  Kurna,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers. 
The  Turkish  forces  in  Mesopotamia,  however, 
would  not  permit  the  British  to  remain  at  rest 
in  the  entrenched  camp  at  Kurna.  In  April, 
1915,  the  British  were  compelled  to  meet  the 
Turks  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Shaiba;  according 
to  British  reports  the  Turks  left  6000  of  their 
men  on  the  field,  besides  valuable  supplies,  ma- 
chine-guns, automobiles,  and  ammunition.  At 
the  end  of  May  the  British,  again  assailed,  pur- 
sued a  Turkish  force  up  the  Tigris  to  Amara 
(75  miles  north  of  Kurna).  Flushed  with  suc- 
cess, the  British  were  drawn  further  and  further 
northward,  until  on  September  28th  Maj.-Gen. 
C.  V.  F.  Townshend  defeated  the  Turks  before 
Kut-el- Amara  and  occupied  the  city  the  fol- 
lowing day.  With  insignificant  forces  the  Brit- 
ish had  penetrated  more  than  200  miles  into 
Mesopotamia  (346  miles  by  water).  Bagdad, 
only  100  miles  further  up  the  Tigris  (227  fol- 
lowing the  course  of  the  river),  lured  the  in- 
vaders on.  Gen.  Sir  John  Nixon,  the  commander 
in  charge  of  the  expedition,  sent  Major-General 
Townshend  on  to  Bagdad.  On  November  22nd 
Major-(jieneral  Town^end  attecked  and  carried 
the  Turkish  defensive  positions  at  Ctesiphon, 
only  18  miles  from  Bagdad.  Then  the  tide 
turned.  Townshend,  overwhelmed  by  superior 
numbers,  was  defeated  with  a  loss  of  4600  out  of 
20,000  men  and  driven  back  to  Kut-el-Amara, 
which  was  promptly  surrounded  and  invested. 
A  relief  expedition,  led  by  Greneral  Aylmer,  failed 


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to  reach  Kut-el-Amara.  With  Townahend's 
army  menaced  at  Kut-el-Amara  with  a  fate  like 
that  which  befell  Gordon  at  Khartum,  the  Meao- 
potamian  expedition,  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
promised  to  furnish  the  critics  of  the  Brit- 
ish government  with  a  new  ground  for  com- 
plaint. 

(21)  The  Russians  in  Armenia  and  Persia. 

In  November,  1914,  the  Turks  undertook  an 
ambitious  campaign  in  the  Caucasus  region. 
Enver  Pasha  was  present  in  person,  with  a  staff 
of  German  advisers,  to  superintend  the  opera- 
tions. While  the  Eleventh  Turkish  army  corps 
in  front  of  Erzerum  occupied  the  attention  of 
the  Russian  forces,  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Turk- 
ish corps  aimed  to  encircle  the  right  flank  of  the 


tion,  cost  the  Turks  not  less  than  50,000  men. 
Pursuing  their  advantage,  the  Russians  pressed 
on  Khorasan,  on  the  way  from  Kars  to  Erzerum, 
and  occupied  Van,  about  160  miles  southeast  of 
Erzerum,  May  23rd;  but  the  Turks  remained  in 
possession  of  Erzerum  throughout  the  remainder 
of  the  year. 

The  Russo-Turkish  operations  in  Northwest- 
em  Persia  were  closely  connected  with  the  capi- 
paign  in  Turkish  Armenia.  The  repulse  of  the 
Turkish  armies  east  of  Erzerum  in  January  was 
followed  by  the  failure  of  a  parallel  Turkish 
campaign  against  Tabriz,  the  most  important 
town  of  Northwestern  Persia.  Early  in  January 
the  'Turks  had  occupied  Urza  and  Kotur,  and 
after  defeating  a  Russian  army  at  Mjandoab 
had  advanced  east  of  Lake  Urumiah  and  had 
captured  Tabriz.    The  Russians,  however,  were 


Mesopotamia  and  its  Strategic  Position 


Russians  and  cut  them  off  from  Kars.  The 
First  Turkish  army  corps  was  simultaneously  to 
advance  from  Trebizond  against  Ardahan  (north- 
west of  Kars).  The  Turkish  armies,  however, 
were  so  exhausted  by  their  forced  marches  over 
snow-bound  mountain  roads,  that  the  Russians 
were  able  to  defeat  them  in  detail.  On  Jan.  1, 
1915,  the  Tenth  was  driven  back.  The  retreat 
of  the  Tenth  exposed  the  left  flank  of  the  Ninth 
Turkish  corps  at  Sarikamish,  and  enabled  the 
Russians  to  surroimd  and  capture  the  entire 
corps.  On  January  3rd  the  First  Turkish  corps, 
which  had  successfully  reached  Ardahan,  was 
attacked  in  turn  and  driven  back  in  headlong 
rout.  The  Eleventh,  endeavoring  to  hold  the  at- 
tention of  the  Russians,  fought  stubbornly,  but 
was  forced  finally  to  retreat  to  Erzertun,  Jan- 
uary 17th.  The  series  of  operations,  so  bril- 
liant in  conception  and  so  disastrous  in  execu- 


able  at  the  end  of  January  to  bring  troops  from 
Kars  and  to  recapture  Tabriz.  During  the 
spring  the  Russians  gradually  reconquered  the 
province  of  Azerbaijan  (a  province  in  North- 
western Persia,  practically  under  Russian  con- 
trol). By  the  end  of  May  the  Russians  an- 
nounced that  Urumiah,  west  of  the  lake  of  that 
name,  had  been  retaken.  In  November  a  Rus- 
sian army  was  sent  against  Teheran,  the  capital 
of  Persia;  and  the  Persian  government,  imder 
a  new  "pro- Ally*'  premier  (see  Persia),  fell 
under  the  complete  domination  of  the  Allied 
Powers.  Hamadan  (165  miles  southwest  of 
Teheran)  and  Kum  (80  miles  south  of  Teheran) , 
where  the  mutinous  gendarmerie  and  pro-Ger- 
man rebels  had  established  themselves,  were  oc- 
cupied by  the  Russians  in  December.  From 
Hamadan  the  Russians  were  expected — accord- 
ing to  the  British  press — ^to  march  southwest- 
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ward    into    Meaopotamia,    to    relieve    Qeneral 
Townshend's  beleaguered  force  at  Kut-el-Amara. 

(22)  The  RuM9ian  Army  at  Bay:    Oeioher-De- 
cenibtT, 

The  cloae  of  the  year  1915  found  the  main 
RuBsian  army  at  bay,  alon^ir  a  front  700  miles 
long,  from  Riga  to  Bukoirina,  stubbornly  resist- 
ing  any  further  encroachments  upon  the  terri- 
tory of  "Holy  Russia."  Since  the  cessation  of 
the  great  Austro-Qerman  offensive  in  September, 
little  of  importance  had  occurred  on  the  Rus- 
sian front.  The  Teutonic  armies,  weakened  in 
order  to  reinforce  the  Austro-Hungarian  of- 
fensive against  Serbia  {wupra),  were  content  to 
rest  cm  the  defensive,  although  von  Buelow, 
on  the  Teutonic  left  wing,  continued  to  threaten 
Riga,  and  intermittent  attacks  were  delivered 
against  the  Russian  line  west  of  Dvinsk  and  at 
the  point  where  the  Kovel-Kiev  railway  crosses 
the  Styr  River.  The  Russian  .army — under  the 
command  of  Czar  Nicholas  since  September  8th 
— ^not  only  held  its  own  in  the  marshy  region 
before  Riga  and  in  the  lake-country  around 
Dvinsk,  but  assumed  the  offensive  in  the  extreme 
south.  In  Oalicia  General  Ivanov's  army  west 
of  Tamopol  reported  a  series  of  successes  against 
the  Austro-Hungarians.  Further  south,  in 
Bukovina,  the  Russians  were  striving  to  re- 
capture Czernowitz.  The  purpose  of  the  vi^r- 
ous  Russian  offensive  in  Galicia  and  Bukovina 
was  obvious:  it  might  force  the  Austro-Hun- 
garians  to  fall  back  from  Volhynia,  and  it  might 
bring  Rumania  into  the  war. 

(2S)  The    Deadlock    in    France:    Octdbet^De- 
oettiber. 

The  Anglo-French  forward  movement  of  Sep- 
tember-October failed  to  break  the  deadlock  in 
the  West.  From  October  to  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  contending  armies  along  the  great  battle  line 
from  Belgium  to  Alsace  devoted  themselves  more 
assiduously  than  ever  to  the  perfection  of  their 
intrenchments  and  fortifications.  Trench  war- 
fare had  become  a  new  science.  First,  second, 
and  third  lines  of  trenches,  connected  by  zigzag 
communication  trenches  or  by  tunnels,  gave 
shelter  to  the  infantry.  GovercMl  shelters,  cages, 
and  dugouts,  constructed  with  amazing  ingenu- 
ity, afforded  protection  both  from  shrapnel  and 
from  the  elements.  Attacks  on  the  enemy's 
trenches  must  be  preceded  by  a  furious  bom- 
bardment with  high-explosive  shells,  which 
would  blast  out  of  existence  the  enemy's  barbed 
wire  entanglements  and  first-line  trenches.  The 
attacking  troops,  often  wearing  gas-proof  hoods, 
and  carrying  bombs  and  bayonets,  were  mowed 
down  by  machine-guns  and  by  the  fire  of  field 
guns  such  as  the  French  "soixante  quinze"  (75 
mm. ) .  The  way  for  infantry  charges,  of  a  small 
nature,  was  most  frequently  prepared  by  the 
explosion  of  a  mine  underneath  the  enemy's 
trenches.  Meanwhile  the  mightier  howitzers, 
concealed  several  miles  behind  the  first-line 
trenches,  intermittently  hurled  their  tremen- 
dously destructive  shells  against  the  enemy's 
position.  (Consult  article  on  Militabt  Pbog- 
BESS. )  In  this  new  art  of  trench  warfare,  equip- 
ment and  ingenuity  appeared  to  be  more  im- 
portant than  mere  numbers.  The  Qernuins,  who 
were  generally  admitted  to  be  outnumbered,  were 
not  only  able  to  hold  their  own,  but  actually  re- 


gained some  of  the  ground  lost  in  September  and 
October,  notably  the  position  on  the  Hill  (Butte) 
of  Tahure,  in  Champagne.  In  Alsace,  however, 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  the 
methods  of  siege  warfare  were  not  always  ap- 
plicable, and  picturesquely  garbed  mountaineers, 
gliding  swiftly  on  skees,  engaged  in  less  labor- 
ious combats.  The  summit  of  Hartmannsweiler- 
kopf,  in  Alsace,  was  captured  by  the  French  in 
October,  according  to  French  reports,  recap- 
tured by  the  Germans,  and  again  won  by  the 
French,  December  21st.  Two  other  features  of 
the  campai^  in  the  West  deserve  mention. 
The  promotion  of  General  Joffre  to  the  supreme 
command  of  all  the  French  armies  (i.e.,  includ- 
ing those  in  the  Near  East  as  well  as  those  in 
the  West,  but  not  the  troops  in  the  colonies), 
and  the  appointment  of  General  de  Gastelnau  as 
French  chief  of  staff,  were  shortly  followed  (De- 
cember 15th)  by  the  removal  of  the  British  com- 
mander in  chief.  Sir  John  French,  and  the  ap- 
E>intment  of  Sir  Douglas  Haig  to  command  the 
ritish  armies  in  France  and  Belgium  (see 
Haio,  Sib  Douglas;  French,  Sib  John).  On 
December  27th  the  British  government  an- 
nounced that  the  Indian  Army  Corps,  which 
had  hitherto  served  in  France,  had  left  for  "an- 
other field  of  action." 

(2J^)  Conquest  of  the.Oerman  Coloniei, 

While  General  Joffre's  armies  in  the  West, 
and  Czar  Nicholas's  armies  in  the  East,  were 
unsuccessfully  striving  to  expel  the  German  in- 
vader from  Belgium,  from  Northern  France,  and 
from  Poland,  the  colonial  forces  of  Great  Britain 
and  her  Allies  were  completing  the  conquest  of 
the  German  colonies.  A  considerable  part  of 
the  Grerman  colonial  empire  had  been  appro- 
priated by  the  Allies  in  1914:  the  leased-terri- 
tory  of  Kiaoehow  had  been  conquered  by  Japan, 
Nov.  6,  1914;  in  the  southern  Pacific  German 
New  Guinea  (Kaiser-Wilhelmsland),  the  Bis- 
marck Archipelago,  the  German  islands  in  the 
Samoan  group,  the  Marshall  and  Solomon  Is- 
lands, and  the  Caroline  Islands  were  all  occu- 
pied by  British  and  British  Australasian  forces 
before  the  end  of  the  year  (see  Yeab  Book, 
1914).  In  Africa,  Togoland  had  been  captured, 
August,  1914,  by  Anglo-French  forces;  the  in- 
vasion of  German  Southwest  Africa  had  been  be- 
gun in  September,  1914;  Kamerun  had  been  at- 
tacked from  the  coast,  from  Nigeria,  and  from 
French  Congo;  and  unsuccessful  expeditions  had 
been  sent  against  German  East  Africa.  During 
the  year  1915,  the  conquest  of  German  South- 
west Africa  was  carried  to  completion  by  Gen- 
eral Botha  (see  German  Southwest  Africa; 
South  Africa)  in  July,  1915;  Kamerun,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  was  almost  conquered; 
and  preparations  for  a  serious  invasion  of  (Ger- 
man East  Africa  were  made.  By  the  close 
of  the  year,  the  unexpectedly  stubborn  de- 
fense of  Kamerun  had  been  virtually  crushed, 
and  most  of  the  colony  was  in  Anglo-French 
possession  (see  Kamerun);  German  East  Af- 
rica, however,  had  suffered  little  from  Al- 
lied incursions.  Attempted  invasions  by  Brit- 
ish troops  from  British  East  Africa,  along 
the  shores  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  had  been  checked. 
Mafia  Island,  however,  was  in  British  possession, 
the  coast  was  under  blockade,  and  the  German 
cruiser  Konigaherg  had  been  destroyed  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Rufiji  River.    In  December  it  was 


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raised  by  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  thanks  to 
the  untiring  energy  of  the  Union  minister  of 
defence,  Qen.  Jan  Christian  Smuts,  and  Gen. 
Sir  Horace  Smith-Dorrien  had  been  brought  from 
France  to  conduct  a  formidable  attack  on  Ger- 
man East  Africa. 

VI.    Naval  Operations 

The  supremacy  of  the  British  fleet  remained 
throughout  the  year  1915  a  silent  but  a  potent 
factor,  ensuring  the  transport  of  troops  to  and 
from  the  Dar&nelles,  across  the  British  Chan- 
nel, and  from  the  colonies;  it  enabled  the  Al- 
lied Powers  not  only  to  continue  their  commerce 
^with  neutral  nations,  but  also  to  make  war  on 
German  trade;  it  constituted,  in  fact,  the  chief 
bulwark  of  British  confidence.    No  serious  at- 
tempt to  question  British  naval  supremacy  was 
made  by  the  Grerman  battle  fleet.    The  most  im- 
portant  naval    engagement   fought    during   the 
year  was  the  battle  of  Dogger  Bank,  Jan.  24, 
1915,  in  which  a  German  battle-cruiser  sauadro^ 
raiding  the  coast  of  England  was  severely  pun- 
ished for  its  temerity.    The  German  squadron 
was  sighted  by  Admiral  Beatty  off  Dogger  Bank 
early  in  the  morning  of  January  24th.     Imme- 
diately the  German  battle  cruisers  turned  back 
towards  Heligoland  with  Admiral  Beatty's  ships 
in  full  pursuit.    The  three  more  powerful  Ger- 
man battle  cruisers  {Moltke,  Seydlitz,  and'Der/- 
flinger),  screened  by  the  dense  smoke  of  a  de- 
is^royer  flotilla,  and  assisted  by  the  timely  ap- 
pearance of  German  submarines,  made  their  es- 
cape, although  with  serious  injuries.    The  anti- 
quated Blucher,  however,  with  only  8.2-inch  guns 
to  oppose  to  the  British  13.5-inch  guns,  and  con- 
siderably slower  than  the  three  German  dread- 
nought  cruisers,   fell   an   easy   victim   and   was 
first   crippled   by   gunfire,    then   torpedoed   and 
sunk.    The  battle  was  a  conclusive  demonstra- 
tion of  the  value  of  big  gims  and  high  speed  in 
modern     naval     warfare.    The     British     battle 
cruisers  engaged,  including  the  Indomitahle,  the 
New  Zealand,  the  Princess  Royal,  the  Lion,  and 
the  Tiger,  mounts  16  12-inch  guns  and  24  13.5- 
inch  guns  against  the  8  12- inch  guns,  20  11-inch 
guns,  and  12  8.2-inch  ^uns  of  the  Germans.    To 
t]ieir  superiority  in  big  guns  the  British  owed 
their  success  in  sinking  the  BlUcher  and  in  dam- 
aging the  other  German  cruisers,  a  success  which 
might  have  been  pressed  to  a  more  decisive  con- 
clusion, had  not  German  submarines  made  their 
appearance  and  menaced  the  British  pursuers. 
The  battle  of  Dogger  Bank  so  strongly  confirmed 
the  confidence  of  the  British  Admiralty  that  in 
February  a  powerful  British  and  French  fleet 
was    sent    to    bombard    the    Dardanelles    forts 
{supra,   under    Milit€iry   Operations,    The   Dar- 
danelles).   At    the    Dardanelles,    however,    the 
Allied    battleships    were    pitted,    not    against 
German    cruisers    of    inferior    gun-power,    but 
against    land    forts,    submarines,    and    floating 
mines.     In  the  great  effort  to  force  the  Narrows, 
March  18th,  the  British  battleships  Irresistible 
and  Ocean,  and  the   French   battleship  Bouvet 
were  sunk;  the  British  Inflexible  and  the  French 
Oaulois  were  disabled;  and  several  other  ships 
were  badly  battered.    Subsequently  the  British 
Ooliath  was  torpedoed  at  the  Dardanelles  on 
May  12th;  the  Triumph  on  May  25th;  and  the 
Majestic  on  May  27th.     Besides   the  battle  of 
Dogger  Bank  and  the  Dardanelles  action,  the 


volving  capital  ships,  w^ 
where  the  Austro-Hungf 
check  by  the  French,  wi 
Italian  fleet,  after  May  1 
where  a  German  squadrc 
reports,  forced  its  way  ii 
was  expelled  with  the  Ic 
ers,  seven  torpedo  boats, 
tie  cruiser  Moltke;  and 
where,  after  the  Turkis 
8elim  had  been  injured 
fleet  asserted  its  superii 
from  Constantinople  by 
fortiflcations  of  the  Bos; 
of  any   really  decisive  i 
critics  in  Germany  and 
mented  much  on  the  cui 
and  of  new  constructioi 
creasing  the  disparity  b 
The  Germans  tabulated  t 
and  Allied  navies,  inclu 
Dardanelles,   as  well   as 
nought  Formidable    (sun 
1st),    the    Italian    batt! 
(sunk  by  explosion,  Septf 
cruiser  Amalfi  (sunk  by 
Oaribaldi    (sunk   by  toi 
British  cruiser   Natal    (i 
cember  30th),  and  other 
mine,  torpedo,  or  acciden 
other  hand,  maintained  t 
parable  losses  being  infii 
fleet,  but  furthermore  the 
rushing  the  construction 
result  that  British  nava 
increased  since  the  war  h 
formation  regarding  the 
ent  Powers,  consult  articl 
Britain,  etc.) 

By  all  means  the  mof  ; 
the  war  on  the  water  wa  i 
Britain  to  realize  to  the  ' 
Germany  to  minimize,  tl  : 
accruing  from  British  na  : 
German  commerce  destrc  i 
large,  in  January,  1915, 
chant  marine  of  the  Allic  > 
conunerce  destroyers,  the  i 
Eitel  Friedrichy  slipped  ii  I 
March  10th,  after  a  dest 
than  30,000  miles.  The 
Dresden  was  simk  by  B  ' 
14th.  The  German  conv€  : 
Wilhelm,  after  sinking  nil 
and  one  Norwegian  mere  i 
port  News,  April  11th,  ai 
cruiser  Konigsberg,  whic 
seek  refuge  in  the  Rufiji 
German  East  Africa,  was 
ish  river  monitors,  the  A 
and  was  destroyed,  in  Jii 
German  cruisers  and  a. 
meanwhile  been  overshado 
to  the  commerce  of  the  i 
On  February  4th  the  inn 
form  of  submarine  warfari 
German  government  declai 
aider  '^the  waters  surround 
Ireland,  including  the  wh<i 
be  comprised  within  the 
prevent  by  all  the  militarj 
all  navigation  by  the  eneni 
this  end  it  will  endeavor 


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ruary  18th  next,  any  merchant  vessels  of  the 
enemy  which  present  themselves  at  the  seat  of 
war  above  indicated,  although  it  may  not  al- 
ways be  possible  to  avert  the  dangers  which 
may  menace  persons  and  merohandise.  Neutral 
Powers  are  accordingly  forewarned  not  to  con- 
tinue to  entrust  their  crews,  passengers,  or  mer- 
chandise to  such  vessels.  Their  attention  is 
furthermore  called  to  the  fact  that  it  is  of  ur- 
gency to  recommend  to  their  own  vessels  to  steer 
clear  of  these  waters.  It  is  true  that  the  Ger- 
man navy  has  received  instructions  to  abstain 
from  all  violence  against  neutral  vessels  recog- 
nizable as  such;  but  in  view  of  the  hazards  of 
war,  and  of  the  misuse  of  the  neutral  flag  ordered 
by  the  British  government,  it  will  not  always 
be  possible  to  prevait  a  neutral  vessel  from  be- 
coming the  victim  of  an  attack  intended  to  be 
directed  against  a  vessel  of  the  enemy."  The 
cause  assigned  for  this  extraordinary  innova- 
tion in  the  practice  of  naval  warfare  was  the 
disrespect  of  neutral  rights  and  disregard  of 
international  law,  particularly  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  London,  evinced  by  the  British  govern- 
ment in  capturing  non-oontraband  German  prop- 
erty on  board  neutral  ships,  in  apprdiending 
German  subjects  on  neutral  ships,  in  altering 
the  contraband  rules,  and  in  declaring  the  whole 
North  Sea  between  Scotland  and  Norway  to  be 
a  seat  of  war.  The  Germans  all^^  that  Great 
Britain  had  adopted  a  ruthless  policy  of  starv- 
ing the  civilian  population.  The  British,  on  the 
other  hand,  declared  that  since  the  German  gov- 
ernment had  commandeered  foodstuffs  (Jan.  25, 
1915,  see  Gebmant),  the  British  navy  was  quite 
justified  in  intercepting  food  supplies  which 
might  be  confiscated  by  the  German  government 
for  the  use  of  the  German  army.  The  United 
States  government  endeavored  to  obtain  mutual 
concessions  from  the  belligerents  in  the  interest 
of  neutral  rights,  but  its  proposals  were  re- 
jected by  the  British  government,  and  a  new 
British  Order  in  Coimcil,  March  15th,  having 
declared  a  virtual  blockade  of  Germany,  the 
issue  was  squarely  joined  between  the  British 
blockade  and  the  German  submarine.  Neutral 
Powers  were  adversely  affected  by  the  contest, 
because  (1)  numerous  neutral  merchantmen 
were  torpedoed;  (2)  because  several  belligerent 
liners  were  sunk  by  German  submarines  either 
without  warning  or  without  opportunity  for 
safeguarding  the  lives  of  the  passengers,  some  of 
whom  were  citizens  of  neutral  Powers;  (3)  be- 
cause neutral  trade  with  Scandinavian  ports 
and  with  Holland  was  interfered  with  by  the 
British  policy  of  intercepting  all  goods  of  Ger- 
man origin  or  ultimately  destined  for  Germany, 
even  when  the  goods  were  carried  by  neutral 
ships  between  neutral  ports;  (4)  because  Brit- 
ish operations  in  the  North  Sea  and  German 
submarines  in  the  Channel  made  navigation 
hazardous  for  neutral  merchantmen.  The  in- 
tricacies of  the  controversies  which  ensued  with 
regard  to  the  rights  of  neutrals  may  not  be  dis- 
cussed in  this  article;  it  is  important,  however, 
to  indicate  at  least  a  few  of  the  salient  features 
of  the  submarine-blockade  contest,  in  relation 
to  the  general  issues  of  the  war.  (1)  The  sink- 
ing of  the  Cunard  liner  Lusitania  (q.v.),  May 
7th,  without  warning,  with  the  loss  of  1396  lives, 
undoubtedly  embittered  the  anti-German  senti- 
ments of  British  and  Allied  nations,  and  did 
much  to  promote  an  anti-German  agitation  in 
neutral  countries.    The  German  government,  it 


may  be  noted,  laid  the  responsibility  for  the 
Lu9itama  tragedy  upon  the  British  government; 
in  a  note  to  the  United  States,  Herr  vcm  Jagow 
stated:  "The  case  of  the  Lusiiama  shows  with 
horrible  clearness  to  what  jeopardizing  of  human 
lives  the  manner  of  conducting  war  employed  by 
our  adversaries  leads.  In  the  most  direct  con- 
tradiction of  international  law  all  distinctions 
between  merchantmen  and  war  vessels  have  been 
obliterated  by  the  order  to  British  merchantmen 
to  arm  themselves  and  to  ram  submarines,  and 
the  promise  of  rewards  therefor,  and  neutrals 
who  use  merchantmen  as  travelers  thereby  have 
been  exposed  in  an  increasing  degree  to  all  the 
dangers  of  war.  If  the  commander  of  the  Ger- 
man subi^arine  which  destroyed  the  Lusitamia 
had  caused  the  crew  and  passengers  to  take  to 
the  boats  before  firing  a  torpedo  this  would  have 
meant  the  certain  destruction  of  his  own  vessel." 
Notwithstanding  this  attempted  justification,  it 
may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  sinking  of  the 
Lu9itan%a  furnished  the  Allies  with  a  most 
powerful  recruiting  argument  and  stimulated 
pro- Ally  sentiment  in  neutral  countries.  (2) 
What  the  German  government  hoped  to  gain  by 
its  submarine  warfare  was  obvious:  the  flow  of 
ammunition  to  Great  Britain  from  neutral  coun- 
tries would  be  seriously  interrupted,  British 
shipping  would  suffer,  and  possibly  the  British 
government  could  be  compelled  to  relax  its 
measures  against  German  imports.  The  sub- 
marine campaign  was  at  once  a  defensive  opera- 
tion to  prevent  Great  Britain  from  "starving 
Germany  out,"  and  an  offensive  operation  to  in- 
terfere with  Great  Britain's  munitions  supply 
and  commerce.  (3)  The  results  of  the  sub- 
marine campaign  had  not  yet  been  definitely  es- 
tablished by  the  close  of  the  year,  but  it  ap- 
peared reasonably  certain  that  in  its  major  (Ay- 
jects  the  campaign  had  failed,  inasmuch  as  the 
British  government,  instead  of  relaxing,  had 
drawn  more  tightly  the  restrictions  on  German 
imports  through  neutral  countries;  and  although 
very  consideraole  injuries  had  been  inflicted  upon 
the  Allied  and  neutral  merchant  marines,  the 
flow  of  munitions  to  Great  Britain  and  the 
course  of  British  sea-borne  trade  had  not  been 
seriously  disturbed.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the 
year  the  statement  was  quite  generally  credited 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  German  submarine 
flotilla  had  been  destroyed  by  British  trawlers, 
motor-boats,  and  aviators,  or  entrapped  in  great 
submarine  nets. 

VII.     AfiBIAL  Opebations 

The  importance  of  airmen  in  directing  the  fire 
of  artillery  and  in  detecting  unexpected  move- 
ments of  enemy  troops  had  already  been  well  es- 
tablished by  the  first  few  months  of  the  war. 
During  the  year  1915  the  services  of  air-scouts 
to  the  belligerent  armies  and  navies  remained 
invaluable.  The  most  interesting  phase  of  the 
atrial  operations  in  1915,  however,  was  the  use 
of  airships  and  aeroplanes  for  independent  op- 
erations. Intense  excitement,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  genuine  concern,  were  manifested  with 
regard  to  the  possibility  of  German  Zeppelins 
inflicting  serious  damage*^  upon  London  or  Paris. 
Most  elaborate  precautions  were  taken  to  darken 
the  city  of  London  at  night;  gigantic  search- 
lights and  anti-aircraft  guns  were  pointed  to- 
wards the  murky  London  skies.  But  after  the 
repetition    of    comparatively    harmless   German 

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air-raids  on  England — ^including  the  Zeppelin 
raid  on  London  on  May  Slat,  in  which  six  per- 
sona were  killed,  the  Zeppelin  raid  on  London  of 
Angast  17th,  in  which  ten  or  more  persons  were 
killed,  and  a  third  Zeppelin  attack  on  London, 
September  7-8,  in  which  37  persons  were  killed — 
the  fear  of  serious  Grerman  air  raids  became  less 
acute.  The  most  serious  German  raid  on  Lon- 
don occurred  on  October  13th  and  resulted  in 
169  casualties,  of  which  55  were  fatal.  "In  re- 
prisal" for  the  German  air  raids,  the  Allies  or- 
ganized frequent  counter-raids.  On  February 
Idth  a  fleet  of  40  British  and  French  aeroplanes 
and  seaplanes  bombarded  the  German  lines  in 
Belgium ;  in  August  a  powerful  flock  of  32  "bat- 
tle 'planes,"  larger  and  stronger  than  ordinary 
aeroplanes,  dropped  bombs  on  German  munitions 
factories  at  Saarbllcken;  on  August  26th  a  still 
more  ambitious  raid  was  made  on  Dellingen  by 
62  Allied  'planes.  Less  important  aerial  opera- 
tions were  conducted  on  other  fronts.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  single  events  in  the  year's 
war  in  the  air  was  the'  duel  between  a  British 
monoplane  and  a  huge  German  Zeppelin,  on 
June  7th,  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Zeppelin  and  won  the  Victoria  Cross  for  the 
gallant  aviator,  Lieut.  Reginald  A.  J.  Wame- 
ford,  who  was  killed  10  days  later. 

VIII.    The  Situation  at  the  Close  of  the 
Yeab 

To  the  close  of  the  year  1915,  the  most  im- 
pressive events  of  the  War  of  the  Nations  were 
spectacular  but  incomplete  demonstrations  of 
German  military  supremacy.  In  1914  Belgium 
and  a  considerable  sector  of  Northern  France 
had  been  overrun  by  German  armies,  but  the 
French  army,  prudently  commanded  by  G^eral 
Jofl're,  had  remained  unshattered,  and  Calais  had 
not  been  reached;  in  the  summer  of  1916  the 
Russian  "steam-roller"  had  been  trundled  back 
from  Gklicia  and  from  Russian  Poland  to  the 
Riga-Dvinsk-Pripet  Marshes  line  in  a  badly  bat- 
tered condition,  but  von  Hindenburg  had  failed 
to  win  Dvinsk  or  Riga,  and  the  Russian  army, 
though  defeated,  was  not  annihilated;  in  the 
closing  months  of  1915  Bulgaria  was  won  to  the 
Turco-Teutonic  coalition,  Serbia  was  conquered, 
and  the  route  opened  up  from  Antwerp  through 
Berlin,  Vienna,  Nish,  and  Sofia  to  Constanti- 
nople and  even  to  Bagdad;  but  an  Anglo-French 
army  was  left  to  entrench  itself  at  Saloniki. 
Three  gigantic  oflTensives  had  won  new  laurels 
for  the  German  generals  and  new  territories  for 
the  Central  Powers,  but  the  Russian  army  was 
still  able  to  stand  at  bay,  the  "contemptible" 
little  British  expeditionary  force  had  been 
swelled  by  repeated  reinforcements  until  it  was 
a  million  strong,  and  General  Joffre  was  plan- 
ning a  new  Anglo-French  forward  movement  for 
the  spring  of  1916.  The  German  military  ma- 
chine had  brilliantly  proved  its  ability  to  carry 
out  smashing,  irresistible  offensives;  it  had  dem- 
onstrated its  Amazing  mastery  of  the  new  science 
of  trench  warfare,  which  enabled  numerically 
inferior  German  forces  to  hold  General  JoflTre's 
"forward  movements"  in  check;  but  it  had  not 
won  the  war.  Hence  it  was  not  surprising  that 
whereas  statesmen  and  journalists  in  Germany 
expressed  a  puzzled  inability  to  understand  the 
stubborn  refusal  of  the  defeated  Allies  to  sue  for 
peace,  orators  and  publicists  in  France  and  in 
England  gave  voice  to  the  immutable  conviction 


that  the  "just  cause"  and  preponderant  re- 
sources of  the  Entente  Allies  must  ultimately 
triumph.  The  war,  insisted  the  Allies,  would 
be  decided  not  by  campaigns  or  by  battles,  but 
by  men,  munitions,  and  trade.  Thus  Mr.  Wins- 
ton Spencer  Churchill,  one  of  England's  most 
prominent  statesmen,  with  a  sublime  contempt 
for  ephemeral  German  victories,  might  proclaim 
his  belief  that:  "It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to 
win  the  war  to  push  the  Grerman  line  back  over 
all  the  territory  they  have  absorbed,  nor  to 
pierce  it.  While  the  German  lines  extend  far 
beyond  their  frontiers,  while  their  flag  flies  over 
conquered  capitals  and  subjected  provinces,  while 
all  the  appearances  of  military  success  greet 
their  arms,  Germany  may  be  defeated  more 
fatally  in  the  second  or  third  year  of  the  war 
than  if  the  Allied  armies  had  entered  Berlin  in 
the  first  year."  The  factors  upon  which  Mr. 
Churchill,  in  common  with  other  Allied  and  pro- 
Ally  observers,  counted  to  ensure  the  Entente's 
final  victory,  may  be  briefly  summarized  under 
five  heads.  (1)  Military  manhood.  The  Turco- 
Teutonic  coalition,  if  we  may  place  confidence 
in  the  calculations  of  Mr.  Hilaire  Belloc,  one  of 
the  most  sanguine  English  historians  of  the 
war,  was  vainly  striving  by  spectacular  strategy 
to  conceal  the  alarming  wastage  of  its  military 
manhood,  while  the  Entente  Powers  were  just 
beginning  to  draw  upon  their  human  resources. 
Similarly  Mr.  Churchill  affirmed:  "At  the  out- 
set of  the  war  the  number  of  males  capable  of 
bearing  arms  in  Germany  compared  with  the 
number  in  this  country  [Great  Britain]  was 
three  to  two.  To-day  our  [the  Allies']  numbers 
are  greatly  superior  if  we  use  them,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  second  year  the  original  pro- 
portion will  probably  be  reversed.  We  are 
becomfhg,  therefore,  a  continually  stronger 
power  actually  and  relatively  so  far  as  military 
manhood  is  concerned."  It  was  upon  the  Allies' 
resources  in  men  that  the  French  military  critics 
counted  when  they  praised  General  Joffre's  per- 
sistent war  of  attrition,  which  by  pin-pndcs 
would  bleed  the  German  army  to  death.  Lord 
Derby's  recruiting  campaign,  backed  up  by  a 
compulsory  military  service  bill,  promised  at 
last  to  place  the  full  military  strength  of  the 
British  nation  in  the  field.  The  Russian 
"hordes"  would  still  probably  suffice  to  recruit 
new  Russian  armies  in  replacement  of  those 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas  had  lost.  The  French 
with  grim  courage  were  sending  mere  striplings 
to  the  front.  (2)  Economic  resources.  Even 
should  the  Allies  fail  to  overwhelm  the  Central 
Empires  by  sheer  weight  of  numbers,  it  was  be- 
lieved that  the  failure  of  Germany's  economic 
resources  would  bestow  the  final  victory  upon 
the  financially  invincible  coalition  of  London  and 
Paris.  To  the  student  of  finance  elaborate  sta- 
tistical reviews  professed  to  prove  the  inevitable 
bankruptcy  of  Germany  and  the  financial  solid- 
ity of  France  and  England.  German  economists, 
it  is  only  fair  to  remark,  published  similar  ar- 
rays of  figures  just  as  conclusively  demonstrat- 
ing the  ability  of  Germany  to  endure  to  the  end, 
thanks  to  the  willingness  of  her  patriotic  citi- 
zens to  invest  in  the  government's  war  loans, 
and  thanks  to  more  efficient  management  of  re- 
sources. Furthermore,  the  partisans  of  the  Ger- 
manic Powers  pointed  out  that  the  military  suc- 
cesses of  the  Turco-Teutonic  armies  had  im- 
mensely improved  the  economic  situation  of  the 
Central  Powers:  the  rich  coal  and  iron  regions 

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of  Belgium  and  Northern  France  had  been  virtu- 
ally annexed  to  Germany;  the  agricultural  ex- 
panses and  the  industrial  resources  of  Poland 
and  other  Russian  provinces  had  been  conquered; 
the  herds  and  the  copper  mines  of  Serbia  and 
the  food-products  of  the  Balkan  countries  had 
been  made  available  by  the  conquest  of  Serbia; 
and  the  failure  of  the  Anglo-French  Dardanelles 
campaign  had  ensured  the  safety  of  German 
communications  with  the  vast  empire  of  Turkey 
in  Asia,  which  if  properly  developed  might  sup- 
ply Germany  with  much-needed  stores  of  meat, 
oils,  cotton,  petroleum,  and  copper.  (3)  Naval 
supremacy.  With  increasing  frequency  as  the 
war  dragged  on,  allusion  was  made  to  the  his- 
toric parallel  of  the  present  war,  the  contest  be- 
tween Napoleon's  military  might  and  Britain's 
naval  supremacy.  As  sea-power  at  the  ban- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  had  overcome  In- 
vincible armies  then,  so  it  was  assumed  that 
England's  super-dreadnoughts  would  overcome 
Germany's  armies  in  the  twentieth  century. 
Command  of  the  seas  enabled  the  Allies  to 
utilize  their  own  resources  to  the  full,  to  pre- 
serve their  own  trade,  to  "capture"  German 
trade,  and  to  institute  a  virtual  blockade  of 
Germany.  Germany's  attempt  to  break  the 
blockade  by  means  of  submarines  had  failed.  It 
remained  to  be  seen  whether  German  efficiency, 
which  had  already  staved  off  a  food  crisis,  could 
so  wisely  regulate  the  economic  life  of  the  na- 
tion, and  BO  advantageously  exploit  the  resources 
of  Belgium,  Poland,  the  Balkans,  and  Asiatic 
Turkey,  that  the  British  navy  would  be  unable 
to  reverse  the  victories  of  German  armies.  (4) 
Diplomacy.  At  the  close  of  the  year  public 
opinion  in  Allied  countries  definitely  counted 
upon  and  expectantly  awaited  the  intervention 
of  new  Allies  against  the  Central  Powers. 
Above  all,  Rumania  was  momentarily  expected 
to  enter  the  war,  to  conquer  from  Austria-Him- 
gary  at  least  part  of  the  coveted  provinces  of 
Bukovina,  Transylvania,  and  the  Banat.  The 
Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  seemed  to  be  con- 
fident that  Rumania's  neutrality,  if  not  her  sym- 
pathy, had  been  secured  by  Teutonic  diplomacy. 
Furthermore,  Sweden  showed  some  signs  of  irri- 
tation against  British  contraband  rules,  and 
journalists  speculated  on  the  possibility  of  Swe- 
den's intervention  on  the  German  side.  (6) 
Finally,  the  spokesmen  of  the  Allied  Powers 
continued  to  voice  the  hope  that  the  military 
and  governmental  authorities  of  the  Central 
Powers  would  be  handicapped  by  a  revulsion  of 
popular  sentiment  against  the  war  and  against 
"Prussian  militarism";  that  the  Slavic  nation- 
alities in  Austria-Hungary  would  refuse  to  fight 
for  a  distasteful  ^vernment;  and  that  the 
Arabs  would  rebel  against  the  Turks,  and  the 
more  conservative  and  reasonable  elements 
in  Turkey  would  become  disgusted  with  Enver 
Pasha's  "Young  Turk"  clique.  To  be  sure,  the 
enthusiastic  valor  of  the  Teutonic  and  Turkish 
armies  proved  that  the  popular  discontent  with 
"German  militarism"  was  less  universal  than 
had  been  supposed;  but  reports  of  Socialist 
demonstrations  in  Germany,  of  popular  insur- 
rections in  Austria-Hungary  (see  Austbia-Hun- 
oary),  and  of  unrest  in  Turkey,  bolstered  up 
the  conviction  of  the  Allies  that  in  defending 
the  cause  of  "liberty,  democracy,  and  human- 
ity," against  Prussian  "militarism"  and  Turk- 
ish "barbarism,"  they  might  to  some  extent  en- 
list the  sympathy  of  the  "oppressed  masses"  in 


the  Central  Powers  and  Turkey.  If,  on  the 
whole,  the  year  had  disappointed  the  Allies' 
hopes  of  serious  popular  insubordination  in  the 
Central  Powers,  it  had  likewise  disappointed 
the  Germans'  expectation  of  Moslem  revolutions 
in  India  and  in  Egypt.  Summing  up  the  situa- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  year,  then,  the  hackneyed 
statement  may  be  once  more  reaffirmed  that  the 
war  had  become  a  war  of  resources,  but  with 
this  modification,  that  the  relative  resources  of 
the  contending  coalitions  of  the  Powers  might  be 
considerably  and  even  decisively  altered  by  great 
German  victories  or  defeats,  and  by  "impon- 
derable" political  factors. 

IX.    Peace  Nbootiations 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  discussion,  the 
futility  of  negotiations  for  peace  during  the 
year  1915  should  be  patent.  Recurrent  rumors 
from  Rome  throughout  the  year  affirmed  that 
the  Pope,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Teu- 
tonic, French,  and  Belgian  cardinals,  was  inde- 
fatigably  laboring  to  bring  the  lamentable  Euro- 
pean conflict  to  a  speedy  and  happy  termina- 
tion; but  no  authoritative  statement  of  His 
Holiness'  activities  in  this  field  has  yet  been 
vouchsafed  to  the  public,  and  the  arrangement 
for  the  mutual  exchange  of  hopelessly  crippled 
soldiers  between  the  belligerents  remainea  the 
only  well-verified  achievement  of  papal  diplo- 
macy. Moreover,  not  to  moition  the  Socialists' 
pacific  propaganda  (see  Socialism),  the  chival- 
ric  voyage  of  Mr.  Henry  Ford,  with  a  band  of 
adventurous  pacificists,  from  America,  with  the 
altruistic  object  of  persuading  the  imhappy  na- 
tions of  Europe  to  desist  from  their  insensate 
conflict,  must  at  least  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection, although  it  failed  to  achieve  its  aim. 
The  Teutonic  Powers  appeared  to  be  ready  for 
peace — on  their  own  terms;  and  Italy  seemed 
to  lack  determination  in  the  war;  but,  before 
peace  could  be  made  in  Europe,  either  France 
and  England  must  undo  the  Teutonic  victories 
of  1914-15,  or  Germany  must,  by  new  and  more 
ambitious  campaigns,  bring  Great  Britain  to  de- 
feat or  compromise. 

X.      BiBLIOGRAFHT 

Note.  The  following  bibliography  is  offered, 
not  as  an  exhaustive  catalogue  of  war  litera- 
ture, but  simply  as  a  guide  to  assist  the  casual 
reader  in  selcK^ting  a  few  of  the  most  useful  and 
most  valuable  of  the  countless  books,  pam- 
phlets, and  articles  which  have  been  written 
about  the  war.  For  more  extensive  bibliogra- 
phies, and  for  notices  of  new  publications,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  F.  W.  T.  Lange  and  W.  T. 
Berry:  Books  on  the  Great  War  (London,  Graf- 
ton and  Co.,  1915-),  an  annotated  bibliography 
appearing  serially;  Library  of  Congress:  lAst  of 
References  on  Europe.  .  .  .  (Washington,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  15  cents) ;  G.  W.  Pro- 
thero:  List  of  Publications  Bearing  on  the  War 
(London,  Central  Committee,  Patriotic  Organ- 
izations, 1915) ;  the  Booh  Review  Digest ^  a  cur- 
rent guide  to  new  books;  the  Reader's  Ouide  to 
Periodical  Literature  (monthly) ;  the  Litrarif 
World;  and  the  New  York  Times  Book  Review 
(weekly). 

Handbooks  of  the  Wab.  Of  the  many  hand- 
books containing  general  information  about  the 
war,  some  are  hasty  and  inaccurate  compila- 

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tions,  while  others  poBsess  distinct  value  as  con- 
venient works  of  ready  reference.  The  follow- 
ing will  be  found  very  useful:  Ifew  Wwr  En- 
cyclopedia and  Diotionary  (London,  Jarrold) ; 
C.  K.  Sugden,  War  Fact9  and  Fiffures  (London, 
British  Dominion  General  Insurance  Co.,  Ltd., 
1916) ;  War  Booh  of  FaoU  (London,  Shaw) ; 
Pocket  War  Dictionary:  A  Complete  Who's 
Who  and  What's  What  (London,  Delow,  1915) ; 
Stanley  S.  Sheip  (editor).  Handbook  of  the 
European  War  (White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  Wilson) ; 
J.  W.  White,  Teast'Book  of  the  War  for  Amer- 
icans.  The  World's  Work  War  Manuals  may 
also  be  mentioned.  Most  of  the  standard  annu- 
als and  almanacs,  notably  the  World  AlmanaOf 
Whitaker's,  HazelVs  Annual,  the  Daily  Mail 
Year  Book,  and  the  Annual  Register  contain 
more  or  less  reliable  summaries  of  the  war's 
principal  events.  For  the  German  version, 
consult:  Kiirschners  Jahrhuch  and  the 
Deutscher  Oeschichtskalender  (Leipzig,  F. 
Meiner). 

GONTINySD       HiSTOBIES        AND       OOIXEOTIDICS. 

Pretentious  continued  histories  of  the  war  and 
monumental  collections  of  war-nutterial  have  al- 
ready begun  to  make  their  appearance.  Of 
those  published  in  America,  probably  the  best 
known  are  the  New  York  Times;  Current  His- 
tory of  the  War,  a  heterogeneous  collection,  pub- 
lished in  monthly  installments,  containing  many 
valuable  historical  documents  as  well  as  a  num- 
ber of  unimportant  articles;  Frank  H.  Simonds, 
The  Great  War  (2  vols.),  a  keenly  analytical 
interpretation,  rather  than  a  detailed  narrative, 
of  the  war's  most  significant  events;  and  The 
Oreat  War  by  George  H.  Allen  and  Henry  C. 
Whitehead  (Philadelphia,  George  Barrie's  Sons, 
1915).  In  England,  the  leading  newspapers 
are  publishing  weekly  and  fortnightly  "histo- 
ries" of  the  war;  of  these  the  Manchester 
Guardian  History  of  the  War  (fortnightly) 
and  the  Times  History  of  the  War  (weekly) 
are  the  best.  The  Daily  Chronicle  and  the 
Daily  Telegraph  have  published  dozens  of 
pocket-edition  books  on  war-topics.  The  Great 
World  War  (London,  Gresham),  edited  by  F.  A. 
Mumby,  gives  a  concise  discussion  of  the  prin- 
cipal features  of  the  war;  Hilaire  Belloc,  Gen- 
eral  Sketch  of  the  European  War,  the  First 
Phase  (London,  Nelson),  is  characterized  by 
illuminating,  but  frequently  too  optimistic, 
analyses  of  geographical  and  niunerical  factors 
in  favor  of  the  Allies;  one  of  the  clearest  and 
most  accurate  narratives  yet  written  is  Nel- 
son's History  of  the  War  (London,  Nelson),  by 
John  Buchan.  Other  continued  histories  of  the 
war,  of  rather  unequal  merit,  are:  by  W.  S. 
Macbean  Knight,  History  of  the  Great  European 
War,  part  I  (London,  Caxton) ;  Edgar  Wallace, 
Standard  History  of  the  War,  vol.  1  (London, 
Newnes) ;  Newman  Flower  (editor).  The  His- 
tory of  the  Great  War,  quarterly  (London, 
Waverly  Book  Ck>mpany) ;  Capt.  A.  H.  At- 
teridge.  The  First  Phase  of  the  European  War 
(1914),  and  The  Second  Phase,  etc.  (London, 
Hodder  and  Stoughton,  1915);  F.  R.  Cana,  The 
Great  War  in  Europe  (London,  Virtue)  ;  Wil- 
liam Le  Queux  (editor),  The  War  of  the  Na- 
tions (London,  Newnes).  One  of  the  leading 
French  serial  histories  of  the  war  is  edited  by 
Gabriel  Hanotaux:  Histoire  Illustr^e  de  la 
Guerre  de  19U  (Bordeaux,  La  Petite  Gironde) ; 
another  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  has  been  begun 
by  Lucien  Comet   (Paris,  Charles  Lavauzelle) ; 


but  at  present  the  most  valuable  French  work 
is  the  admirable  collection  of  communiques, 
documents,  and  articles  published  serially  un- 
der the  general  title,  Pa^es  ^histoire,  1914" 
1915  (Berger-Levrault,  Paris) ;  the  same  pub- 
lisher, Berger-Levrault,  has  announced  an  His- 
toire ghUrale  et  anecdotique  de  la  Guerre  de 
1914,  to  be  edited  by  Jean  Bernard.  The 
Chronik  des  deutschen  Krieges,  vol.  i  (Munich, 
C.  H.  Beck),  and  Hans  F.  Helmolt's  compila- 
tion, Der  Weltkrieg  in  Bildem  und  Dokumenten 
(Leipzig,  J.  M.  Meulenhoff),  are  only  two  of 
the  many  excellent  German  works. 

Periodicals.  To  enumerate  the  periodicals 
in  which  important  articles  on  the  war  regu- 
larly appear  would  be  quite  impossible  in  this 
brief  bibliography.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
the  Readers'  Guide  and  the  Military  Digest, 
with  the  suggestion  that  Hilaire  Belloc's  weekly 
articles  in  Land  and  Water,  and  Frank  H.  Si- 
monds's  mcmthlv  contributions  to  the  American 
Review  of  RevteKS  will  be  found  particularly 
interesting  and  illuminating,  even  though  the 
writers'  conclusions  be  not  always  accepted. 
Among  British  magazines,  the  Fortnightly  and 
the  Contemporary,  and  among  American  maga- 
zines, the  World^s  Work  and  the  American  Re- 
view of  Reviews,  give  special  prominence  to  war 
articles. 

Diplomatic  History.  A  discussion  of  the  va- 
rious collections  of  diplomatic  correspondence 
published  by  the  belligerents  will  be  found  in 
the  Year  Book  for  1914  under  the  article  on 
the  war,  and  in  the  present  article,  under  Con- 
troversialists and  the  War.  A  handy  volume 
published  by  Harrison  and  Sons,  London,  con- 
tains the  Collected  Diplomatio  Documents  Re- 
lating to  the  Outbreak  of  the  European  War, 
including  the  British  White  Paper,  the  French 
Yellow  Book,  the  Russian  Orange  Book,  the  Bel- 
gian Chrey  Book,  the  Serbian  Blue  Book,  the 
German  Denkschrift,  the  Austro-Hungarian  i^ed 
Book,  and  other  material,  carefully  indexed. 
In  addition  to  the  earlier  diplomatic  documents, 
the  New  York  Times  and  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  International  Conciliation  have  made 
the  Italian  Green  Book,  the  second  Belgian 
Grey  Book,  the  correspondence  of  the  United 
States  government  with  the  belligerents,  and 
other  recent  material,  available  to  the  Amer- 
ican public.  For  English  readers,  more  or  less 
{>artisan,  but  fairly  reliable  accounts  of  the  dip- 
omatic  maneuvres  preliminary  to  the  war  have 
been  written  by  J.  W.  Headlam,  History  of 
Twelve  Days  {July  24-August  4,  1914)  (Lon- 
don, Fisher  Unwin,  1915);  J.  Holland  Rose, 
Origins  of  the  War  (Cambridge  University 
Press,  1914) ;  Ellery  C.  Stowell,  The  Diplomacy 
of  the  War  of  1914  ( Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin) ; 
and  M.  P.  Price  (editor).  The  Diplomatic  His- 
tory of  the  War  (London,  Allen  and  Un- 
win). 

Controversial  Discussions  of  Causes  and 
Issues.  An  immense  amount  of  controversial 
literature  has  been  produced  by  citizens  of  neu- 
tral as  well  as  by  subjects  of  belligerent  coun- 
tries, in  the  endeavor  to  prove  or  to  disprove, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  culpability  of  the  Ger- 
man government  in  precipitating  the  war. 
Many  eminent  British  scholars  have  contributed 
monographs  to  the  Oxford  Pamphlets,  criticis- 
ing the  policy  and  impugning  the  motives  of 
the  German  government.  On  the  other  hand, 
the    Deutsche    Kriegschriften     {German     War 


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Pamphlets)  and  PMtiache  Flugschriften  {Po- 
litioal  Pamphlets)  lay  the  burden  of  guilt  upon 
the  Allies.  Some  of  the  best  statements  of  the 
case  against  Germany  are:  E.  P.  Barker  and 
other  members  of  the  Oxford  Faculty  of  Mod- 
ern History,  Why  We  Are  at  War:  Great  Brit- 
ain's Case;  James  M.  Beck,  The  Evidence  in  the 
Case  (New  York,  Putnam's,  1914)  ;  E.  J.  Dil- 
lon, A  Bcra/p  of  Paper  (London,  Hodder  and 
Stoujrhton,  1914)  ;  H.  A.  L.  Fisher,  The  War, 
Its  Causes  and  Its  Issues  (Longmans,  1914) ; 
Bam  say  Muir,  Britain's  Case  Against  Germany 
(Manchester  University  Press,  1914)  ;  J.  Hol- 
land Rose,  The  Origins  of  the  War  (Cambridge 
University  Press,  1914) ;  and  A.  B.  Hart,  The 
War  in  Europe,  Its  Causes  and  Results  (New 
York,  Appleton,  1914).  The  most  striking  in- 
dictment of  the  German  government  purports 
to  have  been  written  by  a  German;  the  volume 
was  originally  published  in  Lausanne  with  the 
title,  J' accuse:  von  einem  Deutschen,  and  has 
since  been  translated  into  French  and  into  Eng- 
lish. Germany's  War  Mania:  The  Teutonic 
Point  of  View  as  Officially  Stated  by  Her  Lead- 
ers (Dodd,  Mead  and  Company)  is  a  valuable 
collection  of  significant  utterances  by  German 
public  men.  Oermania  contra  Mundum,  a 
brochure  by  Earl  Cromer,  sets  forth  the  views 
of  a  noted  British  ''empire-builder"  as  to  what 
Great  Britain  is  fighting  for — and  against. 
The  Spirit  of  the  Allied  Nations  (Macmillan, 
1915),  edited  by  Sidney  Low,  is  a  more  com- 
prehensive statement  of  the  anti-Grerman  view- 
point. For  profound  discussions  of  the  perni- 
cious influence  which  German  philosophy  is  al- 
leged to  have  exerted,  consult  Prof.  J.  Dewey, 
German  Philosophy  and  Politics  (New  York, 
Holt,  1916),  and  J.  H.  Muirhead,  German 
Philosophy  in  Relation  to  the  War  (L.  Murray, 
1915).  The  German  version  of  the  diplomacy 
that  led  up  to  the  war  has  been  most  ably  pre- 
sented by  Hans  F.  Helmolt,  Die  geheime  Vor- 
geschichte  des  Weltkrieges  (Leipzig,  K.  F. 
Koehler,  1914).  Paul  Rohrbach,  Germany's 
Isolation  (Chicago,  McClurg,  1915,  translated 
from  the  German),  and  Col.  H.  Fobenius,  Ger- 
many's Hour  of  Destiny  (preface  by  Prof.  W.  R. 
Shepherd)  argue  that  the  Allies  endangered  the 
peace  of  Europe  by  endeavoring  to  isolate  Ger- 
many diplomatically  and  to  impose  restrictions 
upon  her  economic  expansion.  J.  W.  Burgess, 
The  European  War  of  191k:  Its  Causes,  Pur- 
poses, and  Probable  Results,  is  a  vigorous  jus- 
tification of  Germany,  written  by  an  eminent 
American  scholar.  Gen.  Friedrich  von  Bem- 
hardi,  whose  explanations  of  How  Germany 
Makes  War  and  forecasts  of  Germany  and  the 
Next  War  have  operated  so  powerfully  against 
the  German  cause,  has  replied  to  his  critics  in 
a  new  volume,  Germany  and  England  (New 
York,  Dillingham,  1915).  C.  L.  Droste  has  com- 
piled a  comprehensive  indictment  of  the  Allies, 
consisting  of  Documents  on  the  War  of  the  Na- 
tions from  Neutral  and  Anti^German  Sources 
(Richmond,  Dietz). 

Belgian  Netjtkaijtt.  The  subject  of  Bel- 
gian neutrality  is  touched  upon  by  many  of 
the  above  mentioned  controversialists.  For 
more  thorough  expositions,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  The  Case  of  Belgium,  by  the  Belgian 
delegates  to  the  United  States  (Macmillan, 
1914);  Emile  Waxweiler,  La  Belgique  neutre 
et  loyale  (Lausanne,  Payot,  1916) ;  and  La 
neutraXiti  de  la  Belgique  (preface  by  Paul  Ay- 


mans,  official  publication  of  the  Belgian  govern- 
ment). The  German  contention  that  Belgian 
neutrality  had  been  violated  before  the  German 
invasion  is  best  presented  by  Alexander  Fuehr, 
The  Neutrality  of  Belgium  (New  York,  Funk, 
1915). 

MiLiTABT  Operations.  The  best  military  his- 
tories of  the  war  have  been  noted  in  the  section 
Continued  Histories  and  Collections  (supra). 
Among  the  Daily  Telegraph  War  Books  and  in 
the  Oxford  Pamphlets  will  be  found  fairly  de- 
tailed narratives  of  campaigns  and  battles,  such 
as  A.  N.  Hilditch,  The  Stand  of  Li4ge;  H.  W.  C. 
Davis,  The  Battle  of  the  Mame  and  the  Aisne; 
Edmund  Dane,  The  Battle  of  the  Rivers;  Percy 
Standing,  The  First  Campaign  in  Russian  Po- 
land, G.  H.  Ferris  has  a  volume  describing 
the  Campaign  of  19 H  in  France  and  Belgium 
(London,  Hodder  and  Stoughton,  1915).  Ger- 
many in  Defeat  is  a  decidedly  biased  sketch  of 
the  military  operations  through  the  battle  of 
the  Mame,  by  Coimt  Charles  de  Souza  and 
Major  H.  Macfall.  Stanley  Washburn's  Field 
Notes  from  the  RiMsian  Front  (London,  Mel- 
rose, 1915),  supplemented  by  his  more  recent 
volume.  The  Russian  Campaign  (Scribner's, 
1915),  brings  the  story  of  the  operations  in  the 
Eastern  theatre  of  war  down  to  the  fall  of  War- 
saw. For  vivid  and  impressionistic  accounts  of 
military  operations,  one  may  read  Richard 
Harding  Davis,  With  the  Allies  (London,  Duck- 
worth, 1915);  Dr.  Sven  A.  Hedin,  With  the 
German  Armies  in  the  West  (London,  Lane, 
1915) ;  Stanley  Washburn  [supra)  ;  Frank 
Fox,  The  Agony  of  Belgium  (London,  Hutchin- 
son, 1915)  ;  R.  Dunn,  Five  Fronts:  On  the  Fir- 
ing-lAnes  with  English,  French,  Austrian,  Ger- 
man, and  Russian  Troops  (New  York,  Dodd, 
Mead  and  Co.) ;  or  Frederick  Palmer's  realistic 
portrayal  of  life  in  the  trenches.  My  Year  of 
the  Great  Wa/r  (Dodd,  Mead  and  Co.).  Gran- 
ville Fortescue  has  written  graphic  stories  of 
his  adventures  in  A^  the  Front  with  Three  Armies 
(London,  Melrose,  1915),  and  of  the  Dardanelles 
operations.  One  of  the  most  widely  read  jour- 
nalistic descriptions  of  the  war  is  Eye-Witnest^s 
Narrative  of  the  War:  From  the  Mame  to 
Neuve  Chapelle,  September,  1914,  to  March, 
1915  (London,  Arnold,  1915).  For  special  top- 
ics, the  following  books  are  useful :  J.  K.  O'Con- 
nor, The  Afrikander  Rebellion  (London,  AWea. 
and  Unwin,  1915) ;  Evans  Lewin,  The  Germans 
and  Africa;  F.  S.  Bumell,  Australia  versus 
Germany  (London,  Allen  and  Unwin,  1915) ; 
R.  Granville  Baker,  The  Passing  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  in  Europe  (Philadelphia,  Lippincott, 
1915);  Marion  I.  Newbigin,  Geographical  As- 
pects of  Balkan  Problems  (New  York,  Put- 
nam) ;  H.  C.  Woods,  War  and  Diplomacy  in  the 
Balkans  (London,  The  Field,  1915) ;  Noel  and 
C.  R.  Buxton,  The  War  and  the  Balkans  (Lon- 
don, Allen  and  Unwin,  1915)  ;  Anon.,  The  Dar- 
danelles: Their  Story  and  Their  Significance  in 
the  Great  War  (London,  Melrose,  1915).  The 
atrocities  committed  by  the  troops  of  the  bel- 
ligerent nations  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
investigations,  pamphlets,  official  reports,  and 
official  denials,  too  numerous  to  be  included  in 
this  list. 

Official  Dispatches.  For  the  operations  of 
the  British  troops  in  France  the  collected  De- 
spatches of  Field  Marshal  Sir  John  French, 
which  have  been  published  in  several  different 
editions,  furnish  an  authoritative  source.  Sim- 
Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


WAB  OF  THE  NATIONS 


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WASHINGTON 


ilar  compilations  of  official  dispatches  and  bul- 
letins have  been  published  in  Grerman — Kriega- 
kalender  und  Kriegadepescken  nach  den  amt- 
lichen  Berichten  (Berlin,  Bong,  1915)  ;  and  in 
French — Orande  Guerre:  Reoueil  des  communi- 
ques offioiela  des  gouvemements  et  ^tais-majors 
de  tous  les  bellig4ranis  (Payot,  Paris).  A 
French  Offioidl  Review  of  the  First  Sia  Months 
of  the  War  has  been  issued  by  Renter's  Agency 
and  published  by  Constable  (London). 

Naval  Wabfabe.  An  admirable  brief  de- 
scription of  The  Fleets  at  War  is  given  by 
Archibald  Hurd  in  one  of  the  Daily  Telegraph 
War  Books,  The  same  author  has  described 
The  German  Fleet  (Hodder  and  Stoughton, 
1915).  For  reference  purposes,  the  following 
may  be  consulted  to  advantage:  Fred.  T.  Jane, 
Fighting  Ships  for  19 H;  Brassey's  Naval  An- 
nual War  Edition  (London,  Clowes,  1915) ;  The 
Fleet  Annual  and  Naval  Year  Book,  War  Edi- 
tion (Fleet,  Limited,  1916) ;  The  Royal  Navy 
List  (Witherby,  1915);  Fleets  of  the  World 
(Nash,  1915) ;  and  L.  G.  C.  Laughton,  The  BHt- 
ish  Navy  in  the  War  (London,  Sfethuen,  1915). 
For  naval  battles  of  the  war,  consult  the  Brit- 
ish Official  Navy  Despatches  {OraphiCy  London, 
1914) ;  Rear  Admiral  8.  E.  Wilmot,  The  Battle 
of  the  North  Sea  in  19U  (London,  Rees,  1914) ; 
L.  C.  Jane,  The  Action  Off  Heligoland  (Oosford 
Pamphlets) ;  and  Battles  of  the  South  Seas 
{Yachting  Monthly,  1915).  In  regard  to  the 
effect  of  the  war  upon  neutral  commerce,  con- 
sult E.  J.  Clapp:  Economic  Aspects  of  the  War 
(Yale  University  Press,  1915) ;  and  W.  R.  Shep- 
herd (editor).  The  Protection  of  Neutral  Rights 
at  Sea  (New  York,  Sturgis  and  Walton  Co., 
1916). 

ATRIAL  Wabfabe.  C.  Grahame-White  and 
Harry  Harper,  Aircraft  in  the  Great  War:  A 
Record  and  Study  (London,  Fisher  Unwin, 
1916). 

BiooBAPHiCAL.  For  concise  information  one 
may  consult  Lloyd's  Who's  Who  of  the  Great 
War  (Hodder  and  Stoughton,  1914) ;  the  Brit- 
ish Who's  Who;  the  German  Wer  Ist's;  and 
the  French  Qui  ites-vous,  in  addition  to  en- 
oydopeedias  and  .year  books  of  recent  date. 
Kurt  MOhsam,  Deutsche  HeerfUhrer  (Berlin, 
Haber,  1914,  2  vols),  gives  biographies  of  lead- 
ing German  generals.  F.  W.  Wile,  Men  Around 
the  Kaiser  (Heinemann,  1914),  and  A.  G.  Gar- 
diner, The  War  Lords  (London,  Dent,  1915), 
are  interesting  studies.  Only  a  few  of  the 
many  individual  biographies  may  be  mentioned: 
F.  W.  Hackwood,  Life  of  Lord  Kitchener  {lAp- 
pincott) ;  Harold  Begbie,  Kitchener  (Boston, 
Houghton,  1916) ;  H.  G.  Groser,  Lord  Roberts 
(Pilgrim  Press,  1914) ;  Christian  Gauss,  The 
German  Emperor  as  Shou^n  in  His  Public  Ut- 
terances (New  York,  Scribner's,  1916) ;  R.  P. 
Mahaffy,  Francis  Joseph  I,  His  Life  and  Times 
(2nd  edition,  London,  Duckworth,  1915) ;  Alex- 
ander Kahn,  Life  of  General  J  off  re  (Heinemann, 
1915).  A  most  significant  collection  of  David 
Lloyd  George's  speeches  has  been  published  un- 
der the  su^estive  title.  Through  Terror  to  Tri- 
umph (G.  H.  Doran  Co.). 

Otheb  Books.  Among  the  other  books  bear- 
ing upon  the  war,  the  following  are  of  special 
interest  and  importance:  W.  £.  Walling,  The 
Socialists  and  the  War  (New  York,  Holt,  1915)  ; 
H.  G.  Wells,  The  War  and  Socialism  (London, 
Clarion  Press,  1914) ;  Gabriel  Langlois,  Le 
clerg6,    les    catholiques,    et    la    guerre    (Paris, 


1916) ;  Alfred  Loisy,  The  War  and  Religion, 
translated  from  the  French  by  Arthur  Galton 
(Oxford,  Blackwell,  1915);  F.  W.  Hirst,  The 
Political  Economy  of  War  (Dent,  1915),  a  very 
remarkable  discussion  of  the  war's  economic  as- 
pects; C.  E.  Musgrave  (editor).  Trade  and  the 
War,  trade  maps,  charts,  and  statistics  (Lon- 
don Chamber  of  Commerce,  1915) ;  Norman  An- 
gell.  The  Problems  of  the  War  and  the  Peace 
(London,  Heinemann,  1915);  Gilbert  Slater, 
Peace  and  the  War  in  Europe  ( London,  Con- 
stable, 1915) ;  J.  A.  Hobson,  Towards  Interna- 
tional Govem/ment  (London,  Allen  and  Unwin, 
1915) ;  Murray  H.  Robertson,  Krupp's  and  the 
International  Armaments  Ring  ( London,  Holden 
and  H.,  1915 ) ;  Coleman  Phillipson,  Jniemo- 
tional  Law  and  the  Great  War  (London,  Fisher 
Unwin,  1915) ;  Norman  Angell,  The  World's 
Highway  (George  H.  Doran  Co.,  1916);  G. 
D.  H.  Cole,  Labour  in  War  Time  (Macmillan, 
1915).  Of  the  books  more  especially  concerjied 
with  the  effect  of  the  war  upon  the  United 
States,  Roland  G.  Usher,  Pan-Americanism 
(Century  Co.),  Hugo  Muensterberg,  The  War 
and  America  (Appleton),  and  Theodore  Roose- 
velt, America  and  the  World  War  ( Scribner's) , 
have  been  sufficiently  read  to  warrant  their  in- 
sertion, but  not  necessarily  their  recommenda- 
tion, in  this  list. 

WABSEN,  Samuel  Pbowse.  American  c(»n- 
poser  and  organist,  died  Oct.  7,  1916.  He  was 
bom  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1841.  From  1861- 
64  he  studied  music  in  Berlin,  and  in  1866  be- 
came organist  in  New  York  City.  After  two 
jesLTB  at  All  Souls  Church,  he  was  appointed 
in  1868  organist  of  Grace  Church,  New  York. 
He  held  this  position  until  1874,  when  he  be- 
came organist  at  Holy  Trinity.  After  two 
years  he  returned  to  Grace  Church,  where  he 
remained  until  1894.  From  1891  until  his 
death,  he  was  organist  at  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  East  Orange,  N.  J.  He  was  con- 
ductor of  the  New  York  Vocal  Union,  from  1880 
to  1888.  He  composed  many  anthems,  part- 
songs,  songs,  organ  and  piano  solos,  and  tran- 
scriptions. 

wASHBUBNy  GnoBGE.  American  clergymen 
and  educator,  died  Feb.  16,  1915.  Born  in  Mid- 
dleboro,  Mass.,  in  1833,  and  graduated  from 
Amherst  College  in  1853,  he  spent  one  year  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained to  the  Congregational  ministry  in  1863. 
Prior  to  that  time  he  had  served  as  missionary 
under  the  American  Board  at  Constantinople. 
After  continued  service  in  this  capacity  imtii 
1868,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Robert  Collie,  Constantinople.  He  was  act- 
ing president  of  that  institution  from  1870  to 
1878,  and  president  from  the  latter  year  until 
1903,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  a  recognized 
authority  upon  miestions  of  politics  in  south- 
eastern Europe.  In  1909  he  was  lecturer  at  the 
Lowell  Institute  in  Boston.  He  was  the  author 
of  Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople,  and  was  for 
many  years  a  regular  contributor  to  important 
American  and  English  periodicals. 

WASHINGTON.  Population.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915, 
was  1,471,043.  The  population  in  1910  was 
1,141,990. 

Aqbioitltxtbe.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in. 
1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Corn     . . . 

..1915 
1914 

89,000 
86,000 

1,058,000 
972,000 

$811,000 
710,000 

WhMt     . . 

..1915 

3.000.000 

60,894,000 

41,824,000 

1914 

1.780,000 

41,840,003 

41,840,000 

Oftto    

..1916 

276.000 

18,760.000 

6.088.000 

1914 

297.000 

18,969,000 

6,868.000 

Rye     .... 

..1916 

8.000 

146.000 

110,000 

1914 

8.000 

168.000 

184.000 

BMl0y      .. 

..1916 

176,000 

7.268.000 

4.067,000 

1014 

183,000 

7.098.000 

8.601.000 

PotatoM 

..1016 

61,000 

8.386,000 

4.866,000 

1914 

60,000 

7,662,000 

4.164,000 

Hft7     .... 

..1916 

812,000 

a  1,868,000 

20.174,000 

1914 

796,000 

1,761,000 

19,261.000 

a  Tons. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  I,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  308,000  and 
311,000  valued  at  $28,952,000  and  $29,856,000, 
mules  numbered  15,000  and  15,000  valued  at 
$1,590,000  and  $1,560,000,  milch  coWs  numbered 
263,000  and  253,000  valued  at  $15,912,000  and 
$18,722,000,  other  cattle  numbered  221,000  and 
215,000  valued  at  $6,696,000  and  $7,504,000, 
sheep  numbered  568,000  and  546,000  valued  at 
$3,010,000  and  $2,621,000,  swine  numbered  314,- 
000  and  327,000  valued  at  $2,669,000  and  $3,- 
607,000.    The  production  of  wool  in   1915  and 

1914  was  3,638,000  and  3,818,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

MiNB&AL  PBODUcnoN.  The  production  of 
gold  in  the  State  in  1914  was  $557,173,  a  de- 
crease of  $139,102  from  the  value  of  1913.  The 
production  of  silver  was  264,861  fine  ounces 
valued  at  $146,468,  compared  with  331,239 
ounces  valued  at  $200,068  in  1913.  The  total 
production  of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914,  was 
3,064,820  short  tons  valued  at  $6,751,511.  With 
the  exception  of  1905  and  1908  the  total  output 
of  coal  in  1914  was  the  lowest  since  1902.  The 
production  of  coal  in  Washington  has  been  con- 
siderably reduced  in  recent  years  by  the  output 
of  petroleum  in  California  and  its  use  as  a  fuel 
for  manufacturing,  railroads,  and  steamers. 
Other  causes  contributing  to  the  decrease  were 
the  general  industrial  depression,  particularly 
in  the  lumber  business,  and  the  exceptionally 
mild  weather  during  the  winter  months.  The 
value  of  the  total  mineral  production  in  1914 
was  $13,830,739  compared  with  $17,579,743  in 
1913. 

Transportation.  The  total  mileage  of  the 
railways  in  the  State  on  July  30,  1915,  was  8022. 
This  includes  mileage  of  all  kinds.  The  in- 
crease of  mileage  during  the  year  amounted  to 
425  miles.  Railways  having  the  longest  mile- 
age were  the  Great  Northern  1196,  Oregon  and 
Washington  992,  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul  583,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  1955. 

Education.    The  total   school  population   in 

1915  was  303,614.  There  were  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools  240,521,  with  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  190,129.  The  teachers  numbered 
7276  females,  and  1792  males.  The  total  ex- 
penditures for  the  support  of  the  schools  were 
$12,889,495. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  Dec.  30,  1915,  amounted  to  $11,- 
927,794.  The  disbursements  amounted  to  $10,- 
945,613.  There  was  a  balance  in  the  treasury 
on  Oct.  1,  1914,  of  $3,850,284,  and  on  Sept.  30, 
1915,  of  $4,842,465. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  Western 
Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Eastern  Hospital  for 


Home,  Washington  Veterans'  Home,  School  for 
the  Deaf,  School  for  the  Blind,  State  Peniten 
tiary,  State  Trainin^^  School,  State  School  for 
Girls,  and  the  State  Kef ormatory. 

PouTicfi  AND  Government.  A  minimum 
wage  law  applying  to  women,  boys,  and  girls 
went  into  eflfect  on  February  20th.  The  ached 
ule  is  $10  a  week  for  women  and  girls  employed 
in  offices  at  any  kind  of  clerical  work,  $8  per 
week  for  office  boys  and  girls  more  than  16 
years  of  age,  but  under  18,  and  $6  for  both 
sexes  under  16. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Ernest  Lia- 
ter;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Louis  F.  Hart;  Sec- 
reUry  of  State,  I.  M.  Howell;  Treasurer,  Ed 
ward  Meath;  Auditor,  C.  W.  Clausen;  Snperm 
tendent  of  Education,  Mrs.  Josephine  Preston; 
Attorney-General,  W.  V.  Tanner;  Adjutant-Gen 
eral,  Maurice  Thompson;  Commissioner  of  Ag 
riculture,  H.  T.  Graves;  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, H.  0.  Fishback--all  Bepablicans  ex 
cept  Governor,  Adjutant-Greneral,  and  Com 
missioner  of  Agriculture,  who  are  Demo- 
crats. 

JuniciART.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
George  E.  Morris;  Associate  Justices,  Frederick 
Bausman,  O.  G.  Ellis,  M.  A.  Fullerton,  W. 
Mount,  0.  R.  Holcomb,  S.  J.  Chadwick,  Emmett 
N.  Parker,  and  J.  F.  Main;  Clerk,  C.  S.  Rein 
hart. 

State  Lbgiblaturb: 


S€natt 

Bepublicaiu    29 

Democrats     S 

ProsreMives    7 


B0UB4  Joiid  B«!M 

79  108 

13  19 

6  1« 


Bepubliean    majority 


16 


61 


77 


WASHIia'aTON,  Booker  T.    American  negro 
educator,   died    Nov.    14,    1915.    He  was  bora, 
according   to  his   best  knowledge,   near  Hales- 
ford,  Franklin  County,  Va.,  in  either  1858  or 
1859.    His  mother  was  a  slave,  and  he  himself 
was   born   in   slavery.    The  name   Booker  was 
given  him  by  his  mother  as  a  joking  allnsion 
to    his    early    fondness    for    books.    The  name 
Washington  he  himself  assumed  later.    The  ini- 
tial T.  stood  for  Taliaferro,  which  he  had  heard 
was  the  name  of  his  father.     The  boy,  in  bis 
earliest  youth,   had   aspirations  for  an  educa- 
tion.   Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  he 
went  to  Maiden,  W.  Va.,  where  he  worked  in 
the  salt  mills  for  nine  months  in  the  year,  at- 
tending school  for  three  months.    The  task  of 
gaining  an  education  proved  a  difficult  one.    He 
mana^  to  find  time  to  attend  a  night  school, 
and   finally,   by   promising  to    b^n   work  un- 
usually early  in  the  morning  and  to  keep  at 
it  unusually  late  in  the  evening,  he  was  able  to 
attend  day  school  with  some  regularity.    After 
several  years  spent  in  this  manner,  accumulat- 
ing what  bits  of  knowledge  he  could  and  work- 
ing hard  in  the  meantime,  Washington  found 
work  in  the  house  of  a  New  England  woman, 
where  he  remained  until  1861.     He  then  heard 
of  the  school  for  negroes  at  Hampton,  Va.,  and 
resolved  to  go  there.    He  took  what  little  money 
he  had  been  able  to  save  from  his  wages  of  $6 
a  month,  and  made  his  way   to  Hampton  on 
foot.    He  was  warmly  received  by  the  principal 
of    the    institution.    General    Armstrong,    for 
whom  he  always  retained  the  greatest  affection 


BOOKER  T.  WASHINGTON 

Died  November  14,   1915 


loogle 


Digitized  by 


Google 


WASHrNTOTON 


731 


WASHINOTON  ITNIVEBSITY 


and  loyalty.  He  remained  at  Hampton  until 
he  had  graduated  from  Bchool  with  the  honors 
of  his  ctass,  having  worked  his  way  through 
the  entire  course.  After  his  graduation  he  re- 
turned to  his  own  home  in  Virginia,  and  taught 
school  for  a  time  before  he  continued  his  studies 
at  Wayland  Seminary,  in  Washington,  D.  G. 
While  in  that  institution,  he  was  invited  to 
become  a  teacher  at  Hampton,  and  remained 
there  for  two  years.  In  1881  the  citizens  of 
Tuskegee,  Ala.,  appealed  to  Oeneral  Armstrong 
for  an  institution  along  the  lines  of  the  school 
at  Hampton,  which  would  develop  negroes  into 
useful  citizens,  teaching  them  self-respect,  giv- 
ing them  the  ability  to  support  themselves,  and 
stirring  them  with  proper  ambition.  Booker 
Washington  was  chosen  to  foimd  such  an  in- 
stitution. When  he  arrived  at  Tuskegee,  there 
were  neither  lands  nor  building.  In  fact,  the 
resources  of  the  new  institution  were  only  a 
promise  of  $2000  annually  from  the  State  of 
Alabama  towards  the  expenses  of  the  school. 
Washin^n  worked  at  the  establishment  of  the 
institution  with  an  energy  and  optimism  which 
never  flagged.  He  began  his  work  in  a  small 
shanty  witii  one  assistant,  instructing  30  pupils. 
From  that  time  on  the  growth  of  the  institu- 
tion was  phenomenal.  The  graduates  from  Tus- 
kegee were  found  to  be  a  new  sort  of  negroes, 
with  competent  minds  and  hands,  who  had  self- 
respect,  and  who  had  been  taught  to  make  an 
adequate  living.  The  success  of  the  institution 
inspired  interest  in  the  work  throughout  the 
country,  and  Washington  became  famous  as  the 
most  prominent  educator  of  his  race.  New 
buildings  were  constructed  at  Tuskegee  chiefly 
by  the  students  themselves.  In  1016  there  were 
50  buildings  worth  $2,000,000  or  more,  and 
property  of  2000  acres. 

Washington  flrst  became  a  national  charac- 
ter in  1894,  when  he  spoke  for  the  negro  on  the 
opening  day  of  the  Atlanta  Exposition.  He  had 
previously  acquired  some  local  fame  as  an  ora- 
tor, but  on  this  occasion  he  was  held  as  the 
successor  of  Frederick  Douglass  and  the  leader 
of  the  negro  race.  He  was  thereafter  in  great 
demand  as  a  popular  speaker  and  appeared  be- 
fore many  of  the  best  known  organizations  in 
the  coimtry.  His  powers  as  an  orator  were  re- 
markable. Mr.  Washington's  creed  concerning 
his  people  was  well  explained  in  his  own  words: 
"We  must  teach  our  yoimg  people  to  save  their 
money.  We  must  cease  to  have  the  reputation 
of  a  spending,  shiftless,  thriftless,  and  poverty- 
stridcen  race.  It  is  vitally  necessary  for  the 
progress  of  the  race  that  we  become  creators 
of  enterprise,  and  not  dependent  on  the  good 
will  and  energy  of  other  races." 

Although  Dr.  Washington  was  by  no  means 
the  flrst  of  his  race  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that 
colored  people  may  be  trained  to  become  effi- 
cient and  useful  citizens,  he  was  undoubtedly 
the  greatest  educator  ever  produced  by  his  race. 
It  is  probable  that  no  negro  was  ever  more  hon- 
ored by  white  men  than  he.  This  often  led  to 
embarrassing  situations.  President  Roosevelt 
at  one  time  entertained  him  at  dinner  at  the 
White  House  and  thereby  greatly  scandalized 
many  people  in  the  South.  He  became  intimate 
with  Andrew  Carnegie,  and  the  latter  even- 
tually gave  $600,000  to  the  Tuskegee  Institute. 
Dr.  Washington's  work  among  the  members  of 
his  race  was  based  upon  the  belief  that  the 
negro  would  win  social  and  political  advance- 


ment only  after  he  had  achieved  economic  in- 
dependence and  stability.  He  held  that  time 
was  better  spent  in  demonstrating  the  capacity 
of  the  black  man  in  those  callings  that  are  now 
open  to  him  than  in  seeking  opportlmities  in 
flelds  where  every  factor  was  opposed  to  him. 
This  policy  brought  him  into  conflict  with  other 
leaders  of  his  race,  whose  demand  was  for 
higher  education  for  the  negro,  and  for  other 
opportlmities  such  as  white  men  enjoyed.  Dr. 
Washington's  last  public  appearance  was  at  the 
National  Coimcil  of  Congregational  Churches  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  Octoto,  1915.  It  is  said 
that  he  made  there  one  of  the  best  speeches  of 
his  life.  Shortly  after  this,  he  suffered  with 
the  nervous  breakdown  which  ended  in  his  death. 
He  wrote  and  spoke  much  on  educational  sub- 
jects. His  published  writings  include:  Future 
of  the  Amerioan  Negro  (1899);  Sowing  and 
Reaping  (1900) ;  Up  from  Slavery  (1901) ;  Char- 
acter BuUding  (1902);  The  Story  of  My  Life 
and  Work  (1903);  Working  uHth  Hands 
(1904) ;  Tuskegee  and  Its  People  (1905) ;  Put- 
ting the  Most  into  Life  (1906);  Life  of  Fred- 
erick Douglass  (1907);  The  Negro  in  Business 
(1907);  The  Story  of  the  Negro  (1909);  My 
Larger  Education  (1911);  and  The  Man  Far- 
thest Dovm  (1912).  He  received  honorary  de- 
grees from  Harvard  University  and  Dartmouth 

^X^SHINOTON,  Univebsttt  of.  A  State 
institution  for  higher  education,  founded  in  1861 
at  Seattle,  Wash.  The  total .  enrollment  in  all 
departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  2851. 
The  faculty  numbered  166.  In  June,  1916,  Dr. 
Henry  Suzzallo,  of  Columbia  University,  was 
elected  president.  Miss  Isabella  Austin,  dean  of 
women,  died  in  August,  1916;  and  Miss  Ethel 
Coldwell  was  appointed  in  her  place.  Arthur 
Tegan  Priest,  who  was  formerly  dean  of  the  col- 
lege of  liberal  arts,  was  appointed  professor  of 
debating.  The  productive  funds  of  the  univer- 
sity in  1916  amounted  approximately  to  $50,000, 
and  the  annual  income  to  $25,000.  The  library 
contained  about  73,000  volumes. 

WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  XXNIVEBSITY. 
An  institution  for  higher  education,  founded  in 
1749  at  Lexington,  Va.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  601. 
The  faculty  numbered  32.  G.  G.  Greever,  Ph.D., 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  English; 
William  D.  Hoyt^  Ph.D.,  was  appointed  asso- 
ciate professor  of  biology;  and  Robert  A.  Tucker, 
M.A.,  associate  professor  of  commerce.  The  pro- 
ductive fimds  on  April  30,  1915,  amoimted  to 
$864,902,  and  the  annual  income  to  $104,769. 
The  library  contained  about  50,000  volumes. 
The  president  was  Henry  Louis  Smith,  Ph.D. 

WASHZNGTON  SQU  ABB  PLAYBBS.  See 
Drama,  American  and  Enqush. 

WASHINGTON  XXNIVEBSITY.  An  insti- 
tution for  higher  education,  foimded  at  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  in  1853.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partm^its  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  1841, 
which  included  687  in  Saturday  courses  for 
teachers,  and  others  in  evening  courses.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  218.  There  were  no  notable 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty  during 
the  year,  and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were 
received.  The  productive  funds  amounted  in  the 
autumn  of  1915  to  $9,123,184,  and  the  income  to 
$716,471.  The  library  contained  153,323  bound 
volumes  and  58,008  pamphlets.  The  chancellor 
was  David  F.  Houston. 


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WA88BBMAN,  Jacob.    See  Gebman  Liteb- 
ATUVE,  Fiotiam. 
WASTE  PEODUCTS,   Utilization  or.    See 

AOBICULTUBB. 

WATER  POWER.  See  Elbctbio  Poweb, 
Tbaivbmibsion  of. 

WATER  PXXRI7ICATI0N.  One  after  an- 
other such  of  the  public  water-suppllea  of  the 
eoiintry  aa  are  from  rivers,  lakea,  and  other  aur- 
faoe  flouroea,  and  thereby  liable  to  pollution, 
are  being  subjected  to  purification— aa  have 
been  surface  supplies  generally  in  England  and 
in  Germany  tor  jrears.  Not  many  ^ears  ago 
scarcely  an  American  city  of  any  sise  had  a 
water-purification  plant  of  ukj  kind.  To-day 
nearly  all  of  them  are  drinldng  water  that 
has  at  least  been  chlorivated  or  msinfected  for 
the  elimination  of  possible  disease  germs,  chiefiy 
typhoid  fever.  During  1915  large  mechanical 
water-filtration  plants  were  completed  and  put 
in  operation  by  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis,  and  a 
similar  plant  waa  well  on  towards  completion  by 
Cleveland.  Most  of  the  recently  constructed 
filtration  planta  are  of  the  rapid  or  mechanical 
rather  than  the  slow  sand  type.  Thia  is  due  in 
large  part  to  greater  ease  and  less  labor  of  op- 
erating the  m^anical  filters,  which  are  cleaned 
by  merely  reversing  the  fiow  of  water  through 
them,  sometimes  supplemented  by  compressed  air 
to  aid  in  agitating  the  sand.  Most  of  the  slow 
sand  filters  are  cleaned  by  means  of  a  consider- 
able amount  of  labor.  Chlorine  disinfection  is 
now  widely  used  as  a  finiahing  process  with  both 
types  of  Altera  It  goes  far  towards  removing 
whatever  feeling  some  sanitarians  held  as  to  the 
greater  reliability  of  slow  sand  as  compared  with 
mechanical  filters,  and  in  addition  it  lessens  the 


amount  and  therefore  the  coat  of  the  sulphate  of 
alumina  used  as  a  coagulant  in  connection  with 
mechanical  filtration.  Liquid  chlorine  instead 
of  hypochlorite  of  calcium  is  now  being  used  for 
most  new  disinfecting  planta  and  is  replacing  the 
hypochlorite  where  that  was  previously  used. 
The  liquid  chlorine  is  bought  in  heavy  steel  or 
iron  cylinders.  It  turns  to  gas  when  it  is  re- 
leased from  pressure.  The  hypochlorite  is 
bought  in  sheet  steel  drums,  is  troublesome  to 
han<Ue,  and  requires  double  sets  of  solution  and 
doiBing  tanks.  The  apparatus  for  applying 
liquid  chlorine  is  much  simpler  and  the  rate  of 
dosing  is  more  easily  and  accurately  controlled. 
European  war  c<mditions  were  held  responsible 
for  heavv  increases  in  the  price  of  both  sulphate 
of  alumma  and  hypochlorite  durinff  1016,  and 
for  a  relatively  light  increase  in  the  price  of 
liquid  chlorine.  The  increased  price  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  added  materially  to  the  cost  of  me- 
chanical filtration,  but  disinfecticm  by  either  hy- 
pochlorite or  liquid  chlorine  costs  so  little  at 
normal  prices  for  the  chemical  that  even  a  heavy 
rise  is  no  great  burden.  The  rapid  increase  in 
filtration  of  one  kind  or  the  other  and  the  gen- 
eral use  of  disinfection  of  both  filtered  and  un- 
filtered  surface  water  supplies  has  doubtless  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  marked  decline  in  the 
typhoid  death  rate  in  recent  vears.  In  a  fair 
number  of  American  cities  this  rate  is  now 
closely  approaching  the  very  low  European  fig- 
ure vrhich  has  prevailed  for  many  years  past. 

WATER  SUPPLY.     See  Aqubduot. 

WATER- WORKS.  Statistics  published  early 
in  1915  show  4872  towns  in  the  United  SUtes 
having  public  water-supplies,  of  which  435  were 
supplied  from  works  in  other  towns.    Water- 


works were  combined  with  lighting  plants  in 
969  cases.  For  Canada,  313  towna  were  listed, 
75  of  which  had  combined  water  and  lighting 
plants.  The  distribution  of  towns  supplied  by 
States  and  provinces,  as  well  aa  the  number  of 
towns  supplied  with  water  in  England  and 
Walea,  may  be  found  under  Municipal  Owner- 
aHiP.  See  alao  Watis  PunmoATioN.  For  sum- 
mariaed  descriptions  of  the  water-works  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  see  The  MeOruw 
Water-WorkM  Directory,  1915  (New  York),  and 
for  descriptions  of  the  water-works  of  England 
and  Wales,  see  Retun^  ae  to  Water  Undertak- 
ingein  EngUmd  and  Walee  (London). 

WATSON,  William.  American  scientiat  and 
educator,  died  Sept.  30,  1915.  He  was  bom  in 
Nantucket,  Mass.,  in  1834,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1857.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  instructor  in  differential  and  int^^ral 
cafculua  at  the  Scientific  School  at  Harvard, 
holding  that  poaition  for  two  years,  when  he 
took  postgraduate  courses  in  «fena  and  Paria 
He  was  university  lecturer  at  Harvard  in  1863- 
64.  Information  concerning  technical  educa- 
tion which  he  gathered  in  Europe  was  made 
the  basis  of  the  organisation  in  1864  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  in  which 
from  1865  to  1873  he  was  professor  of  mechan- 
ical engineering  and  descriptive  geometry.  In 
1884  he  became  secretary  of  the  Amwican 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  continued 
to  hold  this  position  until  his  death.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  both  in 
the  United  Statea  and  abroad.  His  published 
writings  include:  Teohmoal  Sduoatum  (1872) ; 
Deeoriptive  Geometry  (1873);  On  the  Protec- 
tion of  Life  from  Caeualtiee  in  the  Use  of  Ma- 
chinery (1880);  Oourtee  in  Shades  and  Shad- 
ou>9  (1889) ;  and  many  technical  papers. 

WEATHER,    See  Metboboloot. 

WEATHER  BUREAXT.    See  Metboboloot. 

WEED  CONTROL.    See  Aqucultuxb. 

WEn)NER»  Rkvsbe  Fbanklin.  An  Ameri- 
can theologian,  died  Jan.  6,  1915.  He  was  bom 
in  Lehigh  C])ounty,  Pa.,  in  1851,  and  graduated 
from  Muhlenburg  C])ollege  in  1869.  After  study- 
ing at  the  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary,  he 
waa  ordained  to  the  Lutheran  ministry  in  1873, 
and  in  the  same  year  became  a  pastor  at  Phil- 
lipsburg,  N.  J.  He  remained  there  until  1878, 
at  the  same  time  acting  as  professor  of  English 
history  and  logic  at  Muhlenburg  Ck>llege. 
From  1878-82  he  was  pastor  at  Philadelphm, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  professor 
of  dogmatics  and  exegesis  at  the  Augustana 
Theological  Seminary,  remaining  there  until 
1891,  when  he  waa  made  president  and  profes- 
sor of  dogmatic  theology  and  Hebrew  exegesis 
at  the  (>hicago  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary. 
He  held  this  oosition  until  his  death.  He  was 
the  author  oi  many  theological  works.  These 
include:  A  Commentary  on  the  Oospel  of  Mark 
(1881) ;  Biblical  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1886);  Studies  in  the  Book— New  Testament 
(3  vols.,  1890) ;  Old  Testament,  Volume  1,  Gen- 
esis (1892) ;  Biblical  Theology  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament (1891);  Christian  Ethics  (1891);  The 
Doctrine  of  the  Ministry  (1907) ;  The  Doctrine 
of  Man  (1912) ;  Christology,  or  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Person  of  Christ  (1913). 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASXXREa  The  tenth 
annual  conference  on  the  weights  and  meaaures 
of  the  United  States,  held  as  usual  at  the  Bu- 
reau  of    Standards,    Washington,    D.    0.,   took 


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place  on  May  25  to  28,  1916,  and  was  attended 
D7  a  large  number  of  commissioners  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  other  officials  of  the  various 
States.  This  conference  adopted  a  schedule  of 
tolerances  and  specifications  for  weights  and 
measures,  and  weighing  and  measuring  devices, 
which  were  design^  to  apply  to  the  usual  types 
of  weights,  and  measures,  and  apparatus  used 
in  ordinary  commercial  transactions.  These 
specificationB  dealt  with  liquid  capacity,  meas- 
ures, measuring  pumps,  milk  bottles,  dry  ca- 
pacity measures,  and  scales,  and  it  was  hoped 
that  their  adoption  in  the  various  localities  of 
the  coimtry  would  produce  much  needed  uni- 
formity and  increased  accuracy.  During  the 
year  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards 
put.  into  service  a  second  test  car  for  testing 
track  scales,  and  considerable  improvement  was 
to  be  noted  in  the  railway  track  scales  of  the 
country,  although  much  remained  to  be  done. 
The  original  set  of  standard  weights  used  on  the 
first  test  car  were  redetermined,  and  their  er- 
rors were  found  to  be  practically  inappreciable. 

A  novel  track  scale  known  as  a  ''plate  ful- 
crum" track  scale,  was  installed  during  the  year 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  at  East 
Tynme,  Pa.,  in  a  large  gravity  yard.  This 
scale  was  designed  jointly  liy  A.  H.  Emery,  and 
members  of  the  engineering  departments  of  E. 
and  T.  Fairbanks  and  Company,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad.  It  had  no  pivots,  knife 
edges,  bearing  steels,  loops,  or  links  in  connec- 
tion with  the  vibratory  system,  and  for  the  reg- 
ular knife  edge  a  plate  fulcrum  similar  to  that 
used  in  testing  machines  and  dynamometer  was 
employed.  This  scale  gave  satisfactory  results 
in  exhaustive  tests  and  was  in  regular  use  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

On  December  6th  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  House  of  Representatives  to  establish  the 
metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,  as  the 
sole  standard  of  the  United  States  on  and  after 
July  1,  1920,  and  this  was  typical  of  the  move- 
ment to  reopen  again  the  old  question  of  the 
introduction  of  the  metric  system.  The  growth 
of  South  American  and  foreign  trade  was  urged 
as  a  strong  argument  in  addition  to  the  famil- 
iar recommendations  of  scientists  that  had  fig- 
ured in  previous  campaigns. 

A  number  of  conferences  were  held  during  the 
year  by  the  National  Association  of  Scale  Ex- 
perts, the  American  Scale  Men's  Association, 
and  various  State  organizations  of  sealers.  Hie 
Scale  Journal,  published  in  Chicago,  entered  on 
its  second  volume,  and  was  publishing  a  large 
number  of  papers  having  to  do  with  the  test 
and  manufacture  of  wei^ts  and  various  meas- 
uring devices. 

In  several  States  during  the  year,  inspections 
were  made  of  the  prescription  scales  and  meas- 
ures of  pharmacists,  and  in  Wisconsin  the 
Dairy  and  Food  Commission  and  Weights  and 
Measures  Office  formulated  specifications  and 
tolerances  for  prescription  scales  and  balances 
which  were  to  become  effective  Jan.  1,  1916.  A 
report  made  by  the  city  sealers  of  Wisconsin 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1916,  indicated  that 
22.3  per  cent  of  the  prescription  scales  had  to 
be  condemned  for  repairs  or  condenmed  out- 
right, and  that  7.4  per  cent  had  to  be  adjusted. 
Of  weights  tested,  20.6  per  cent  were  condemned 
either  for  repairs  or  outright,  and  13.6  per  cent 
had  to  be  adjusted  before  being  sealed.     See  also 

AORIOULTUIIAL    liBGISLATION. 


WEIHAIWBL  A  British  leasehold,  since 
1898,  on  the  north  coast  of  the  Shantung  Penin- 
sula, China.  It  includes,  besides  the  port  and 
bay,  a  strip  of  land  10  miles  wide  along  the 
coastline  of  the  bay,  the  Island  of  Liukung,  and 
all  the  islands  in  the  bay.  Area,  286  square 
miles.  Population  (1911),  147,177.  The  native 
town  of  Weihaiwei  has  about  2000  inhabitants. 
The  port  is  duty-free.  Revenue  in  1913-14, 
£9378;  expenditure,  £16,696;  grant-in-aid,  £8300; 
grant-in-aid  in  1912-13,  £6000,  and  in  1914-16, 
£6000.  The  territory  is  administered  by  a  com- 
missioner, resident  at  Port  Edward,  on  the  main- 
land. 

WELFABE  WOSK.    See  Social  Eoonomicb. 

WELLAND  CANAIi.    See  Canals. 

WELIiESIiEY  CGIiLEGE.  An  institution 
for  higher  education  of  women,  founded  at  Wel- 
lesley,  Mass.,  in  1876.  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  depariments  in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  1612. 
The  instructors  numbered  162.  There  were  no 
notable  changes  in  the  membership  of  the  faculty 
during  the  year.  A  $2,000,000  endowment  fund 
was  completed  through  gifts  on  Jan.  1,  1916. 
The  productive  funds  amounted  to  about  $3,000,- 
000,  and  the  annual  income  to  $127,000.  The 
library  contained  about  86,000  volumes.  The 
dean  was  Ellen  F.  Pendleton. 

WELLS,  H.  G.  See  I/TTERAtube,  English 
AND  American,  Fiction  and  Essays, 

WESLEYAN  METHODIST  CONNECTION 
OF  AMERICA.  This  denomination  had  its 
origin  as  a  protest  against  slavery  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  foimded  in  1843,  and  attracted 
a  large  number  of  members  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  and  other  churches  who  were  opposed 
to  the  attitude  of  their  respective  churches  on 
the  slavery  question.  Greneral  dissatisfaction 
with  the  episcopal  form  of  government  led,  in  the 
organization  of  the  new  church,  to  the  adoption 
of  a  constitution  based  largely  on  that  of  the 
Federal  government  of  the  United  States,  so  that 
it  was  often  called  in  the  early  part  of  its  his- 
tory, the  Congregational  Methodist  Church. 
After  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  many  who  had 
joined  the  new  church,  recognising  that  the  ob- 
ject for  which  it  had  been  founded  was  accom- 
plished, returned  to  the  churches  to  which  they 
had  originally  belonged  or  joined  other  churches; 
but  a  considerable  number  adhered  to  the  new 
organization,  which  became  the  nucleus  of  an  ag- 
gressive reform  body  which  has  since  been  suc- 
cessfully maintained.  Separation  from  all 
worldly  and  sinful  alliances  on  the  part  of 
Christian  people,  and  the  advocacy  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  doctrines  of  justification  and  holiness  as 
essenldal  to  salvation,  fill  a  prominent  place  in 
the  thought  and  work  of  this  denomination,  as 
well  as  work  for  the  adoption  of  other  needed 
reforms,  such  as  prohibition  of  the  liquor  traffic. 

Evangelistic  work  in  America  and  missions  in 
India  and  Africa  are  maintained,  with  the  result 
of  a  steadily  increasing  membership.  In  1916 
there  were  20,600  menders,  676  churches,  and 
840  ministers.  Sunday  school  work  engages  an 
increasing  share  of  attention.  The  denomination 
has  three  schools  of  college  grade:  at  Houghton, 
N.  Y.,  Miltonvale,  Kan.,  and  Central,  S.  C. 
lliere  is  also  a  theological  school  at  Fairmount, 
Ind.,  and  a  school  for  colored  people  in  Ala- 
bama. 

WESLEYAN  UNIVEBSITY.  An  institu- 
tion for  higher  education,  founded  in  1831  at 
Middletown,  Conn.    The  total  enrollment  in  all 


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depftrtmentB  in  the  autumn  of  1916  was  504. 
The  faculty  numbered  46.  Edgar  S.  Bri^^htman 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  ethics  and 
religion,  Charles  R.  Hoover  was  appointed  as- 
sociate professor  of  chemistry.  The  productive 
funds  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to 
$2,414,768,  and  the  income  to  $186,639.  The 
library  contained  about  102,000  volumes. 

WESTERN  AXXSTEAIJA.  A  state  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Northern  Territory  and  South  Aus- 
tralia. Its  area,  975,920  square  miles,  is  more 
than  20  times  as  large  as  Louisiana.  Popula- 
tion, according  to  the  1911  mnsus,  282,114,  ex- 
clusive of  full-blooded  aboriginals;  1913  esti- 
mate, 320,657.  The  capital  is  Perth;  its  popu- 
lation, with  suburbs,  in  1911  was  106,792.  The 
executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown  and  aided  by  a  council  of 
ministers.  There  is  a  Parliament  consisting  of 
the  Legislative  Council  of  30  members  elected 
for  six  vears,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  of 
50  members  elected  for  three  years.  The  Grov- 
emor  in  1915  (from  March,  1915)  was  Maj.- 
Oen.  Sir  Harry  Barron;  premier,  colonial  treas- 
urer, and  minister  for  railways,  John  Scadden. 
Sir  Newton  J.  Moore  was  appointed  agent-gen- 
eral of  West  Australia  to  London  in  order  that 
the  products  of  the  state  might  be  brought  more 
directly  to  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the 
British  Kingdom.    See  Australia.      

WE&TESm  BESEBVE  XXNIVEBSITY.  An 
institution  for  higher  education,  founded  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1826.  The  total  enrollment 
in  the  autimm  of  1915  was  2066.  The  faculty 
numbered  261.  In  1915  the  university  purchased 
12  acres  of  land,  known  as  the  Ford  land,  lying 
to  the  east  of  the  campus  of  Adelbert  College. 
The  School  of  Medicine  building  will  be  erected 
on  this  site.  The  productive  funds  amounted  to 
$3,441,608,  and  the  total  income  to  $291,005. 
The  library  contained  about  116,000  volumes. 
The  president  waa  Charles  F.  Thwing,  LL.D. 

WEST  VIBGINIA.  Population.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1915, 
was  1,359,474.  The  population  in  1910  was  1,- 
221,119. 

Aboioitltubb.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in   1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


A,er§ag9 

Oorn    ... 

..1915 

800,000 

1014 

782,000 

Whert  .. 

..1915 

800,000 

1914 

286,000 

Oftta    ... 

..1916 

120,000 

1914 

106,000 

Bye     ... 

.  .1916 

16,000 

1914 

17,000 

FototoM 

..1916 

60,000 

1914 

48,000 

Hfty     ... 

..1916 

780,000 

1914 

696,000 

Tobftceo   . 

..1916 

11,800 

1914 

10,800 

a  Tons. 

&  Pounds. 

Prod,  Bu, 

26,200,000 

22,692,000 

4.600,000 

8.540,000 

8,480,000 

2,100,000 

224.000 

246.000 

6,860,000 

2.692,000 

a  1,096,000 

640.000 

h  9,881.000 

8,866,000 


$18,648,000 

18,884.000 

4,860.000 

8,828,000 

1,776,000 

1,166.000 

208,000 

221,000 

8,802,000 

2,100,000 

16,425,000 

11,008.000 

988,000 

974.000 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Anrieulture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  194,000  and 
192,000  valued  at  $20,952,000  and  $21,888,000, 
mules  numbered  12,000  and  12,000  valued  at 
$1,392,000  and  $1,428,000,  milch  cows  numbered 
241,000  and  234,000  valued  at  $12,050,000  and 
$11,934,000,  other  cattle  numbered  362,000  and 


338,000  valued  at  $18,141,000  and  $12,269,000, 
sheep  numbered  796,000  and  796,000  valued  at 
$4,060,000  and  $3,682,000,  swine  numbered  378,- 
000  and  374,000  valued  at  $3,402,000  and  $3,- 
590,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915  and 
1914  was  3,406,000  and  3,405,000  pounds  respec- 
tively. 

Mineral  Pboduotion.  The  output  of  petro- 
leum in  1914  showed  an  abrupt  decline.  There 
were  produced  9,680,033  barrels,  compared  with 
11,567,299  barrels  in  1913.  The  decline  waa 
due  to  a  continued  smaller  output  in  the  Blue 
Creek  pool,  and  to  falling  prices  in  the  mar- 
ket, at  the  season  of  the  year  when  drilling  ac- 
tivity is  usually  at  its  height.  The  value  of 
the  oil  produced  in  1914  was  $18,468,540,  com- 
pared with  a  value  of  $28,828,814  in  1913. 

The  production  of  coal  in  the  State  in  1914 
exceeded  all  previous  records.  There  was  mined 
71,707,626  short  tons,  valued  at  $71,391,408. 
This  was  an  increase  of  about  500,000  tons  over 
the  production  of  1913,  which  was  in  its  turn 
banner  year.  The  State  continued  to  maintain 
its  position  of  second  place  among  the  coal  pro- 
ducing States.  The  decrease  in  some  sections 
were  more  than  offset  by  the  increase  of  new 
areas  where  during  tiie  last  two  or  three  years 
development  has  been  increasing  rapidly  and 
many  new  mines  have  been  opened.  Strikes  in 
the  coal  mines  of  Ohio  enabled  West  Virginia 
producers  to  capture  for  the  time  being  at  least, 
the  markets  originally  supplied  by  Ohio.  The 
average  number  of  employees  in  the  coal  mines 
in  the  State  was  78,363.  The  average  pro- 
duction of  each  man  was  908  tons.  There  were 
during  the  year  556  fatal  accidents  in  the  coal 
mines.  The  value  of  the  total  mineral  products 
in  1914  was  $134,071,803,  compared  with  $143,- 
591,272  in  1913.  The  State  ranks  second  in  the 
Union  in  value  of  mineral  products. 

Transpobtation.  The  total  railway  mileage 
of  main  track  in  1916  was  3704.  There  were  in 
addition  582  miles  of  second  track.  The  total 
mileage  of  all  kinds  of  track  was  6172.  Rail- 
ways having  the  longest  mileage  were  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  1115;  Norfolk  and  Western, 
446;  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  731;  and  Western 
Maryland,  198.  There  were  335  miles  of  street 
railway  in  the  same  year. 

Education.  The  total  school  population  in 
the  State  in  1915  was  409,969.  The  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  was  302,600.  The  average 
daily  attendance  was  219,500.  The  teachers, 
male  and  female,  numbered  10,065.  The  total 
school  expenditures  in  1914-15  amounted  to 
$6,883,000. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
is  for  the  period  from  Oct.  1,  1912,  to  June  20, 
1914.  There  was  a  balance  on  June  30, 1914,  of 
$683,460.  The  receipts  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1914,  were  $6,964,377,  and  the  disbursements 
were  $6,691,537,  leaving  a  balance  on  June  30, 
1914,  of  $956,300. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  Weston 
State  Hospital,  Spencer  State  Hospital,  Hunting- 
ton State  Hospital,  Welch  Hospital,  Number  1, 
McKendree  Hospital,  Number  2,  Fairmont  Hospi- 
tal, Number  2,  West  Virginia  Penitentiary,  West 
Virginia  Industrial  School  for  Boys,  West  Vir- 
ginia Industrial  Home  for  Girls,  West  Virginia 
Schools  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  State  Tubercu- 
losis Sanitarium,  West  Virginia  Colored  Or- 
phans' Home,  West  Virginia  Children's  Home. 

Digitized  by  VnOOSlC 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


736 


WHEAT 


Legislation.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  on  March  8th  overruled  as  unjust  and 
affording  too  little  profit,  the  2  cent  passenger 
rate  law. 

On  January  22nd  Charles  E.  Littlefleld  as  spe- 
cial minister  made  a  report  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  in  which  he  stated  that  the  State 
of  West  Virginia  was  liable  to  pay  between  $12,- 
000,000  and  $18,000,000  as  its  share  of  the  State 
debt  of  Virginia,  before  the  separation  of  the 
two  States.  The  report  was  the  outcome  of  the 
request  of  Virginia  made  in  1914  that  the  Court 
proceed  to  a  final  decree  on  its  finding  of  1911 
that  the  share  of  West  Virginia  was  $700,000 
and  interest.  After  the  rendering  of  this  decree 
West  Virginia  set  up  a  claim  to  a  share  in  the 
sinking  fund  of  Virginia  as  it  existed  in  1861, 
and  of  the  stocks  of  railroads  and  banks  in 
which  money  on  which  the  debt  was  based  was 
invested.  Virginia  on  the  other  hand  claimed 
that  West  Virginia  should  pay  interest  from 
1861.  Mr.  Littfefield  in  his  report  declared  that 
West  Virginia  should  share  in  the  assets,  which 
he  valued  at  $14,000,000,  with  the  share  for 
West  Virginia  of  $3,400,000.  He  held  West  Vir- 
ginia liable  for  interest  amounting  to  $8,000,000. 

The  Supreme  Court  on  June  14th  decided 
the  case  by  holding  that  West  Virginia  should 
pay  $12,393,929,  as  its  net  share  of  the  Virginia 
debt  at  the  time  of  the  partition  of  the  State. 
West  Virginia  was  required  to  pay  $8,178,000  in 
interest,  computed  at  3  per  cent  from  1891  to 
date,  and  4  per  cent  from  1861  to  1891.  The 
Littlefield  report  was  upheld  in  all  particulars 
except  that  the  Court  decided  that  West  Virginia 
was  entitled  to  its  share  of  the  assets  arising 
from  the  original  principal  debt,  and  fixed  that 
amount  at  $2,966,000. 

The  Legislature  enacted  amendments  to  the 
prohibition  law  which  limited  shipments  of 
liquor  into  the  State,  and  forbade  a  person  to 
have  liquor  in  a  public  place,  even  for  his  own 
use.  It  also  forbade  any  one  to  ^ve  a  drink  to 
another,  except  in  his  own  home,  it  being  decided 
that  home  is  the  permanent  place  of  residence 
and  not  a  hotel  or  other  public  place. 

The  Legislature  on  January  26th  voted  to 
submit  to  the  people  at  the  next  election  an 
amendment  to  the  constitution  providing  for 
woman  suffrage. 

State  Government.  Governor,  Henry  D. 
Hatfield;  Secretary  of  State,  Stuart  F.  Reed; 
Superintendent  of  Education,  M.  P.  Shawkey; 
Auditor,  John  S.  Darst;  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, Howard  E.  Williams;  Attorney-General, 
A.  A.  Lilly;  Treasurer,  E.  L.  Long;  Adjutant- 
General,  John  C.  Bond;  Commissioner  of  Insur- 
ance, J.  S.  Darst,  ex-officio — all  Republicans. 

JuDiGiABT.  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals:  Presi- 
dent, George  Poffenbarger;  Associate  Judges, 
William  N.  Miller,  L.  Judson  Williams,  Charles 
W.  Lynch,  John  W.  Mason;  Clerk,  W.  B.  Mat- 
thews. 

State  Legislatube: 


SmoU 

Republicans    21 

Democrats     9 

Republican   majority..     12 


EOUM 

JoMBdfM 

67 

78 

29 

88 

28 


40 


WEST  VIBOINIA  UNIVEB8ITY.  A  SUte 
institution  for  higher  education  founded  in  1867 
at  Morgantown,  W.  Va.    The  total  enrollment 


in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1916  was 
863.  The  faculty  numbered  106.  During  the 
year  E.  D.  Sanderson,  dean  of  the  collc>ge  of 
agriculture,  resigned,  and  J.  L.  Coulter  was  ap- 
pointed to  take  his  place.  Dr.  F.  L.  Strickland 
was  elected  to  the  department  of  philosophy. 
The  productive  funds  of  the  university  during 
the  fiscal  year  1916  amounted  to  $116,104.  The 
income  and  appropriations  from  State  and  na- 
tional governments  amounted  to  about  $230,000. 
The  library  contained  43,600  volumes.  Acting 
president  in  1916,  Frank  B.  Trotter. 

WHEAT.  The  climatic  conditions  throu^^out 
the  world  in  1916  were  generally  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  wheat  crop  and  no  ver^  exten- 
sive areas  suffered  serious  reductions  in  yield 
as  a  result  of  untoward  weather  conditions.  The 
production  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  which 
amounts  on  the  average  to  about  93  per  cent  of 
the  world's  total  harvest,  was  generally  very 
satisfactory  in  1916  and  was  reported  by  the 
International  Institute  of  Agriculture  as  superior 
to  each  of  the  yields  of  the  preceding  10  years. 
The  same  authority  estimated  the  crop  at  3,690,- 
000,000  bushels  which,  together  with  226,000,000 
bushels  produced  early  in  the  year  in  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere,  mainly  in  Argentina,  Chile,  Aus- 
tralia, and  New  Zealand,  made  a  total  world 
crop  of  3,816,000,000  bushels  for  the  calendar 
year  1916.  This  output  surpassed  the  average 
of  the  last  10  years  and  the  increase  was  con- 
sidered as  largely  due  to  the  expansion  of  wheat 
culture  in  the  three  great  exporting  countries, 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and  British  India. 
The  wheat  area  of  Europe  in  1916,  as  indicated 
by  the  incomplete  reports  at  hand,  was  smaller 
than  the  area  devoted  to  the  crop  the  year  be- 
fore, the  reduction  in  acreage  oeing  confined 
largely  to  Russia,  France,  and  Rumania. 

As  the  wheat  harvest  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere occurs  from  December  to  February,  figures 
on  the  production  for  the  oncoming  harvest  at 
the  time  when  the  data  regarding  the  harvest 
of  the  summer  months  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere have  been  published  are  not  generally 
available.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  state  in  this 
connection  that  practically  all  of  the  world's 
wheat  crop  is  harvested  from  December  to  Sep- 
tember, the  least  active  month  being  May,  when 
the  harvest  is  confined  mainly  to  northern  Africa. 
In  the  United  States  approximately  20  per  cent 
of  the  crop  is  harvested  in  June,  46  per  cent  in 
July,  and  36  per  cent  in  August.  In  some  crop 
statistics  the  production  of  the  Northern  and  the 
Southern  Hemispheres  within  the  calendar  year 
is  regarded  as  being  of  the  world's  crop  year,  but 
in  commercial  statistics  generally  the  harvests 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  are  considered  as 
the  beginning  of  the  world's  crop  vear  and  those 
of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  as  the  close,  hence 
the  harvests  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  in  1916 
and  those  of  the  Southern  occurring  from  De- 
cember, 1916,  to  February,  1916,  furnish  the  sup- 
ply for  the  world's  commercial  crop  year.  This 
commercial  method  of  grouping  the  crops  of  the 
two  hemispheres  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the 
surplus  from  both  north  and  south  of  the 
Equator  reaches  the  world's  importing  coun- 
tries about  the  same  time. 

The  estimated  vields  of  different  countries  in 
1916  as  compared  with  the  production  in  1914 
are  given  in  a  table  undtf  Agbiotjltubb  (q.v.). 
Owing  to  the  European  war,  crop  statistics  for 
many  countries  were  not  available  and  in  order 


Digitized  by 


GooqIc 


WHEAT 


730 


WHXABD 


to  include  them  in  the  calculations  the  Interna- 
tional Institute  of  Agriculture  adopted  the  aver- 
age production  for  the  last  four  or  five  years  as 
the  production  of  the  harvest  for  the  year  1916 
in  the  countries  for  which  official  data  were  lack- 
ing. About  80  per  cent  of  the  estimate  of  the 
total  production  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
was  based  on  official  figures  for  the  year.  Tak- 
ing the  world's  average  consumption  of  wheat 
for  the  last  five  years  as  representing  the  re- 
quirements for  the  year  1915-16,  the  Interna- 
tional Institute  pronounced  the  world's  supply 
as  ample  to  meet  the  demands,  especially  in 
view  of  a  large  surplus  in  North  America  and 
British  India  and  of  promising  harvests  in  Ar- 
gentina and  Australia. 

The  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1915 
as  estimated  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
amounted  to  1,011,505,000  bushels,  the  highest 
production  in  the  history  of  the  country  and  more 
than  was  ever  produced  by  any  one  country  in 
a  single  year.  The  area  devoted  to  the  crop 
was  placed  at  69,898,000  acres,  making  the  aver- 
age yield  16.9  bushels  per  acre,  likewise  larger 
figures  than  had  ever  been  reached  before,  "flie 
winter  wheat  production  according  to  the  same 
estimate  was  655,045,000  bushels  from  40,463,000 
acres,  the  average  yield  being  16.2  bushels  per 
acre  and  the  yield  of  spring  wheat  356,460,000 
bushels  from  19,445,000  acres,  or  at  the  rate  of 
18.3  bushels  per  acre.  The  acreage  and  produc- 
tion of  winter  wheat  stood  unsurpassed  but 
larger  average  yields  per  acre  are  on  record. 
The  average  of  spring  wheat  stood  second  to 
that  of  1911  but  the  total  production  and  the 
average  yield  had  never  been  surpassed.  Based 
on  the  average  farm  value  of  92  cents  per  bushel 
on  December  1st,  the  total  value  of  the  crop  was 
placed  at  $930,302,000.  The  corresponding  fig- 
ures for  winter  wheat  were  96  cents  and  $622,- 
012,000  and  for  spring  wheat  86.5  cents  and 
$308,290,000.    See  also  Aobicxtltubs. 

WHISKY.    See  LiQUOBS. 

WHITE  SLAVES.  See  Pbostttution,  poe- 
$im. 

WHITNEY,  Anns.  American  sculptor,  ^ed 
Jan.  24,  1915.  She  was  bom  in  Watertown, 
Mass.,  in  1821,  and  was  educated  in  a  private 
school.  She  early  showed  a  talent  for  writing 
verse,  and  her  poems  were  collected  in  a  volume 
in  1859.  In  1855  she  began  professional  work 
as  a  sculptor,  and  opened  (1860)  a  studio  in 
Watertown.  She  later  studied  four  years  in 
Europe,  and  on  her  return  established  herself 
in  Boston.  Among  her  best  known  works  are 
the  statues  of  Samuel  Adams,  Harriet  Martineau, 
Leif  Erikson,  and  Ethiopia. 

WIBENEBy  PiFTEB  A.  Bbown.  American  cap- 
italist, died  Nov.  6,  1916.  He  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia  in  1834,  and  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools.  Before  he  was  21  years  of 
age  he  had  established  a  butcher  shop  of  his 
own  in  Philadelphia.  He  soon  had  a  chain  of 
these  stores,  and  was  on  the  way  to  a  moderate 
fortune.  Taking  an  active  part  in  the  politics 
of  Philadelphia,  in  1873  he  was  chosen  to  fill 
out  an  unexpired  term  of  city  treasurer;  and 
was  subsequently  elected  for  a  full  term.  He 
had  in  the  meantime  become  a  warm  friend  of 
William  L.  Elkins,  who  was  at  that  time  a 
dealer  in  oils.  The  friendship  thus  formed 
lasted  up  to  the  death  of  Mr.  Elkins.  The  two 
friends-  early  turned  their  attention  to  street 
railways.    They  purchased'  an  interest  in  many 


of  these  enterprises  in  Philadelphia,  and  finally 
became  owners  of  the  People's  Line,  the  best  in 
that  city.  In  1886  Messrs.  Widener  and  Elkina 
with  Thomas  Dolan  came  to  New  York  City  and 
joined  their  forces  with  the  late  William  C. 
Whitney  and  Thomas  F.  Ryan.  They  gained 
possession  of  the  traction  lines  of  the  city  and 
formed  a  merger  known  as  the  Interboro-Metro- 
politan.  This  was  followed  eventually  by  finan- 
cial disaster,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  merger 
as  far  as  the  Interboro  road  was  concerned. 
That  ended  Mr.  Widener's  career  as  a  street 
railway  magnate  in  New  York  City.  He  acquired 
a  large  fortune  through  these  manipulations. 
He  also  concerned  himself  largely  and  success- 
fully in  real  estate,  with  steam  railways,  elec- 
tric light  and  gas  companies,  industrial  cor- 
porations, etc.  He  gave  liberally  to  charities, 
and,  following  the  death  of  his  son  and  grand- 
son, benefactions  of  his  amounted  to  more  than 
$4,000,000.  One  of  the  most  notable  art  collec- 
tions in  the  world  was  his;  he  specialized  in 
paintings,  and  possessed  fine  examples  of  several 
of  the  old  masters. 
WIDOWS'  FEKSIOHS.    8ee  Pensions  iob 

MOTHEBS. 

WILDBB,  Mabshall  P.  An  American  come- 
dian and  entertainer,  died  Jan.  10,  1916.  He 
was  bom  in  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1859.  Owing  to 
physical  disability,  his  education  was  limited  to 
a  few  terms  in  a  public  school.  When  he  was 
still  a  small  boy,  he  gave  evidences  of  great 
tal^its  as  a  mimic,  to  which  his  deformity — he 
was  crippled  and  of  very  diminutive  stature — 
gave  a  certain  piquancy.  He  first  started  in 
business  as  a  peadler,  and  later  served  as  a  file 
boy  in  Bradstreet's  Commercial  Agency.  He 
began  to  give  a  series  of  humorous  public  talks 
to  add  to  his  income,  and  these  were  remarkably 
successful,  becoming  widely  popular.  In  1883 
he  went  to  London,  where  he  appeared  before 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  later  King  Edward  VII; 
and  he  made  repeated  subsequent  appearances 
there.  In  1904-6  he  made  a  tour  of  the  world. 
From  1897  until  the  year  of  his  death,  he  ap- 
peared continually  in  vaudeville.  In  addition 
to  his  entertaining,  he  wrote  several  books  which 
had  a  substantial  sale.  These  include  People 
Pve  SnUled  With  (1888);  The  Sunny  Bide  of 
the  Street  (1905);  and  Smiling  Arotmd  the 
World  (1907).  He  edited  The  Ten  Booke  of 
the  Merrymakers  (1908). 

WILLAEDy  Edwabd  Smith.  English  actor, 
died  Nov.  9,  1915.  He  was  bom  in  Brighton, 
England,  in  1853,  and  made  his  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  in  1869  in  the  Ltuiy  of  Lyone. 
After  several  years  of  apprenticeship  in  stock 
companies  and  in  tours  with  various  stars,  he 
secured  his  first  London  engagement  at  the 
Govent  Garden  Theatre  in  1875.  He  played 
among  other  parts  "Antonio"  in  the  Merohant 
of  Venice,  He  had  th«i  several  provincial  sea- 
sons, which  called  into  play  the  versatility  for 
which  he  afterwards  was  distinguished.  He 
acted  with  notable  success  in'  King  Lear^  A  Les- 
son in  Love,  Society,  and  The  New  Magdalen, 
In  1881  he  appeared  in  the  first  production  of 
Henry  Arthur  Jones's  Elopement.  One  of  his 
famous  parts  was  that  of  "Clifford  Armytage" 
in  the  Lights  o*  London.  He  had  another  great 
success  in  the  Silver  King.  The  pers<niality  of 
Mr.  Willard,  as  well  as  his  accomplished  art, 
made  him  one  of  the  marked  figures  in  the  the- 
atrical world.    In  1889  he  undertook  the 


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agement  of  the  Shaftesbury  Theatre,  where  he 
first  attracted  the  interest  of  American  manag- 
ers. His  first  visit  to  the  United  States  was 
made  under  the  management  of  A.  M.  Palmer 
in  1890.  He  played  in  Palmer's  theatre  for  22 
consecutive  weeks,  and  later  toured  the  coun- 
try in  various  directions.  His  initial  season  in 
America  was  so  successful  that  he  made  annual 
American  trips  thereafter  for  13  years,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  English  actors  who 
ever  visited  this  country. 

WILLIAU  OP  WIEDy  Prince.  See  Al- 
bania, History, 

WHiTiTAMS,  John  Lanqbousne.  American 
banker  and  philanthropist,  died  Feb.  11,  1916. 
He  was  bom  in  Richmond,  Va.,  in  1831,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  For  a 
time  he  taught  school,  and  then,  having  been 
admitted  to  the  bar,  practiced  law.  In  1858  he 
became  a  banker  in  Richmond,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  firm  of  Lancaster  and  Company,  financial 
agents  of  the  Confederate  States.  After  the 
Civil  War,  he  established  the  firm  of  John  L. 
Williams  and  Son.  This  firm  succeeded  in  de- 
creasing the  debt  of  Virginia  incurred  by  the 
war,  and  established  manv  railways,  and  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line.  It  also  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing and  building  many  street  railways 
in  Southern  cities,  and  in  New  York  and  Balti- 
more. Mr.  Williams  represented  Virginia  for 
several  sessions  in  the  general  conventions  of  the 
Ptotestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  vice- 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Virginia. 
Mr.  Williams  was  director  or  official  in  many 
philanthropic  institutions.  He  received  an  hon- 
orary degree  from  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity. 

WILL3LAJBCS,  Richard  Richardson.  Ameri- 
can editor,  died  Sept.  30,  1915.  He  was  born  in 
Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1843,  and  in  1852  came 
to  the  United  States  witii  his  parents.  He  at- 
tended the  academy  in  Middletown,  N.  Y.,  and 
graduated  from  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City.  In  the  same  year  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  ministry  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  America.  Until  1883  he  was  pastor  at  Cana- 
joharie,  N.  Y.,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  became 
editor  of  the  Iron  Age,  He  continued  in  this 
capacity  until  his  death.  He  was  one  of  the 
organizers,  and  for  two  years  president,  of  the 
Hardware  Club  of  New  York  City. 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGB.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  founded  at  Williamstown, 
Mass.,  in  1793.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  514.  The 
faculty  numbered  57,  including  three  emeritus 
professors  and  three  absent  on  leave.  There 
were  no  notable  changes  in  the  faculty  during 
the  year.  There  were  received  up  to  April  1, 
1915,  contributions  to  the  endowment  funds, 
which  amoimted  to  $105,598.  The  productive 
funds  and  income  respectively  on  the  same  date 
were  $1,947,522  and  $83,237.  The  library  con- 
tains 80,291  volumes. 

WILSON,  President  Woodbow.  See  Inteb- 
NATioNAL  Peace  and  Arbitbation;  United 
States,  passim;  and  United  States  and  the 
Wab. 

WINDWARD  ISLANDS.  The  British  West 
Indian  colonies  of  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and 
Grenada;  together  with  the  Grenadines,  attached 
partly  to  Grenada  and  partly  to  St.  Vincent. 
Each  colony  retains  its  separate  institutions, 
but  the  three  are  united  for  administrative  pur- 


poses under  one  Governor.  See  the  articles  under 
the  separate  titles.  The  Governor  and  Com- 
mander-in-Chief resides  at  St.  George's,  in 
Grenada.  Geographically  the  Windward  Islands 
include  Barbados,  Trinidad,  and  Tobago.  The 
usual  length  of  the  voyage  from  England  is  14 
days  and  the  mail  steamers  ply  for&ightly. 

WINES.    See  Liquobs. 

WINNECKE'S  COMET.    See  Astbonomt. 

WIBELESS  TELEGBAFHY  AND  TE- 
LEPHONY. The  year's  progress  was  marked 
by  constantly  widening  applications  of  radio  tel- 
egraphy for  commercial,  military,  and  scientific 
purposes,  and  with  the  aid  of  new  and  improved 
apparatus  more  reliable  communication  and 
over  greater  distances  was  secured.  In  the 
European  war,  its  employment  had  become  al- 
most commonplace,  and  many  ingeniously  con- 
trived portable  outfits  were  put  to  test  of  actual 
service  throughout  the  war  zones,  in  the  trenches, 
on  aeroplanes,  motor  trucks,  and  even  on  motor 
cycles,  with  remarkable  effectiveness.  The 
United  States  government,  continuing  its  work 
of  construction  referred  to  in  the  1914  Yeab 
Book,  built  several  new  stations  to  complete  a 
system  previously  planned  for  communicating 
with  United  States  vessels  on  any  part  of  the 
globe.  The  new  station  at  Darien,  Canal  Zone, 
was  opened  for  service  in  November,  1015,  and 
was  communicating  regularly  with  the  Arlington 
Station  near  Washington,  D.  C,  about  2000 
miles  distant.  It  was  equipped  with  an  arc 
generator  of  the  Poulsen  type,  designed  to  have 
a  range  both  for  sending  and  receiving  of  4000 
miles. 

The  ofiScial  "List  of  Radio  Stations  of  the 
United  States,"  published  late  in  the  year,  con- 
tained the  names  of  5073  such  stations.  The 
government  and  commercial  installations  had 
increased  from  189  in  1014  to  224  in  1015.  Of 
the  commercial  ship  stations  there  was  no  change 
from  1014  to  1015.  Of  "special"  land  stations 
there  were  54  in  the  previous  year  and  118  in 
1015.  The  largest  increase  noted  was  in  the 
general  and  restricted  amateur  stations,  of  which 
there  were  2706  in  1014,  and  3836  in  1015,  an 
increase  of  almost  40  per  cent. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  the  Japanese  govern- 
ment had  completed  a  wireless  station  of  300 
kilowatts  capacity  at  Funabashi,  near  Tokj^o, 
for  commercial  messages  across  the  Pacific 
Ocean  to  and  from  San  Francisco  via  Honolulu. 
In  the  tests  of  the  Japanese  plant  signals  from 
San  Francisco  were  frequently  received  with  dis- 
tinctness over  the  intervening  5600  miles.  Two 
stations  were  built  at  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  one  for 
sending  and  the  other  for  receiving,  so  that  mes- 
sages could  easily  be  relayed.  It  was  expected 
that  when  the  service  was  inaugurated  the  rates 
for  transmission  of  messages  would  be  consider- 
ably lower  than  the  existing  cable  rates.  A 
public  radio  service  was  established  between 
Hokkaido,  Japan,  and  Petropavlovsk,  on  the 
coast  of  Siberia.  The  service  included  connec- 
tion as  desired  from  any  post  office  in  Japan  at 
a  cost  of  about  25  cents  a  word. 

During  the  Galveston  tornado  that  occurred 
in  1015,  wireless  telegraphy  rendered  invaluable 
service  to  the  stricken  communities.  Commimi- 
cation  from  Galveston  was  maintained  by  the 
radio  apparatus  of  the  United  States  army 
transport  Buford  which  succeeded  in  communi- 
cating with  Fort  Sam  Houston,  250  miles  distant. 
Another  steamer  in  port,  the  Otmcho,  was  prompt 

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to  infonn  Port  Arthur,  Texas,  of  the  extent  of 
the  disaster.  These  were  the  only  means  of 
eommiinication  for  several  days.  The  Bureau 
of  Nayigation,  Department  of  Ck)mmerce,  re- 
ported that  during  the  iiscal  year  of  1016,  in 
the  cases  of  26  vessels  sailing  from  United  States 
ports,  the  value  of  the  wireless  equipment  was 
rlearly  demonstrated.  Except  in  the  case  of  the 
Jjusitania,  the  assistance  so  rendered  resulted 
in  the  saving  of  all  but  two  lives.  In  one  in- 
stance, that  of  the  Greek  steamer  Aihenai,  the 
passengers  and  crew,  470  in  all,  were  obliged  to 
take  to  the  boats  before  aid  that  had  been  sum- 
moned by  wireless  reached  them. 

Continuing  the  service  inaugurated  at  several 
places  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  time  signals 
were  sent  out  from  the  stations  of  the  Union 
government  of  South  Africa,  for  the  benefit  of 
mariners  in  adjacent  waters.  At  Cape  Town 
signals  were  sent  out  daily  at  11  p.m.,  lasting 
an  interval  of  30  seconds.  The  extension  of  wire- 
less facilities  in  Alaska  enabled  the  forecasters 
of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  to  receive 
daily  reports  from  eight  stations  in  that  Terri- 
tory and  the  islands  adjacent  thereto.  In  Aus- 
tralia, the  radio  stations  at  Sydney  and  Mel- 
bourne carried  on  a  series  of  exchange  time 
signals  for  the  exact  determination  of  longitude. 
The  Standard  Oil  Company  replaced  the  German- 
owned  Telefunken  wireless  apparatus  in  use 
on  22  of  its  steamers  with  American  Marconi 
apparatus,  making  a  total  fleet  of  47  ships  thus 
equipped  owned  by  the  company.  A  fleet  of  36 
1400-ton  barges  under  construction  for  service 
on  the  Mississippi  were  being  equipped  with  wire- 
less apparatus  of  2  kilowatt  capacity  each,  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  their  agents  in  touch 
with  the  location  and  disposition  of  cargoes  as 
well  as  to  render  assistance  in  case  of  accident 
or  wreck. 

The  United  States  army  signal  corps  were 
using  a  portable  radio  equipment  consisting  of  a 
2  kilowatt  set  having  the  alternating  current 
generator  driven  throu^  special  gearing  by  the 
engine  of  a  motor  truck.  The  complete  set 
weighed  6000  pounds  loaded,  and  carried  a  tele- 
scopic 80-foot  mast  supporting  umbrella-type  an- 
tennae. This  unit  could  communicate  160  miles 
and  could  be  regularly  depended  on  at  100  miles. 
The  signal  corps  also  experimented  during  the 
year  with  wireless  aSrials  suspended  from  box 
kites.  It  was  found  possible  to  transmit  mes- 
sages as  far  as  160  miles,  although  the  range  of 
the  fleld  set  used  was  ordinarily  only  26  miles. 
The  receiving  range  was  correspondingly  in- 
creased, and  experimenting  in  Eastern  Massa- 
chusetts members  of  the  signal  corps  were  able 
to  receive  messages  satisfactorily  from  Arling- 
ton, Va.,  and  at  times  to  intercept  signals  from 
as  great  a  distance  as  Bermuda. 

'Hie  Sayville,  L.  I.,  plant  of  the  Atlantic  Com- 
munication Company,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Tele- 
funken Company  of  Germany,  was  suspected  of 
transmitting  unneutral  messages  from  German 
sympathizers  in  the  United  States,  particularly 
concerning  shipments  of  munitions  to  the  Allies. 
On  July  9th  it  was  taken  in  charge  by  the 
United  States  government  and  placed  under 
the  supervision  and  censorship  of  suitable  offi- 
cers of  the  navy  radio  service.  In  his  annual 
report,  Capt.  W.  H.  G.  BuUard,  superintendent 
of  the  navy  radio  service,  recommended  that  the 
goveniment  control  and  operate  all  coastal  radio 
stations  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 


States,  and  establish  a  monopoly  for  the  trans- 
mission of  all  government  business. 

The  National  Amateur  Wireless  Association 
was  commended  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  its  membership,  amounting  to  966,  requested 
to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to  coSperate 
with  the  government  if  required  in  time  of  need. 

One  of  the  most  important  adjuncts  to  the 
range  of  distinct  signaling  in  both  radioteleg- 
raphy  and  radiotelephony  was  the  audion  de- 
tector and  amplifier.  This  device,  called  also  the 
ultraudion,  is  practically  a  highly  exhausted  bulb 
containing  an  electrically  heated  filament  as  a 
source  of  electrons,  a  metallic  plate  or  wing 
facing  this,  and  a  metallic  grid  supported  be- 
tween filament  and  plate.  By  varying  the  po- 
tential of  the  grid,  the  electrons  given  off  by 
the  hot  filament  can  be  varied,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  the  particles  thus  controlled  strike 
the  plate  and  give  up  to  it  their  charge.  The 
ultraudion  is  a  detector,  an  amplifier,  and  an 
oscillator  for  etheric  radiations.  A  similar  de- 
vice produced  during  the  year  and  used  to  a 
limited  extent  in  radiotelephony  was  the  plio- 
tron.  The  3%  volt  audion  amplifier  bulb,  suit- 
ably excited,  can  generate  alternating  currents 
of  from  60  to  1,000,000  periods  per  secmid  when 
consuming  only  a  few  hundredths  of  one  watt 
energy.  In  both  radiotelephony  and  radioteleg- 
raphy,  the  successful  accomplishment  of  long 
distance  communication  was  due  to  the  con- 
struction of  more  powerful  sending  apparatus 
and  more  sensitive  receivers. 

An  epoch-making  event  was  the  achievement, 
on  September  29th,  of  transcontinental  wireless 
telephony.  On  that  date  the  wireless  trans- 
mission of  speech  between  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  was  satisfactorily  ac- 
complished. On  October  21st  wireless  telephone 
messages  sent  out  from  Washin^n  were  re- 
ceived at  the  Eiffel  Tower  in  Pans,  and  at  the 
same  time  were  heard  distinctly  at  the  wireless 
station  at  Honolulu,  Hawaii.  The  apparatus 
used  was  developed  by  the  engineers  of  the  Amer- 
ican Telephone  and  Telegraph  and  Western  Elec- 
tric companies,  but  on  account  of  the  existing 
patent  situation,  no  details  of  the  more  import- 
ant devices  employed  were  made  public.  During 
the  year  the  Lackawanna  Railroad  improved  the 
apparatus  developed  by  it  in  1914  for  wireless 
telephony  between  stations  and  moving  trains, 
successfully  communicating  with  a  train  more 
than  60  miles  away.  The  United  States  navy 
was  experimenting  with  wireless  telephony  and 
was  understood  to  have  secured  satisfactory  re- 
sults at  sea  over  longer  distances  than  were 
formerly  possible. 

WISCOxTSIN.  Population.  The  estimated 
population  of  the  State  on  July  31,  1916,  was 
2,473,533.  The  population  in  1910  was  2,333,- 
860. 

AORICULTURE.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estimated  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
in  1914-16,  were  as  follows: 


Corn  . 
Wheat 
Oats  . 
Ryft     . 


.1916 

1914 
.1915 

1914 
.1916 

1914 
.1915 

1914 


Aerettge 

1.776,000 

1,725.000 

205,000 

184.000 

2.150.000 

2,300,000 

420,000 

412,000 


Prod,  Bu,  Fain* 

40,825.000  $27,761,000 

69,862,000     45,410.000 


4,662.000 
8.511,000 
99.975,000 
62,100.000 
7,770.000 
6.798^0 


4,429.000 
8.611.000 
85,991.000 
26.708,000 
6,760,000 
6,186,000 


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Aereage 

Prod.  Bu. 

Value 

Barley     . . 

..1915 

656,000 

28,288,000 

18,041,000 

1914 

675,000 

18,428,000 

11.426,000 

Potatoes    . 

..1916 

298.000 

25.926,000 

11.667,000 

1914 

804.000 

87,896,000 

11.809,000 

Hay     .... 

..1916 

2,676,000 

a  4,608,000 

44.629,000 

1914 

2,560,000 

4.462.000 

41,497.000 

ToUeeo  .. 

..1915 

41,000  h  86,900.000 

2,214.000 

1914 

46,600 

58,808,000 

6,919.000 

e  Tone. 

h  Ponnde. 

Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  A|2[ricu1ture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1910, 
and  Jan.  1,  1916,  horsee  numbered  712,000  and 
705,000,  valued  at  $88,288,000  and  $92,355,000; 
mules  numbered  3000  and  3000,  valued  at  $360,- 
000  and  $381,000;  milch  cows  numbered  1,676,- 
000  and  1,626,000,  valued  at  $92,125,000  and 
$96,747,000;  other  cattle  numbered  1,313,000  and 
1,216,000,  valued  at  $33,088,000  and  $33,683,000; 
sheep  numbered  664,000  and  781,000,  valued  at 
$3,519,000  and  $3,905,000;  swine  numbered  2,- 
142,000  and  2,255,000,  valued  at  $19,278,000  and 
$27,060,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915 
and  1914  was  4,031,000  and  3,960,000  pounds 
respectively. 

MiNEBAi.  Production.  Wisconsin  ranks 
fourth  among  the  States  in  the  production  of 
iron  ore.  There  were  produced  in  1914  886,512 
long  tons,  compared  with  the  production  in  1913 
of  1,018,272.  The  marketed  value  of  the  prod- 
uct in  1914  was  $1,178,610,  compared  with  a 
value  of  $2,149,397  in  1913.  The  value  of  the 
total  mineral  production  in  1914  was  $11,022,- 
643,  compared  with  $12,452,480  in  1913. 

Transportation.  The  railway  mileage  on 
Dec.  31,  1915,  was  7518.  This  was  main  trade 
only.  The  total  trackage  of  all  kinds  was  11,- 
608.  Lines  having  the  longest  mileage  were  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  2168;  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee, and  St.  Paul,  1796;  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul,  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  1351. 

Education.  The  latest  statistics  available  of 
the  State  are  for  the  biennial  period  1913-14. 
The  school  population  of  the  State  between  the 
ages  of  7  and  20  in  1914  was  782,246.  The  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools  was  440,103;  of 
these  270,269  were  enrolled  in  the  county  schools 
and  169,834  in  city  schools.  The  school  houses 
numbered  18,018.  There  were  employed  1692 
male  teachers  and  13,839  female  teachers.  The 
total  disbursements  for  support  of  the  schools 
in  1913-14  were  $16,036,809. 

Finance.  The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  1915  amounted  to  $19,431,931.  The  dis- 
bursements amounted  to  $19,789,188.  On  July 
1,  1914,  there  was  a  balance  of  $4,300,854,  and 
on  July  1,  1915,  of  $3,945,597.  The  State  has 
no  bonded  debt. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  the  State 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Mendota,  the  North- 
em  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Winnebago,  School 
for  the  Deaf  at  Delavan,  School  for  the  Blind 
at  Janesville,  Industrial  School  for  Boys  at 
Waukesha,  State  Prison  at  Waupim,  State  Public 
School  at  Sparta,  Home  for  the  Feeble-minded  at 
Chippewa  Falls,  State  Reformatory  at  Green 
Bay,  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium  at  Wales, 
Hospital  for  the  Criminal  Insane  at  Waupun, 
and  Milwaukee  Hospital  for  the  Insane. 

Politics  and  Government.  Under  the  opera- 
tion of  the  eugenic  law  passed  in  1914,  1400 
fewer  marriages  were  reported  to  the  State  Board 
of  Health  than  in  1913.  Elections  held  on  April 
6th  showed  a  gain  for  no-lioense  in  13  towns. 


but  license  gained  in  1.  Thirty  towns  previ- 
ously licensed  remained  under  license,  while  23 
dry  towns  remained  dry.  The  largest  cities 
voting  on  the  license  auestion  were  AshUmd, 
Superior,  Beloit,  and  Maaison,  all  of  which  voted 
for  license.  Measures  providing  for  the  sub- 
mission of  the  question  of  a  woman  suffrage 
amendment  to  the  people  were  defeated  in  the 
Legislature. 

State  Government.  Governor,  E.  L.  Phillip; 
Lieutenant-Governor,  E.  F.  Dithmar;  Secretary 
of  State,  John  S.  Donald;  Treasurer,  Henry 
Johnson;  Adjutant-General,  Orlando  Holway; 
Attorney-General,  W.  C.  Owen;  Superintendent 
of  Education,  C.  P.  Gary;  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, C.  P.  Norgard;  Commissioner  of  In- 
surance, M.  J.  Cleary — all  Republicans  except 
Gary,  Ind. 

JuDiciART.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
John  B.  Winslow;  Associate  Justices,  William  H. 
Timlin,  R.  G.  Siebecker,  A.  J.  Vinje,  Rouje  J. 
Marshall,  J.  C.  Kerwin,  John  Barnes;  Clerk, 
Arthur  A.  McLeod. 

State  Legislature: 


Senate 

Republicans    21 

Demoersta     11 

Boeiftl  Democrftta 1 

ProgresfliTe     

B«publie»ii   majority. .       9 


Souee 

Joint  BaOot 

68 

84 

28 

89 

8 

9 

1 

1 

26 


86 


WISCONSIN,  University  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education  founded  at  Madison, 
Wis.,  in  1848.  The  total  ^rollment  in  all  de- 
partments in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  4848  for 
the  regular  full  year,  and  524  in  the  short 
courses.  The  faculty  numbered  688,  of  whom  161 
averaged  half  time.  Resignations  were  received 
during  the  year  of  D.  C.  Munro,  professor  of  his- 
tory; J.  G.  D.  Mack,  professor  of  machine  de- 
sign; C.  P.  Norgard,  associate  professor  of 
agronomy;  J.  G.  Sanders,  associate  professor  of 
economic  entomology.  New  appointments  include 
those  of  F.  G.  Callan,  professor  of  steam  and 
gas  engineering;  H.  F.  Wilson,  professor  of  eco* 
nomic  entomology;  F.  A.  Aust,  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  landscape  design;  C.  S.  Pendelton,  as- 
sistant professor  of  English;  J.  D.  Diehl,  as- 
sistant professor  of  German;  and  W.  J.  Geib, 
assistant  professor  of  soils.  The  imiversity  was 
made  the  residuary  legatee  of  J.  Stephens  Stripp, 
on  the  death  of  certain  beneficiaries,  of  an  estate 
of  about  $350,000.  The  total  productive  funds 
of  the  university  at  the  end  of  the  year  June 
30,  1915,  amounted  to  $783,662.  The  total  esti- 
mated receipts  amoimted  to  $705,014.  The  li- 
brary contained  218,595  volumes. 

WITTB,  Count  Sergius  Julovitch.  Russian 
statesman,  died  March  12,  1915.  He  was  bom 
in  Tiflis,  in  1849.  His  father  was  of  a  humble 
Dutch  family  that  emigrated  to  Russia,  but  his 
mother  was  of  ancient  lineage.  The  boy  received 
an  excellent  education.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Odessa,  and  upon  leaving  the  uni- 
versity began  a  business  career.  He  entered  the 
railroad  service  in  a  shipping  department,  and 
showing  remarkable  ability,  was  advanced  with 
great  rapidity.  He  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
government  because  of  the  unusual  skill  with 
which  he  moved  army  supplies  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War.  He  was  in  consequence  called  to 
Petrograd  and  promoted  from  one  responsible  pOr 
sition  to  another.    In  1879  he  became  minister  of 

Google 


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railways  and  commimicatioii.  Shortly  after- 
wardB  he  was  appointed  minister  of  finance.  He 
had  in  mind  vast  schemes  for  masnifying  the 
wealth  and  greatness  of  Russia,  and  in  develop- 
ing his  ideas  he  used  almost  tyrannically  the  im- 
mense power  which  was  placed  in  his  hands  by 
Alexander  III.  He  employed  for  his  purposes 
every  engine  of  the  government.  Two  great  ideas 
dominated  his  plans.  One  was  the  development 
of  home  manufactures,  and  the  other  was  the 
extension  of  the  railroad  system  of  Russia.  As 
a  result  of  his  plan  for  the  first  of  these  pur- 
poses, he  made  Russia  actually  a  great  manu- 
facturing country,  vastly  increasing  its  wealth, 
and,  as  a  result  of  his  plan  for  the  second,  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway  was  built,  and  Russia 
undertook  a  career  of  railroad  expansion,  which 
was  interrupted  only  by  the  great  war  in  1914. 
Carrying  out  the  plan  of  Count  Witte  all  private 
railways  in  the  country  were  taken  over  by  the 
state,  bonds  being  given  for  the  properties.  At 
his  suggestion  also  the  government  took  charge 
of  liquor  traffic,  and,  until  the  sale  of  liquor  was 
prohibited  in  1914,  Russia  derived  an  immense 
revenue  from  this  monopoly  in  spirits.  His 
greatest  achievement,  however,  was  the  establish- 
ment of  the  gold  standard.  These  great  efforts 
fell  within  Witte's  tenure  of  the  finance  minis- 
try, a  period  which  represents  his  greatest  power 
and  most  notable  achievements.  In  1903, 
through  intrigues  against  him,  he  was  removed 
from  the  poet  of  minister  of  finance.  In  carry- 
ing out  his  plans,  he  had  made  bitter  enemies, 
who  influenced  the  Czar  against  him.  Under 
these  circumstances  he  left  Russia  for  several 
years,  and  did  not  return  imtil  the  Russo-Japa- 
nese War  was  in  progress.  His  appointment 
as  head  of  the  peace  commission  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  that  war  was  the  result  of  a  general  de- 
mand. In  the  negotiations  for  peace  carried 
on  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Count  Witte  was  the 
most  conspicuous  figure.  Through  his  diplo- 
macy he  was  able  to  end  the  war  in  a  manner  as 
advantageous  to  Russia  as  could  have  been  ex- 
pected. On  his  return  home  he  was  received 
as  a  hero,  and  was  made  a  count.  In  1906,  after 
the  Czar,  in  response  to  the  demands  of  the 
people,  had  created  a  Duma  and  cabinet  responsi- 
ble in  part  to  the  Duma,  Count  Witte  became 
president  of  the  first  Russian  constitutional 
ministry.  Shortly  afterward,  the  necessity  to 
use  severity  in  quelling  labor  disturbances  made 
Count  Witte  very  unpopular,  and  the  number  of 
his  enemies  increase!  steadily.  Pressure  was 
again  brought  to  bear  upon  the  Czar  for  his  re- 
moval, and  on  Dec.  7,  1905,  Witte  handed  in  his 
resignation.  The  resignation  was  accepted  May 
3,  1906,  and  Count  Witte  returned  to  private  life 
permanently.  In  1904  he  married  a  Jewess,  a 
very  beautiful  and  clever  woman.  He  was  one 
of  Russia's  ablest  men. 

WOMAN  MOVEMENT.  The  effects  of  the 
European  war  on  the  woman  movement,  felt  to 
a  certain  extent  already  in  the  preceding  year, 
became  more  conspicuous  in  both  the  belligerent 
and  neutral  countries  in  Europe,  and  made  their 
influence  felt  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  United 
States  in  1915.  As  in  1914,  women  in  all  parte 
of  the  civilized  world  took  upon  themselves  a 
considerable  share  of  the  Red  Cross  and  other 
charitable  work  connected  with  the  war.  Many 
American  women  distinguished  themselves  by  the 
side  of  their  European  sisters  in  hospitals  and 
relief  work.    Besides  this  participation  of  Amer- 


ican women  in  the  routine  work  behind  the  bat- 
tlefields, leaders  of  American  women  and  women's 
organizations  in  the  United  States  endeaTored 
throughout  the  year  to  establish  the  base  of  an 
understanding  between  the  warring  nations  from 
which  actual  peace  negotiations  might  be  ap- 
proached. The  efforts  of  women  in  Europe  and 
America  in  that  direction,  although  fruitless  for 
the  present,  were  so  widely  discussed  and  so 
favorably  received,  that  this  active  participa- 
tion of  women  in  the  attempts  to  shape  the  polit- 
ical future  of  the  world  and  the  ready  recogni- 
tion of  this  participation  by  public  opinion  may 
be  considered  as  the  main  achievement  of  the 
woman  movement  during  the  past  year. 

It  was  but  natural  that  a  conspicuous  rOle  in 
these  attempts  of  preparing  a  way  to  mediation 
in  the  European  war  fell  to  the  women  of  the 
United  States.  They,  as  the  citizens  of  the  most 
important  country  in  the  world  standing  aloof 
from  the  cataclysm  of  war,  were  primarily  called 
upon  to  unite  the  efforts  of  women  in  other  neu- 
tral and  belligerent  countries  with  their  own  in 
the  agitation  for  peace  in  Europe.  Already  at 
the  end  of  1914  an  "Emergency  Federation  of 
Peace  Forces"  was  formed  in  Chicago  with  Jane 
Addams  as  chairman.  The  aims  of  the  organi- 
zation were,  it  was  pointed  out,  "to  secure  the 
widest  possible  adoption  by  peace,  civic,  labor, 
religious,  social,  scientific,  and  other  organiza- 
tions of  a  minimum  programme  of  constructive 
peace  and  to  bring  intelligent  public  opinion  to 
bear  to  lead  to  such  a  settlement  of  the  present 
world  catastrophe  as  may  insure  permanent 
peace." 

This  preliminary  group  called  a  conference 
Jan.  10,  1915,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  at  which  all 
important  women's  organizations  were  repre- 
sented, for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  pacifist 
opinion  and  enlisting  American  women  in  a 
movement  to  arouse  the  nations  to  respect  the 
sacredness  of  human  life  and  to  abolish  war. 
The  organization  that  grew  out  of  the  confer- 
ence constituted  itself  the  Women's  Peace  Party, 
and  included  among  its  aims  as  set  forth  in  its 
platform  the  immediate  calling  of  a  convention 
of  neutral  nations  in  ike  interest  of  early  peace, 
limitation  of  armaments,  nationalization  of  their 
manufacture,  opposition  to  militarism,  education 
of  the  youth  in  the  ideals  of  peace,  democratic 
control  of  foreign  policies,  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise to  women,  support  of  the  international  idea 
in  the  Concert  of  Nations  rather  than  the  Bal- 
ance of  Power,  international  reorganization  to 
eliminate  war,  an  international  police  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  armies  and  navies,  removal  of  the 
economic  causes  of  war,  and  the  appointmoit  of 
a  government  commission  to  promote  interna- 
tional peace.  Miss  Jane  Addams  was  made 
chairman  of  the  new  party,  and  among  those  as- 
sociated with  her  in  an  executive  capacity  are 
Mrs.  Anna  Garlin  Spencer,  Mrs.  Heniy  Villard, 
Mrs.  Louis  F.  Post,  Mrs.  John  Jay  Wliite,  Mrs. 
Lucia  Ames  Mead,  Mrs.  Glendower  Evans,  and 
Miss  Sophonisba  Breckinridge. 

In  April  American  women  held,  together  with 
women  representatives  of  the  belligerent  and 
neutral  countries  of  Europe,  a  peace  conference 
at  The  Hague — Jane  Addams  presiding — and 
passed  finally  a  resolution  that  this  meeting  of 
women  "of  different  nations,  creeds,  classes,  and 
parties  is  united  in  expressing  sympathy  with 
the  suffering  of  all,  whatever  their  nationality, 
who  are  fighting  for  their  country,  or  who  are 


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laboring  under  the  burden  of  the  war.  Since 
the  maBs  of  the  peoples  now  warring  believe 
themselves  to  be  fighting  not  aggressively,  but  in 
self-defense,  and  for  their  national  esdstence,  it 
urges  the  governments  of  the  world  to  put  an 
end  to  this  bloodshed  and  to  begin  peace-n^o- 
tiations." 

The  conference  did  not  meet  the  unqualified 
approval  of  women  of  the  warring  nations,  a  fact 
which  only  reflected  the  actual  state  of  public 
opinion  in  those  nations,  as  Miss  Addams  herself 
found  later  on  a  tour  through  the  belligerent 
coimtries.  On  her  return  to  the  United  States 
in  the  summer  of  1915  Miss  Addams  had  an  in- 
terview with  President  Wilson,  which  was  con- 
sidered at  the  time  not  without  a  certain  bearing 
on  the  repeatedly  discussed  idea  of  American 
mediation  in  the  European  war.  But  even  if 
without  immediate  results,  the  peace  demonstra- 
tion of  American  and  other  women  at  The  Hague 
in  the  spring  of  1915  proved  a  remarkable  step 
of  the  woman  movement  in  its  aspiration  to  a 
share  in  international  as  well  as  domestic  poli- 
tics, and  in  the  shaping  of  the  political  future  of 
the  world.  The  foim&tion  of  a  "World  Union 
of  Women"  in  Geneva  in  April,  for  the  purpose 
of  imiting  women  to  prevent  future  wars  proved 
another  step  in  that  direction,  while  in  England 
a  Woman's  International  League  was  organised, 
having  as  its  object  "to  establish  the  principles 
of  right  rather  than  might,  and  codperation 
rather  than  conflict  in  national  and  international 
affairs,  and  for  this  purpose  to  work  for  ( 1 )  the 
development  of  the  ideals  underlying  modem 
democracy  in  the  interests  of  constructive  peace, 
and  (2)  the  emancipation  of  women  and  the 
protection  of  their  interests,  including  their  ad- 
mission to  the  Parliamentary  franimise,  their 
admission  to  national  and  int^ational  councils, 
and  the  establishment  of  their  economic  inde- 
pendence and  legal  freedom." 

On  July  4-7  an  International  Conference  of 
Women  Workers  to  prevent  War  and  ensure  per- 
manent peace  was  held  at  San  Francisco,  almost 
all  civilized  nations  being  represented.  Besides 
protests  against  war  and  proposals  to  ensure 
permanent  peace,  special  demand  was  made  "that 
women  be  permitted  to  share  political  rights  and 
responsibilities  both  nationally  and  internation- 
ally." A  great  peace  demonstration  was  held  by 
Swedish  women  at  Stockholm  on  June  27th.  In 
Germany  on  April  20th  an  "Auslandi^imd 
deutscher  Frauen"  was  founded  with  the  purpose 
of  bringing  women  of  German  descent  in  foreign 
countries  m  contact  with  each  other  and  further- 
ing thereby  the  understandings  of  foreign  na- 
tions. 

The  participation  of  some  women  prominent  in 
the  American  woman  movement  in  the  so-called 
"Ford  peace  expedition"  to  Scandinavia  and  Hol- 
land in  the  later  ^art  of  the  year  and  the  agita- 
tion of  others  to  induce  Congress  to  pass  a  law 
prohibiting  the  export  of  war  munitions,  and  the 
participation  of  women  in  the  "preparedness 
movement"  in  the  United  States  may  also  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection. 

Besides  these  activities  of  a  more  political  or 
paciflst  character,  American  women  followed 
with  interest  the  new  social  problems  with  re- 
gard to  the  position  and  employment  of  women 
which  were  created  through  the  progress  and 
growing  strain  of  the  European  war,  especially 
in  the  belligerent  coimtries — Turkey  included — 
although  these  problems  were  substantially  the 


same  in  neutral  countries  like  Holland  and 
Switzerland  as  in  the  countries  at  war.  Hie 
war  has  brought  about  in  all  the  belligerent 
countries  remarkable  changes  in  the  social  posi- 
tion and  economic  fimctions  of  women,  which 
have  awakened  the  general  public  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  new  activities  and  a  higher  social 
status  for  women,  and  will  undoubt^y  have  a 
permanent  influence  not  only  upon  the  activities 
of  woman  herself  but  upon  the  conception  of  the 
family  and  its  relation  to  the  state.  In  Eng- 
land it  was  urged  that  employment  of  women  in 
the  army  commissariat  would  have  prevented 
wastage  of  food.  In  Germany  a  women's  organ- 
ization, the  "Nationaler  Frauendienst,"  played 
an  important  rOle  in  the  war-time  economies  of 
the  nation,  as  well  as  in  those  of  every  house- 
hold, whidi  were  resorted  to  to  counterbalance 
the  scarcity  of  certain  foodstuffs.  In  the  last 
named  country  the  realization  of  the  necessity  of 
straining  every  nerve  in  a  tremendous  struggle 
favored  the  public  discussion  of  the  suggestion 
of  a  year  of  service  for  women  in  the  ^mestio 
and  social  field,  corresponding  to  ike  term  of 
military  service  for  men. 

The  draining  of  the  belligerent  countries  of 
men  for  the  continuation  of  the  war  led  every- 
where to  increasing  employment  of  women  even  in 
professions  or  occupations  where  men  were  for- 
merly employed  exclusively  or  at  least  in  over- 
whelming majority.  In  England,  for  instance, 
according  to  a  statement  by  the  London  School 
of  Medicine  for  Women,  the  demand  for  women 
doctors  exceeded  the  supply.  Even  the  posts  of 
house  physicians  and  home  surgeons  in  the  hos- 
pitals, heretofore  always  held  by  men,  were  of- 
fered to  women,  and  women  were  imdertaking 
the  practice  of  men  who  had  gone  to  the  front. 
In  Germany  post  officials  and  even  firemen  in 
country  towns  were  largely  replaced  by  women. 
Similar  conditions  prevailed  in  France  or  Rus- 
sia and  even  Holland,  where  men  were  drafted 
into  the  army  to  protect  the  frontier.  In  all 
belligerent  coimtries  women  were  engaged  in  in- 
creasing numbers  in  the  manufacture  of  mimi- 
tions;  m  England  college  girls  were  working  in 
the  hay  fields,  and  in  July  over  10,000  women 
demanded  the  right  to  work  for  their  country, 
whereas  in  Germany  the  Grand  Duchess  Louise 
of  Baden  sent  to  Emperor  William  an  etching  en- 
titled "Silent  Heroism,"  and  portraying  peas- 
ant women  tilling  the  soil  while  the  men  were 
fighting  at  the  front. 

This  growing  realization  of  the  importance  of 
woman  in  national  life  foimd  its  expression 
partly  in  a  greater  readiness  to  admit  women  to 
positions  of  infiuence  which  were  hitherto  more 
or  less  withheld  from  them,  partly  in  a  greater 
consideration  of  the  special  needs  of  women  for 
protection  through  social  legislation.  In  Eng- 
land, for  instance,  it  was  considered  as  a  course 
entirely  without  precedent  that  Queen  Mary  was 
called  upon  to  fulfill  the  special  official  duties 
of  the  King  during  his  illness  in  autumn,  1915. 
In  the  same  way  the  appointment  of  a  prominent 
suffragist  leader,  Miss  Pressley  Smith,  as  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  British  legation  at 
Christiania,  was  considered  as  a  departure  in 
British  policy  and  a  tribute  to  the  work  of  Brit- 
ish women  in  the  war.  In  Germany  the  right  of 
women  teachers  to  marry  was  demanded,  and 
legislation  was  urged  which  would  recognize  le- 
gally woman  as  the  head  of  the  family,  which 
position  she  would  be  holding  economically  in 


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the  not  infrequent  cases  where  her  maimed  hus- 
band had  lost — either  partially  or  completely — 
his  earning  power.  In  Austria  actual  legal 
progress  was  made  in  that  direction  by  the  easier 
admission  of  women  as  guardians.  In  Norway 
a  bill  providing  for  mothers'  pensions  was 
passed.  In  Turkey  demands  were  made  urging 
the  foundation  of  a  university  for  women. 

In  the  United  States  important  progress  waa 
also  made  in  the  struggle  for  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  women.  The  Women's  City  Club  of 
Boston  passed  its  first  year  in  its  new  club- 
house on  Beacon  Street,  and  fulfilled  the  highest 
expectation  of  its  organizers  as  a  democratic 
centre  of  social  and  civic  activity  for  women. 
In  New  York  a  Woman's  City  Club  was  organ- 
ised in  July  by  a  group  of  a  nundred  women  to 
work  for  better  political  conditions,  and  espe- 
cially for  legislation  relating  to  women  and  chil- 
droi. 

The  movement  for  trade  union  organization 
among  women  made  considerable  advances 
throughout  the  year  (see  Tbaob  Unions).  The 
Women's  Trade  Union  League  held  its  fifth  Bi- 
ennial Convention  in  New  York  on  June  12th. 
The  League  reaffirmed  its  legislative  programme 
of  two  years  ago  and  made  many  additions.  It 
asked,  among  other  things,  uniform  State  laws, 
the  minimum  wage,  an  eight-hour  day,  restric- 
tion of  child  labor,  study  and  prevention  of  oc- 
cupational diseases,  abolition  of  sweat  shop  la- 
bor, one  day's  rest  in  seven,  regulation  of  prison 
labor,  abolition  of  private  detective  agencies, 
whidi  ''thrive  upon  strikes  and  are  used  to  break 
them."  The  two  outstanding  questions  of  the 
convention  were  peace  and  woman  suffrage. 

In  tiie  United  States  important  steps  were 
taken  in  all  parts  of  the  country  toward  opening 
new  occupations  for  women,  witness  the  follow- 
ing facts:  the  election  of  a  woman.  Miss  Reah 
Whitehead,  as  criminal  judge  in  Seattle;  the 
appointment  of  the  first  woman  Justice  of 
the  Peace  in  Montana;  the  passage  of  bills  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  authorizing  the  ap- 
pointment of  women  as  police  officers;  the  or- 
ganization of  a  national  society  of  police- 
women in  Baltimore  on  May  20th;  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  woman  as  State  Senator  in  Oregon  to 
fill  a  vacancy;  the  election  of  a  woman  State  Sen- 
ator in  Arizona;  the  appointment  of  three  women 
physicians  to  the  regular  staff  of  the  Cumber- 
land Street  Hospital  in  Brooklyn;  the  appoint- 
ment to  Bellevue  of  a  woman  graduate  of  Cor- 
nell Medical  School,  Miss  Eugenie  Ingerman, 
who  had  passed  the  hospital  examination  at  the 
head  of  the  list;  the  appointment  of  a  woman  as 
food  inspector,  and  of  another  as  a  member  of 
the  Advisory  Council  of  the  New  York  Depart- 
ment of  Health;  and  the  appointment  of  two 
women  as  judges  of  the  Juvenile  Court  in  St. 
Louis.  The  selection  of  women  in  other  cities 
for  such  offices  as  commissioner  of  public  wel- 
fare, deputy  sheriff,  and  members  of  boards  of 
education  and  of  health  are  only  the  more  con- 
spicuous landmarks  in  the  advance  of  women  into 
the  general  field  of  social  activity  and  labor. 

See  also  Woman  Suffrage. 

Bibliographv.  Women  and  the  War.  Jane 
Addams,  Emily  G.  Balch,  Alice  Hamilton, 
Women  at  the  Hague  (New  York,  1915) ;  May 
Wright  Sewall,  Women,  World  War  and  Per- 
manent Peace  (San  Francisco,  1915)  ;  Mary 
Frances  Billington,  The  Red  Cross  in  War, 
Woman's  Part  in  the  Relief  of  Suffering   (New 


York,  1914);  Samuel  George,  Women's  World- 
Wide  Work  with  War,  or  Preparing  for  the 
Great  International  Peace  (London,  1915) ;  Hel- 
ena M.  Swanwick,  Woman  and  War  (London, 
1916) ;  The  War,  Women,  and  Unemployment 
("Fabian  Tract  178,"  London,  1915);  Webster, 
Britain's  Call  to  Arms,  an  Appeal  to  Our  Women 
(London,  1916);  E.  K.  Paget,  The  Woman'e 
Fart  (London,  1914) ;  Frances  S.  Hallowes, 
Woman  and  War  (London,  1914) ;  Janet  Court- 
ney, The  War  and  Women's  Employment  {Fortn. 
Rev,,  1915) ;  Fred.  Masson,  Les  femmes  et  la 
guerre  de  1914  (Paris,  1915) ;  Lily  Braun,  Die 
Frau  und  der  Krieg  (Leipzig,  1916) ;  E.  v.  d. 
Goltz,  Deuteche  Frauenarheit  in  der  Kriegszeit 
(Leipzig,  1915);  T.  Gruenhut,  Der  Kampf  der 
deutschen  Hausfrau  (Wiesbaden,  1915) ;  A.  v. 
Hamack,  Der  Krieg  und  die  Frauen  (Berlin, 
1914) ;  El.  M.  Metzdorff-Techner,  Die  allg,  Wehr- 
pflicht  d.  Frau  (Leipzig,  1914) ;  Nationaler 
Frauendienst  (Frankfort,  1915);  Planck,  Die 
Mitarbeit  der  Frau  (Stuttgart,  1916);  Maria 
Ferschen,  Die  Kriegspflieht  der  deutschen  Baue- 
frau  (Strassburg,  1915);  Helene  Granitsch, 
Kriegsdienstleistung  der  Frauen  (Wien,  1915)  ; 
A.  Ruge,  Mobilmaohung  der  deutschen  Frauen- 
streitkraefte  (Berlin,  1915) ;  Kaethe  Schlr- 
macher,  Frauendienstjdhr  (Berlin,  1915);  F. 
Zimmer,  Frauendienstpflicht  (Berlin,  1916)  ; 
Zietz,  Die  sozialdemokratische  Frau  und  der 
Krieg  (Berlin,  1915);  Kvindere  og  Krigen 
(Copenhagen,  1915) ;  Dora  Schlatter,  Unsere 
Zeit  und  der  Krieg  (Basel,  1915);  Tr.  Kruyt- 
Hogerzeil,  De  Vrouw  en  de  orlog  (Amsterdun, 
1915). 

FenUnist  Movement.  General.  W.  M.  Gul- 
licken.  Women  Under  Polygamy  (New  York, 
1915);  Florence  G.  Tuttle,  The  Au?aking  of 
Woman  (New  York,  1915) ;  J.  de  Lemoine,  Bilan 
du  feminisms  mondial  (Paris,  1915) ;  Ignacio 
Casanova,  Aocion  de  la  mujer  en  la  vida  social 
(Barcelona,  1915) ;  Use  Hiller,  Beitraege  zur 
Frauenfrage  (Wien,  1915) ;  Gerte  Zuendorff,  Der 
Arheitsverdienst  der  Frau  im  System  der  Oue- 
tergemeinschaft  (Bonn,  1914).  United  States, 
May  Allinson,  The  Public  Schools  and  Women  in 
Official  Service  (Bosten,  1915) ;  Mary  R.  Beard, 
Woman's  Work  in  Municipalities  (New  York, 
1915) ;  Helen  C.  Bennett,  American  Women  in 
Civic  Work  (New  York,  1915);  Jeanette  Eaton 
and  Bertha  M.  Stevens,  Commercial  Work  and 
Training  for  Qirls  (New  York,  1915).  Else- 
where. J.  Tissier,  La  femme  au  foyer  (Paris, 
1915) ;  B.  Missiaen,  La  femme  allemande  d  VUni- 
versit4  (Brussels,  1914) ;  Die  Frau  im  Bauge- 
werbe  (Leipzig,  1914) ;  £.  Fischer,  Frauenarbeit 
und  Familte  (Berlin,  1915) ;  Ema  Reimer,  Die 
Frau  als  kaufmaennische  Angestellte  (Berlin, 
1915) ;  Heda  Unger,  Frauen^Heimarbeit  in  Coeln 
(Berlin,  1915);  G.  D.  H.  Cole,  Labor  in  War 
Time  (London,  1915) ;  Report  on  Married 
Women's  Work,  published  by  the  Women's  In- 
dustrial Council  (London,  1915) ;  Central  Com- 
mittee on  Women's  Employment,  Interim  Re- 
port, Cd.  7848  (London,  1915);  British  Asso- 
ciation, Draft  Interim  Report  of  the  Conference 
to  Investigate  into  Outlets  for  Labor  After  the 
War  (London,  1915). 

WOMAN'S  CHBISTIAH  TEMPERANCE 
UNION,  National.  An  organization  formed 
in  1874  for  abolishing  the  liquor  traffic.  The 
Forty-second  Annual  (invention  of  the  union 
was  held  at  Seattle,  Wash.,  on  Oct.  9-14,  1915. 
In  1915  there  was  a  gain  of  35,771  new 


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bers  for  the  organization.  Its  receipts  were 
$112,251  and  expenditures,  $94,600.  Tfarougli 
the  various  departments  48,332,168  pages  of 
literature  were  distributed,  and  of  this  about 
36,000,000  pages  were  temperance  literature.  The 
official  publications  of  the  union  are  The  Union 
Bignal,  of  which  Miss  Anna  A.  Gordon  is 
editor-in-chief,  and  Miss  Julia  F.  Deane, 
managing  editor,  and  The  Taung  Crusader, 
of  whi(£  Mrs.  Ella  A.  Boole  is  editor-in- 
chief,  and  Miss  Windsor  Grow,  managing  edi- 
tor.  National  headquarters  are  maintained  at 
Evanston,  111.  The  officers  for  1015-16  are  as 
follows:  President,  Miss  Anna  A.  Gordon, 
Evanston,  111.;  vice-president-at-large,  Mrs.  Ella 
A.  Boole,  1429  Avenue  H,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  cor- 
responding secretary,  Mrs.  Frances  P.  Parks, 
Evanston,  111.;  recording  secretary,  Mrs.  Eliza- 
beth Preston  Anderson,  Fargo,  N.  D.;  assistant 
recording  secretary,  Mrs.  Sara  H.  Hodge,  Lin- 
coln, Va.;  treasurer,  Mrs.  Margaret  G.  Munns, 

Evanston,  111. 

WOHAN  SXTFFBAOK  Fobbign  Gountbies. 
Although  in  the  belligerent  countries  no  actual 
progress  has  been  miule  in  the  direction  of  ob- 
taining the  parliamentary  vote  for  women,  the 
position  of  woman  has  been  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  growing  realization  under  the  s&ess  of 
war  time  of  the  importance  of  woman  as  an  eco- 
nomic factor.  This  recognition  seems  evidently 
to  improve  the  chances  of  the  enfranchisement  of 
women  in  various  European  countries  after  peace 
is  once  restored.  In  England  the  militant  suf- 
fragists kept  the  truce  entered  at  the  outbreak  ef 
the  war,  and  postponed  the  active  prosecution  of 
their  demanda  imtil  the  return  of  peace.  In 
Germany  women  sent  a  petition  for  the  ballot  to 
the  Reichstag  in  which  they  said:  ''Women  ren- 
der, collectively,  services  to  the  state  which  are 
indispensable  to  its  existence;  fairness  demands 
that  the  state  should  give  them  collective 
rights.''  In  France  a  special  commission  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  question  of  the  en- 
franchisement of  women  recommended  that 
the  full  suffrage  be  extended  to  women  as  rapidly 
as  may  be  thought  feasible,  and  that  the  muni- 
cipal suffrage  be  granted  to  them  at  once.  On 
April  23rd  the  Danish  Diet  adopted  an  amend- 
ment to  the  constitution  giving  full  suffrage  to 
women,  and  also  the  right  to  election  to  the  Diet. 
It  was  passed  by  the  new  Diet  which  was  elected 
in  May.  Before  that,  tax-paying  women  had  the 
right  to  vote  in  Denmark.  The  new  constitu- 
tion, which  confers  the  suffrage  on  women  and 
abolishes  the  special  electoral  privileges  hereto- 
fore exercised  by  the  wealthier  classes,  was  unan- 
imously passed  on  the  anniversary  of  the  sign- 
ing of  the  first  constitution  by  Frederick  VII  in 
1849.  In  Norway,  where  women  voted  for  the 
first  time  in  October,  there  were  170,000  new 
electors  on  the  rolls.  On  November  1st  the 
Dutch  government  introduced  a  bill  which  pro- 
poses extension  of  the  right  to  vote  to  all  male 
and  female  citizens  who  have  reached  the  age  of 
23.  The  Canadian  provinces  of  Manitoba  and 
Alberta  have  drafted  government  bills  giving 
women  the  ballot.  Saskatchewan  is  expected  to 
follow  their  example  shortly.  In  South  Africa 
at  the  recent  municipal  elections  in  Maritzburg, 
the  first  since  women  received  the  municipal 
franchise,  76  per  cent  of  the  women  voters 
polled,  as  compared  with  63  per  cent  of  the 
men.  In  Iceland  full  suffrage  was  granted 
to    women    during    the    past   year.    They    had 


enjoyed  partial  suffrage  for  some  time,  and 
since  1902  one-fourth  of  the  members  of  the 
council  of  the  capital  city  had  been  women. 
The  first  election  at  which  South  African 
women  could  use  their  municipal  franchise 
took  place  on  November  10th.  The  prospects  of 
women  obtaining  the  parliamentary  franchise  in 
South  Africa  are  considered  good.  The  new  gov- 
ernment of  China  stands  pl^lged  to  woman  suf- 
frage, and  women  already  vote  in  one  province 
of  China.  "Since  of  the  400,000,000  people  of 
China  half  are  women,''  says  a  manifesto  issued 
by  the  Chinese  women's  political  movement,  ask- 
ing for  a  restoration  of  the  Chinese  monarchy, 
''it  is  in  behalf  of  these  200,000,000  that  we  are 
appealing.  According  to  the  constitutional  com- 
pact the  sovereignty  of  the  country  is  vested  in 
the  people  of  the  whole  country.  'The  people  of 
the  whole  country'  naturally  means  the  people 
of  both  sexes."  In  connection  with  the  various 
international  peace  congresses  organized  by 
women  during  1915,  demands  were  also  made 
that  the  women  be  permitted  to  share  political 
rights  and  responsibilities  both  nationally  and 
internationally. 

United  States.  The  National  Woman  Suf- 
frage Amendment  Resolution  failed  on  January 
12ti^  to  pass  the  House  of  Representatives  by  a 
vote  of  174  ayes  to  204  noes.  The  expressed  op- 
position was  for  the  most  part  not  against  the 
enfranchisement  of  women,  but  against  Federal 
action.  The  State  rights  argument  was  kept  in 
the  for^ound  throughout  the  debate.  The  vote 
by  parties  stood — for  the  resolution:  86  Demo- 
crats, 72  Republicans,  12  Progressive  Republi- 
cans, 1  Independent;  against  it — 171  Democrats 
and  33  Republicans.  Seventy-eight  more  votes 
would  have  given  the  amendment  the  necessary 
two-thirds  majority.  Throughout  summer  and 
fall  a  well-organized  and  energetic  campaign 
was  conducted  in  the  States  of  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey  to  ob- 
tain the  passage  of  woman  suffrage  in  the  State 
elections.  President  Wilson  vot^  for  suffrage 
on  October  19th  in  New  Jersey.  In  New  York 
50,000  women  marched  in  parade  on  October 
23rd  before  himdreds  of  thousands  of  spectators. 
At  the  November  elections  close  to  a  million 
votes  were  cast  for  equal  suffrage.  It  is  stated 
that  only  the  full  force  of  the  machine  politi- 
cians in  Philadelphia  prevented  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  from  leadins  the  East  in  enfran- 
chising women.  The  results  of  the  ballot  were: 
in  New  Jersey,  133,282  for  woman  suffrage,  184,- 
390  against,  majority  against,  51,108;  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 163,406  for,  295,489  against,  majority 
against,  137,647;  in  New  York,  544,457  for,  732,- 
770  against,  majority  against,  184,242;  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 385,348  for,  411,034  against,  majority 
against,  55,946.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  suffra- 
gists was  unabated  and  a  great  mass  meeting  at 
Cooper  Union  in  New  York  pledged  $100,000  for 
a  new  campaign. 

On  December  6th  President  Wilson  and  about 
a  hundred  members  of  Congress  received  large 
delegations  of  suffragists  from  the  Congressional 
Union  after  an  impressive  parade  through  Penn- 
sylvania Avenue.  In  his  reply  the  President  re- 
gretted that  it  was  too  late  to  consider  the 
wishes  of  the  detection  In  his  message.  On  the 
same  day  resolutions  were  introduced  in  both 
houses  of  Congress  for  a  nation-wide  amend- 
ment enfranchising  women.  When  the  House  as- 
sembled.  Representatives  Mondell  of   Wyoming 


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(Republican),  Raker  of  California  (Democrat), 
and  Meyer  London  of  New  York  (Socialist)  pre- 
sented identical  resolutions  for  equal  suffrage 
throughout  the  country.  The  next  day,  when 
the  S^ate  began  to  receive  bills,  Senator  Suther- 
land of  Utah  (Republican)  introduced  the  aol- 
frage  amendment  for  the  C])ongressional  Union, 
and  was  followed  by  Senator  Thomas  of  Colo- 
rado (Donocrat),  who  introduced  the  same 
measure  for  the  National  American  Woman  Suf- 
frage Association.  At  the  annual  convention  of 
the  National  American  Woman  Suifrage  Asso- 
ciation held  durinff  the  middle  of  December  at 
Washington,  Dr.  Anna  Howard  Shaw  resigned 
as  president  of  the  Association,  and  Mrs.  Carrie 
Chapman  Catt  was  elected  instead.  In  her  final 
address  Dr.  Shaw  said:  'That  woman's  vote 
Would  secure  better  legislation  for  the  home  and 
children  against  all  the  corrupting  forces  of 
vested  interests  and  vice  which  prosper  upon 
their  degradation  and  the  exploitation  of  diil- 
dren,  is  shown  by  the  laws  which  have  been  se- 
cured by  women  in  States  where  they  already 
vote  and  which  are  advocated  in  those  States 
where  they  do  not  vote." 

Eleven  States  have  now  granted  full  suffrage 
for  woman.  These  States  are:  Wyoming 
(1869),  Colorado  (1893),  Utah  (1896),  Wash- 
ington (1910),  California  (1911),  Oregon 
(1912),  Kansas  (1912),  Arizona  (1912),  Alaska 
(1913),  Montana  (1914),  and  Nevada  (1914). 
In  1914  Illinois  granted  presidential  and  muni- 
cipal suffrage.  In  Alabama  the  woman  suffrage 
measure  was  defeated  In  the  House  by  a  vote  of 
52  to  43.  A  three-fifths  majority  is  needed  for 
passage.  In  Arkansas  it  passed  the  House  by 
51  to  18  and  the  Senate  by  23  to  12,  but  was 
prevented  from  going  to  tiie  voters  by  a  law 
which  says  that  only  three  amendments  may  be 
submitted  at  once.  In  Vermont  a  bill  for  partial 
woman  suffrage  passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of 
29  to  10,  but  was  defeated  in  the  House  l^  129 
to  100.  In  Indiana  a  bill  for  partial  suffrage 
passed  the  Senate  37  to  3,  but  the  House  re- 
fused to  bring  it  out  of  conmiittee.  In  Nebraska 
the  House  defeated  a  muncipal  suffrage  bill  54  to 
40.  In  North  Carolina  the  House  defeated  the 
suffrage  amendment  68  to  39.  In  Minnesota  the 
Senate  defeated  the  suffrage  amendment  34  to  33. 
In  Delaware  the  House  defeated  the  suffrage 
amendment  22  to  8,  and  the  Senate  16  to  11.  In 
North  Dakota  the  Senate  passed  the  amendment 
31  to  14,  but  reconsidered  and  tabled  it  26  to  21. 
In  Texas  the  House  voted  90  to  32  in  favor  of 
an  amendment  which  failed  because  a  two-thirds 
vote  was  necessary.  In  Florida  the  House  de- 
feated the  suffrage  amendment,  although  there 
were  31  votes  for  and  24  against,  since  a  three- 
fifths  vote  was  required  to  pass  the  amendment. 
In  Wisconsin  the  Senate  defeated  the  suffrage 
amendment  49  to  41.  In  Missouri  it  passed  the 
House  88  to  40,  but  did  not  come  up  for  consid- 
eration in  the  Senate.  In  Maine  a  two-thirds 
rule  prevented  the  passage  of  a  suffrage  amend- 
ment in  the  State  where  the  vote  in  the  Senate 
was  26  in  favor,  4  in  opposition,  and  in  the 
House  88  opposed  to  59  in  favor.  In  Michigan 
the  women  tax  payers  were  given  the  right  to 
vote  for  charter  amendments  and  two  proposi- 
tions involving  the  direct  expenditure  of  money. 
In  New  Hampshire  the  bill  for  municipal  suf- 
frage for  women  was  defeated  in  the  House  by 
230  to  121.  In  Connecticut  the  amendment  was 
defeated  in  the  House  by  106  to  124.    In  New 


Mexico,  Oklahoma,  South  Carolina,  and  Ohio  no 
action  was  taken.  In  Rhode  Island  the  bill  for 
presidential  suffrage  was  defeated  in  the  House 
65  to  31.  In  Georgia  the  suffrage  bill  was  killed 
in  committees  of  the  House  and  Senate.  Five 
Legislatures,  those  in  Kentucky,  Maryland, 
Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Virginia,  were  not 
in  session  this  year. 

See  also  Woman  Movement. 

BibUography.  Frances  M.  Bj5rkman,  Womam 
Suffrage  (New  York,  1915);  Mary  P.  Jacobi, 
Common  Setue  Allied  to  Woman  Suffrage 
(New  York,  1915) ;  W.  Parker,  The  Fundamen- 
tal Error  of  Woman  Suffrage  (New  York,  1916)  ; 
Anna  Howard  Shaw  and  Elizabeth  Jordan,  The 
Story  of  a  Pioneer  (New  York,  1915). 

WOMBN  AND  THE  WAB.  See  Woman 
Movement;  and  Red  Cbosb. 

WOMEN  IN  INDXXSTBY.  The  interest  in 
the  industrial  aspects  of  woman's  position  in 
modern  society  was,  as  in  preceding  years,  mani- 
fested in  several  concrete  ways.  Tne  legislation 
and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  hours  and  con- 
ditions of  employment  are  set  forth  below  and 
in  the  articles  on  Child  Labob  and  on  Minimum 
Wage.  In  these  same  articles  also  will  be  found 
summaries  of  various  investigations  of  the  wages, 
ages,  and  nationalities  of  working  women.  The 
new  movement  for  the  special  care  of  working 
mothers,  especially  widows,  with  minor  children 
is  treated  under  Pensions  fob  Mothebs. 

New  Employments.  The  year  was  notable 
for  the  extension  of  women's  industrial  activi- 
ties, especially  in  Europe;  but  various  special 
cases  elsewhere  are  of  significance.  The  Cam- 
bridge Law  School  for  Women  was  organised 
in  affiliation  with  Harvard  University;  and  it 
was  noted  that  attendance  of  women  at  medical 
schools  was  increasing.  Paterson,  N.  J.,  ap- 
pointed a  woman  as  dance  hall  censor;  Los 
Angeles  had  a  woman  as  acting  mayor;  Suffolk 
Coimty,  N.  Y.,  had  a  woman  deputy  sheriff.  In 
South  Australia  wom^i  justices  were  appointed. 
In  Europe  the  war  required  the  extension  of 
women's  activities  in  many  directions.  In 
France  women  aviators  appeared;  in  Russia 
women  replaced  men  on  Volga  steamers;  in  ISng- 
land  they  took  up  work  on  railways,  street 
cars,  and  farms,  and  in  munitions  and  other  fac- 
tories; in  Qermany,  France,  and  Italy  a 
similar  movement  was  marked.    See  also  Agbi- 

CULTUBB. 

The  National  Women's  Tbadb  Union 
League  held  its  6th  biennial  convention  in  1916. 
This  organization  is  neither  a  trade  union  nor  a 
federation  of  imions,  but  has  for  its  purpose  the 
fostering  of  trade  organizations  among  working 
women.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  organization 
of  the  humbler  and  more  exploited  ranks  of 
workers.  The  sentiment  of  the  majority  at  the 
ctmvention  was  favorable  to  minimum-wage  legis- 
lation and  a  resolution  was  passed  conunitting 
the  league  to  its  support.  The  convention  de- 
cided to  change  the  name  of  the  Training  School 
for  Organizers  started  in  Chicago  in  1914  to  the 
Training  School  for  Active  Workers  in  the  Labor 
Movement.  Reports  were  made  by  the  com- 
mittees on  organization,  education,  unemploy- 
ment, legislation,  and  resolutions.  Summer  vo- 
cational courses  were  suggested  in  view  of  the 
summer  slack  season  in  many  trades.  In  eight 
years  the  convention  shows  an  increase  from  8 
to  91  delegates. 

Calutobnia  Eight-Hottb  Law.    Two  decisions 


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were  handed  down  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  on  the  California  eiffht-hour  law 
for  women.  In  one  case  the  employer  of  the 
Glenwood  Hotel  was  convicted  for  employing  a 
woman  more  than  eight  hours;  and  in  the  other 
the  trustees  of  the  Samuel  Merritt  Hospital  of 
Alameda  and  one  of  their  employees  sought  to 
restrain  the  enforcement  of  the  amendcMl  act. 
Both  parties  raised  objections  under  the  legal 
principles  of  freedom  of  contract  and  equal  pro- 
tection of  the  laws.  On  February  23rd  the  Court 
handed  down  two  unanimous  decisions  upholding 
the  validity  of  the  law,  which  orescribes  as  short 
a  workday  as  any  yet  enacted  for  women  and 
includes  a  larger  number  of  occupations  than 
any  similar  statute.  In  both  cases,  the  responsi- 
bility for  deciding  the  need,  expediency,  or  wis- 
dom of  the  law  is  with  emphasis  held  to  be  the 
function  and  duty  of  the  Legislature,  the  Court 
limiting  itself  to  considering  whether  in  view 
of  the  underlying  facts  in  esuih  case,  the  Legis- 
lature has  acted  arbitrarily  or  unreasonably. 
As  in  the  Oregon  and  Illinois  cases  of  earlier 
years,  Louis  D.  Brandeis  of  Boston  codperated 
with  the  State's  attorneys.  In  the  course  of  the 
opinion  Justice  Hughes  pointed  out:  "The 
liberty  of  contract  guaranty  by  the  Constitu- 
tion is  freedom  from  arbitrary  restraint  and  is 
not  immunity  from  reasonable  regulation  to 
safeguard  the  public  interest.  Upon  this  point 
the  recent  decisions  of  this  Court  upholding 
other  statutes  limiting  the  hours  of  labor  of 
women  must  be  regarded  as  decisive."  This  de- 
cision shows  the  adoption  of  a  "rule  of  reason" 
as  the  basis  for  such  laws.  It  opens  the  way  for 
a  scientific  study  of  all  occupations  in  which 
medical  investigation  may  well  show  that  eight 
hours  daily  exposure  is  in  many  cases  too  greait 
a  health  risk. 

Legislation.  Labor  laws  for  women  were 
enacted  as  follows:  Kansas  passed  maximum- 
hour  and  minimum- wage  laws;  Massachusetts 
legislated  to  prohibit  the  working  of  women  and 
children  overtime  for  the  purpose  of  making  up 
time  lost  on  a  l^^l  holiday;  Maine  enacted  a 
9-hour  per  day,  54-hour  per  week  law  for  women 
and  boys  under  16  working  in  mills,  factories, 
and  laundries,  but  canneries  were  excepted;  Ar- 
kansas regulated  the  employment  of  women  by 
establishing  a  9-hour  day,  and  54-hour  week,  for- 
bidding night  work  below  age  18,  and  establish- 
.  ing  a  minimum  wage;  Nebraska  provided  a  9- 
hour  law  for  women  except  in  cities  of  5000  or 
more;  North  Carolina  limited  hours  of  wom^i 
and  minors  in  factories  to  60  hours  a  week; 
Vermont  required  seats  for  female  employees  in 
all  places  of  employment;  Wyoming  fixed  hours 
of  labor  at  10  per  day  within  12  consecutive 
hours,  with  a  maximum  of  56  hours  per  week, 
and  seats  were  required  for  all  females  under  18. 
The  Oregon  Industrial  Welfare  Commission  has 
published  an  order  providing  for  issuance  of 
emergency  overtime  permits  in  canning  and  pack- 
ing industry  for  six  weeks  in  a  year;  wages  are 
to  be  not  less  than  25  cents  an  hour  and  are  not 
to  be  included  in  the  minimum  wage;  the  weekly 
time  and  pay  roll  of  every  woman  who  has 
worked  more  than  the  prescribed  54  hours 
a  week  are  to  be  furnished  the  commission. 
Delaware  established  an  unpaid  labor  commis- 
sion to  have  charge  of  women-and-child  labor 
inspectors.  Ohio  made  a  State  grant  to  the 
Cleveland  Qirls'  Bureau  of  $2500  a  year  for 
two  years  beginning  July  1,  1915,  as  evidence  of 


its  recognition  of  the  value  of  vocational  guid- 
ance. 

Thirty-two  States  and  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia now  limit  the  working  week  of  females  to 
60  hours  or  less;  2  have  a  63-hour  week;  6  have 
a  10-hour  dav  with  no  restriction  for  the  hours 
per  week  and  9  have  failed  to  enact  legislation 
on  the  subject.  The  10-hour  day  is  rapidljr  be- 
ing reduced.  An  8-hour  day  has  been  established 
in  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Washington, 
and  Wyoming,  as  well  as  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia; while  Oregon,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Ne- 
braska, New  York,  and  Utah  have  9-hour  sched- 
ules. Idaho  and  Montana  have  a  9-hour  day 
but  no  restriction  for  hours  per  week. 

Switzerland.  The  Swiss  factory  acts  of  1877 
amended  in  1905  were  repealed  in  1915  and  super- 
seded by  a  new  act  which,  among  other  things, 
dealt  with  the  employment  of  women.  Night 
and  Sunday  work  were  prohibited.  Women 
must  be  granted  a  night's  rest  of  at  least  11  con- 
secutive hours,  including  the  period  10  p.  m.  to 
5  A.  M.  This  period  may  be  exceptionally  re- 
duced to  10  hours  but  not  generally  for  more  than 
60  days  in  the  year;  yet  when  the  working  of 
perishable  materials  is  involved  the  exception 
may  be  extended  for  140  days  in  the  year.  Ex- 
clusion from  work  in  factories  for  6  to  8  weeks 
following;  confinement  is  provided. 

WOHEN'S  CLUBS,  General  Federation  of. 
A  body  first  organized  in  March,  1889,  in  New 
York  City.  Its  membership  consists  of  Women's 
Clubs,  State  Federations,  Territorial  Federa- 
tions, and  kindred  organizations.  The  total 
number  of  clubs  admitted  to  membership  is 
about  2000.  The  Twelfth  Biennial  Convention 
was  held  at  Chicago,  111.,  on  June  9-19,  1914. 
The  ofScers  for  1914-16  are  the  following: 
President,  Mrs.  Percy  V.  Pennybacker,  2606 
Whitis  Avenue,  Austin,  Tex. ;  first  vice-president, 
Mrs.  Samuel  B.  Sneath,  211  Monroe  Street,  Tif- 
fin, Ohio;  second  vice-president.  Miss  Georgie  A. 
Bacon,  39  Dean  Street,  Worcester,  Mass.;  record- 
ing secretary,  Mrs.  Harry  L.  Keefe,  Walthill, 
Neb.;  corresponding  secretary,  Mrs.  Eugene 
Reilley,  608  Park  Avenue,  Charlotte,  N.  C; 
treasurer,  Mrs.  William  B.  Williams,  Lapeer, 
Mich.;  auditor,  Mrs.  Charles  H.  McMahon,  22 
Caithness  Apartments,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

WOODBTJBYy  Urban  Andrain.  American 
public  official,  former  Governor  of  Vermont,  died 
April  15,  1915.  He  was  born  in  Acworth,  N.  H., 
in  1838,  and  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Vermont  in  1859.  In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the 
Second  Vermont  Volunteers,  and  he  served 
through  the  war.  His  war  experience  cost  him 
his  right  arm;  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run;  was  paroled  in  the 
same  year;  and  in  1862  was  appointed  captain 
in  the  Eleventh  Vermont  Volunteers.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  Burlington,  Vermont,  in  1885; 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  State  in  1880;  and 
Governor  in  1894. 

WOODBTJFF,  Charles  Edward.  American 
army  medical  officer,  died  June  13,  1915.  He 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  1860,  and  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1883. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
higher  mathematics  in  the  Reading  High  School. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
^eg^,  graduating  in  1884,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  appointed  assistant  surgeon  in  the  United 
States  navy,  where  he  rose  through  various 
grades  until  he  was  appointed  lieutenantrcolonel, 


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WOaXMEK'S  COKPENSATION 


retiring  in  1013.  He  serred  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  in  expeditions  to  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  in  the  Philippine  Insurrection  of 
1902.  He  was  awarded  two  medals  for  war  serv- 
ice. Dr.  Woodruff  was  a  prime  authority  on 
military  sanitation.  He  was  the  author  of  Ef- 
fecU  of  Tropical  Light  on  White  Men  (1905) ; 
The  Expansion  of  Racee  (1909) ;  and  of  over  75 
monographs  chiefly  on  medical  and  military  sub- 
jects. 

WOOL,  See  Stock  Raising  and  Meat  Pbo- 
DucnoN. 

WOBKINGIOBN'S  IKSTJBANCE.  See  Un- 
employment; and  Workmen's  C^ompensation. 

WOBKMEN'S  COMPENSATION.  The 
movement  begun  a  few  years  ago  to  replace  em- 
ployer's liability  laws  by  the  system  of  definite 
compensation  for  accidents  without  litigation  has 
swept  in  a  few  years  over  the  entire  United 
States.  Between  1910  and  1915,  23  States  en- 
acted compensation  laws,  while  to  this  number 
8  more  were  added  during  1915.  There  were 
thus  31  States  and  2  Territories  with  compensa- 
tion laws;  aside  from  10  Southeastern  States 
the  only  States  without  compensation  laws  are 
Idaho,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Arkansas,  Mis- 
souri, New  Mexico,  and  Utah.  Nearly  all  of 
these  laws  include  public  employees  as  well  as 
private,  while  the  Federal  statute  and  the  Canal 
Zone  order  applied  either  partly  or  exclusively 
to  public  employees.  In  general  these  laws 
provide  either  for  compensation  or  for  insur- 
ance and  either  type  of  law  may  be  elective 
or  Compulsory.  Thus  elective  compensation 
is  provided  in  the  following  States:  Alaska, 
Colorado,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jer- 
sey, Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont,  and 
Wisconsin;  compulsory  compensation  is  pro- 
vided in:  Arizona,  California,  Canal  Zone, 
Hawaii,  Maryland,  New  York,  Oklahoma,  and 
United  States;  elective  insurance  laws  have  been 
enacted  in:  Massachusetts,  Nevada,  Oregon, 
Texas,  and  West  Virginia;  while  compulsory  in- 
surance laws  exist  in:  Ohio,  Washington,  and 
Wyoming. 

Legislation.  Missouri's  third  commission 
presented  bills  which  failed  to  pass,  and  Utah 
created  a  commission  of  investigation.  Hawaii 
enacted  a  compulsory  law  applicable  to  all  in- 
dustries and  the  public  service  with  maximum 
benefit  of  $5000.  New  laws  were  also  enacted 
in  the  following  States:  Indiana,  Maine,  Mon- 
tana, Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island, 
Vermont,  and  Wyoming.  In  addition  significant 
modifications  of  previous  laws  were  made  in 
Colorado,  Connecticut,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
New  York,  Washington,  and  West  Virginia. 
The  standard  of  compensation  in  case  of  total 
disability  in  the  new  laws  is  50  per  cent  of 
wages  for  500  weeks.  Some  laws  prescribed  a 
maximum  of  $6  or  $10  per  week  while  others 
prescribed  a  total  maximum  of  $3000  to  $4000. 

Industrial  Accidents.  The  enactment  of 
these  laws  has  naturally  resulted  in  perfection 
of  statistical  information  regarding  industrial 
accidents.  Thus  Frederick  L.  Hoffman  in  The 
Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  No.  157  estimated  the  number  of  fatal 
industrial  accidents  among  American  wage-earn- 
ers conservatively  at  35,000  for  the  year  1913; 
while  injuries  resulting  in  disability  for  more 
than  four  weeks  numbered  approximately  700,- 


000.  The  fatality  rate  or  the  number  of  fatal  in- 
juries per  thousand  employees  was  found  to 
range  from  4.00  for  metal  mining,  3.50  for  coal 
mining,  3.00  for  fisheries  and  for  navigation, 
lumbering,  building,  and  street  railway  employees 
to  general  manufacturing  where  the  rate  was  .25. 
The  hazardous  nature  of  some  American  trades  is 
revealed  by  the  fact  that  the  fatality  rate  of 
coal  mining  in  the  United  States  durine  five 
years  averaged  3.71  per  thousand  employees, 
while  in  the  United  Kingdom  it  was  only  1.36,  in 
Belgium  1.02,  in  Prussia,  2.25.  and  in  Austria 
1.15.  The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  from  a 
study  of  10,000  accidents  in  the  iron  and  steel 
industry  involving  disability  of  one  day  or  more 
found  that  within  the  first  week  41.2  per  cent  of 
disabilities  had  terminated,  within  two  weeks 
59.8  per  cent,  within  four  weeks  77.7  per  cent, 
and  within  13  weeks  93.1  per  cent. 

Experience  Undeb  Vabious  Laws.  The 
Massachusetts  Insurance  Department  prepared 
a  report  showing  the  operations  under  the  com- 
pensation insurance  system  in  that  State  for 
all  occupation  classifications  wherein  payrolls  of 
not  less  than  $500,000  were  reported.  The  total 
audited  payrolls  upon  which  the  premiums  were 
based  amounted  to  $823,183,000.  The  total 
losses  amounted  to  $2,873,000,  of  which  $871,600 
were  for  death  and  specified  injuries,  $1,352,000 
for  weekly  indemnity,  and  $650,000  for  medical 
services.  In  Ohio  during  1914  more  than  58,000 
claims  were  disposed  of;  the  State  insurance 
fund  received  as  premiums  over  $2,900,000;  and 
paid  out  for  compensation,  medical,  surgical, 
hospital,  and  nursing  services,  medicines,  and 
funeral  expenses  over  $1,229,000. 

The  New  York  State  Commission  reported  that 
during  the  first  seven  months  of  the  operation  of 
the  new  law,  or  from  July  1,  1914,  to  Jan.  31, 
1916,  130,000  notices  of  injury  were  filed;  22,- 
221  claims  for  compensation,  or  17  per  cent  of 
the  injuries,  were  made.  This  small  percentage 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  compensation  is  allowed 
only  for  injuries  resulting  in  disability  of  two 
wedcs  or  more.  There  were  allowed  18,930 
claims,  involving  total  compensation  of  $1,577,- 
000.  The  legal  bureau  of  the  commission  con- 
sidered 657  cases  on  appeal.  On  January  Ist 
the  State  insurance  fund  reported  7119  policies 
in  force  with  semi-annual  premiums  amounting 
to  $692,600. 

New  Jebset.  That  the  tendency  is  toward 
the  more  comprehensive  and  more  compulsory 
type  of  law  was  shown  by  the  report  of  a  special 
Employers*  Liability  Commission  appointed  to 
observe  the  operation  of  the  compensation  law 
in  New  Jersey,  which  is  of  the  elective  compen- 
sation t^pe.  This  commission  recommended  the 
submission  to  popular  vote  of  a  constitutional 
amendment  authorizing  a  compulsory  law  in- 
cluding compulsory  insurance.  They  pointed  out 
that  the  existing  law  does  not  insure  the  payment 
of  compensation  in  case  the  employer  becomes 
insolvent.  They  recommended  the  creation  of  a 
State  insurance  fund  to  be  placed  on  a  sound 
actuarial  basis.  They  recommended  also  that 
occupational  diseases  be  brought  within  the 
scope  of  the  law  and  that  the  various  benefits 
under  the  law,  such  as  the  wage  basis  for  com- 
pensation, the  length  of  time  during  which  com- 
pensation should  be  paid,  the  compensations  for 
specific  injuries,  and  other  provisions  be  con- 
siderably liberalized. 

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AcdDENT  BoABDS  AND  Ck)HKissiON8.  This  Ib  an 
ansociation  organized  "to  bring  into  closer  re- 
lation with  one  another  the  various  boards  and 
commissions  administering  compensation  laws 
of  the  United  States  and  to  effect  so  far  as  pos- 
sible unanimity  in  the  administration  of  such 
laws  and  to  encourage  and  give  effect  to  all 
measures  looking  toward  the  prevention  of  acci- 
dents and  the  safeguarding  of  plants  and  ma- 
chinery. This  body  held  a  meeting  at  Chicago 
in  January  at  which  a  Committee  on  Statistics 
and  Compensation  Insurance  Cost  was  appointed. 
At  a  subsequent  meeting  in  Seattle,  September 
30th  to  October  2nd,  the  report  of  this  committee 
was  considered.  Representatives  of  12  States 
and  the  Province  of  Ontario  were  in  attendance. 
The  report  included  a  most  elaborate  and  thor- 
ough study  of  the  classification  of  industries 
with  reference  to  accidents  and  compensation 
insurance.  Some  1500  different  classifications 
were  included  under  nearly  300  "groups"  which 
in  turn  were  subordinated  to  schedules;  these 
schedules  in  turn  were  brought  under  7  primary 
"divisions."  The  divisions  were  agricultural; 
mining  and  quarrying;  manufacturing;  con- 
struction; transportation  and  public  utilities; 
trade;  service.  This  was  believed  to  be  an  im- 
portant step  in  the  development  of  the  science 
of  accident  compensation.  Columbus,  Ohio,  was 
selected  as  the  place  for  the  next  session  in 
April,  1916. 

The  National  Safety  Council  met  in  4th 
annual  convention  at  Philadelphia,  October 
10-21.  Representatives  were  present  of  min- 
ing, railroads,  public  utilities,  foundries,  laun- 
dries, wood-working  establishments,  and  cement, 
paper,  and  textile  mills.  Each  of  these  groups 
held  sectional  meetings  to  discuss  their  own 
technical  problems.  There  were  in  addition 
section  meetings  on  safeguarding  machinery 
and  on  the  medical  aspects  of  industrial  acci- 
dents. Much  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  connec- 
tion between  the  consumption  of  liquor  and  the 
number  and  seriousness  of  accidents.  On  ac- 
count of  the  widespread  compensation  legisla- 
tion the  necessity  of  thoroughgoing  legislation  to 
prevent  accidents  and  the  greatest  possible  exten- 
sion of  the  safety  movement  was  emphasized.  In 
the  medical  section  the  value  of  physical  examina- 
tions and  other  methods  of  weeding  out  the  unfit 
and  subnormal  was  emphasized.  It  was  believed 
that  in  this  matter  the  cooperation  of  health 
departments  would  reduce  the  opposition  of  work- 
ingmen  to  such  policies.  From  the  practical 
point  of  view  it  was  generally  agreed  that  the 
most  effective  means  of  extending  the  safety 
movement  was  to  convince  business  managers  of 
the  financial  advantages  accruing  from  the  adop- 
tion of  safetv  devices. 

WORLD  ^EACE  FOTTKDATION.  See  In- 
ternational Peace  and  Arbitbation. 

WBESTLING.  The  winners  of  the  United 
States  national  championships  held  at  San  Fran- 
cisco were:  108-pound  class,  R.  Goudie,  Ohio; 
115-pound  class,  F.  Glahe,  Spokane,  Wash.;  125- 
pound  class,  S.  Vorres,  Chicago,  111.;  135-pound 
class,  O.  Runchey,  Seattle;  145-pound  class,  D. 
Burns,  Spokane;  158-pound  class,  B.  Reuben, 
Chicago;  175-pound  class,  £.  Caddock,  Chicago; 
heavyweight  class,  £.  Caddock,  Chicago. 

Cornell  for  the  third  year  in  succession  won 
the  intercollegiate  championship,  with  Lehigh 
second,  and  Pennsylvania  third.  The  winners 
of   the  various   bouts   were:     115-pound   class, 


Culbertson,  Cornell;  126-pound  class,  Martin, 
Lehigh;  135-pound  class,  Post,  Cornell;  145- 
pound  class,  Thomas,  Lehigh;  175-pound  class, 
Pendleton,  Columbia;  heavyweight  class,  Dori- 
zas,  Pennsylvania. 

The  feature  of  the  year  in  professional  wres- 
tling circles  was  the  tournament  conducted  at  the 
Manhattan  Opera  House,  New  York  City.  All 
the  prominent  mat-men  of  the  world  met  there 
in  a  series  of  bouts  that  attracted  large  crowds 
and  did  much  to  bring  the  sport  into  popular 
favor. 

WYOMING.  Population.  According  to  the 
State  census  taken  in  1915  the  population  of 
Wyoming  in  that  year  was  141,705.  The  popu- 
lation in  1910  was  145,965. 

Agriculture.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  as  estitmated  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
in  1914-15,  were  as  follows: 


Acreage  Prod.  Bii.      FoUm 

Corn     1015  26,000  625,000  $419,000 

1914  21,000  526,000        868,000 

Wheat    1915  125.000  3,316.000  2,586,000 

1014  100,000  2,200.000  2.038,000 

Oato    1015  227.000  0,684,000  4,100,000 

1914  225,000  7,875,000  8,780,000 

Rye     1915  9,000  180,000        162.000 

1914  5,000  86,000           60,000 

Barley    1015  17,000  612,000        887,000 

1014  16,000  528,000        888,000 

Potatoes     1015  16,000  2,400,000  1,440.000 

1014  17,000  1,620,000  1.184.000 

Hay    1015  550.000  a  1,210,000  0,488.000 

1014  500,000  1,150,000  8.625.000 
a  Tons. 


Live  Stock.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on  Jan.  1,  1916, 
and  Jan.  1,  1915,  horses  numbered  180,000  and 
176,000,  valued  at  $14,760,000  and  $13,904,000; 
mules  numbered  2000  and  2000,  valued  at  $198,- 
000  and  $202,000;  milch  cows  numbered  50,000 
and  46,000,  valued  at  $4,026,000  and  $3,588,000; 
other  cattle  numbered  703,000  and  628,000,  valued 
at  $37,048,000  and  $33,472,000;  sheep  numbered 
4,338,000  and  4,427,000,  valued  at  $9,563,000  and 
$7,704,000;  swine  numbered  70,000  and  64,000, 
valued  at  $658,000  and  $730,000.  The  produc- 
tion of  wool  in  1015  and  1914  was  28,476,000 
and  29,040,000  pounds  respectively. 

Mineral  Production.  The  quantity  of  coal 
mined  in  the  State  in  1914  was  6,475,293  short 
tons,  valued  at  $10,033,747.  This  was  a  de- 
crease of  917,773  tons  in  quantity  and  $1,476,- 
398  in  value,  compared  with  1913.  The  decrease 
is  attributed  to  a  lessened  demand  for  coal  for 
domestic  uses,  on  account  of  the  unusually  mild 
winter  throughout  the  year,  and  to  the  smaller 
amount  required  by  the  railroads.  The  total 
production  of  gold  in  the  State  in  1914  was 
$5006,  compared  with  $24,084  in  1913.  There 
is  practically  no  production  of  silver.  The  iron 
ore  mined  in  the  State  in  1914  amounted  to 
366,962  long  tons,  compared  with  537,111  long 
tons  in  1913.  In  1914  Wyoming  lost  sixth 
place  in  the  production  of  iron  ore,  being  sur- 
passed in  production  by  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia. It  now  ranks  eighth.  The  value  of  the 
total  mineral  production  in  1014  was  $12,417,- 
752  compared  with  $13,682,091  in  1913. 

Finance.  The  report  of  the  State  treasurer 
for  the  biennial  period  1913-14  shows  a  cash 
balance  on  Oct.  1,  1912,  of  $1,179,672.  The  re- 
ceipts for  the  period  were  $2,643,268,  and  the 


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dislmrgemento  $2,331,450,  leaving  eaah  on  hand 
Sept.  30,  1014,  of  $1,401,482. 

Education.  The  total  number  of  pupils  of 
school  age  6  to  21  in  1014  was  37,605.  There 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  2030.  The 
teachers  numbered  1488,  of  whom  1300  were 
females,  and  188  were  male. 

Ghautiks  Aim  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  include  State  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane  at  Evanston,  Wyoming 
State  Penitentiary  at  Rawlins,  Wyoming  Sol- 
diers' and  Sailors'  Home  at  Buffalo,  Big  Horn 
Hot  Spring  Reserve  at  Thermopolis,  Wyoming 
General  Hospitals  at  Sheridan,  Rock  Spring, 
and  Casper,  the  Wyoming  School  for  Defec- 
tives at  Lander,  and  Wyoming  Industrial  School 
at  Warland. 

Transfobtation.  The  railway  mileage  of  the 
State  in  1014  was  about  2000  miles.  The  Union 
Pacific  in  1016  constructed  about  83  miles  of 
new  trade.  There  was  no  construction  by  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy. 

Politics  and  Government.  The  Legislature 
passed  a  measure  placing  wife  and  husband  on 
equal  footing  in  regard  to  ownership  of  prop- 
erty. It  also  enacted  an  eight-hour  law  for 
women,  and  a  workmen's  compensation  law. 
February  27th,  Governor  Kendrick  signed  the 
widowed  mothers'  pension  bill  passed  by  the 
Legislature. 

State  Government.  Governor,  John  B.  Ken- 
drick; Secretary  of  SUte,  Frank  L.  Houz; 
Treasurer,  Herman  B.  Gates;  Auditor  and  Com- 
missioner of  Insurance,  Robert  B.  Forsyth;  Ad- 
jutant-General, George  M.  Sliney;  Attorney- 
General,  D.  A.  Preston;  Superintendent  of  Ed- 
ucation, Edith  K.  O.  Clark;  Kendrick,  Houx, 
and  Preston  Democrats,  others  Republicans. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  Court:  Chief  Justice, 
Charles  N.  Potter;  Associate  Justices,  Cyrus 
Beard,  R.  H.  Scott;  Clerk,  W.  H.  Kelly. 

State  Legislature: 

S§naU       Hon**       JaitU  BaUot 

Republicans    18  43  60 

Demoerata    9  15  24 

Repabliean   majority. .       9  27  86 

WYOMOrO,  Universttt  of.  A  State  insti- 
tution for  higher  education  founded  at  Laramie, 
Wyo.,  in  1886.  The  total  enrolhnent  in  all  de- 
partments in  1914-15  was  508.  There  were  no 
notable  changes  in  the  faculty  during  the  year, 
and  no  noteworthy  benefactions  were  received. 
The  institution  is  supported  almost  entirely  by 
legislative  appropriations.  The  productive  funds 
amounted  to  about  $70,000,  the  annual  income 
to  about  $232,000.  The  library  contained 
approximately  35,000  volumes.  The  presi- 
dent was  Clyde  Augustus  Duniway,  Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

Z-SAYS.  See  Chemistry,  General  Prog- 
ress OF;  Physics;  Roentgen  Rays;  Thorium. 

YACHTING.  No  race  for  the  America's  Cup 
was  held  in  1915  although  yachtsmen  in  the 
United  States,  hoping  against  hope,  thought  it 
possible  for  a  time  that  the  Shamrock  IV  might 
be  lured  from  its  quarters  in  Brooklyn  and  at 
least  take  part  in  a  few  trial  spins.  This  being 
found  impossible  the  New  York  Yacht  Club  did 
the  next  best  thing  and  arranged  a  series  of 
races  between  the  Resolute  and  the  Vanitie  in 
order  to  ascertain  which  of  the  two  was  best 


fitted  to  meet  Sir  Thomas  Lipton's  challenger, 
should  a  contest  take  place  in  1916. 

Sixteen  races  were  sailed  between  the  two 
American  yachts,  of  which  the  ReaoluU  won 
12  and  the  Vanitie  4.  In  1914  the  Rewlute  had 
captured  13  races  as  against  6  for  the  Vamitie, 
so  that  out  of  36  starts,  the  former  had 
emerged  victor  in  25. 

The  New  York  Yacht  Club  "fifties"  sailed  in 
26  races,  the  honors  being  fairly  evenly  divided 
between  Com.  George  Baker,  jr.'s  Ventura,  win- 
ner of  the  King's  Cup  off  Marblehead;  W.  E. 
Dodge's  Samurif  winner  of  the  Astor  Cup  for 
sloops  off  Newport;  J.  P.  Morgan's  Graylingy 
and  Harry  Payne  Whitney's  Barha^ra. 

Among  the  10-year-old  ''thirties,"  the  Okee^ 
owned  by  Com.  J.  A.  Mahlstedt  of  the  New 
Rochelle  Yacht  Club,  easily  proved  her  superi- 
ority. She  started  in  27  races,  winning  10 
firsts,  0  seconds,  and  2  thirds.  In  the  handi- 
cap class,  comprising  35  yachts,  A.  W.  Lock- 
wood's  Carolina  made  the  best  showing.  Com. 
Robert  E.  Tod's  schooner  Katoura  won  both 
the  Cape  May  and  the  Brenton  Reef  challenge 
cups. 

In  motor-boating  the  mile-a-minute  boat  made 
its  appearance,  Com.  James  A.  Pugh's  40-foot 
hydroplane  traveling  at  the  rate  of  61  miles  an 
hour  for  20  of  the  30  miles  and  at  an  average 
of  54140  miles  an  hour  for  the  entire  distance. 

The  winners  of  the  principal  races  held  under 
the  auspices  of  the  American  Power  Boat  As- 
sociation were:  Gold  Challenge  Cup,  MisM  De- 
troit; mile  championship,  Tech,  Jr,;  New  York 
to  Albany,  Flyaway  III;  100-mile  Block  Island 
race,  Cero,  

YALE  TTNI VBBSITY.  The  total  enrolhnent 
in  all  the  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was 
3003.  The  instructors  numbered  480.  During 
the  year  a  department  of  business  administration 
was  organized.  Prof.  John  Zelaney  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  physics.  For  the  record  of 
the  gifts  received  during  the  year  see  Gifts  and 
Bequests.  The  produmve  funds  amounted  to 
916,152,835,  and  the  income  to  $1,627,627.  The 
library  contained  about  1,000,000  volumes.  The 
president  was  Arthur  T.  Hadley,  LL.D. 

YELLOW  FEVEB.  See  Tbopical  Medi- 
cine. 

YOUNG  KEN'S  CHBISTIAK  A8S0CIA- 
TIONy  International  Coicmitteb  of.  An  or- 
ganization formed  in  1883  for  the  promotion 
of  Association  work  in  North  America,  with 
headquarters  at  124  East  Twenty-eighth  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  committee  consists  of  69 
representative  Christian  laymen,  and  it  employs 
111  executive,  traveling,  and  office  secretaries 
in  the  home  field,  and  140  secretaries  in  the  for- 
eign field  in  Asia,  Africa,  Latin  America,  and 
eastern  Europe.  In  1915  there  were  2683  as- 
sociations in  North  America  with  a  total  mem- 
bership of  620,799.  They  occupy  759  buildings, 
valued  at  $77,483,448,  their  aggregate  property 
is  worth  about  $100,000,000,  and  expenditures 
(including  foreign  department)  for  1916  were 
$14,315,935.  These  local  associations  employ 
4077  general  secretaries  and  other  paid  offi- 
cials. They  enrolled  83,771  young  men  in  even- 
ing educational  classes,  447,351  in  physical 
training,  and  163,833  in  Bible  classes.  Employ- 
ment was  found  for  53,257  in  1915.  The  new 
buildings  opened  in  1915  cost  $8,663,171.  The 
more  notable  of  these  include:  Brooklyn  "Cen- 
tral"   ($1,600,000);   New  York  "Bronx  Union" 

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($4e0,000) ;  New  York  '^Bowery  Branch"  ($400,- 
000) ;  Association  Collie,  Chicago  ($300,000) ; 
and  buildings  at  Youngstown,  Ohio  ($327,000)  ; 
Watertown,  N.  Y.  ($300,000)  ;  Hartford,  Conn. 
($294,271);  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  ($265,000); 
Canton,  Ohio  ($244,000).  At  the  end  of  1915 
there  was  $6,165,345  pledged  for  other  new 
buildings,  including  the  Men's  Hotel,  Chicago 
($1,300,000),  and  buildings  at  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
($600,000),  and  Cincinnati,  Ohio  ($500,000). 
In  the  foreign  field  there  were  buildings  com- 
pleted or  in  course  of  construction  at  Tokyo, 
and  Yokohama,  Japan;  Shanghai,  Canton,  and 
Foochow,  China;  Calcutta,  India;  Manila,  P.  I.; 
Havana,  Cuba;  Constantinople,  Turkey.  The  of- 
ficers of  the  International  Committee  include 
the  following:  Chairman,  Alfred  E.  Marling; 
treasurer,  B.  H.  Fancher;  general  secretary, 
John  R.  Mott  Aaaociation  Men  is  an  official 
monthly  magazine  of  the  organization. 

YOTTNG  WOIOBN'S  CH&ISTIAK  ASSO- 
CIATION, National  Boabd  of.  For  the  year 
ending  June,  1915,  there  were  245  local  associa- 
tions under  the  National  Board  with  a  total 
membership  of  272,930,  and  1584  employed 
workers.  The  associations  having  organized  re- 
ligious departments  were  211;  educational  de- 
partments, 197;  physical  department,  197;  girls' 
work  department,  138;  employment  bureaus,  137. 
The  total  value  of  all  the  buildings  owned  in 
1914-15  was  $9,162,147,  and  expenditures  of  all 
associations  for  the  year  were  $4,900,031.  The 
receipts  of  the  National  Board  were  $304,039. 
The  National  Board  also  controls  721  student 
associations  with  65,129  members,  and  13  county 
associations  with  4246  members,  making  a  grand 
total  of  979  associations  and  342,305  members. 
In  the  United  States  the  National  Board  in  1915 
conducted  15  city,  student,  and  county  confer- 
ences, and  eight  industrial  or  high  school  coun- 
cils in  which  5470  young  women  participated. 
The  National  Board  carried  on  its  work  also  in 
India,  China,  Japan,  Turkey,  and  South  Amer- 
ica under  the  direction  of  37  foreign  secretaries. 
The  headquarters  of  the  National  Board  are  at 
600  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York  City,  and  a 
National  Training  School  is  conducted  at  135 
East  52nd  Street,  New  York  City,  for  training 
yoimg  women  for  association  work.  Its  official 
publication  is  The  Asaooiation  Monthly,  The  of- 
ficers for  1915  were  as  follows:  President,  Mrs. 
Robert  £.  Speer;  first  vice-president,  Mrs.  James 
S.  Cushman;  second  vice-president,  Mrs.  William 
W.  Rossiter;  chairman  of  executive  committee, 
Mrs.  John  French;  secretary,  Mrs.  Thomas  S. 
Gladding;  treasurer,  Mrs.  Samuel  J.  Broadwell. 
Miss  Mabel  CraUy  is  the  general  secretary. 

YTTAN  SHI-&AI.    See  China,  History. 

YITKON.  A  territory  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  organized  June  13,  1898.  The  area  is 
207,076  square  miles,  nearly  four  times  as  large 
as  Alabama.  Population  at  the  1911  census, 
8512.  The  capiUl  is  Dawson,  with  (1911)  3013 
inhabitants.  The  territory  is  administered  by 
a  commissioner;  there  is  a  legislative  council 
of  10  members.  Commissioner  in  1915,  Qeorge 
Black;  gold  commissioner  and  crown  timber  and 
land  agent,  Oeorge  P.  Mackenzie.    See  Canada. 

ZAliZIBAB.  A  British  insular  protectorate 
off  the  coast  of  German  East  Africa.  It  consists 
of  Zanzibar  Island  (640  square  miles),  Pemba 
Island  (380  square  miles),  and  several  islets. 
Population,  about  199,000,  mostly  Mohamme- 
dan.   In  1913  the  birth  rate  was  15.1,  and  the 


death  rate,  22.1.  The  port  of  Zanzibar  is  one  of 
the  best  in  Africa,  and  is  a  centre  of  trade  with 
the  mainland  and  with  Arabia  and  India.  The 
principal  industry  is  clove  culture,  to  which 
about  60,000  acres  are  devoted,  yielding  the  bulk 
of  Che  world's  supply.  About  45,000  acres  are 
under  coconuts.  In  1913,  imports  and  exports 
were  valued  at  £1,103,348  and  £1,048,866  respect- 
ively; in  1914,  £763,405  and  £814,952.  Principal 
exports  in  1913:  cloves,  £412,547;  copra,  £216,- 
841;  piece  goods,  £85,149;  specie,  £58,698;  ivory, 
£39,856;  rice,  £24,386.  A  light  railway  extends 
from  the  town  of  Zanzibar  seven  miles  to  Bu- 
bubu.  Revenue  and  expenditure  in  1913,  £275,- 
126  and  £248,356;  debt,  Dec.  31,  1913,  £100,000; 
sinking  fund,  £34,644.  The  Sultan  is  Seyyid 
Khalifa  bin  Harub,  bom  1879,  succeeded  on  the 
abdication  of  his  brother-in-law  in  1911.  There 
is  a  British  agent  and  consul-general. 

In  May  the  Sultan  of  Zanzil^r,  in  addressing 
a  letter  to  the  Lewali  of  Mombasa  and  the  Mo- 
hammedans of  East  Africa,  urged  them  to  main- 
tain their  loyalty  to  the  British,  who  had  always 
respected  their  religion,  freedom,  and  rights,  and 
not  to  change  their  allegiance  to  Germany. 

ZEPPELIN  AIB8HIPS.  See  A£bonauticb  ; 
MiLiTABY  Pbogsbss  ;  and  Wab  of  the  Nations. 

ZINC.  The  production  of  primary  spelter 
and  domestic  ores  in  1914  was  343,418  liiort  tons, 
valued  at  $35,028,636.  The  total  production  of 
spelter  from  both  domestic  and  foreign  ores  in 
1914  was  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  zinc 
smelting  industry  in  the  United  States,  or  353,- 
049  tons,  compared  with  346,676  tons  in  1913. 
The  domestic  consumption  was  below  the  normal. 
But  the  war  in  Europe,  which  resulted  in  practi- 
cally cutting  the  Allies  off  from  their  previous 
supplies  of  spelter,  led  to  large  exports  from  the 
United  States.  These  amounted  to  73,642  tons 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  year.  Missouri 
produced  the  largest  quantity  in  1914,  or  106,- 
994  tons.  In  New  Jersey  were  produced  74,353 
tons,  and  in  Montana,  56,790  t<m8.  See  also 
Metallurgy. 

ZOOLOGY.  An  important  zoological  expedi- 
tion to  the  Belgian  Congo  started  in  1909  from 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and 
returned  in  1915.  A  large  number  of  species  of 
animals  were  collected,  what  was  probably  the 
most  important  being  skins  of  the  Okapif  with 
notes  and  sketches  for  mounting  habitat  groups 
of  this  rare  animal.  A  young  Wcapi  was  caught, 
but  did  not  survive  the  journey  to  the  United 
States. 

A  noteworthy  book  of  the  year  was  Conklin's 
Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Evolution  of 
Man. 

Pbotqzoa.  Calkins  described  a  new  gregarine 
which  he  found  in  the  intestine  of  an  annelid 
and  named  Microteniella,  because  of  the  taenia 
like  character  of  the  body.  There  was  a  single 
large  cell  corresponding  to  the  soolex,  with  a 
string  of  small  cells  attached  to  it.  Calkins 
found  that  Didimum  encysts  for  purposes  of  pro- 
duction or  reorganization  but  not  for  protection. 
This  encystment  for  reorganization  occurs  at 
regular  intervals,  which  can  often  be  predicted 
two  to  four  days  in  advance,  because  of  reduced 
activity  in  feeding  and  dividing.  Woodruff  and 
Erdmann  found  in  Paramcecium  (see  Ybab 
Book  for  1914)  that  a  periodic  reconstitution  of 
the  nucleus  occurs  without  conjugation.  This, 
Calkins  thinks,  demonstrates  that  either  conju- 
gation or  endomixis  must  appear  at  regular  in- 
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tervals  and  thus  that  protoplasm  is  not  even 
"potentially"  immortal. 

Minchin  and  Thompson  published  an  elaborate 
report  of  observations  on  the  life  history  of  Try- 
pa$%osofna  lewisU  found  in  the  rat,  especially 
that  part  of  its  life  cycle  which  occurs  in  the 
flea.  Only  a  few  of  those  taken  into  the  flea 
live,  and  these  change  their  form  of  movement 
probably  because  of  the  osmotic  changes  in  the 
medium.  About  six  hours  after  infection  they 
enter  cells  of  the  stomach  epithelium  and  mul- 
tiply. Finally  they  assume  the  long  "critho- 
morphic"  phase  and  pass  to  the  rectum.  Here 
they  pass  into  the  small  "crithidiaP'  phase  and 
multiply  by  transverse  division.  Infection  of 
the  rat  is  by  eating  fleas,  or  by  licking  from  its 
fur,  feces  cast  off  by  infected  fleas. 

Platthelminthes.  Wilhelmi  found  in  Den- 
droccdium  lacteum  a  sucking  groove  located 
near  the  anterior  end  of  the  pharynx.  This  is 
thrown  against  an  animal  such  as  a  Daphnia 
and  the  prey  drawn  back  into  the  pharynx.  He 
saw  a  Planaria  take  a  Daphnia  away  from  a 
Hydra,  the  Planaria  apparently  not  being  af- 
fected by  the  thread  cells. 

MaeCollum  found  trematodes  adhering  in 
large  numbers  to  the  gills  of  angel  and  butterfly 
fish  in  the  New  York  Aquarium,  causing  the 
deaths  of  many  of  these  fishes.  The  eggs  are  at- 
tached to  the  gills  bv  filaments  and  develop  di- 
rectly into  new  individuals.  Linton  stated,  also, 
that  in  the  trematodes  which  he  found  on  in- 
vertebrates at  Woods  Hole  the  redia  stage  is 
omitted. 

Fish.  Mast  experimented  on  color  changes  in 
flounders  and  found  that  there  was  a  consider- 
able amount  of  individual  variation  in  the  ex- 
tent of  these  changes,  being  very  rapid  and  ac- 
curate in  some.  There  was  no  imitation  of  pat- 
tern, but  was  of  colors,  except  for  reds.  The 
organs  involved  are  chromatophores  and  irido- 
cytes,  the  latter  containing  guanin.  The  im- 
portuit  receptors  of  stimulation  are  the  eyes,  the 
reaction  not  following  a  change  of  background  if 
the  animal  is  blinded.  A  fish  will  select  a  back- 
ground which  most  nearly  corresponds  with  its 
own  color,  and  while  this  is  probably  protective, 
there  is  no  direct  evidence  in  favor  of  this  as- 
sumption. As  far  as  shade  and  color  are  con- 
cerned, it  would  appear  that  vision  in  fishes  is 
essentially  the  same  as  in  man. 

The  association  of  the  young  of  various  fish 
with  jelly  fish,  such  as  Cyanea,  has  been  inter- 
preted as  symbiosis.  Scheuring,  however,  found 
reason  to  doubt  this  interpretation,  and  his  own 
observations  on  Carynx  indicated  that  the  fish 
largely  lives  on  the  eggs  and  tentacles  of  the 
medusa.  Thus  the  relation  is  really  one  of  para- 
sitism. Since  the  fish  eat  the  tentacles  they  can- 
not be  affected  by  thread  cells,  and  it  is  probable 
that  their  surface  epithelium  is  too  hard  to  be 
affected  by  these  threads.  Young  fish  will  hide 
for  shelter  under  any  fioating  object  such  as  sea- 
weed, and  the  habit  of  hiding  under  medusse  is 
•a  development  of  this  habit.  Shelford  and 
Powers  studied  the  reactions  of  herring  and 
other  marine  fishes  and  found  them  extremely 
sensitive  in  their  reactions  to  temperature  and 
chemical  stimuli.  In  this  way  they  can  have 
no  difficulty  in  detecting  the  position  of  large 
rivers  when  hundreds  of  miles  from  shore,  and 
can  direct  their  movements  accordingly.  If  this 
be  true  we  do  not  need  to  appeal  to  any  complex 
instinct  to  explain  the  return  of  the  fish  to  the 


rivers.  They  probably  do  not  go  so  very  far 
from  the  river  where  they  were  bom  and  are  able 
to  find  their  way  back  by  their  reaction  to  deli- 
cate stimuli.  Ix>eb  stated  that  experiments  in- 
dicate no  effects  produced  by  darkness  on  the  de- 
veloping eyes  of  fish,  and  hence  decided  that 
blind  fish  and  other  blind  animals  owe  their  loss 
of  eyes  to  a  mutation,  and  not  to  any  effect  of 
the  darkness  on  the  animal. 

Townsend  figured  a  Remora  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  a  pail  which  when  lifted  by  the  tail 
held  up  pail  and  water,  weighing  in  all  24 
pounds. 

A  Remora  attached  to  a  string  was  allowed  to 
fasten  to  a  15-pound  sea  turtle,  which  it  did 
with  sufilcient  firmness  to  allow  the  turtle  to  be 
drawn  to  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  string. 

Amphibia.  Shipley  and  Wislocki  described 
the  poison  glands  of  Bufo  agua.  The  large  paro- 
toid  glands  are  a  part  of  the  skin  and  come  away 
with  it  in  dissections.  The  secretion  is  of  two 
sorts;  in  the  centre  of  the  gland  is  a  granular 
material  which  is  the  really  poisonous  part, 
while  "epinephrin"  content  is  a  clear  liquid  near 
the  margin.  When  stimulated  the  lumen  of  the 
duct  is  opened  by  muscular  contraction,  and  the 
contained  liquid  spurted  to  some  distance  by 
other  muscle  contractions.  After  discharge  the 
gland  does  not  refill  but  disappears,  and  its  place 
IS  taken  by  other  glands  which  are  present  in  a 
very  immature  condition. 

Reptilia.  Winton  stated  that  observations 
on  the  stomach  contents  of  the  horned  lizard 
showed  that  they  eat  large  numbers  of  noxious 
insects  and  have,  therefore,  about  the  same  eco- 
nomic importance  as  the  Northern  toad. 

Crustacea.  Potts  described  the  Rhizocepha- 
lan  genus  Thompsonia,  a  parasite  on  the  crusta- 
cean Synalpheua.  Numerous  external  sacs  ap- 
pear on  the  outside  of  the  host,  but  these  are  all 
parts  of  one  much  branching  individual,  instead 
of  separate  individuals  as  is  generally  supposed. 
Sacculina  inhibits  the  molting  process  of  the 
host,  but  Thomp8onia  does  not,  and  in  fact  can 
reach  the  surface  only  if  the  host  molts.  There 
was  no  observable  effect  produced  on  the  host. 
Potts  could  find  no  trace  of  a  testis  and  thinks 
that  in  this  genus  parthenogenesis  is  the  only  • 
mode  of  reproduction.  Potts  also  described 
Haplocarcinus,  a  gall -forming  crab  living  on  the 
corals  in  Torres  Straits.  After  impregnation 
the  female  remains  in  one  place  on  the  coral, 
which  eventually  surrounds  her  with  delicate 
walls,  thus  enclosing  her  in  a  compartment.  A 
respiratory  passage  is  left  through  which  water 
currents  go.  The  male  was  described  for  the 
first  time  in  this  paper,  though  only  one  speci- 
men was  seen.  It  is  smaller  than  the  female, 
and  is  probably  free  living,  fertilizing  the  female 
just  before  the  gall  closes. 

Insects.  Von  Natzniae  studied  insect  com- 
munities from  the  point  of  view  of  their  ontog- 
eny. When  in  the  spring  the  female  of  a 
colonial  form  makes  her  solitary  nest,  she  illus- 
trates, in  his  opinion,  the  original  solitary  char- 
acter of  the  colony.  This  phylogenetic  phase  is 
represented  by  the  solitary  forms,  where  the 
female  does  not  live  to  see  her  offspring.  Spe- 
cies of  Halictus  illustrate  the  next  stage,  for 
here  under  specially  favorable  conditions,  the 
female  does  see  her  offspring.  Suppose  that 
some  of  these  young  females  see  the  still  open 
combs,  their  instincts  are  aroused  and  they  begin 
to  assist  the  mother  in  caringfor  the  young. 

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Phylogenetically  this  muat  have  happened  in  the 
past,  and  thus  led  to  the  condition  we  now  find 
in  the  colonial  bees.  Swarming  of  bees,  like 
asexual  reproduction  in  corals,  has  no  phyloge- 
netic  significance,  but  arose  late  in  the  history  of 
the  race.  The  termites,  where  the  males  do  some 
of  the  work  of  the  colony,  are  more  nearly  in  the 
phylogenetic  line  than  are  the  bees.  Geipel 
studi^  the  anatomy  of  the  light  organs  of  trop- 
ical fireflies,  using  Pyrophorus  noctiluca  and 
Photinus  margindlatus  from  Brazil,  and  Luoiola 
africana  from  West  Africa.  In  the  last  two  spe- 
cies the  light  organs  are  in  the  last  abdominal 
somites.  His  general  conclusion  was  that  the 
light  organs  are  unicellular  glands,  and  in  the 
absence  of  ducts  the  secretion  is  burned  in  aitu. 
Oxygen  is  brought  to  the  gland  through  the 
trachea.  Smith  found  that  in  Stylopa  mellitaf 
while  the  male  is  apparently  functional  and  re- 
tains his  mating  instincts,  copulation  probably 
does  not  occur  and  reproduction  is  by  partheno- 
genesis. Bryk  described  a  "monogamous"  but- 
terfly, Parwisaius  or  Kailfuiiis,  in  which  at  the 
hinder  part  of  the  abdomen  is  a  pocket  which  at 
the  time  of  copulation  is  filled  with  a  secretion 
which  hardens  and  prevents  the  entrance  of  other 
spermatozoa.  This  produces  a  necessary  monog- 
amy and  ensures  pure  breeding.  A  new  ma- 
larial mosquito,  Myzomya  fehrifera,  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Banks  from  the  Philippines. 

Genetics.  Genetics  has  developed  into  so  ex- 
tremely technical  a  subject  that  the  zodlogist  who 
is  not  working  especially  along  this  line  finds 
difficulty  in  even  reading  the  literature.  To  rem- 
edy this  difficulty  Morgan,  with  the  cooperation 
of  Sturtevant,  MuUer,  and  Bridges,  published 
The  Mechanism  of  Mendelian  Heredityy  in  which 
are  summarized  what  seem  to  them  the  most  im- 
portant results  thus  far  obtained.  The  authors 
believe  in  the  chromosomal  theory  of  heredity, 
and  in  the  case  of  DroaophUa  even  go  so  far  as 
to  correlate  four  groups  of  characters,  each  with 
a  definite  pair  of  chromosomes,  and  to  plot  on 
the  chromosome  the  relative  location  of  factors. 
They  state,  however,  their  belief  that  the  ob- 
served results  could  be  explained  without  refer- 
ence to  the  chromosomes. 

In  reply  to  criticisms  directed  against  the  fac- 
tor hypothesis  the  authors  admit  that  even 
among  geneticists  the  terms  "unit  factor"  and 
"unit  character"  have  hot  always  been  properly 
employed.  They  define  a  "unit  factor"  as  some- 
thing in  the  germ  cell  which  is  able  to  modify 
the  adult  structure.  A  change  in  the  factor  may 
produce  several  changes  in  the  adult,  and  the 
mistake  is  often  made  of  seizing  upon  the  most 
evident  of  these  and  calling  it  a  "unit  character." 
A  single  factor  may  have  several  effects  and  a 
single  character  -  may  depend  on  the  action  of 
several  factors.  "The  attack  on  the  imit  char- 
acter hypothesis  fails  as  soon  as  it  is  recognized 
that  a  single  factor  has  not  one  but  many  ef- 
fects." Characters  superficially  alike  may  be 
products  of  different  factors. 

The  authors  regard  the  theory  of  multiple  al- 
lelomorphs, according  to  which  a  character  may 
be  allelomorphic  to  any  one  of  several  other  char- 
acters, as  preferable  to  Bateson's  "presence  and 
absence"  hypothesis.  (See  Yeab  Book  for  1907, 
article  Biology.)  They  consider  that  Weis- 
mann's  theory  of  heredity  in  so  far  as  it  assumes 
a  segregation  of  inherited  materials  in  the  chro- 
mosomes in  the  reduction  division  of  sex  cells  is 
in  agreement  with  Mendelian  results. 


The  work  of  Morgan  and  his  students  has 
brought  to  light  two  processes  known  as  "cross- 
ing over"  and  "linkage."  The  former  refers  to  a 
condition  where  when  a  group  of  characters.  A, 
B,  C,  D,  belonging  to  one  parent,  meets  with  an- 
other group,  a,  b,  c,  d,  in  the  other,  the  offspring 
shows  different  combinations,  as  A,  b,  C,  d,  etc. 
The  latter  refers  to  cases  where  two  characters 
remain  connected  and  do  not  separate  as  they 
should  be  on  a  strictly  Mendelian  basis.  Bridges 
studied  these  phenomena  in  DroaophUaf  and 
found  that  the  amount  of  linkage  varies  with 
successive  broods,  so  that  the  number  of  the 
brood  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  com- 
paring the  amount  of  linkage  in  different  ani- 
mals. 

Breeding  experiments  with  Droaophila  con- 
tinued to  develop  new  mutations  and  new  factors 
were  brought  to  light.  MacDowell  found  a  num- 
ber of  "restricting"  factors  which  he  thought 
were  responsible  for  the  non-appearance  in  nor- 
mal flies  of  extra  bristles  which  occasionally  ap- 
pear as  abnormalities.  These  extra  bristles  he 
thought  must  have  been  present  in  the  ancestral 
condition,  but  do  not  normally  appeal  now  be- 
cause of  the  restricting  factors.  Stark  found, 
also,  new  groups  of  "lethal"  factors. 

Phillips,  working  with  ducks  and  pheasants, 
found  that  in  these  wild  forms  the  characters  do 
not  "mendelize"  as  they  do  in  domesti- 
cated forms.  In  wild  races,  also,  there  is  little 
evidence  for  the  presence  of  sex-linked  charac- 
ters. 

Castle  and  Hadley  thought  that  their  results 
on  crossing  "English  pattern"  male  rabbit  with 
Belgian  hare  female,  indicated  that  the  gametes 
are  not  "pure"  as  stated  by  the  Mendelians,  but 
might  vary  in  quality  in  passing  from  father  to 
son,  in  this  case  increasing  in  the  amount  of  pig- 
ment present. 

Newman  studied  the  hereditary  characters  of 
hybrid  fish.  He  decided  that  success  in  produc- 
ing hybrid  development  is  not  correlate  with 
nearness  of  relationship  but  with  specific  char- 
acters of  the  germ  cells,  of  which  the  yolk  com- 
position is  the  most  important.  Loeb  had  stated 
that  in  hybrids  the  spermatozoon  merely  initi- 
ates development,  while  the  heredity  of  the  em- 
bryo is  purely  maternal.  Newman  decided  that 
there  is  a  true  fertilization,  and  not,  therefore, 
a  parthenogenesis  as  Loeb  thought,  but  a  case  of 
dominance  of  the  female  over  uie  male  cell. 

The  publication  of  a  new  journal,  Oenetica,  for 
papers  in  heredity  was  announced,  the  first  num- 
ber to  appear  in  January,  1916. 

Pure  Lines.  Earlier  work  of  Johannsen  on 
beans  and  Hanel  on  Hydra  seemed  to  indicate 
that  while  a  "population"  is  composed  of  diverse 
races  which  can  be  isolated  by  selection,  selection 
of  extreme  variants  within  the  race  does  not  mod- 
ify the  mean  of  the  descendants.  If  this  were 
true,  it  would  mean  that  natural  selection  has  a 
very  limited  power  to  produce  new  species.  Ha- 
nd's results  were  questioned  by  Pearson,  who 
made  a  statistical  examination  of  her  data. 
Lashley  in  1915  attempted  a  statistical  study  of 
the  inheritance  of  tentacle  number  in  budding 
hydra.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  reach  any 
very  definite  conclusion  as  to  the  effect  of  selec- 
tion within  a  pure  line.'  Pearl  and  Surface  re- 
port no  effect  produced  in  the  pure  line  by  selec- 
tion of  variants  in  oats  for  a  period  of  three 
years.  Castle,  on  the  other  hand,  is  positive 
that  in  rats  and  rabbits  he  can,  by  selecting 

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extreme  Yarianto  of  ooat  colmr,  earry  the  mean 
of  the  race  much  beyond   its  original   limita. 

At  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion a  aeries  of  experiments  have  been  conducted 
since  1908  in  the  effort  to  improve  by  selection 
the  winter  egg  laying  capacity  of  fowls.  Pearl 
stated  that  the  resulto  obtained  up  to  1015  indi- 
cate a  certain  amount  o!  improvement  in  the 
average  production,  but  there  is  no  reason  to 
think  this  is  anything  but  the  elimination  of  the 
lower  grades.  The  &tter  grades  are  no  better 
than  at  the  beginning.  Castle,  however,  criti- 
cised this  work  of  Pearl's  on  the  ground  that  too 
few  individuals  were  studied,  and  stated  that 
with  hooded  rats  he  was  able  by  selection  of  ex- 
treme variations  of  the  "hood"  to  produce  forms 
far  beyond  anything  present  in  the  beginning — 
results  indicating  that  the  factorial  basis  of  Uiis 
character  undergoes  quantitative  variati<m. 

Fkbtiuzation.  Loeb  believes  that  the  forma- 
tion of  a  cortical  membrane  is  essential  in  order 
that  an  ^gg  shall  begin  development.  In  the  sea 
urchin  egg  he  found  that  exposure  to  the  light 
of  a  quartz  lamp  produced  such  a  membrane,  and 
under  proper  conditions  these  eggs  would  con- 
tinue to  develop.  Lille,  whose  fertilixin  theory 
(see  Yeab  Book  for  1914)  had  been  criticised 
by  Loeb,  returned  to  a.  defense  of  his  position 
that  all  agencies  initiating  development  do  so 
by  the  activation  of  an  ovogenous  substance 
which  he  calls  fertilizin.  An  agglutination  us- 
ually accompanies  this  process  but  this  is  not 
essential,  for  the  ^gg  may  be  fertilized  by  one 
spermatozodn.  Lille  thought  that  the  motility 
of  the  spermatozoon  is  not  important  in  fertil- 
ization for  the  spermatozodn  really  enters  the 
egg  after  development  is  initiated,  the  latter  be- 
ing produced  by  some  substance  given  off  by  the 
spermatozoon.  Solutions  of  spermatozoa  lose 
their  fertilizing  power  on  standing  because  they 
lose  this  material,  rather  than  through  any  loss 
of  motility.  Qlaser  stated  that  in  the  Arbada, 
while  only  one  spermatozodn  actually  enters  the 
egg,  certain  preliminary  stages  such  as  the  form- 
ation of  a  membrane,  necessitate  the  mass  action 
of  many  spermatozoa.  In  this  sense,  one  sperm- 
atozoon is  not  enough  for  fertilization. 

Sex  Detebmination.  That  sex  may  be  deter- 
mined by  nutritive  conditions  before  birth  there 
is  no  conclusive  evidence  to  show.  Many  have 
adopted  a  chromosomal  explanation.  Papanico- 
lau,  in  guinea  pigs,  described  three  factors  which 
determine  sex :  ( 1 )  the  sex  tendency  of  the  father ; 
and  (2)  that  of  the  mother,  transmission  of 
these  being  "cries  cross";  while  a  third  factor 
is  confined  to  the  female,  and  is  changed  from 
litter  to  litter.  Morgan  thought  that  in  aphids, 
sex  is  determined  by  chromosomal  conditions,  but 
did  not  eliminate  the  possibility  that  external 
conditions  may  modify  the  sex  ratio.  "Oppo- 
nents and  advocates  of  the  chromosome  theory  of 
sex  determination  have  often  failed  to  realize 
that  'factor  for  sex'  is  not  used  in  any  absolute 
sense,  but  as  the  best  known  or  most  usual  fac- 
tor difference."  Doncaster  discussed  the  whole 
question  in  a  book  on  The  Determination  of 
Bex,  in  which  he  pointed  out  that  by  it  we 
often  mean  the  possible  control  of  sex  by  human 
agencies  while  the  real  problem  is  to  discover 
what  actually  determines  sex,  even  though  this 
may  be  entirely  beyond  human  control.  'Uiere  is 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  male-  and  of  female- 


produdng  eggs,  and  in  other  cases  evidemoe  that 
sex  is  determined  at  the  time  of  fertilization  by 
the  spermatozoon.  In  some  cases,  however,  the 
expected  result  does  not  follow,  and  in  the  frog 
there  is  some  reason  to  think  that  the  sex  is 
affected  by  external  conditions.  Doncaster 
thought  that  a  possible  escape  from  these  con- 
flicting conclusions  could  be  reached  if  we  assume 
that  sex  is  a  result  of  a  reciprocal  action  be- 
tween an  inherited  factor  and  the  physiological 
oonditi(»  of  the  organism  as  a  whole.  A  par- 
ticular chromosome  provides  only  one  side  of  the 
reciprocal  reaction.  In  insects  the  chromosomes 
of  tiie  two  sexes  are  apparently  quite  unlike,  so 
that  the  addition  of  a  particular  one  may  deter- 
mine sex.  In  the  frog,  however,  it  looks  as  if 
the  chromosomes  of  tiie  two  sexes  are  alike  and 
here  the  physiological  condition  of  the  organism 
may,  by  altering  the  reaction  between  chromo- 
somes and  cell  substances,  change  an  egg  that 
would  have  given  rise  to  one  sex  into  the  othor. 

Re^rding  the  part  which  the  sex  organs  may 
play  m  producing  secondary  sex  characters,  Geof- 
frey Smith  concluded  (see  Yeab  Book  for  1913) 
that  when  a  parasitized  male  crab  assumes 
secondary  female  sex  characters  it  is  be- 
cause of  metabolic  changes  set  up  by  the  para- 
site having  the  same  effect  on  the  organism  as 
the  developing  ovary  would  have.  He  continued 
this  study  on  a  bee,  Andrena  niffroaena^  parasit- 
ized by  a  Btylope,  Here,  the  parasite  inhibited 
the  development  of  the  ovaries,  but  in  no  way 
modified  the  process  of  testes  formation  in  the 
male.  The  female  seemed  to  lose  the  instinct 
to  collect  pollen.  Pearl  stated  that  in  a  cow 
which  had  ceased  to  show  signs  of  oestrum  and 
had  developed  male  characters,  the  corpua  lu- 
teum  had  disappeared  from  her  ovary.  In  conse- 
quence he  suggested  that  possibly  the  corpus 
luteum  is  one  of  the  chief  ovarian  agents  in 
mammals   in   maintaining   "femaleness." 

Whitney  had  stated  that  a  change  of  food  of 
Hydatina  would  change  the  line  from  a  fonale- 
to  a  male-producing  one.  This  experiment  he 
repeated  on  specimens  from  England  with  like 
results.  When  fed  on  Polytoma  female-produc- 
ing young  result,  while  when  fed  on  Chlamjfdo- 
monae  male-producing  daughters  appear. 

Ghbomosomes.  That  chromosomes  are  car- 
riers of  hereditary  material  is  generally  accepted 
as  a  working  hypothesis.  Morean,  in  Droeo- 
phUa,  grouped  characters  he  ha!d  isolated  into 
four  classes.  The  chromosomes  of  this  species 
may  be  arranged  in  four  classes,  and  relative 
sizes  of  the  chromosome  groups  correspond 
roughly  with  relative  sizes  of  these  groups  of 
characters.  The  mode  of  inheritance  of  these 
characters  harmonizes  with  the  assumption  of 
location  in  these  chromosomes. 

In  opposition  to  this  theory,  a  picturesque  con- 
clusion is  that  of  Cyhild — "the  attempts  to  con- 
nect particular  factors  with  particular  chromo- 
somes or  parts  of  chromosomes  are  not  at  pres- 
ent, properly  speaking,  scientific  hypotheses." 

Zeleny  found  that  measurements  of  sperma- 
tozoa in  animals  where  accessory  chromosomes 
are  present,  when  treated  statistically,  gave  bi- 
modal  curves,  indicating  a  measurably  greater 
amount  of  chromatin  in  some  than  in  others, 
which    is   probably   the   accessory   chromosome. 

ZXTLULAND.  A  territory  of  Natal  (q.v.). 
See  SotTTH  Afbica,  Union  of,  for  area,  etc. 


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